Introduction Structural components subjected only to tension or compressions are known as axially loaded members.

Solid bars with straight longitudinal axes are the most common type, although cables and coil springs also carry axial loads. Examples of axially loaded bars are truss members, connecting rods in engines, spokes in bicycle wheels, columns in buildings, and struts in aircraft engine mounts. The stress-strain behavior of such members was discussed in the topic of Tension, Compression and Shear, where we also obtained equation of the stresses acting on cross-sections ( = P/A) and the strains in longitudinal directions (= /L).

Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members In determining the changes in lengths or deformations of axially loaded members, it is convenient to begin with a coil spring. Springs of this type are used in large numbers in many kinds of machines and devices.

When a load is applied along the axis of a spring, it gets longer or shorter depending upon the direction of the load. If the load acts away from the spring, the spring elongates and we say that the spring is loaded in tension. If the load is acts towards the spring, the spring shortens and we say it is in compression. Axially loaded bars elongate under tensile loads and shorten under compressive loads, just as springs do. A prismatic bar is a structural member having a straight longitudinal axis and constant cross section throughout its length. Although we often use circular bars in our illustrations, we should bear in mind that structural members may have a variety of crosssectional shapes.

The elongation of a prismatic bar subjected to a tensile load P. If the load acts through the centroid of the end cross section, the uniform normal stress at cross section away from the ends is given by the formula = P/A, where A is the cross-sectional area. Furthermore, if the bar is made of a homogeneous material, the axial strain is = /L, where is the elongation and L is the length of the bar. Let us assume that the material is linearly elastic, which means it obeys to Hookes Law. Relating the longitudinal stress and strain by the equation =E, where E is the modulus of elasticity, we get the equation for the elongation of the bar as

This equation shows that the elongation is directly proportional to the load P and the length L and inversely proportional to the modulus of elasticity E and the cross-sectional area A. The product of EA is known as the axial rigidity of the bar. This equation may be used only if the rod is homogeneous (constant E), has a uniform cross sectional of area, A, and is loaded at its ends.

Changes in Lengths under Non-uniform Conditions Suppose, for instance, that a prismatic bar is loaded by one or more axial loads acting at intermediate points along the axis in the figure below. We can determine the change in length of this bar by adding algebraically the elongations and shortening of the individual segments.

If the rod is loaded at other points, or if it consists of several portions of various cross sections and possibly of different materials, we have to divide it into components parts that satisfy individually the required conditions for the application of the formula below. Denoting respectively, by Pi, Li, Ai, and Ei the internal force, length, cross sectional area, and modulus of elasticity corresponding to part i, we express the deformation of the entire rod as

For cases in which the axial force or the cross sectional area varies continuously along the length of the bar, the equation above is not valid. The axial strain at a point for the case of non-uniform deformation was defined as = d/dL. Thus, the increment of the deformation associated with a differential element of length dL=dx may be expressed as d= dx. If Hookes law applies, the strain may again be expressed as = /E, where =Px/Ax. The subscripts indicate that both the applied load Px and the cross sectional area Ax may be the functions of position x along the bar. Thus,

Integrating Eq. (a) yields the following expression for the total elongation (or contraction) of the bar:

In some cases where both ends of the member move, the deformation of the member is measured by the relative displacement of one end of the rod with respect to the other. Consider, for instance, the assembly shown in Figure a, which consists of three elastic bars of length L connected by a rigid pin at A. If a load P is applied at B in figure b, each of the three bars will deform. Since the bar AC and AC are attached to supports at C and C, their common deformation is measured by the displacement A of point A. On the other hand, since both ends of bar AB move, the deformation of AB is measured by the difference between the displacements A and B of point A and B, i.e., by the relative displacement of B with respect to A. Denoting this relative displacement by B/A , we write

where A is the cross sectional area of AB and E is its modulus of elasticity.