Tibet

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This article is about ethno-cultural Tibet. For the administrative region of China, see Tibet Autonomous Region. For other uses, see Tibet (disambiguation).
This article contains Tibetan script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead of Tibetan characters. This article contains Chinesetext. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead of Chinese characters.

Tibet ( /tbt/; Tibetan: , Wylie: Bod, pronounced [p]; implified !hine e: ; traditional !hine e:
i

; pinyin: Z ng!"" i aplateau re#ion in $ ia, north%ea t of the &imalaya , in the 'eople( )epublic of !hina* +t i the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people a ,ell a ome other ethnic #roup uch

a -onpa , .ian#, and /hoba , and i no, al o inhabited by con iderable number of &an and &ui people* Tibet i the hi#he t re#ion on earth, ,ith an a0era#e ele0ation of 1,233 metre (45,333 ft"*

Tibet Autonomous Region within the eople!s

Republic of China

"#reater Tibet"$ Tibet as claimed by Tibetan exile groups

Tibetan areas as designated by the eople!s Republic of China

Chinese%controlled areas claimed by &ndia as part of Aksai Chin

&ndian%controlled areas claimed by the eople!s Republic of China as part of Tibet Autonomous Region

'ther areas historically within Tibetan cultural sphere

Tibet emer#ed in the 6th century a a unified empire, but it oon di0ided into a 0ariety of territorie * The bulk of ,e tern and central Tibet (7%T an#" ,ere often at lea t nominally unified under a erie of Tibetan #o0ernment in /ha a, 8hi#at e, or nearby location ; the e #o0ernment ,ere at 0ariou time under -on#ol and !hine e o0erlord hip* The ea tern re#ion of 9ham and $mdo often maintained a more decentrali:ed indi#enou political tructure, bein# di0ided amon# a number of mall principalitie and tribal #roup , ,hile al o often fallin# more directly under !hine e rule; mo t of thi area ,a e0entually incorporated into the !hine e pro0ince of 8ichuan and .in#hai* The current border of Tibet ,ere #enerally e tabli hed in the 4;th century* [4] Follo,in# the collap e of the .in# dyna ty in 424<, .in# oldier ,ere di armed and e corted out ofTibet $rea (7%T an#"* The re#ion declared it independence in 424=* /ater /ha a took control of the ,e tern part of>ikan# 'ro0ince* The re#ion maintained it autonomy until 42?4 ,hen, follo,in# the +n0a ion of Tibet, Tibet became unified into the 'eople( )epublic of !hina (')!", and the pre0iou Tibetan #o0ernment ,a aboli hed in 42?2 after a failed upri in#*[<] Today, the ')! #o0ern ,e tern and central Tibet a the Tibet $utonomou )e#ion ,hile ea tern area are mo tly ,ithin 8ichuan and .in#hai pro0ince * There are ten ion re#ardin# Tibet( political tatu
[=]

and di ident #roup are acti0e in e@ile*[1]

The economy of Tibet i dominated by ub i tence a#riculture, thou#h touri m ha become a #ro,in# indu try in Tibet in recent decade * The dominant reli#ion in Tibet i Tibetan Auddhi m, in addition there i ABn ,hich ,a the indi#enou reli#ion of Tibet before the arri0al of Auddhi m in the 6th century !C (ABn i no, imilar to Tibetan Auddhi m [?]" thou#h there are al o -u lim and !hri tian minoritie * Tibetan Auddhi m i a primary influence on the art, mu ic, and fe ti0al of the re#ion*

Tibetan architecture reflect !hine e and +ndian influence * 8taple food in Tibet are roa ted barley, yak meat, and butter tea*
Contents
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o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

4 Dame < /an#ua#e = &i tory =*4 Tibetan Cmpire =*< Euan Fyna ty =*= 'ha#modrupa Fyna ty and the Falai /ama =*1 .in# Fyna ty =*? 'o t%.in# period =*5 From 42?3 to pre ent 1 Geo#raphy 1*4 !itie , to,n and 0illa#e ? Go0ernment ?*4 The theocratic #o0ernment 5 Cconomy 5*4 Fe0elopment Hone 6 Femo#raphic ; !ulture ;*4 )eli#ion ;*4*4 Tibetan Auddhi m ;*4*< + lam ;*4*= !hri tianity ;*< Tibetan art ;*= $rchitecture ;*1 -u ic ;*? Fe ti0al ;*5 !ui ine 2 8ee al o 43 Dote 44 )eference 4< Further readin#

4= C@ternal link

Names
#ain article$ %efinitions of Tibet The Tibetan name for their land, Bod , mean ITibetI or ITibetan 'lateauI, althou#h it ori#inally meant the central re#ion around /ha a, no, kno,n in Tibetan a 7* The 8tandard Tibetan pronunciation of Bod, [p], i tran cribed Bh& in Tournadre 'honetic Tran cription, B& in the T&F/ y tem, and 'oi in Tibetan 'inyin* 8ome cholar belie0e the fir t ,ritten reference to Bod ITibetI ,a the ancient Bautai people recorded in the C#yptian Greek ,ork 'eri(lus of the )r*thraean +ea (4 t century !C" and ,eogra(hia ('tolemy, <nd century !C",[5] it elf from the 8an krit form Bhaua of the +ndian #eo#raphical tradition*[6] The modern -andarin e@onym for the ethnic Tibetan re#ion i Z ng!" (", ,hich deri0e by metonymy from the T an# re#ion around 8hi#at e, plu a prefi@ meanin# I,e ternI* Tibetan people, lan#ua#e, and culture re#ardle of ,here they are from are referred to a Z ng (", althou#h

the #eo#raphical term -./ ng i often limited to the Tibet $utonomou )e#ion* The term -./ ng ,a coined durin# the .in# Fyna ty in the rei#n of the JiaKin# Cmperor (4625L4;<3"*

Tibetan 'lateau topo#raphy

The be t%kno,n medie0al !hine e name for Tibet i (al o or "; in modern -andarin, thi i pronounced T0f1n orT0b2* Thi name fir t appear in !hine e character a in the 6th%century (/i Tai" and a in the 43th%century (Boo3 of Tang de cribin# 53;L532 emi arie from Tibetan 9in# Damri 8on#t en to Cmperor Ean# of 8ui"* +n the -iddle !hine e poken durin# that period, a recon tructed by William &* Aa@ter, ,a pronounced thu--(h4on and ,a pronounced thu-(4on(,ith the > repre entin# tone"*[;] Mther pre%modern !hine e name for Tibet include (5"s.gu6, cf* Tibetan dbus, 7, [,y]", (5"s./ ng, cf* Tibetandbus-gtsang, 7%T an#", (t7b6t8", and (t9ngg0t8, cf* Tan#ut"* $merican Tibetolo#i t Clliot 8perlin# ha ar#ued in fa0or of a recent tendency by ome author ,ritin# in

!hine e to re0i0e the term T7b6t8 ( implified !hine e: ; traditional !hine e:" for modern u e in place of -./ ng, on the #round that T7b6t8 more clearly include the entire Tibetan plateau rather than imply the Tibet $utonomou )e#ion*[citation needed] The Cn#li h ,ord Tibet or Thibet date back to the 4;th century*[2] &i torical lin#ui t #enerally a#ree that ITibetI name in Curopean lan#ua#e are loan,ord from $rabic STUVW NOPQR (.bat or T"b1tt", it elf deri0in# from Turkic T&b:d IThe &ei#ht I (plural of t&b:n"*[43]

Language
#ain article$ +tandard Tibetan /in#ui t #enerally cla ify the Tibetan lan#ua#e a a Tibeto%Aurman lan#ua#e of the 8ino%Tibetan lan#ua#e family althou#h the boundarie bet,een (Tibetan( and certain other&imalayan lan#ua#e can be unclear* $ccordin# to -atthe, 9ap tein: From the per pecti0e of hi torical lin#ui tic , Tibetan mo t clo ely re emble Aurme e amon# the maXor lan#ua#e of $ ia* Groupin# the e t,o to#ether ,ith other apparently related lan#ua#e poken

in the &imalayan land , a ,ell a in the hi#hland of 8outhea t $ ia and the 8ino%Tibetan frontier re#ion , lin#ui t ha0e #enerally concluded that there e@i t a Tibeto%Aurman family of lan#ua#e * -ore contro0er ial i the theory that the Tibeto%Aurman family i it elf part of a lar#er lan#ua#e family, called 8ino%Tibetan, and that throu#h it Tibetan and Aurme e are di tant cou in of !hine e* [44]

Tibetan family in 9ham attendin# a hor e fe ti0al*

The lan#ua#e ha numerou re#ional dialect ,hich are #enerally not mutually intelli#ible* +t i employed throu#hout the Tibetan plateau and Ahutan and i al o poken in part of Depal and northern +ndia, uch a 8ikkim* +n #eneral, the dialect of central Tibet (includin# /ha a", 9ham, $mdo and ome maller nearby area are con idered Tibetan dialect * Mther form , particularly F:on#kha, 8ikkime e,8herpa, and /adakhi, are con idered by their peaker , lar#ely for political rea on , to be eparate lan#ua#e * &o,e0er, if the latter #roup of Tibetan%type lan#ua#e are included in the calculation then (#reater Tibetan( i poken by appro@imately 5 million people acro

the Tibetan 'lateau* Tibetan i al o poken by appro@imately 4?3,333 e@ile peaker ,ho ha0e fled from modern%day Tibet to +ndia and other countrie * $lthou#h poken Tibetan 0arie accordin# to the re#ion, the ,ritten lan#ua#e, ba ed on !la ical

Tibetan, i con i tent throu#hout* Thi i probably due to the lon#% tandin# influence of the Tibetan empire, ,ho e rule embraced (and e@tended at time far beyond" the pre ent Tibetan lin#ui tic area, ,hich run from northern 'aki tan in the ,e t to Eunnan and 8ichuan in the ea t, and from north of.in#hai /ake outh a far a Ahutan* The Tibetan lan#ua#e ha it o,n cript ,hich it hare ,ith /adakhi and F:on#kha, and ,hich i deri0ed from the ancient +ndian ArYhmZ cript*[4<] 8tartin# in <334, the local deaf i#n lan#ua#e of Tibet ,ere tandardi:ed, and Tibetan 8i#n /an#ua#e i no, bein# promoted acro the country*

History
#ain article$ ;istor* of Tibet Further information$ ;istor* of )uro(ean e<(loration in Tibet, =eolithic Tibet, and Foreign relations of Tibet

9in# 8on#t [n Gampo

&uman inhabited the Tibetan 'lateau at lea t <4,333 year a#o* [4=] Thi population ,a lar#ely replaced around =,333 A' by Deolithicimmi#rant from northern !hina* &o,e0er there i a Ipartial #enetic continuity bet,een the 'aleolithic inhabitant and the contemporary Tibetan population I* [4=] The earlie t Tibetan hi torical te@t identify the Hhan# Hhun# culture a a people ,ho mi#rated from the $mdo re#ion into ,hat i no, the re#ion of Gu#e in ,e tern Tibet*[41] Hhan# Hhun# i con idered to be the ori#inal home of the ABn reli#ion*[4?] Ay the 4 t century A!C, a nei#hborin# kin#dom aro e in the Earlun# 0alley, and the Earlun# kin#, Fri#um T enpo, attempted to remo0e the influence of the Hhan# Hhun# by e@pellin# the Hhan#( ABn prie t from Earlun#*[45] &e ,a a a inated and Hhan#

Hhun# continued it dominance of the re#ion until it ,a anne@ed by 8on#t en Gampo in the 6th century* 'rior to 8on#t [n Gampo, the kin# of Tibet ,ere more mytholo#ical than factual, and there i in ufficient e0idence of their e@i tence*[46]

The area colored in oli0e drab ho, the Tibetan Cmpire a it ,a in ;<3

The -on#olian Euan Fyna ty, c* 4<21 and it client tateGoryeo in modern 9orea

Tibet in 46=1* Ro*aume de Thibet (I9in#dom of TibetI" in la Chine, la Tartarie Chinoise, et le Thibet (I!hina, !hine eTartary, and TibetI" on a 46=1 map by Jean Aapti te Aour#ui#non d($n0ille, ba ed on earlier Je uit map *

-itchell\ 4;51 map of Tibet and !hina*

Tibet in 4;2< durin# the -anchu .in# Fyna ty*

Tibetan Empire
#ain article$ Tibetan )m(ire The hi tory of a unified Tibet be#in ,ith the rule of 8on#t [n Gampo (531L5?3 !C" ,ho united part of the Earlun# )i0er ]alley and founded the Tibetan Cmpire* &e al o brou#ht in many reform and Tibetan po,er pread rapidly creatin# a lar#e and po,erful empire* +t i traditionally con idered that hi fir t ,ife ,a the 'rince of Depal, Ahrikuti, and that he played a #reat role in e tabli hment of Wenchen#, the niece of the po,erful !hine e

Auddhi m in Tibet* +n 513 he married 'rince emperor Tai:on# of Tan# !hina*

[4;]

^nder the ne@t fe, Tibetan kin# , Auddhi m became e tabli hed a the tate reli#ion and Tibetan po,er increa ed e0en further o0er lar#e area of !entral $ ia, ,hile maXor inroad ,ere made into !hine e territory, e0en reachin# the Tan#( capital !han#(an (modern >i(an" in late 65=*[42] &o,e0er, the Tibetan occupation of !han#(an only la ted for fifteen day , after ,hich they ,ere defeated by Tan# and it ally, the Turkic ^y#hur 9ha#anate* The 9in#dom of Dan:hao (in Eunnan and nei#hbourin# re#ion " remained under Tibetan control from 6?3 to 621, ,hen they turned on their Tibetan o0erlord and helped the !hine e inflict a eriou defeat on the Tibetan *[<3] +n 616, the hold of Tibet ,a loo ened by the campai#n of #eneral Gao >ian:hi, ,ho tried to re%open the direct communication bet,een !entral $ ia and 9a hmir* Ay 6?3 the Tibetan had lo t almo t all of their central $ ian po e ion to the !hine e* &o,e0er, after Gao >ian:hi( defeat by

the $rab and .arluK at the Aattle of Tala (6?4" and the ub eKuent ci0il ,ar (6??", !hine e influence decrea ed rapidly and Tibetan influence re umed* +n ;<4/;<< !C Tibet and !hina i#ned a peace treaty* $ bilin#ual account of thi treaty, includin# detail of the border bet,een the t,o countrie , i in cribed on a tone pillar ,hich tand out ide the Jokhan# temple in /ha a*[<4] Tibet continued a a !entral $ ian empire until the mid%2th century, ,hen a ci0il ,ar o0er ucce the collap e of imperial Tibet* The period that follo,ed i kno,n traditionally a the Cra of Fra#mentation, ,hen political control o0er Tibet became di0ided bet,een re#ional ,arlord and tribe ,ith no dominant centrali:ed authority* ion led to

Yuan Dynasty
#ain article$ #ongol invasions of Tibet The -on#olian Euan Fyna ty, throu#h the Aureau of Auddhi t and Tibetan $ffair , or >uan:hen# Euan (!hine e: ", ruled Tibet throu#h a top%le0el admini trati0e department* Mne of the department( purpo e ,a to elect a dpon%chen, u ually appointed by the lama and confirmed by the -on#ol emperor in AeiXin#*[<<] The 8akya lama retained a de#ree of autonomy, actin# a the political authority of the re#ion, ,hile the dpon%chen held admini trati0e and military po,er* -on#ol rule of Tibet remained eparate from the main pro0ince of !hina, but the re#ion e@i ted under the admini tration of the Euan Fyna ty* +f the 8akya lama e0er came into conflict ,ith the dpon%chen, the dpon%chen had the authority to end !hine e troop into the re#ion* [<<] Tibet retained nominal po,er o0er reli#iou and re#ional political affair , ,hile the -on#ol mana#ed a tructural and admini trati0e[<=] rule o0er the re#ion, reinforced by the rare military inter0ention* Thi e@i ted a a Idiarchic tructureI under the Euan emperor, ,ith po,er primarily in fa0or of the -on#ol *
[<<]

-on#olian prince 9huden #ained temporal po,er in Tibet in the 4<13 and pon ored 8akya

'andita, ,ho e eat became the capital of Tibet* Euan control o0er the re#ion ended ,ith the -in# o0erthro, of the Euan and Tai 8itu !han#chub Gyalt en( re0olt a#ain t the -on#ol *[<1] Follo,in# the upri in#, Tai 8itu !han#chub Gyalt en founded the 'ha#modrupa dyna ty, and ou#ht to reduce Euan influence o0er Tibetan culture and politic * [<?]

Phagmodrupa Dynasty and the Dalai Lamas

#ain article$ 'hagmodru(a %*nast* Aet,een 4=15 and 4=?1, Tai 8itu !han#chub Gyalt en toppled the 8akya and founded the 'ha#modrupa dyna ty* The follo,in# ;3 year a, the foundin# of the Gelu# chool (al o kno,n

a Eello, &at " by the di ciple of Je T on#khapa, and the foundin# of the important Ganden, Frepun#, and 8era mona terie near /ha a*

+n 4?6;, $ltan 9han of the T_med -on#ol #a0e 8onam Gyat o, a hi#h lama of the Gelu#pa chool, the name %alai >ama;%alai bein# the -on#olian tran lation of the Tibetan name Gyat o, or IMceanI*
[<5]

The fir t Curopean to arri0e in Tibet ,ere the 'ortu#ue e mi ionarie $nt`nio de $ndrade and -anuel -arKue in 45<1* They ,ere ,elcomed by the 9in# and .ueen of Gu#e, and ,ere allo,ed to build a church and to introduce !hri tian belief* The kin# of Gu#e ea#erly accepted !hri tianity a an off ettin# reli#iou influence to dilute the thri0in# Gelu#pa and to counterbalance hi potential ri0al and con olidate hi po ition* $ll mi ionarie ,ere e@pelled in 461?* [<6][<;][<2][=3]

Qing Dynasty
The .in# Fyna ty put $mdo under their control in 46<1, and incorporated ea tern 9ham into nei#hbourin# !hine e pro0ince in 46<;*[=4] The .in# #o0ernment ent a re ident commi ioner, called an Amban, to /ha a* +n 46?3 the $mban and maXority of the &an !hine e and -anchu li0in# in /ha a ,ere killed in a riot, and .in# troop arri0ed Kuickly and uppre ed the rebel in the ne@t

year* /ike the precedin# Euan dyna ty, the -anchu of the .in# dyna ty e@erted military and admini trati0e control of the re#ion, ,hile #rantin# it a de#ree of political autonomy* The .in# commander publicly e@ecuted a number of upporter of the rebel , and, a in 46<= and 46<;, made chan#e in the political tructure and dre, up a formal or#ani:ation plan* The .in# no, re tored the Falai /ama a ruler leadin# #o0ernment called?ashag[=<] but ele0ated the role of Amban to include more direct in0ol0ement in Tibetan internal affair * $t the ame time the .in# took tep to counterbalance the po,er of the ari tocracy by addin# official recruited from the cler#y to key po t *
[==]

For e0eral decade , peace rei#ned in Tibet, but in 462< the .in# emperor ent a lar#e !hine e army into Tibet to pu h the in0adin# Depale e out* Thi prompted yet another .in# reor#ani:ation of the Tibetan #o0ernment, thi time throu#h a ,ritten plan called the IT,enty%Dine )e#ulation for Aetter Go0ernment in TibetI* .in# military #arri on taffed ,ith .in# troop ,ere no, al o e tabli hed near ta#e in the 4;th century,

the Depale e border*[=1] Tibet ,a dominated by the -anchu in 0ariou

and the year immediately follo,in# the 462< re#ulation ,ere the peak of the .in# imperial commi ioner ( authority; but there ,a no attempt to make Tibet a !hine e pro0ince* [=?] +n 4;=1 the 8ikh Cmpire in0aded and anne@ed /adakh, a culturally Tibetan re#ion that ,a an independent kin#dom at the time* 8e0en year later a 8ikh army led by General Hora,ar 8in#h in0aded ,e tern Tibet from /adakh, tartin# the 8ino%8ikh War* $ .in#%Tibetan army repelled the in0ader but ,a in turn defeated ,hen it cha ed the 8ikh into /adakh* The ,ar ended ,ith the i#nin# of the Treaty of !hu hul bet,een the !hine e and 8ikh empire *[=5]

$ the .in# Fyna ty ,eakened, it authority o0er Tibet al o #radually ,eakened; by the mid%42th century, it influence ,a minu cule* .in# authority o0er Tibet had become more ymbolic than real in the late 42th century,[=6][=;][=2][13] althou#h in the 4;53 the Tibetan empha i:e the empire( till cho e for rea on of their o,n to

ymbolic authority and make it eem ub tantial* [14]

Thi period al o a, ome contact ,ith Je uit and !apuchin from Curope, and in 4661 a 8cotti h nobleman, Geor#e Ao#le, came to 8hi#at e to in0e ti#ate trade for the Ariti h Ca t +ndia !ompany*
[1<]

&o,e0er, by the 42th century the ituation of forei#ner in Tibet #re, more tenuou * The Ariti h

Cmpire ,a encroachin# from northern +ndia into the&imalaya , the Cmirate of $f#hani tan and the )u ian Cmpire ,ere e@pandin# into !entral $ ia and each po,er became u piciou of the

other ( intention in Tibet*

)a#yapa , an outca t #roup, early <3th century* Their hereditary occupation included di po al of corp e and leather ,ork*

+n 4231, a Ariti h e@pedition to Tibet, purred in part by a fear that )u

ia ,a e@tendin# it po,er into

Tibet, in0aded Tibet, hopin# that ne#otiation ,ith the 4=th Falai /ama ,ould be more effecti0e than ,ith !hine e repre entati0e *[1=] When the Ariti h%led in0a ion reached Tibet, an armed confrontation ,ith the ethnic Tibetan re ulted in the -a impo ed a treaty ,hich ,a bet,een Aritainand !hina* +n 4243, the .in# #o0ernment ent a military e@pedition of it o,n under Hhao Crfen# to e tabli h direct -anchu%!hine e rule and depo ed the Falai /ama in an imperial edict, ,ho fled to Ariti h +ndia* Hhao Crfen# defeated the Tibetan military conclu i0ely and e@pelled the Falai /ama( force from the pro0ince* &o,e0er, hi action ,ere unpopular, and there ,a much animo ity a#ain t him for hi mi treatment of ci0ilian and di re#ard for local culture* acre of !humik 8henko,[11] after ,hich Eoun#hu band ucceeded by a 4235 treaty [1?] i#ned

ub eKuently repudiated, and ,a

Post-Qing period
#ain article$ Tibet (@A@BC@AD@) $fter the >inhai )e0olution (4244L4<" toppled the .in# Fyna ty and the la t .in# troop ,ere e corted out of Tibet, the ne, )epublic of !hina apolo#i:ed for the action of the .in# and offered to re tore the Falai /ama( title*[15] The Falai /ama refu ed any !hine e title, and declared him elf ruler

of an independent Tibet*[16] +n 424= Tibet and -on#oliaconcluded treaty on mutual reco#nition*[1;] For the ne@t =5 year , the 4=th Falai /ama and the re#ent ,ho ucceeded him #o0erned Tibet* Furin# thi time, Tibet fou#ht !hine e ,arlord for control of the ethnically Tibetan area in >ikan# and .in#hai (part of 9ham and $mdo" alon# the upper reache of the Ean#t:e )i0er*[=4] +n 4241 the Tibetan #o0ernment i#ned the 8imla $ccord ,ith Aritain, cedin# the 8outh Tibet re#ion to Ariti h +ndia* The !hine e #o0ernment denounced the a#reement a ille#al* [12][?3] When the re#ent in the 42=3 and 13 di played ne#li#ence in affair , the 9uomintan# Go0ernment of the )epublic of !hina u ed thi to their ad0anta#e to e@pand their reach into the territory* [?4]

From 1 !" to present

#ain article$ ;istor* of Tibet (@ADEC(resent)

Tham:in# of Tibetan ,oman circa 42?;

Cmer#in# ,ith control o0er mo t of mainland !hina after the !hine e !i0il War, the 'eople( )epublic of !hina incorporated Tibet in 42?3 and ne#otiated the 8e0enteen 'oint $#reement ,ith the ne,ly enthroned 41th Falai /ama( #o0ernment, affirmin# the 'eople( )epublic of !hina( o0erei#nty but

#rantin# the area autonomy* 8ub eKuently, on hi Xourney into e@ile, the 41th Falai /ama completely repudiated the a#reement, ,hich he ha repeated on many occa ion * [?<][?=] $fter the Falai /ama #o0ernment fled to Fharam ala, +ndia, durin# the 42?2 Tibetan )ebellion, it e tabli hed a ri0al #o0ernment%in%e@ile* $fter,ard , the !entral 'eople( Go0ernment in AeiXin# renounced the a#reement and be#an implementation of the halted ocial and political reform *
[?1]

Furin# the Great /eap For,ard bet,een <33,333 and 4,333,333 Tibetan died,[??] and

appro@imately 5,333 mona terie ,ere de troyed durin# the !ultural )e0olution*[?5] +n 425< !hina and +ndia fou#ht a brief ,ar o0er the di puted 8outh Tibet and $k ai !hin re#ion * $lthou#h !hina ,on the ,ar, !hine e troop ,ithdre, north of the -c-ahon /ine, effecti0ely cedin# 8outh Tibet to +ndia*[?3]

+n 42;3, General 8ecretary and reformi t &u Eaoban# 0i ited Tibet, and u hered in a period of ocial, political, and economic liberali:ation*[?6]$t the end of the decade, ho,e0er analo#ou ly to the Tiananmen 8Kuare prote t of 42;2, monk in the Frepun# and 8era mona terie prote tin# for independence, and o the #o0ernment halted reform and tarted an anti% eparati t campai#n*[?6] &uman ri#ht or#ani ation ha0e been critical of the AeiXin# and /ha a #o0ernment ( approach to human ri#ht in the re#ion ,hen crackin# do,n on eparati t con0ul ion that ha0e occurred around mona terie and citie , mo t recently in the <33; Tibetan unre t* tarted

#eography
#ain article$ ,eogra(h* of Tibet

Tibet i located on the Tibetan 'lateau, the ,orld( hi#he t re#ion*

&imalaya , on the outhern rim of the Tibetan plateau

$ll of modern !hina, includin# Tibet, i con idered a part of Ca t $ ia* [?;][?2] &i torically, ome Curopean ource al o con idered part of Tibet to lie in !entral $ ia* Tibet i ,e t of the !entral !hina plain, and ,ithin mainland !hina, Tibet i re#arded a part of (>Zba", a term u ually tran lated by !hine e media a Ithe We tern ectionI, meanin# IWe tern !hinaI*

Earlun# T an#po )i0er

Auddhi t fla# in Tibet -ountain

Tibet i often called the Iroof of the ,orld*I

Tibet ha

ome of the ,orld( talle t mountain , ,ith e0eral of them makin# the top ten li t* -ount

C0ere t, at ;,;1; metre (<2,3<2 ft", i the hi#he t mountain on earth, located on the border ,ith Depal* 8e0eral maXor ri0er ha0e their ource in the Tibetan 'lateau (mo tly in pre ent%day .in#hai 'ro0ince"* The e include Ean#t:e, Eello, )i0er, +ndu )i0er, -ekon#, Gan#e , 8al,een and the Earlun# T an#po )i0er (Arahmaputra )i0er"*[53] The Earlun# T an#po Grand !anyon, alon# the Earlun# T an#po )i0er, i amon# the deepe t and lon#e t canyon in the ,orld* Tibet ha been called the IWater To,erI of $ ia, and !hina i in0e tin# hea0ily in ,ater proXect in Tibet*[54][5<]

The +ndu and Arahmaputra ri0er ori#inate from a lake (Tib: T o -apham" in We tern Tibet, near -ount 9aila h* The mountain i a holy pil#rima#e ite for both &indu and Tibetan * The &indu con ider the mountain to be the abode of /ord 8hi0a* The Tibetan name for -t* 9aila h i 9han# )inpoche* Tibet ha numerou hi#h%altitude lake referred to in Tibetan a tso or co* The e include .in#hai /ake, /ake -ana aro0ar,Damt o, 'an#on# T o, Eamdrok /ake, 8ilin# !o, /hamo /a% t o, /umaXan#don# !o, /ake 'uma Eumco, /ake 'aiku, /ake )ak ha tal, Fa#:e !o and Fon# !o* The .in#hai /ake (9oko Dor" i the lar#e t lake in the 'eople( )epublic of !hina* The atmo phere i e0erely dry nine month of the year, and a0era#e annual no,fall i only 4; e recei0e mall amount of fre h no,

inche (15 cm", due to the rain hado, effect* We tern pa

each year but remain tra0er able all year round* /o, temperature are pre0alent throu#hout the e ,e tern re#ion , ,here bleak de olation i unrelie0ed by any 0e#etation bi##er than a lo, bu h, and ,here ,ind ,eep unchecked acro 0a t e@pan e of arid plain* The +ndian mon oon e@ert ome

influence on ea tern Tibet* Dorthern Tibet i cold in the ,inter*

ubXect to hi#h temperature in the ummer and inten e

!ultural Tibet con i t of e0eral re#ion * The e include $mdo (A mdo" in the northea t, ,hich i admini trati0ely part of the pro0ince of .in#hai, Gan u and 8ichuan* 9ham (?hams" in the outhea t encompa e part of ,e tern 8ichuan, northern Eunnan, outhern .in#hai and the ea tern part of

the Tibet $utonomou )e#ion* 7%T an# (dBus gTsang" (7 in the center, T an# in the center%,e t, and D#ari (m=gaF ris" in the far ,e t" co0ered the central and ,e tern portion of Tibet $utonomou )e#ion*
[5=]

Tibetan cultural influence e@tend to the nei#hborin# tate of Ahutan, Depal, re#ion of +ndia uch a 8ikkim, /adakh, /ahaul, and 8piti, in addition to de i#nated Tibetan autonomou area in adXacent !hine e pro0ince *

Cities$ to%ns and &illages

Further information$ >ist of (o(ulated (laces in the Tibet Autonomous Region

/ookin# acro

the Kuare at Jokhan#temple, /ha a

There are o0er ;33 ettlement in Tibet* /ha a i Tibet( traditional capital and the capital of Tibet $utonomou )e#ion* +t contain t,o ,orld herita#e ite L the 'otala 'alace and Dorbulin#ka, ,hich ,ere the re idence of the Falai /ama* /ha a contain a number of i#nificant temple and mona terie , includin# Jokhan# and )amoche Temple*

8hi#at e i the econd lar#e t city in the Tibet $), ,e t of /ha a* Gyant e and .amdo are al o amon# t the lar#e t* Mther citie and to,n in cultural Tibet include 8hiKuanhe ($li", Da#chu, Aamda, )uto#, Dyin#chi, Dedon#, !oKbn, Aarkam, 8akya,Gart e, ' elbar, /hat e, and Tin#ri; in 8ichuan, 9an#din# (Fart edo"; in .in#hai, Jyekundo (Eu hu", -achen, and Golmud; in +ndia,Ta,an#, /eh, and Gan#tok*

#o&ernment
#ain article$ Tibet Autonomous RegionG,overnment The central re#ion of Tibet i an autonomou re#ion ,ithin !hina, the Tibet $utonomou )e#ion* The Tibet $utonomou )e#ion i a pro0ince%le0el entity of the 'eople( )epublic of !hina* +t i #o0erned by a 'eople( Go0ernment, led by a !hairman* +n practice, ho,e0er, the !hairman i ubordinate to the

branch ecretary of the !ommuni t 'arty of !hina* $ a matter of con0ention, the !hairman ha almo t al,ay been an ethnic Tibetan, ,hile the party ecretary ha almo t al,ay been a non% Tibetan*[51]

The theo'rati' go&ernment

'rior to a ertion of !hine e control o0er Tibet it ,a a feudal theocracy headed by the Falai /ama or a re#ency and admini tered by the 9a ha#, a council of four, and 133L?33 official dra,n from the traditional Tibetan ari tocracy, Tibetan mona terie , and middle%cla familie of /ha a*[5?]

E'onomy
#ain article$ )conom* of Tibet

The Tibetan yak i an inte#ral part of Tibetan life

The Tibetan economy i dominated by ub i tence a#riculture* Fue to limited arable land, the primary occupation of the Tibetan 'lateau i rai in# li0e tock, uch a heep, cattle, #oat , camel , yak , d:o, orted fruit

and hor e * The main crop #ro,n are barley, ,heat, buck,heat,rye, potatoe , and a and 0e#etable * Tibet i ranked the lo,e t amon# !hina\ =4 pro0ince
[55]

on the &uman Fe0elopment

+nde@ accordin# to ^D Fe0elopment 'ro#ramme data* [56] +n recent year , due to increa ed intere t in Tibetan Auddhi m, touri m ha become an increa in#ly important ector, and i acti0ely promoted by the authoritie *[5;] Touri m brin# in the mo t income from the ale of handicraft * The e include Tibetan hat , Xe,elry ( il0er and #old", ,ooden item , clothin#, Kuilt , fabric , Tibetan ru# and carpet * The !entral 'eople( Go0ernment e@empt Tibet from all ta@ation and pro0ide 23c of Tibet( #o0ernment e@penditure *[52][63][64][6<]

Farmer ( market in /ha a

The .in#:an# rail,ay linkin# the Tibet $utonomou )e#ion to .in#hai 'ro0ince ,a opened in <335, but not ,ithout contro0er y*[6=][61][6?] +n January <336, the !hine e #o0ernment i ued a report outlinin# the di co0ery of a lar#e mineral depo it under the Tibetan 'lateau*[65] The depo it ha an e timated 0alue of d4<; billion and may double !hine e re er0e of :inc, copper, and lead* The !hine e #o0ernment ee thi a a ,ay to alle0iate the nation( dependence on forei#n mineral import for it #ro,in# economy* &o,e0er, critic ,orry that minin# the e 0a t re ource ,ill harm Tibet( fra#ile eco y tem and undermine Tibetan culture*[65] Mn January 4?, <332, !hina announced the con truction of Tibet\ fir t e@pre ,ay, a =6*2%kilometre tretch of controlled%acce hi#h,ay in outh,e tern /ha a* The proXect ,ill co t

4*?? billion yuan (^8d<<6 million"*[66] From January 4;L<3, <343 a national conference on Tibet and area inhabited by Tibetan in 8ichuan, Eunnan, Gan u and .in#hai ,a held in !hina and a ub tantial plan to impro0e de0elopment of the area ,a announced* The conference ,a attended by General ecretary &u Jintao, Wu Aan##uo, Wen Jiabao, Jia .in#lin, /i !han#chun, >i Jinpin#, /i 9eKian#, &e GuoKian# and Hhou Eon#kan#, all member of !'! 'olitburo 8tandin# !ommittee i#nalin# the commitment of enior !hine e leader to de0elopment of Tibet and ethnic Tibetan area * The plan call for impro0ement of rural Tibetan income to national tandard by <3<3 and free education for all rural Tibetan children* !hina ha in0e ted =43 billion yuan (about 1?*5 billion ^*8* dollar " in Tibet

ince <334* ITibet( GF' ,a e@pected to reach 1=*6 billion yuan in <332, up 463 percent from that in <333 and po tin# an annual #ro,th of 4<*= percent o0er the pa t nine year *I [6;]

De&elopment (one
The 8tate !ouncil appro0ed Tibet /ha a Cconomic and Technolo#ical Fe0elopment Hone a a tate% le0el de0elopment :one in <334* +t i located in the ,e tern uburb of /ha a, the capital of the Tibet $utonomou )e#ion* +t i ?3 km a,ay from the Gon##ar $irport, and < km a,ay from /ha a )ail,ay 8tation and < km a,ay from =4; national hi#h,ay* The :one ha a planned area of ?*15 Kuare kilometer and i di0ided into t,o :one * Hone $ de0eloped a land area of <*?4 Kuare kilometer for con truction purpo e * +t i a flat :one, and ha the natural condition for #ood draina#e*[62]

Demographi's
+ee also$ ;istor* of Tibet (@ADEC(resent) and %emogra(hics of Tibet Autonomous Region

Tibetan /amani , c* 423?

$n elderly Tibetan ,oman in /ha a

&i torically, the population of Tibet con i ted of primarily ethnic Tibetan and ome other ethnic #roup * $ccordin# to tradition the ori#inal ance tor of the Tibetan people, a repre ented by the i@ red band in the Tibetan fla#, are: the 8e, -u, Fon#, Ton#, Fru and )a* Mther traditional ethnic #roup ,ith i#nificant population or ,ith the maXority of the ethnic #roup re ide in Tibet (e@cludin# di puted area ,ith +ndia" include Aai people, Alan#, Aonan, Fon#@ian#, &an, &ui

people, /hoba, /i u people, -iao, -on#ol , -on#uor (Tu people", -enba (-onpa", -o uo, Dakhi, .ian#, Du people, 'umi, 8alar, and Ei people* The proportion of the non%Tibetan population in Tibet i di puted* Mn the one hand, the !entral Tibetan $dmini tration of the Falai /ama, accu e !hina of acti0ely ,ampin# Tibet ,ith mi#rant in order to alter Tibet( demo#raphic makeup* [;3] Mn the other hand, accordin# to the <343 !hine e cen u ethnic Tibetan compri e 23c of a total population of = million in the Tibet $utonomou )e#ion*[;4] C@act population number probably depend on ho, temporary mi#rant are counted*

Culture
#ain article$ Tibetan culture

)eligion
#ain article$ Religion in Tibet

Tibetan *uddhism
#ain article$ Tibetan Buddhism

Auddhi t monk in Frepun# -ona tery

)eli#ion i e@tremely important to the Tibetan and ha a tron# influence o0er all a pect of their li0e * ABn i the ancient reli#ion of Tibet, but ha been almo t eclip ed by Tibetan Auddhi m, a di tincti0e form of -ahayana and ]aXrayana, ,hich ,a introduced into Tibet from the 8an krit Auddhi t tradition of northern +ndia*[;<] Tibetan Auddhi m i practiced not only in Tibet but al o in -on#olia, part of northern +ndia, the Auryat )epublic, the Tu0a )epublic, and in the )epublic of 9almykia and ome other part of !hina* Furin# !hina( !ultural )e0olution, nearly all Tibet( mona terie ,ere ran acked and de troyed by the )ed Guard *[;=][;1][;?] $ fe, mona terie ha0e be#un to rebuild ince the 42;3 (,ith limited upport from the !hine e #o0ernment" and #reater reli#iou freedom ha been #ranted L althou#h it i till limited* -onk returned to mona terie acro trictly limited* [;=]

Tibet and mona tic education re umed e0en thou#h the number of monk impo ed i
[;5][;6]

Aefore 42?3 , bet,een 43 and <3c of male in Tibet ,ere monk * [;;]

Tibetan Auddhi m ha four main tradition (the uffi@ (a i comparable to IerI in Cn#li h":

#elug+pa,, Ha* of Iirtue, al o kno,n ca ually a Jello5 ;at, ,ho e piritual head i the Ganden Tripa and ,ho e temporal head i the Falai /ama* 8ucce i0e Falai /ama ruled

Tibet from the mid%46th to mid%<3th centurie * Thi order ,a founded in the 41th to 4?th centurie by Je T on#khapa, ba ed on the foundation of the 9adampa tradition* T on#khapa ,a reno,ned for both hi chola tici m and hi 0irtue* The Falai /ama belon# to the Gelu#pa

chool, and i re#arded a the embodiment of the Aodhi att0a of !ompa ion* [;2]

-agyu+pa,, Kral >ineage* Thi contain one maXor ub ect and one minor ub ect* The fir t, the Fa#po 9a#yu, encompa e tho e 9a#yu chool that trace back toGampopa* +n turn, the

Fa#po 9a#yu con i t of four maXor ub% ect : the 9arma 9a#yu, headed by a 9armapa, the T alpa 9a#yu, the Aarom 9a#yu, and 'a#tru 9a#yu* The once%ob cure 8han#pa 9a#yu, ,hich ,a famou ly repre ented by the <3th%century teacher 9alu )inpoche, trace it hi tory back to the +ndian ma ter Di#uma, i ter of 9a#yu linea#e holder Daropa* Thi i an oral tradition ,hich i 0ery much concerned ,ith the e@periential dimen ion of meditation* +t mo t famou e@ponent ,a -ilarepa, an 44th%century my tic*

Nyingma+pa,, The Ancient Knes* Thi i the olde t, the ori#inal order founded by 'adma ambha0a*

.a/ya+pa,, ,re* )arth, headed by the 8akya Tri:in, founded by 9hon 9oncho# Gyalpo, a di ciple of the #reat tran lator Frokmi /ot a,a* 8akya 'andita 44;<L4<?4 !C ,a the #reat #rand on of 9hon 9oncho# Gyalpo* Thi chool empha i:e cholar hip*

0slam
#ain article$ Lslam in Tibet

Tibetan mo Kue in /ha a

-u lim ha0e been li0in# in Tibet ince a early a the ;th or 2th century* +n Tibetan citie , there are mall communitie of -u lim , kno,n a 9achee (9ache", ,ho trace their ori#in to immi#rant from three main re#ion : 9a hmir (9achee Eul in ancient Tibetan", /adakh and the !entral $ ian Turkic countrie * + lamic influence in Tibet al o came from 'er ia* $fter 42?2 a #roup of Tibetan -u lim made a ca e for +ndian nationality ba ed on their hi toric root to 9a hmir and the +ndian #o0ernment declared all Tibetan -u lim +ndian citi:en later on that year*[23] Mther -u lim ethnic #roup ,ho ha0e lon# inhabited Tibet include &ui, 8alar, Fon#@ian# and Aonan* There i al o a ,ell e tabli hed !hine e -u lim community (#ya kachee", ,hich trace it ance try back to the &ui ethnic #roup of !hina*

Christianity
The fir t !hri tian documented to ha0e reached Tibet ,ere the De torian , of ,hom 0ariou remain and in cription ha0e been found in Tibet* They ,ere al o pre ent at the imperial camp of -Bn#ke 9han at 8hira Mrdo, ,here they debated in 4<?5 ,ith 9arma 'ak hi (4<31/5%;=", head of the 9arma 9a#yu order*[24][2<] Fe ideri, ,ho reached /ha a in 4645, encountered $rmenian and )u ian merchant *[2=] )oman !atholic Je uit and !apuchin arri0ed from Curope in the 46th and 4;th centurie * 'ortu#ue e mi ionarie Je uit Father $ntonio de $ndrade and Arother -anuel -arKue fir t reached the kin#dom of Gelu in ,e tern Tibet in 45<1 and ,a ,elcomed by the royal family ,ho allo,ed them to build a church later on*[21][2?] Ay 45<6, there ,ere about a hundred local con0ert in the Gu#e kin#dom*[25] /ater on, !hri tianity ,a introduced to )udok, /adakh and T an# and ,a ,elcomed by the ruler of the T an# kin#dom, ,here $ndrade and hi fello, e tabli hed a Je uit outpo t at 8hi#at e in 45<5*[26] +n 4554 another Je uit, Johann Grueber, cro ed Tibet from 8inin# to /ha a (,here he pent a month", before headin# on to Depal*[2;] &e ,a follo,ed by other ,ho actually built a church in /ha a* The e included the Je uit Father +ppolito Fe ideri, 4645L46<4, ,ho #ained a deep kno,led#e of Tibetan culture, lan#ua#e and Auddhi m, and 0ariou !apuchin in 4636L4644, 4645L46== and 4614L461?,[22] !hri tianity ,a u ed by ome Tibetan monarch and their court and the 9armapa ect lama to counterbalance the influence of theGelu#pa ect in the 46th century until in 461? ,hen all the mi ionarie ,ere e@pelled at the lama( in i tence* [<;][433][434][43<][43=][431]

+n 4;66, the 'rote tant Jame !ameron from the !hina +nland -i ion ,alked from !hon#Kin# to Aatan# in Gar:b Tibetan $utonomou 'refecture, 8ichuan pro0ince, and Ibrou#ht the Go pel to the Tibetan people*I Ae#innin# in the <3th century, in FiKin# Tibetan $utonomou 'refecture in Eunnan, a lar#e number of /i u people and ome Ei and Du people con0erted to

!hri tianity* Famou earlier mi ionarie include Jame M* Fra er, $lfred Jame Aroomhall and + obel 9uhn of the !hina +nland -i ion, amon# other ,ho ,ere acti0e in thi area* [43?][435] 'ro elyti in# ha been ille#al in !hina ince 4212* Aut a of <34=, many !hri tian mi ionarie ,ere reported to be acti0e in Tibet ,ith the tacit appro0al of !hine e authoritie , ,ho 0ie, the mi ionarie a a counterforce to Tibetan Auddhi m or a a boon to the local economy* [436]

Tibetan art
#ain article$ Tibetan art

$ than#ka paintin# in 8ikkim

Tibetan repre entation of art are intrin ically bound ,ith Tibetan Auddhi m and commonly depict deitie or 0ariation of Auddha in 0ariou form from bron:e Auddhi t tatue and hrine , to hi#hly colorful than#ka paintin# and mandala *

1r'hite'ture
#ain article$ Tibetan cultureGArchitecture Tibetan architecture contain !hine e and +ndian influence , and reflect a deeply Auddhi t approach* The Auddhi t ,heel, alon# ,ith t,o dra#on , can be een on nearly e0ery Gompa in Tibet* The de i#n of the Tibetan !hBrten can 0ary, from roundi h ,all in 9ham to Kuari h, four% ided ,all in /adakh* The mo t di tincti0e feature of Tibetan architecture i that many of the hou e and mona terie are built on ele0ated, unny ite facin# the outh, and are often made out of a mi@ture of rock , ,ood, cement and earth* /ittle fuel i a0ailable for heat or li#htin#, o flat roof are built to con er0e heat, and multiple ,indo, are con tructed to let in unli#ht* Wall are u ually loped in,ard at 43 de#ree a a precaution a#ain t the freKuent earthKuake in thi mountainou area*

The 'otala 'alace

8tandin# at 446 meter in hei#ht and =53 meter in ,idth, the 'otala 'alace i the mo t important e@ample of Tibetan architecture* Formerly the re idence of the Falai /ama, it contain o0er one thou and room ,ithin thirteen torie , and hou e portrait of the pa t Falai /ama and tatue of the Auddha* +t i di0ided bet,een the outer White 'alace, ,hich er0e a the admini trati0e Kuarter , and the inner )ed .uarter , ,hich hou e the a embly hall of the /ama , chapel , 43,333 hrine ,

and a 0a t library of Auddhi t cripture * The 'otala 'alace i a World &erita#e 8ite, a i Dorbulin#ka, the former ummer re idence of the Falai /ama*

2usi'
#ain article$ #usic of Tibet The mu ic of Tibet reflect the cultural herita#e of the tran %&imalayan re#ion, centered in Tibet but al o kno,n ,here0er ethnic Tibetan#roup are found in +ndia, Ahutan, Depal and further abroad* Fir t and foremo t Tibetan mu ic i reli#iou mu ic, reflectin# the profound influence of Tibetan Auddhi m on the culture* Tibetan mu ic often in0ol0e chantin# in Tibetan or 8an krit, a an inte#ral part of the reli#ion* The e chant are comple@, often recitation of acred te@t or in celebration of 0ariou fe ti0al * Ean#[disambiguation needed] chantin#, performed ,ithout metrical timin#, i accompanied by re onant drum and lo,, u tained yllable * Mther tyle include tho e uniKue to the 0ariou Auddhi m, uch a the cla chool of Tibetan

ical mu ic of the popular Gelu#pa chool, and the romantic mu ic of

the Dyin#mapa, 8akyapa and9a#yupa chool *[43;] Dan#ma dance mu ic i e pecially popular in the karaoke bar of the urban center of Tibet, /ha a* $nother form of popular mu ic i the cla ical #ar tyle, ,hich i performed at ritual and

ceremonie * /u are a type of on# that feature #lottal 0ibration and hi#h pitche * There are al o epic bard ,ho in# of Ge ar, ,ho i a hero to ethnic Tibetan *

Festi&als
#ain article$ Tibetan festivals

The -onlam 'rayer Fe ti0al

Tibetan and mandala

Tibet ha 0ariou fe ti0al ,hich are commonly performed to ,or hip the Auddha [citation needed] throu#hout the year* /o ar i the Tibetan De, Eear Fe ti0al* 'reparation for the fe ti0e e0ent are manife ted by pecial offerin# to family hrine deitie , painted door ,ith reli#iou ymbol , and other pain takin#

Xob done to prepare for the e0ent* Tibetan eat Guthuk (barley crumb food ,ith fillin#" on De, Eear( C0e ,ith their familie * The -onlam 'rayer Fe ti0al follo, it in the fir t month of the Tibetan calendar, fallin# bet,een the fourth and the ele0enth day of the fir t Tibetan month* +t in0ol0e dancin# and participatin# in port e0ent , a ,ell a harin# picnic * The e0ent ,a e tabli hed in 4312 by T on#

9hapa, the founder of the Falai /ama and the 'anchen /ama( order*

Cuisine
#ain article$ Tibetan cuisine The mo t important crop in Tibet i barley, and dou#h made from barley flourecalled t ampaei the taple food of Tibet* Thi i either rolled into noodle or made into teamed dumplin# called momo * -eat di he are likely to be yak, #oat, or mutton, often dried, or cooked into a picy te, ,ith potatoe * -u tard eed i culti0ated in Tibet, and therefore feature hea0ily in it cui ine* Eak yo#urt, butter and chee e are freKuently eaten, and ,ell%prepared yo#urt i con idered omethin# of a pre ti#e item* Autter tea i 0ery popular to drink*