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Calculation of short circuit current

The current that flows through an element of a power system is a parameter which can be used to detect faults, given the large increase in current flow when a short circuit occurs. For this reason a review of the concepts and procedures for calculating fault currents will be made in this chapter, together with some calculations illustrating the methods used. Although the use of these short-circuit calculations in relation to protection settings will be-considered in detail, it is important to bear in mind that these calculations are also required for other applications, for example calculating the substation Earthing grid, the selection of conductor si es and for the specifications of equipment such as powercircuit brea!ers. 1 Mathematical derivation of fault currents The treatment of electrical faults should be carried out as a function of time, from the start of the event at time t = " until stable conditions are reached, and therefore it is necessary to use differential equations when calculating these currents. #n order to illustrate the transient nature of the current, consider an $% circuit as a simplified equivalent of the circuits in electricity-distribution networ!s. This simplification is important because all the system equipment must be modeled in some way in order to quantify the transient values which can occur during the fault condition. For the circuit shown in Figure &, the mathematical expression which defines the behaviour of the current is'
+

e(t) = L di + Ri(t)

2.1

Vmax Sin( t + )
R

Figure & $%, circuit for transient analysis study

This is a differential equation with constant coefficients, of which the solution is in two parts'

ia ( t ) ' ih ( t ) + i p ( t )
(here'

ih(t) #s the solution of the homogeneous equation corresponding to the transient period and ip(t) is the solution to the particular equation
corresponding to the steady-state period. )y the use of differential equation theory, which will not be discussed in detail here, the complete solution can be determined and expressed iii the following form'

i ,t + =

Vmax , Sin , t + + Sin, +.e , R - L + + Z

*.*

(here'

Z = R * + * L*
. / the closing angle which defines the point on the source sinusoidal voltage when the fault occurs and

= tan & ,L - R +
#t can be seen that, in eqn. *.*, the first term varies sinusoidally, while the second term decreases exponentially with a time constant of %-$. The latter term can be recognised as the 01 component of the current, and has an initial maximum value when = - * , and ero value when 2/., see Figure *. #t is impossible to predict at what point the fault will be applied on the sinusoidal cycle and therefore what magnitude the 01 component will reach. #f the tripping of the circuit, owing to a fault, ta!es place when the sinusoidal component is at its negative pea!, the 01 component reaches its theoretical maximum value half a cycle later.

Figure * 3ariation of fault current with time a () =0 b ()=/2 An approximate formula for calculating the effective value of the total asymmetric current, including the A1 and 01 components, with acceptable accuracy can be obtained from the following expression'

I rms.asym =

* * I rms + I DC

*.4

The fault current which results when an alternator is short circuited can easily be analysed since this is similar to the case which has already been analysed, i.e. when voltage is , applied to an $% circuit. The reduction in current from its value at the onset, owing to the gradual decrease in the magnetic flux caused by the reduction of the e.m.f. of the induction current, can be seen in Figure 4. This effect is !nown as armature reaction.

The physical situation that is presented to a generator, and which ma!es the calculations quite difficult, can be interpreted as a reactance which varies with time. 5otwithstanding this, in the ma6ority of practical applications it is possible to ta!e account of the variation of reactance in only three stages without producing significant errors. #n Figure 7 it will be noted that the variation of current with time, &,t+, comes close to the three discrete levels of current, #8, & 9 and #, the subtransient, transient and steady-state currents, respectively. The
8 9 corresponding values of direct axis reactance are denoted by X d , X d

and

:d,

Figure 4 Transient short-circuit currents in a synchronous generator

Figure 7 3ariation of current with time during a fault

Figure ; 3ariation of generator reactance with time during a fault And the typical variation with, time for each of these is illustrated in Figure ;. To sum up, when calculating short-circuit currents it is necessary to ta!e into account two factors which could result in the currents varying with time' the presence of the 01 component< the behaviour of the generator under short circuit conditions. #n studies of electrical protection some ad6ustment has to be made to the values of instantaneous short circuit current calculated using subtransient reactance9s which result in higher values of current. Time delay units can be set using the same values but, in some cases, short-circuit values based on the transient reactance are used, depending on the operating speed of the protection relays. Transient reactance values are generally used in stability studies. =f necessity, switchgear specifications require reliable calculations of the short-circuit levels which can be present on the electrical networ!. Ta!ing into account the rapid drop of the shortcircuit current due to the armature reaction of the synchronous machines, and the fact that extinction of an electrical arc is never achieved instantaneously, A5># >tandards 14?."&" and 14?.; recommend using different values of subtransient reactance when calculating the so-called momentary and interrupting duties of switchgear. Asymmetrical or symmetrical r.m.s. values can be defined depending on whether or not the 01 component is included. The pea! values are obtained by multiplying the $.@.>. values by * . The asymmetrical values are calculated as the square root of the sum of the squares of the 01 component and the r.m.s. value of the A1

current, i.e.'
8 * 8 * = ,".A *V - X d + + ,".AV - X d +
* * I rms = I DC + I AC

*.7

The momentary current is used when specifying the closing current of switchgear. Typically, the A1 and 01 components decay to A"B of their initial values after the first half cycle. From this, the value of the r.m.s. current would then be'
* * I rms I DC + I AC .rms.sys . asym.clo sin g =

8 * 8 * = ,".A *V - X d + + ,".AV - X d +

8 = &.;CV - X d = &.;C I rms.sym

*.;

Dsually, a factor of &.C is used by manufacturers and in international standards so that, in general, this value should be used when carrying out similar calculations. The pea! value is obtained by arithmetically adding together the A1 and 01 components. #t should be noted that, in this case, the A1 component is multiplied by a factor of * Thus'

I peak = I Dc + I AC
8 = ,".A * V - X d8 + + ,".A * V - X d +

= *.;; I rms.sym

* .C

(hen considering the specification for the switchgear-opening cur-rent, the so-called r.m.s. value of interrupting current is used in which, again, the A1 and 01 components are ta!en into account, and therefore' $eplacing the 01 component by its exponential expression gives'

* * I rms = I . asym. int DC + I Ac . rms . int


* I rms.sym.int = , * I rms.sym.int e , R - L + + * + I rms . sym.int

= I rms.sym.int *e * , r - l + t + &
I -I

*.?

The expression , rms .asym. int rms .sys. int + has been drawn for different 3alues of :-$, and for different switchgear contact-separation times, in A5># >tandard 14?.;E&A?A. The multiplying factor graphs are reproduced in Figure C

Figure C @ultiplying factors for three- phase and line-to-earth faults ,total current rating basis+ ,from. #EEE >tandard 14?.;-&A?A< reproduced by permission of the #EEE+

NOTE: Fed predominantly through two or more transformations or with external reactance in series equal to or above &.; times generator subtransient reactance As an illust r ation of the validity of the curves for any situation, 1onsider a circuit brea!er with a total contact-separation time of two cycles one cycle due to the relay and one related to the operation of the brea!er mechanism. #f the frequency, f is C" F and the ratio X/R (ith this arrangement, voltage values of any three-phase system, Va Vb and Vc can be represented thus'

Va =Vao Va1 Va! Vb =Vbo Vb1 Vb! Vc =Vco Vc1 Vc!


#t can be demonstrated that'

V b= V ao a !V a1 aV a! V c= V ao aV a1 a !V a!
where a is a so called operator which gives a phase shift of 120 cloc!wise and a multiplication of unit magnitude, i.e. a=1 &*" G, and a ! similarly gives a phase shift of !"#$, i.e. a !=1 *7" Therefore, the following matrix relationship can be established'

Va & & & Va " V = & a a * V a& b * Va * Vc & a a


#nverting the matrix of coefficients:

& & & V a Va " V = & & a a * V b a& 4 & a * a Va * Vc


From the above matrix it can be deduced that'

& Va " = ,Va + Vb + Vc + 4 & Va& = ,Va + aVb + a *Vc + 4 & Va * = ,Va + a *Vb + aVc + 4
The foregoing procedure can also be applied directly to currents, and gives'

I a = I a " + I a& + I a * I b = I a " + a * I a& + aI a * I b = I a " + a I a& + a * I a *


Therefore'

& I a" = ,I a + Ib + Ic + 4 & I a& = , I a + aI b + a * I c + 4 & I a * = , I a + a * I b + aI c + 4

#n three-phase systems, the neutral current is equal to %n = &%a %b and, therefore, l n=(%# )y way of illustration, a three-phase unbalanced system is shown in Figure H together with the associated symmetrical components.

%c'

!)1 %m*ortance and construction of se+uence net,or-s The impedance of a circuit in which only positive-sequence currents are circulating is called the positive-sequence impedance and, similarly, those in which only negative and ero-sequence currents flow are called the negative and ero-sequence impedances. These sequence impedances are designated .1/ .! and .#, respectively, and are used in calculations involving symmetrical components. >ince generators are designed to supply balanced voltages, the generated voltages are of positive sequence only. Therefore, the positive-sequence networ! is composed of an e.m.f source in series with the positive-sequence impedance. The negative and ero-sequence net-wor!s do not contain e.m.f but only include impedances to the flow of negative and ero-sequence currents, respectively. The positive- and negative-sequence impedances of overhead-line circuits are identical, as are those of cables, being independent of the phase if the applied voltages are balanced. The ero-sequence impedances of lines different from the positive and negative-sequence impedances since the magnetic field creating the positive and negative-sequence currents is different from that for the ero-sequence currents. The following ratios may be used in the absence of detailed information. For a single-circuit line, .o/.1 = ! when no earth wire is present and 4.; with an earth wire. For a doublecircuit line .o/.1 = 0)0. For underground cables .o/.1 can be ta!en as & to &.*; for single core, and 4 to ; for three-core cables' For transformers, the positive and negative-sequence impedances are equal because in static circuits these impedances are independent of the phase order, provided that the applied voltages are balanced. The erosequence impedance is either the same as the other two impedances, or infinite, depending on the transformer connections. The resistance of the windings is much smaller and can generally be neglected in shortcircuit calculations. (hen modelling small generators and motors it may be necessary to ta!e resistance into account. Fowever, for most studies only the reactance9s of synchronous machines are used. Three values of positive reactance are normally quoted-subtransient, transient and synchronous reactance, denoted by X1/ Xd2 and Xd. #n fault studies the subtransient and transient reactance of generators grid motors must be included as appropriate, depending on the machine characteristics and fault clearance tim

Table 1 T3*ical *er4unit reactance for three 4*hase s3nchronous machines


T3*e of machine Turbine generator >alient pole * pole 7 pole
8 Xd 9 Xd

Xd
&.*" &.?"

X*
"."A ".&7

X"
"."4 "."?

"."A ".&7

".&; ".**

".*" ".4" &.*; ".*" ".&H with dampers generator without ".*H ".4" &.*" ".4; ".&* dampers X"= subtransient reactance; X'd =transient reactance5 Xd=s3nchronous reactance X.2=ne6ative se+uence reactance; X0=7ero se+uence reactance

The subtransient reactance is the reactance applicable at the onset of the fault occurrence. (ithin ".& sec. the fault level falls to a value determined by the transient reactance and then decays exponentially to a steady-state value determined by the synchronous reactance. Typical per-unit reactance9s for three phase synchronous machines are given in Table &. #n connecting sequence networ!s together, the reference busbar for the positive- and negative-sequence networ!s is the generator neutral which, in these networ!s, is at earth potential so that only erosequence currents flow through the impedances between neutral and earth. The reference busbar for ero-sequence networ!s is the earth point of the generator. The current which flows in the impedance between the neutral and earth are three times the ero-sequence current. Figure *.A illustrates the sequence networ!s for a generator. The ero sequence networ!s carries only ero-sequence current in one phase which has an impedance of Zo = 3n + Zeo The voltage and current components for each phase are obtained from the equations given for the sequence networ!s. The equations for the components of voltage, corresponding to the phase of the system, are obtained from the point an on phase a relative to the reference bus bar, and can be deduced from Figure *.A as follows'

Va& =

I a& Z &

Va * = I a * Z * Va " = I a " Z "


(here a / no load voltage to earth of the positive-sequence networ! Z1 / positive-sequence impedance of the generator Z2 / negative-sequence impedance of the generator Zo/ ero-sequence impedance of the generator (Zeo) plus three times the impedance to earth The above equations can be applied to any generator which carries unbalanced currents and are the starting point for calculations for any type of fault. The same approach can be used with equivalent power systems or applied to loaded generators, Ea then being the voltage behind the reactance before the fault occurs. !)!)! Calculation of as3mmetrical faults usin6 s3mmetrical com*onents The positive, negative and ero-sequence networ!, carrying currents I1, I2 and Io respectively, are connected together in a particular arrangement to represent a given unbalanced fault condition. 1onsequently, in order to calculate fault & levels using the method of symmetrical components, it is essential to determine the individual sequence impedances and combine these to ma!e up the correct sequence networ!s. Then, for each .type of fault, the appropriate combination of sequence networ!s is formed in order to obtain the relationships between fault currents and voltages.

8hase4to4earth fault The conditions for a solid fault from line a to earth are represented by the equations I b=0, I =0 and !a =0 ,
Single phase !a"lt connected to earth

As in the previous equations, it can easily be deduced that I a1 = Ia2= I ao = Ea" (Z1 +Z 2 + Zo ). Therefore, the sequence networ!s will be connected in series, as indicated in Figure *.&"a. The current and voltage conditions are the same when considering an open-circuit

fault in phases b and c, and thus the treatment and connection of the sequence networ!s will be similar. 8hase4to48hase fault The conditions for a solid fault between lines h and c are represented by the equations

I a = 0, I b = #I and !b = ! . Equally, it can be shown that I ao = 0 and Ia1 = Ea "(Z 1+Z 2) = Ia2. For this case, with no ero-sequence current, the ero-sequence networ! is not involved and the overall sequence networ! is composed of the positive- and negative-sequence networ!s in parallel as indicated in Figure *.&"b. 8hase4to48hase4to4earth fault

The conditions for a fault between lines b and c and earth are represented by the equations 1a = 0 and !b=! =0. From these equations it can be proved that'

I a& =

Z& +

ZoZ* Zo + Z*

The three sequence networ!s are connected in parallel as shown in Figure *.&"c. !)( E+uivalent im*edances for a *o,er s3stem)

(hen it is necessary to study the effect of any change on the power system, the system must first of all be represented by its corresponding sequence impedances. The equivalent positive- and negative-sequence impedances can be calculated directly from' Z= !2"$ (here' Z / Equivalent positive and negative-sequence impedances ! /nominal phase-to-phase voltage I / three-phase short circuit power The equivalent ero-sequence of a system can be derived from the expressions of sequence components referred to for a single-phase fault, i.e.

Ia1=Ia2=Ia3 = !L%" (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)


(here'

!L% / the line-to-neutral voltage.


For lines and cables the positive and negative Jmpedances are equal. Thus, on the basis that the generator Jmpedances are not significant in most distribution-networ! fault studies, it may be assumed that overall 2 = Z1 which simplifies the calculations. Thus, the above formula reduces to Ia = 3I0 = 3 !L% " (2Z1 + Zo), (here !L% / line-to-neutral voltage and Zo= (3!L% " Ia) & 2Z1 ( 9u**l3in6 the current and volta6e si6nals to *rotection s3stems #n the presence of a fault the current transformers ,1Ts+ circulate current proportional to the fault current to the protection equipment without distinguishing between the vectorial magnitudes of the >equence components.

Figure &" 1onnection of sequence networ!s for a4ymmetrical faults a Ihase-to-earth fault b Ihase-to-phase fault c 0ouble phase-to-earth fault Therefore, in the ma6ority of cases, the relays operate on the basis of the corresponding values of fault current and - or voltages, regardless of the values of the sequence components. #t is very important to emphasise that, given this, the advantage of using symmetrical components is that they facilitate the calculation of fault levels even though the relays in the ma6ority of cases do not distinguish between the various values of the symmetrical components.

Figure &&a 1urrents and voltages for various types of faults

Figure &&b 1urrents and voltages for various types of faults


a >equence currents for different types of fault b >equence voltages for different types of fault

#n Figure &&a K b the positive and negative sequence values of current and voltage for different faults are shown together with the summated values of current and voltage.

$elays usually only operate using the summated values in the right-hand columns. Fowever, relays are available which can operate with specific values of some of the sequence components. #n these cases there must be methods for obtaining these components, and this is achieved by using filters which produce the mathematical operations of the resultant equations to resolve the matrix for voltages and for currents. Although these filters can be constructed for electromagnetic elements, the growth of electronics has led to their being used increasingly in logic circuits. Among the relays which require this type of filter in order to operate are those used Ln negative-sequence and earth-fault protectio n.

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