How Products Are Made :: Volume 1 Running Shoe forum

Running Shoe
Background
While most footwear protects and supports the foot, the running shoe goes e!ond what one would e"pect of the ordinar! shoe# $ts ad%antages ha%e een the su &ect of intense scrutin! in recent !ears, a focus that results from an increasingl! health' and leisure' conscious population in general, and from the popularit! of running in particular# As more people ha%e ecome in%ol%ed in the sport, more and more %aried e(uipment has ecome a%aila le to runners# )onse(uentl!, the running shoe has e%ol%ed (uite dramaticall! o%er the past 1* !ears# Running as a sport can e traced ac+ to the ancient ,ree+s, who ad%ocated a culture ased on sound odies and sound minds# -uring ,ree+ athletic contests, runners competed arefoot and often na+ed# .ater, the Romans mandated that their messengers wear thin'soled sandals# As shoema+ing e%ol%ed through the centuries, leather ecame and remained the fa%ored material ecause of its dura ilit!# Howe%er, the first references to shoes designed specificall! for running don/t appear until 10*1, when historians noted a race in which runners wore shoes with spi+ed soles# $n 1233, the first snea+er, or all' purpose athletic shoe, was designed# Made primaril! of can%as, this snea+er featured a ru er rim made possi le ! )harles ,ood!ear/s 1042 disco%er! of %ulcani5ed ru er# 6nown a out for 1,333 !ears, ru er was finall! rendered commerciall! useful when ,ood!ear heated and com ined it with sulphur, there ! pre%enting it from hardening and losing its elasticit!# $n athletic shoes, ru er helped to cushion the impact of running on hard surfaces# Howe%er, it did not last as a shoema+ing material: it was not dura le, and leather returned as the preferred material for running shoes# 7et leather wasn/t the ideal fa ric, either# $n addition to eing e"pensi%e, leather shoes caused chating, and runners had to purchase chamois liners to protect their feet# A Scotsman +nown as 89ld Man8 Richings pro%ided some relief when he in%ented a customi5ed shoe designed with a seamless toe o" :a piece of material inserted etween the toe cap and the shoe lining and treated with a hardening agent, the toe o" protects the toes against ru ing;# $n 121*, Adolph -assler, a ,erman shoema+er, decided to concentrate on athletic shoes, and founded a usiness with his rother, Rudolph, to do so# <he -asslers/ running shoes pro%ided oth arch support and speed lacing, and their high'(ualit! products attracted prominent athletes including some 9l!mpians: =esse 9wens is reported to ha%e worn -assler shoes during the 124> games in Munich# <he rothers later formed separate companies?Adolph, the Adidas compan! and Rudolph, the Puma compan!# Another manufacturer of running shoes during the mid'twentieth centur! was H!de Athletic of @ew Angland, although the compan! speciali5ed in foot all shoes# A 12B2 description of H!de/s running shoe said that it featured +angaroo leather, a welt construction :a welt is a strip used to connect the upper to the sole?see 8-esign8 section elow;, an elastic gore

closure :a triangular piece of leather on the upper part of the shoe;, and a leather sole co%ered in crepe ru er, a crin+l! form of the material used especiall! for shoe soles# 9ne of the most unusual running shoes of the mid'twentieth centur! was worn ! the =apanese runner who won the 12*1 Coston Marathon# )alled the <iger, his shoe was modeled after a traditional =apanese shoe that enclosed the ig toe separatel! from the other toes# -uring the 12>3s, a compan! called @ew Calance egan to e"amine how running impacts the foot# As a result of this research, @ew Calance de%eloped an orthopedic running shoe with a rippled sole and wedge heel to a sor shoc+# As running ecame more popular and &oggers more +nowledgea le, the demand for footwear that would help pre%ent in&uries increased# Man! runners also egan to re(uest shoes that pro%ided support in a lightweight construction, and n!lon, in%ented during World War $$, conse(uentl! egan to replace the hea%ier leather and can%as materials pre%iousl! used to ma+e running shoes# <oda!, howe%er, the comfort of the running shoe isn/t +nown onl! to the &ogger# Running shoes can e spotted on &ust a out an!one who wants comfort in a shoe# $n fact, running shoes ha%e ceased to surprise when the! appear on the feet of otherwise formall!'attired office wor+ers en route to wor+# $n 1223, consumers spent D>B* million for 1* million pairs of running shoes, and e"perts note that the ma&orit! ought were used for comfort rather than running#

Raw Materials
Running shoes are made from a com ination of materials# <he sole has three la!ers: insole, midsole, and outsole# <he insole is a thin la!er of man'made eth!lene %in!l acetate :AVA;# <he components of the midsole, which pro%ides the ul+ of the cushioning, will %ar! among manufacturers# ,enerall! it consists of pol!urethane surrounding another material such as gel or li(uid silicone, or pol!urethane foam gi%en a special rand name ! the manufacturer# $n some cases the pol!urethane ma! surround capsules of compressed air# 9utsoles are usuall! made of car on ru er, which is hard, or lown ru er, a softer t!pe, although manufacturers use an assortment of materials to produce different te"tures on the outsole# <he rest of the co%ering is usuall! a s!nthetic material such as artificial suede or a n!lon wea%e with plastic sla s or oards supporting the shape# <here ma! e a leather o%erla! or n!lon o%erla! with leather attachments# )loth is usuall! limited to the laces fitted through plastic e!elets, and nails ha%e gi%en wa! to an adhesi%e +nown as cement lasting that onds the %arious components together#

Design
<he last 1* !ears ha%e witnessed great changes in the design of the running shoe, which now comes in all st!les and colors# )ontemporar! shoe designers focus on the anatom! and the mo%ement of the foot# Esing %ideo cameras and computers, the! anal!5e such factors as lim mo%ement, the effect of different terrains on impact, and foot position on

impact# Runners are la eled pronators if their feet roll inward or supinators if their feet roll to the outside# Along with pressure points, friction patterns, and force of impact, this information is fed into computers which calculate how est to accommodate these conditions# -esigners ne"t test and de%elop protot!pes ased on their studies of &oggers and professional runners, read!ing a final design for mass production# A running shoe ma! ha%e as man! as 13 parts to it, and the components listed elow are the most asic# <he shoe has two main parts: the upper, which co%ers the top and sides of the foot, and the ottom part, which ma+es contact with the surface# As we wor+ our wa! around the shoe cloc+wise, starting at the front on the upper part is the featherline, which forms the edge where the mudguard :or toeguard; tip meets the ottom of the shoe# @e"t is the %amp, usuall! a single piece of material that gi%es shape to the shoe and forms the toe o"# <he %amp also has attachments such as the throat, which contains the e!esta! and lacing section# Ceneath the lacing section is the tongue, protecting the foot from direct contact with the laces# Also attached to the %amp along the sides of the shoe are reinforcements# $f sewn on the outside of the shoe these reinforcements are called a saddle; if sewn on the inside, the! are called an arch bandage. Further towards the ac+ of the shoe is the collar, which usuall! has an Achilles tendon protector at the top ac+ of the shoe# <he fo"ing shapes the rear end of the shoe# Enderneath it is a plastic cup that supports the heel, the heel counter# <he ottom has three main parts, outsole, midsole, and wedge# <he outsole pro%ides

<he first step in running shoe manufacture in%ol%es die cutting the shoe parts in coo+ie cutter fashion# @e"t, the pieces that will form the upper part of the shoe are stitched or cemented together# At this point, the upper loo+s not li+e a shoe ut li+e a round hatG the e"tra material is called the lasting margin. After the upper is heated and fitted around a plastic mold called a last, the insole, midsole, and outsole are cemented to the upper# traction and a sor s shoc+# <he midsole is designed specificall! for shoc+ a sorption, and the wedge supports the heel# .ocated inside the shoe, the insole also contains the arch support :sometimes called the arch cookie).

The Manufacturing Process

Shoema+ing is a la or'intensi%e process, and the cost of producing the man! components of the running shoe reflect the s+illed la or necessar!# Aach phase of production re(uires precision and s+ills, and ta+ing shortcuts to reduce costs can result in an inferior shoe# Some running shoes :+nown as sliplasted shoes) ha%e no insole oard# $nstead, the single'la!er upper is wrapped around oth the top and the ottom portions of the foot# Most running shoes, howe%er, consist of an insole oard that is cemented to the upper with cement# <his section will focus on cement'lasted shoes#

Shipping and stamping the fabric

1 First, prepared rolls of s!nthetic material and rolls of d!ed, split, and suede leather :used as part of the fo"ing; are sent to the factor!# 1 @e"t, die machines stamp the shoe shapes, which are then cut out in coo+ie cutter fashion with %arious mar+ings to guide the rest of the assem l!# After eing undled and la eled, these pieces are sent to another part of the factor! where the!/ll e stitched#

)ompleted running shoes are (ualit! tested using procedures de%eloped ! the Shoe and Allied <rades Research Association# -efects that are chec+ed for include poor lasting, incomplete cement onding, and stitching errors#

Assembling the upper and the insole

4 <he pieces that will form the upper part of the shoe are stitched or cemented together and the lace holes punched out# <hese pieces include the featherline, the %amp, the mudguard, the throat :with e!esta! and lacing section;, the tongue, reinforcements such as the saddle or arch andage, the collar :with Achilles tendon protector;, the fo"ing, and the logo# At this point, the upper loo+s not li+e a shoe ut li+e a round hat, ecause there is e"tra material?called the lasting margin?that will e folded underneath the shoe when it gets cemented to the sole# B @e"t, the insole is stitched to the sides of the upper# Stiffening agents are then added to the heel region and toe o", and an insole oard is inserted#

Attaching the upper and bottom parts

* <he completed upper is heated and fitted around a last, a plastic mold that forms the final shape of the shoe# An automatic lasting machine then pulls the upper down o%er the last# Finall!, a cement no55le applies cement etween the upper and insole oard, and the machine presses the two pieces together to ond them# <he upper now has the e"act shape of the finished shoe# > Pre'stamped and cutout forms of the midsole and outsole or wedge are la!ered and cemented to the upper# First, the outsole and midsole are aligned and onded together# @e"t, the outsole and midsole are aligned with the upper and placed o%er

a heater to reacti%ate the cement# As the cement cools, the upper and ottom are &oined# H <he shoe is remo%ed from the last and inspected# An! e"cess cement is scraped off#

Quality Control
Manufacturers can test their materials using procedures de%eloped ! the Shoe and Allied <rades Research Association :SA<RA;, which pro%ides de%ices designed to test each element of the shoe# 9nce the shoe is complete, an inspector at the factor! chec+s for defects such as poor lasting, incomplete cement onding, and stitching errors# Cecause running can cause a num er of in&uries to the foot as well as to tendons and ligaments in the leg, another test is currentl! eing de%eloped to e%aluate a shoe/s shoc+ a sorption properties#

The Future
$n the near future, e"perts predict refinements of current designs and manufacturing processes rather than radical rea+throughs# Within the ne"t ten !ears, athletic shoe si5ing should ecome standard worldwide# -esigners will continue to see+ lighter weight materials that pro%ide etter support and sta ilit! with further use of gels and air s!stems# Alectronic components will also e uilt into the running shoe, so that information a out ph!sical characteristics and de%elopments can e measured with a micro chip and later downloaded into a computer# Another feature that is alread! eginning to appear is the atter!'operated lighting s!stems to accommodate the e%ening &ogger# As consumers continue to spend millions for the comfort of running shoes, manufacturers of the ordinar! shoe will continue to compete for these dollars ! appl!ing running shoe design principles to e%er!da! shoes#

Where To Learn More

Books
)a%anagh, Peter R# The Running Shoe Book. Macmillan, 1203# )hes+in, Mel%!n P# The Complete Handbook of Athletic oot!ear. Fairchild Coo+s, 120># @igg, Cenno M# Biomechanics of Running Shoes. Human 6inetics Pu lishers, $nc#, 120># Rossi, William A#, ed# The Complete oot!ear "ictionar#. 6rieger Pu lishing, 1224# The Shoe in Sport. Mos !'7ear Coo+, 1202#

Periodicals

Cegle!, Sharon# 8<he Science in Sports#8 $e!s!eek. =ul! 1H, 1221, p# *0# 8Running Shoes: <he Snea+er ,rows Ep#8 Consumer Reports. Ma!, 1221, pp# 430'41B# $reland, -onald R# 8<he Shoc+ing <ruth a out Athletic Footwear#8 AST% Standardi&ation $e!s. =une, 1221, pp# B1'B*# Murra!, )harles =# 8)omposite $nsole A sor s Shoc+ in Running Shoes#8 "esign $e!s. Ma! 1, 1200, p# 133# Wol+omir, Richard# 8<he Race to Ma+e a /Perfect/ Shoe Starts in the .a orator!#8 Smithsonian. Septem er, 1202, p# 2B# ?Catherine 'olecki

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