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CHAPTER 2 DC-DC CONVERTERS

2.1 INTRODUCTION The DC DC converters are widely used in regulated switch mode dc supplies and in dc motor drive applications. The input to these converters is often an unregulated dc voltage, which is obtained by rectifying the line voltage and therefore it will fluctuate due to changes in the line voltage magnitude. Switch mode DC-DC converters are used to convert the unregulated dc input into a controlled dc output at a desired voltage level.

2.2 TYPES OF DC-DC CONVERTERS These converters are very often used with an electrical isolation transformer in the switch mode dc power supplies and almost always without an isolation transformer in case of dc motor drives. The following types of DC-DC converters are known: 1) Step-down (buck) converter 2) Step-up (boost) converter 3) Step-down/Step-up (buck-boost) converter 4) Cuk converter 5) Full-bridge converter Another type of DC-DC converter is the ac link DC-DC converter. In this DC-DC converter, dc is first converted to ac by an inverter (dc to ac converter). AC is then stepped up or stepped down by a transformer which is then converted back to dc by a diode rectifier. As the conversion is in two stages, dc to ac and then ac to dc, this type of converter is costly, bulky and less efficient.

Fig 2.1Block Diagram of DC-DC Converter

A DC-DC converter is a static device that converts fixed dc input voltage to a variable dc output voltage directly. A DC-DC converter may be thought of as dc equivalent of an ac transformer since they behave in an identical manner. As DC-DC converters involve onstage conversion, these are more efficient. DC-DC converters are now being used all over the world for rapid transit systems. These are also used in trolley cars, marine hoists, forklift trucks and mine haulers. The future electric automobiles are likely to use DC-DC converters for their speed control and braking. DC-DC converter systems offer smooth control, high efficiency, fast response and regeneration. The power semiconductor devices used for a DC-DC converter circuit can be power BJT, power MOSFET, GTO or force commuted thyristor. These devices, in general, can be represented by a switch with an arrow. When the switch is off, no current can flow. When the switch is on, then the current flows in the direction of arrows only. The power semiconductor devices have on-state voltage drops of 0.5 V to 2.5 V across them. For the sake of simplicity, this voltage drop across these devices is neglected. As stated above, a DC-DC converter is dc equivalent to an ac transformer having continuously variable turns ratio. Like a transformer, a DC-DC converter can e used to step down or step up the fixed dc input voltage. A DC-DC converter is a high speed on/off semiconductor switch. It connects source to load and disconnects the load from source at a fast speed. In this manner, a converted load voltage is obtained from a constant dc supply. DC-DC converter is represented by a switch inside a dotted rectangle, which may be turned on or turned off as desired.

Fig 2.2 DC-DC Converter

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During the period T on, the DC-DC converter is on and load voltage is equal to source voltage Vs. During the interval T off, DC-DC converter is off, load current flows through the freewheeling diode FD.

Fig 2.3 Waveforms for DC- DC Converter

As a result, load terminals are short circuited by FD and load voltage is therefore zero during T off. In this manner, a dc-dc converted voltage is produced at the load terminals. The load current is continuous. The average voltage Vo is given by Vo = {T on / (T on + T off)} Vs T on = on-time; T off = off-time T = T on + T off The above equation shows that load voltage is independent of load current. The above equation can be written as Vo = f * T on * V s F = 1/T

2.2.1 Buck converter In this circuit the transistor turning ON will put voltage Vin on one end of the inductor. This voltage will tend to cause the inductor current to rise. When the transistor is OFF, the current will continue flowing through the inductor but now 11

flowing through the diode. We initially assume that the current through the inductor does not reach zero, thus the voltage at Vx will now be only the voltage across the conducting diode during the full OFF time. The average voltage at Vx will depend on the average ON time of the transistor provided the inductor current is continuous.

Fig 2.4 Buck Converter

Fig 2.5 Voltage and current changes

To analyse the voltages of this circuit let us consider the changes in the inductor current over one cycle. From the relation

the change of current satisfies ( ) ( )

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For steady state operation the current at the start and end of a period T will not change. To get a simple relation between voltages we assume no voltage drop across transistor or diode while ON and a perfect switch change. Thus during the ON time Vx=Vin and in the OFF Vx=0. Thus ( ) ( )

This simplifies to ( )

and defining "duty ratio" as

The voltage relationship becomes

Since the circuit is loss less and

the input and output powers must match on the average Vo* Io = Vin* Iin. Thus the average input and output current must satisfy Iin =D Io These relations are based on the assumption that the inductor current does not reach zero.

2.2.2 Boost converter

Fig 2.6 Boost converter circuit

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In a boost converter, the average voltage Vo, is greater than the input voltage. A boost converter is also called a step up converter. As the figure suggests, a large inductor L in series with source voltage Vs is essential. When the switch is on, the closed current path is as shown and inductor stores energy during T on period. When the switch is off, as the inductor current cannot die down instantaneously, this current is forced to flow through the diode and load for a time T off. As the current tends to decrease, polarity of the EMF induced in l is reversed. As a result, voltage across the load, given by Vo=Vs + L (di/dt), exceeds the source voltage Vs. In this manner, the circuit acts as a step up converter and the energy stored in L is released to the load.

2.3 CONTROL OF DC-DC CONVERTERS In dc-dc converters, the average dc output voltage must be controlled to equal a desired level, though the input voltage and the output load may fluctuate. Switch mode dc-dc converters utilize one or more switches to transform dc from one level to another. In a dc-dc converter with a given input voltage, the average output voltage is controlled by controlling the switch on and off durations. One of the methods for controlling the output voltage employs switching at a constant frequency and adjusting the on duration of the switch to control the average output voltage. In this method, called pulse-width modulation (PWM) switching, the switch duty ratio, which is defined as the ratio of the on duration to the switching time period, is varied. The other control method is more general, where both the switching frequency (and hence the time period) and the on duration of the switch are varied. This method is used only in dc-dc converters utilizing force-commutated thyristors. Variation in the switching frequency makes it difficult to filter the ripple components in the input and output waveforms of the converter. In the PWM switching at a constant switching frequency, the switch control signal, which controls the state (on or off) of the switch, is generated by comparing a signal level control voltage v control with a repetitive waveform. The control voltage signal generally is obtained by amplifying the error, or the difference between the actual output voltage and its desired value. The frequency of the repetitive waveform with a constant peak establishes the switching frequency. This frequency is kept constant in a PWM control and is chosen to be in a few kilohertz to a few hundred kilohertz range. When the amplified error signal which varies very slowly with time relative to the switching frequency, is greater than the saw-tooth waveform, the switch 14

control signal becomes high, causing the switch to turn on. Otherwise, the switch is off. In terms of V control and the peak of the saw-tooth waveform, the switch duty ratio can be expressed as

2.4 PROPOSED SYSTEM The proposed converter has several features: 1) The connection of the two pairs of inductors, capacitor, and diode gives a large step-up voltage-conversion ratio; 2) the leakage-inductor energy of the coupled inductor can be recycled, thus increasing the efficiency and restraining the voltage stress across the active switch; and 3) the floating active switch efficiently isolates the PV panel energy during non operating conditions, which enhances safety. The operating principles and steadystate analysis of the proposed converter are presented.

Fig 2.7 Potential difference on the output terminal of non floating switch micro inverter

Photovoltaic (PV) power-generation systems are becoming increasingly important and prevalent in distribution generation systems. A conventional centralized PV array is a serial connection of numerous panels to obtain higher dc-link voltage for main electricity through a dcac inverter. Unfortunately, once there is a partial shadow on some panels, the systems energy yield becomes significantly reduced. An ac module is a micro inverter configured on the rear bezel of a PV panel this

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alternative solution not only immunizes against the yield loss by shadow effect, but also provides flexible installation options in accordance with the users budget. Many prior research works have proposed a single-stage dcac inverter with fewer components to fit the dimensions of the bezel of the ac module, but their efficiency levels are lower than those of conventional PV inverters.

2.5 OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF THE PROPOSED CONVERTER The simplified circuit model of the proposed converter is shown in Fig. 2.8. The coupled inductor T1 is represented as a magnetizing inductor Lm, primary and secondary leakage inductors Lk made.
1

and Lk

, and an ideal transformer. In order to

simplify the circuit analysis of the proposed converter, the following assumptions are

Fig 2.8 Polarity definitions of voltage and current in proposed converter

1) All components are ideal, except for the leakage inductance of coupled inductor T1, which is being taken under consideration. The on-state resistance RDS(ON) and all parasitic capacitances of the main switch S1 are neglected, as are the forward voltage drops of diodes D1 D3 . 2) The capacitors C1 C3 are sufficiently large that the voltages across them are considered to be constant. 3) The ESR of capacitorsC1 C3 and the parasitic resistance of coupled inductor T1 are neglected. 4) The turns ratio n of the coupled inductor T1 windings is equal to N2 /N1. 16

2.5.1 Continuous Conduction Mode Operation The operating principle of continuous conduction mode (CCM) is presented in detail. The current waveforms of major components are given in Fig. 2.9. There are five operating modes in a switching period. The operating modes are described as follows.

Fig 2.9 Some typical waveforms of proposed converters at CCM operation.

Mode I [t0 , t1]: In this transition interval, the magnetizing inductor Lm continuously charges capacitor C2 through T1 when S1 is turned ON. The current flow path is shown in Fig. 2.10; switch S1 and diode D2 are conducting. The current iLm is decreasing because source voltage Vin crosses magnetizing inductor Lm and primary leakage inductor Lk1; magnetizing inductor Lm is still transferring its energy through 17

coupled inductor T1 to charge switched capacitor C2, but the energy is decreasing; the charging current iD2 and iC2 are decreasing. The secondary leakage inductor current iLK2 is declining as equal to iLm / n. Once the increasing iLk1 equals decreasing iLm at t = t1, this mode ends.

Fig 2.10 Mode I of proposed converter in Continuous Conduction Mode Operation

Mode II [t1 , t2]: During this interval, source energy Vin is series connected with N2 , C1 , and C2 to charge output capacitor C3 and load R; meanwhile magnetizing inductor Lm is also receiving energy from Vin .

Fig 2.11 Mode II of proposed converter in Continuous Conduction Mode Operation The current flow path is shown in Fig. 2.11, where switch S1 remains ON, and only diode D3 is conducting. The iLm, iLk1, and iD3 are increasing because the Vin is 18

crossing Lk1, Lm, and primary winding N1 ; Lm and Lk1 are storing energy from Vin ; meanwhile Vin is also serially connected with secondary winding N2 of coupled inductor T1 , capacitors C1 , and C2 , and then discharges their energy to capacitor C3 and load R. The iin , iD3 and discharging current |iC1| and |iC2| are increasing. This mode ends when switch S1 is turned OFF at t = t2. Mode III [t2 , t3]: During this transition interval, secondary leakage inductor Lk2 keeps charging C3 when switch S1 is OFF.

Fig 2.12 Mode III of proposed converter in Continuous Conduction Mode Operation

The current flow path is shown in Fig. 2.12, where only diode D1 and D3 are conducting. The energy stored in leakage inductor Lk1 flows through diode D1 to charge capacitor C1 instantly when S1 is OFF. Meanwhile, the energy of secondary leakage inductor Lk2 is series connected with C2 to charge output capacitor C3 and the load. Because leakage inductance Lk1 and LK2 are far smaller than Lm, iLk2 rapidly decreases, but iLm is increasing because magnetizing inductor Lm is receiving energy from Lk1. Current iLk2 decreases until it reaches zero; this mode ends at t = t3. Mode IV [t3 , t4]: During this transition interval, the energy stored in magnetizing inductor Lm is released to C1 and C2 simultaneously. The current flow path is shown in Fig. 2.13. Only diodes D1 and D2 are conducting. Currents iLk1 and iD1 are continually decreased because the leakage energy still flowing through diodeD1 keeps charging capacitor C1. The Lm is delivering its energy through T1 and D2 to charge capacitor C2. 19

The energy stored in capacitor C3 is constantly discharged to the load R. These energy transfers result in decreases in iLk1 and iLm but increases in iLk2 . This mode ends when current iLk1 is zero, at t = t4.

Fig 2.13 Mode IV of proposed converter in Continuous Conduction Mode Operation

Mode V [t4 , t5]: During this interval, only magnetizing inductor Lm is constantly releasing its energy to C2 . The current flow path is shown in Fig. 2.14, in which only diode D2 is conducting. The iLm is decreasing due to the magnetizing inductor energy flowing through the coupled inductor T1 to secondary winding N2 and D2 continues to charge capacitor C2. The energy stored in capacitor C3 is constantly discharged to the load R. This mode ends when switch S1 is turned ON at the beginning of the next switching period.

Fig 2.14 Mode V of proposed converter in Continuous Conduction Mode Operation 20

2.5.2 Discontinuous Conduction Mode Operation The detailed operating principles for discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) operation are presented in this section. Fig. 2.15 depicts several typical waveforms during five operating modes of one switching period. The operating modes are described as follows.

Fig 2.15 Some typical waveforms of proposed converters at DCM operation.

Mode I [t0 , t1]: During this interval, source energy Vin is series connected with N2 , C1, and C2 to charge output capacitor C3 and load R; meanwhile, magnetizing inductor Lm is also receiving energy from Vin. The current flow path is shown in Fig. 2.16, which depicts that switch S1 remains ON, and only diode D3 is conducting. The iLm, iLk1 , and iD3 are increasing because the Vin is crossing Lk1 , Lm, and primary winding N1; Lm and Lk1 are storing energy from Vin ; meanwhile, Vin also 21

is serially connected with secondary winding N2 of coupled inductor T1 , capacitors C1, and C2; then they all discharge their energy to capacitor C3 and load R. The iin, iD3 and discharging current |iC1 | and |iC2 | are increasing. This mode ends when switch S1 is turned OFF at t = t1.

Fig 2.16 Mode I of proposed converter in Discontinuous Conduction Mode Operation

Mode II [t1 , t2]: During this transition interval, secondary leakage inductor Lk2 keeps charging C3 when switch S1 is OFF. The current flow path is shown in Fig. 2.17, and only diode D2 and D3 are conducting.

Fig 2.17 Mode II of proposed converter in Discontinuous Conduction Mode Operation

The energy stored in leakage inductor Lk1 flows through diode D1 to charge capacitor C1 instantly when S1 is OFF. Meanwhile, the energy of secondary leakage 22

inductor Lk2 is series-connected with C2 to charge output capacitor C3 and the load. Because leakage inductance Lk1 and LK2 are far smaller than Lm, iLk2 decreases rapidly, but iLm is increasing because magnetizing inductor Lm is receiving energy from Lk1. Current iLk2 reduces down to zero, and this mode ends at t = t2. Mode III [t2 , t3]: During this transition interval, the energy stored in coupled inductor T1 is releasing to C1 and C2. The current flow path is shown in Fig. 2.18. Only diodes D1 and D2 are conducting. Currents iLk1 and iD1 are continually decreased because leakage energy still flowing through diode D1 keeps charging capacitor C1. The Lm is delivering its energy through T1 and D2 to charge capacitor C2 .The energy stored in capacitor C3 is constantly discharged to the load R. These energy transfers result in decreases in iLk1 and iLm but increases in iLk 2. This mode ends when current iLk1 reaches zero at t = t3.

Fig 2.18 Mode III of proposed converter in Discontinuous Conduction Mode Operation

Mode IV [t3 , t4]: During this interval, only magnetizing inductor Lm is constantly releasing its energy to C2. The current flow path is shown in Fig. 2.19, and only diode D2 is conducting. The iLm is decreasing due to the magnetizing inductor energy flowing through the coupled inductor T1 to secondary winding N2 and D2 continues to charge capacitor C2. The energy stored in capacitor C3 is constantly discharged to the load R. This mode ends when current iLm reaches zero at t = t4.

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Fig 2.19 Mode IV of proposed converter in Discontinuous Conduction Mode Operation

Mode V [t4 , t5]: During this interval, all active components are turned OFF; only the energy stored in capacitor C3 is continued to be discharged to the load R. The current flow path is shown in Fig. 2.20. This mode ends when switch S1 is turned ON at the beginning of the next switching period.

Fig 2.20 Mode V of proposed converter in Discontinuous Conduction Mode Operation

2.6 SUMMARY This chapter discusses the introduction about DC-DC converter, different types of DC-DC converters and control of DC-DC converters. Here the proposed converter and its continuous conduction mode of operation and discontinuous conduction mode of operations are explained. 24

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