Environmental Aspects of Water Resources Development

R.K.Khanna, Chief Engineer (Retd) (Environment Management) Central Water Commission e! Delhi

". #ntroduction Environment is the current catchword. As it happens with many of the catchwords, people tend to use it without appreciating its meaning. Simply stated, the environment can be defined as ones surroundings. However, a more specific definition is needed to appreciate the issues involved. The Environment ( rotection! Act, "#$% states that &environment includes water, air and land and the inter'relationship which e(ists among and between water, air and land, and human beings, other living, creatures, plants, micro'organism and property). Here we are basically concerned with water and environment and its environmentally sustainable development. Another current catchword is Sustainable *evelopment. +t has got many connotations. However, the most common definition is the one given in the famous report of ,orld -ommission on Environment and *evelopment vi.. &/ur -ommon 0uture). +t states &Sustainable development is defined as development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs). $. Water and Environment ,ater is a ma1or component of that environment in which man occupies the centre'stage. Apart from the need for drin2ing, water is needed for producing food and fibre3 in process industries and manufacturing and to produce energy 4 hydro, thermal and nuclear. This great need for water has brought into focus the fragility of environment associated with fulfilment of these needs and the need to guard against it. All great civili.ations had grown around water and many had perished with or without water, perhaps not having realised the importance of its sustainable development. The status of water in the environment is uni5ue. Ever since the birth of earth, from day one, the need for water is always on the increase, not 1ust because of increase in human population but because all living beings are multiplying at a fast rate. The increase in demand has brought tremendous pressure on resource development. This has tended to disturb the status of water in the overall environment. The disturbance, if not contained, may seriously impair the capacity of the resource to meet the demands of future generations and the present civili.ation may have to go the same way as its predecessors. Hence the need for sustainable development of water resources.
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%. Environmental a!areness in #ndia A good environmental sense has been one of the fundamental features of +ndias ancient philosophy. The earth was called &mother earth) and water, air and sun were considered to be gods. 8a1or rivers li2e the 9anga and the :amuna were also treated as mothers. The environmental concerns were integrated into various religious and social customs is such a manner that these were automatically ta2en care of by the people. %." &egal frame!or' Ade5uate provisions for protection of environment and forest are made in the -onstitution of +ndia. Article ;< provides for protection and improvement of health. Article ;$A is directed towards protection and improvement of environment and protection of forest and wildlife. Article =" (A! says it is the duty of every citi.en to protect and improve natural environment. 0ollowing the >? -onference on Human Environment (Stoc2holm, "#<@!, a constitutional amendment ( ;@, "#<%! inserted relevant provisions for environment protection in -onstitution in art +A'*irective rinciples and art +A A' 0undamental *uties. %.$ Environment Acts +n order to ensure sustainable development from water resources angle the 9overnment of +ndia have enacted various Acts and Begislations. rominent among these is the Environment ( rotection! Act, "#$% through which the 9overnment has ac5uired wide powers for protecting the environment. Some other Acts related to ,ater and Environment are ,ater ( revention and -ontrol! of ollution Act, "#<; (amended in "#$$!, ,ater ( revention and -ontrol! of ollution (-ess! Act. "#<< (amended in "##"!, 0orest -onservation Act, "#$7 and Environmental +mpact Assessment ?otification of "##; (amended in "##<! and the 8inistry of Environment C 0orests ?otification of Dan. "##<, constituting the -entral 9round ,ater Authority. The ,ater ( revention and -ontrol of ollution! Act, "#<; see2s to maintain or restore &wholesomeness of ,ater) and the -entral and state ollution -ontrol Eoards have been established under this Act. According to the ,ater -ess Act, "##<, both -entral and State 9overnments have to provide funds to the Eoards for implementing this act. The 0orest -onservation Act, "#$7 provides for compensatory afforestration to ma2e up for the diversion of forest land to non'forest use. The Environment ( rotection!, "#$% was enacted in "#$% for the protection and improvement of human environment. The E+A ?otification of "##; has made the environmental clearance mandatory for all new pro1ects and e(pansionFmodernisation of e(isting pro1ects covering @# disciplines which include hydro'power, ma1or irrigation and flood control pro1ects. +ts amendment in "##< has made it mandatory to hold environmental public hearing before according environmental clearance. +t was later superceded by E+A ?otification, @77%. (. ational )olicies

+ndias ?ational ,ater olicy ("#$<! has emphasi.ed the need for an integrated and multi' disciplinary approach to the planning and implementation of water resources development pro1ects, including catchment treatment and management, environmental and ecological aspects.
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+t is stressed that in creation and operation of pro1ects, the preservation of the 5uality of the environment and the ecological balance should be one of primary considerations and any adverse impacts on the environment should be minimi.ed and offset by ade5uate compensatory measures. *. Clearance of )ro+ects +n "#<$, the 9overnment of +ndia made it an administrative re5uirement to get environmental clearance for all ma1or irrigation, multipurpose and flood control pro1ects from the -entral 8inistry of Environment and 0orests (8/E0!. ,ith the implementation of the Environmental +mpact Assessment ?otification in "##;, it became obligatory to get environmental clearance from 8/E0. The pro1ect authorities are re5uired to furnish the E+A, E8 to the 8inistry of Environment C 0orests. The pro1ect is considered by the E(pert -ommittee (E-! which decides about the acceptance of the pro1ect from the environmental angel. However, certain environmental safeguards are stipulated which need to be implemented along with the construction activities of the pro1ect. *." Environmental Monitoring Committee A multi'disciplinary Environmental 8onitoring -ommittee (E8-! was constituted by the 8inistry of ,ater Gesources during 0ebruary, "##7 for overseeing the implementation of environmental safeguards stipulated by the 8inistry of Environment C 0orests while clearing the ,ater Gesources ro1ects. The -ommittee is headed by the 8ember (,ater lanning C ro1ects!, -entral ,ater -ommission with *irector (Environmental 8anagement! as its 8ember'Secretary. +t comprises members from 8inistries of Environment C 0orests, Agriculture C -ooperation, ,elfare and ,ater Gesources, besides lanning -ommission. +t is also re5uired to bring to the notice of the 9overnment important cases of default which may lead to the review of pro1ects clearance for the funding arrangement. +t is presently monitoring $= pro1ects, geographically well distributed all over the country. The -ommittee is assisted in its wor2 by the State Bevel Environmental 8onitoring -ommittees and ro1ect Bevel Environmental 8anagement -ommittees. ,. Management of ma+or environmental impacts Aarious environmental impacts of water resources pro1ects and their management is discussed thereafter. ,." Resettlement and reha-ilitation (R.R) As the sites of these pro1ects are located mostly in remote and hilly terrain, the submergence involves flora and fauna in addition to affecting socially and economically bac2ward people living in such areas. The resettlement C rehabilitation ( GCG! off these families is undoubtedly a very delicate and sensitive issue. +t is essentially a human problem. Ey and large people have a deep attachment to their land, tradition, culture and way of life and do not want to part with them. However, the water resources planners have been aware of these issues and various
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measures have been ta2en for GCG of the affected people, even in the earlier river valley pro1ects. +nitially, the compensation was paid to the displaced persons mainly under the Band Ac5uisition Act of "$#; and the formal rehabilitation guidelines did not e(ist. Efforts made for resettlement of the displaced persons varied from state to state and pro1ect to pro1ect. There were no clear'cut guidelines for defining the pro1ect affected people ( A s!. Bater, some of the State 9overnments started formulating policies for resettlement of A s within their 1urisdiction. 8eanwhile, the construction of multi'purpose pro1ects li2e Sardar Sarover and Tehri *am attracted the attention of a large number of ?on 9overnmental /rganisations (?9/s! both in +ndia and abroad, mainly on the issue of GCG. There has been an adverse publicity regarding these pro1ects, particularly relating to the problems in proper implementation of the resettlement and rehabilitation of A s. -onsidering the need for broad guidelines on GCG of A s to help the StateF ro1ect authorities in formulating their policies, the 9overnment of +ndia have formulated the draft ?ational olicy for GCG of persons affected by reservoir pro1ects. The salient 0eatures of the draft GCG policy are given at Anne(ure'+. The ob1ective of GCG is that the oustees should en1oy a better 5uality of life at the place of resettlement than that en1oyed by them at the original habitat. 0or this purpose, master plans should be drawn based on the StateF ro1ect GCG olicy. +n the absence of any such policy, the wor2 of GCG should be carried out according to the norms adopted for other nearby pro1ects. There are many positive aspects noticed in the resettlement C rehabilitation of oustees. /ne such encouraging factor is the involvement of voluntary agencies or ?9/s in this wor2 in a constructive manner. +n the >pper Hrishna ro1ect in Harnata2a State, a reputed ?9/, 8aryada, was associated in preparing the Action lan for the rehabilitation of A s. Similarly, in the >pper +ndravati ro1ect, in /rissa State, a voluntary agency vi.. 8FS Agragamy was entrusted with the wor2 of preparation of rehabilitation master plan for the oustees. ?9/s by adopting a constructive approach can play an important role in proper rehabilitation C resettlement of displaced persons. ,.$ /u-mergence of forest 0 Compensator1 Afforestation The country is reported to be losing forest cover at an alarming rate of ".= million ha per year. However, it needs to be stressed that the deforestation on account of water resources pro1ects has been limited to only ;I of the total forest that has been lost during the last 6 decades. JAgainst this loss the ,ater resources ro1ects have created biomass including tree crops C other plantations several times over the forest lost. Availability of electricity from hydro'power pro1ects, in fact, chec2s demand of fuel C fire wood that greatly contribute to deforestation. ?evertheless, compensatory forestry has become an essential and integral part of all the new water resources pro1ects. +n several large pro1ects li2e ?armada Sagar and Sardar Sarovar ro1ects, alternative lands for compensatory afforestation have been allocated and the cost of this has been included as part of the pro1ect cost. -onsidering the importance of forestry, the environmental safeguard pertaining to compensatory afforestation is ne(t in importance only to rehabilitation.

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The *epartment of Environment of the 9overnment of +ndia has issued detailed guidelines for the diversion of forest land for non'forest uses. Some of the Salient features of these guidelines are given at Anne(ure'++.

,.% Water2logging ,ater logging is generally pro1ected as a ma1or negative environmental impact of the water resources pro1ects. Apprehensions have often been e(pressed that canal irrigation leads to severe water logging and soil salinity in the command areas of large number of pro1ects. ,ater logging results from the e(cess moisture due to fre5uent flooding of the irrigated land, overflow of runoff, seepage from canal, over'irrigation, artesian water and impeded subsurface drainage conditions. ?umber of statistics are paraded in respect of water logging which are of 5uestionable magnitude and relevance. Kuite often the statistics that are cited are for the entire land area suffering from water logging and salinity without any separation of the area affected due to canal irrigation and due to other natural causes. +n flat areas receiving high rainfall, lot of land is waterlogged during rainy season even without irrigation water. The roblem in this area is further aggravated by the construction of roads and railways with poor provision for cross drainage. ,ater logging is not new to the +ndian water resources planners. This was faced in some of the older pro1ects li2e the ,estern :amuna -anal and the Eastern :amuna -anal. ,estern :amuna -anal which was constructed in the ";th century faced water logging problem as no chec2s were imposed on irrigation and due to inade5uate cross drainage wor2s. This canal was remodeled in "$<6 and the alignment was improved and drainage wor2s introduced. These measures resulted in significant improvements and reclaiming of land. The canal remains in service even today. ?umber of Acts were also enacted in the past for providing drainage and anti'water logging measures. +t is true that in the recent years, some of the pro1ects faced water logging conditions but the area of land waterlogged is generally small as compared to the irrigated area. The percentage of waterlogged land has been found to vary from ".=I of the benefited area in the various pro1ects. ,.( /edimentation Sediment flow in rivers is a natural process and water resources development pro1ects do not contribute to increase in the sediment inflow in the rivers. rovision is 2ept in all reservoirs in the form of dead storage for trapping of sediments. +t is a fact that in some of the pro1ects constructed earlier the rate of inflow of sediments have been observed to be more than the anticipated values. This may be due to the empirical relationships used for assessment of the silt load in the absence of ade5uate observed silt data. ?ow, with the advent of modern technology and e5uipment, rate of siltation can be estimated more accurately. 0urther, remedial steps to reduce the sediment flow in rivers such as soil conservation and watershed treatment have been ta2en up in a number of catchment areas of various pro1ects. ,.* 3lora and fauna
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+n case some uni5ue or endangered species of flora and fauna are li2ely to be threatened by the pro1ect, suitable measures are re5uire to be ta2en for their rehabilitation. Similarly, if the pro1ect interferes with wild life migration, suitable arrangements are to be made for their habitat. +n fact, protection of flora is a contentious issue. 8erits and demerits of a reservoir with reference to loss of flora have been debated e(tensively but no standard solutions have been arrived at. An e(tremely rare step for environmental protection would be to abandon a pro1ect, if it endangers rare species of plants or animals, in order to preserve the natural heritage. However, as the pro1ect submerges only a small fraction of forest land, it is difficult to comprehend that the particular endangered species of plants or animals cannot be preserved in the vicinity of the pro1ect in the same watershed. 9ene ban2s to preserve Species and to regenerate them in favorable conditions, elsewhere, is very much possible. Silent Aalley pro1ect in Herala, though a promising pro1ect planned to develop hydro'power, was shelved, as it was pro1ected as affecting prime virgin forest with rare species of plants. The submergence of wildlife can be ta2en care of by relocating the sanctuaries at suitable places and by carrying out wild life rescue operations as was done at *udhganga Geservoir (8aharashtra!. The positive aspect of water resources development is the assured water supply for wild life in all the seasons. After construction of Heran reservoir in 9u1rat, population of wild life has shown a trend of increase and crocodiles which were on verge of e(tinction are now abundant in the reservoir. eriyar wild life sanctuary on fringes of +du22i la2e and Sloth Eear Sanctuary proposed at Sardar Sarovar ro1ect are some the e(amples of steps to protect the wild life. ong reservoir is now acting as a resting place for migratory birds and number of rare species of birds have now been sighted in these areas. ,ater reservoir pro1ects have in general enhanced the natural environment for development of flora C fauna in its vicinity. ,., Mineral Deposits and 4istorical Monuments At times mineral deposits, archaeological monuments or shrines are threatened by submergence due to reservoirs. +t is possible to protect the mineral wealth and monuments falling in the shoreline .ones by constructing ring bunds etc. or even by e(ploiting the resources to the possible e(tent before inundation. Hoteshar lime stone deposits li2ely to be submerged to some e(tent by the Eansagar la2e (8adhya radesh! are being protected by providing a protecting bund around the 5uarries at a cost of about Gs. "$7 million. *ue to the construction of ?agar1unasagar dam on the river Hrishna in Andhra radesh, valuable historical monuments were to come under submergence. These were e(cavated well before impoundment and shifted to a museum on the top of a nearby hill coming within the reservoir . Similarly, *argah at 9alia2ot which would have come under submergence of Hadana reservoir on the river 8ahi in 9u1arat, was protected from submergence by constructing a ring bund. Srisailam and ?arayanpur reservoirs are other e(amples where historical monuments have been rehabilitated successfully. +n Singur pro1ect of Andhra radesh, the Archaeological *epartment shifted the stone sculptures from different villages of submergence to a safe place. ,.5 3ish6A7uatic &ife

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/ne of the criticism leveled against the water resources pro1ects is that dams pose barriers across the rivers to affect the migration of fish species li2e salmon and trout. The provision of fish ladders has successfully ta2en care of these problems in number of pro1ects such as 0ara22a, Hosi and Hathni2und barrages. The reduction in the river fisheries can be compensated by rearing fish in the reservoirs. 8any new species have ta2en firm hold in the newly created environment. The stri2ing e(amples in this regard are fast growing gangetic carp in the reservoirs of Hrishna and -auvery in the peninsular +ndia and in the 9obind Sagar in north west Himalayan region. >2ai pro1ect can be cited as an instance of improvement of fish production where no commercial fisheries e(isted in the river before impoundment. ?ow two fish farms with breeding, hatching and spawning units, artificially controlled climatic and physio'chemical conditions, have been established with encouraging results. ,.8 4ealth Aspects ,ater related disease, such as 8alaria, Typhoid, *iarrhea and 0ilariasis can be spread through unsanitary water or by presence of stagnant or slow moving water. Surveys in selected irrigated commands also reveal that there is a general decline in incidence of diseases in these areas. 0irstly, the very availability of water has led to improvement in level of sanitation. Secondly, the improved economic status has made people health conscious and capable of availing re5uisite health care. Aectoral ris2s can be substantially reduced by removing sources of stagnant or slow moving water and by ensuring continued maintenance of drains and canals and efficient water management. ,.9 Reservoir #nduced /eismicit1 +t is often claimed that the impoundment of water in a large reservoir triggers earth5ua2es with their epicentres below or near reservoir. Hoyna dam in 8aharashtra is very often cited in this connection but there is no conclusive evidence about the correctness. The mighty reservoir li2e Eha2ra and Gamganga, although located in earth5ua2e prone areas did not influence seismicity since their impoundment. A study of ;@= large dams in the world has shown that in case of "= reservoirs only, the seismic forces were observed to have gone up after construction of reservoirs. +n "7 of these "= cases, the magnitude of earth5ua2es was less than = on G2ichter scale. There is thus a need for more data collection in this respect before conclusions can be drawn. +n +ndia, this is being done by +ndia 8eteriological *epartment, -entral ,ater and ower Gesearch Station at une and School of Earth5ua2e Engineering, Goor2ee, who continuously monitor the seismic status of the area around some reservoirs. ,.": Water ;ualit1

+ntegrated development of water resources invariably involves planning the pro1ects for diverse uses. Therefore, the preservation of water 5uality becomes a very important factor in the planning of multipurpose water resources pro1ects. 0or this purpose, pollution of the river courses from industrial and municipal effluents will have to be controlled. +n the conte(t of water 5uality, significant problem is eutrification which results from the e(cessive levels of nutrients in municipal, industrial and irrigation drainage effluents. Strong legal and administrative measures are re5uired to ensure that the industrial and municipal wastewaters are treated to an acceptable
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standard before being discharged into the rivers. Emphasis has to shift to non'chemical organic fertilisers in irrigated agriculture. ,."" Minimum 3lo!s in the River

*ams create reservoirs to conserve flood flows for use during lean season. They also result in the drying up to the river down stream of the dam affecting river in ecology, pisciculture and human habitations. +n a year of sub'normal rainfall there may be no releases at all from the dam which accentuates the problems. +n all new dams low level outlets shall be provided to ensure minimum flows re5uired for sustainable ecology. Such minimum flow may not be less than "7I of the virgin minimum flow of the river as a general policy. Efforts need to be made to provide such outlets in e(isting dams also if technically possible. ,."$ #mpact on Climate

,ater resources pro1ects do have an impact on the climate in their vicinity. +rrigation increases the moisture content in the surrounding air, leading to a slight increase in the humidity but decrease in temperature due to evaporation from irrigated area. However, these impacts are not very significant. ,."% <ourism and /ports

*evelopment of gardens and recreation areas have ta2en place around many reservoirs ma2ing the environment more pleasant and providing recreational facilities to the people. Some e(amples are Erindavan 9ardens (Hrishnara1sagar! and Sant *yaneswar >dyan (Daya2wadi!. 9overnment of 9u1arat has developed area around >2ai reservoir as a tourist spot. Similarly, a nice garden has been developed around Gavisan2ar dam in 8adhya radesh. The forests around reservoir created by eriyar dam is a very popular tourist spot where people can see varieties of wildlife while boating in the reservoir. Geservoirs can be developed into tourist attractions for s2ing and fishing and to provide cheap and pleasant recreational facilities. 5. 3uture )erspectives The main challenge to the water resources development in the near future comes from environmental and social issues. Some important aspects are discussed here. 5." &arge =s /mall Dams An unsubstantiated argument is that submergence due to a single large reservoir is more than that which results from a number of small reservoirs created for the same storage. +n a study of Don2 sub'basin of 8ahanadi two alternatives were considered. The first alternative was 9irina dam, with a storage of %76 m.m6. The second alternative was to reduce the storage at 9irina to "$= m.m6 with eight other small dams to store the balance ;"$ m.m6. +t was found that the second alternative was "=7I costlier than the first, and also involved %7I more submergence. 0urther, submerged area for ma1or pro1ect generally varies from @.$< to "7I of culturable command area, whereas for medium pro1ects it varies from "7 to @=I.
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To replace a single large dam irrigating ",77,777 ha, =7 small dams each irrigating @,777 ha. would be needed in either the upper or the lower reaches of a watershed. Such a large number of alternative sites is rarely available in practice, necessitating a curtailment in the envisaged development. -onstruction of dams in upper reaches submerges rich forest land. -onstruction of dams in lower reaches involves submergence of cultivated land. Barge volumes of water will be lost by evaporation in small reservoirs because of their relatively shallow depths compared to large reservoirs with significant water depths. The adverse impacts associated with big dams are displacement of people, submergence of forests and cultivable lands, water logging, incidence of water borne diseases, etc. The benefits of large dams are designed to have carry over capacities and, therefore, they serve as insurance in cases of droughts. 0urther, the benefits such as pollution free hydropower and mitigation against floods are added attractions favouring big dams. At certain places, site conditions may not be favourable for constructing large dams. ,hat is re5uired is a discrete combination of large and small dams to ma(imise utilisation of waters in a basin. 5.$ /urface =s. >round Water Though a large portion of the groundwater resources remain untapped, over'e(ploitation of the resources is a matter of concern in both rural and urban areas. Such over'e(ploitation needs to be regulated through legal provisions and their strict enforcement. A model 9roundwater Eill has been formulated by the 8inistry of ,ater Gesources to help the State 9overnments in enacting suitable legislation for regulation and control of groundwater development in the country. The -entral 9roundwater Authority has also been constituted, conse5uent upon a Supreme -ourt Dudgement, for the regulation of the e(ploitation of groundwater. 5.% &egal )rovisions ,hile the clearance to water resources pro1ects is accorded by the -entral 9overnment, the implementation of the environmental safeguards rests with the State 9overnments. +n many cases, due care is not ta2en by the pro1ect authorities in this regard. Although the 8inistry of Environment and 0orests has got the right to withdraw clearance in case of non'implementation of the safeguards, it is seldom resorted to. 5.( #nter2 #nstitutional Colla-oration At present the sub1ect of &,ater) is being dealt by many 8inistries. ,hile the 8inistry of ,ater Gesources is dealing with the multi'purpose, irrigation and flood management pro1ects, the urban and rural water supply is being dealt by the 8inistries of >rban Affairs C Employment and Gural *evelopment respectively. The 8inistry of Environment C 0orests is dealing with the environmental and forest clearance of water resources pro1ects. +t is also implementing several schemes li2e the ?ational Giver -onservation lan, ?ational Ba2e -onservation lan, -onservation and 8anagement of ,etlands etc. However, there is no effective co'ordinating agency with regard to these schemes and in many cases, one 8inistry is not even aware of the wor2 being done by the other 8inistries. An empowered co'ordination mechanism needs to be set up immediately. )ossi-le areas of colla-oration
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There are enormous possibilities of collaborations between various sectors, institutes and organisations in the field of water and environment. So much so that the discussion of all such possibilities may be beyond the scope of this paper. The discussion has, therefore, been mainly confined to inter'institute collaboration in the assessment and management of environmental impacts of water recourses pro1ects. However, some other areas relating to water and environment have also been touched upon. Resettlement and Reha-ilitation0 The wor2 pertaining to GCG is beset with many difficulties as it involves dealing with human problems. A ma1or problem is regarding the shifting of the tribal population. They are used to a particular way of living and it becomes very difficult for them to ad1ust to the modified ways of living at a new place. Another common problem is regarding preparation of detailed GCG lans and their implementation. +t has been observed that, some times, while the master plans are very well drawn up, these are not implemented properly. The reason is that the implementation of GCG lans rests with the -ivil authorities while the construction of the pro1ects is with the Engineering authorities. The lac2 of proper co'ordination between the two agencies leads to the inade5uate implementation of GCG lans. The implementation of GCG plans thus needs co' ordination between engineering and civil authorities. Aarious institutes dealing with Social Sciences can play a very important role in formulation and implementation of GCG plans. The ?on'9overnmental /rganisations(?9/s! can also play a significant role by adopting a constructive approach. +nter'institutional collaboration can be ta2en up in more specific areas for study, plan formulation and implementation, such asL counselling relating to change in occupation, assistance for change in occupation, change in perception about preservation of life styles, cultural ethnicities, educating beneficiaries to accept land compensation duly accounting for enhanced values of irrigated land, involving the displaced tribal community in management of compensatory forest schemes, special assistance for education, entertainment, health, mar2eting of produce. The formulation of and implementation of GCG plans thus needs co'ordination and collaboration between engineering and civil authorities, social science institutes and ?9/s. /u-mergence of forests 0 An irrigation pro1ect normally irrigates areas which would be say 6 to 67 times larger than the area submerged. Thus the biomass lost through submergence is far smaller than the biomass which is generated through the irrigation. However, there have not been any conclusive studies regarding the loss of bio'mass due to irrigation pro1ects vis'a'vis that generated due to these pro1ects. Such studies can be underta2en 1ointly by the -entral ,ater -ommission with +nstitutes li2e the 0orest Gesearch +nstitute, *ehradun and similar other institutes. -ompensatory afforestation is carried out in the water resources pro1ects to ma2e up for the loss of forests due to submergence, as per 0orest -onservation Act, "#$7. This wor2 is carried out by the 0orest *epartment of the State 9overnment after necessary funds have been deposited with
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them by the +rrigationF,ater Gesources *epartment. However, as in the case of Gesettlement and Gehabilitation, the wor2 of compensatory afforestation needs close co'ordination between the engineering and forest departments. The ?9/s can play an important role in this area also as they can be associated with the implementation of various social forestry schemes. The A s could also be associated with management of these schemes, as beneficiaries. This opportunity should be utilised for correcting bio'diversity imbalances. Water2logging roper drainage arrangements should be provided for the removal of e(cess irrigation water from the fields to prevent water logging. 8odification in crop patterns based on their water re5uirement and nutritional value and better and water efficient irrigation techni5ues based on sprin2lers and drip system have to be encouraged. This is one of the ma1or components of the -entrally sponsored -A* rogramme. Aarious innovative measures li2e bio'drainage have been advocated for reduction of areas already water'logged. However, a lot of research needs to be underta2en to assess their effectiveness. Such research should be a collaborative effort between the +rrigation *eptts. -ommand Area *evelopment and Agriculture *eptts. /f -entral and State 9overnments and Agricultural >niversities. The ,ater and Band 8anagement +nstitutes(,AB8+s! located in various States can also collaborate very effectively in such research. Gegarding water logging, another aspect re5uiring attention is the water logged area. The e(tent of water'logged area in the country and its temporal variation is yet to be firmed up. Aarious institutes dealing with remote sensing can collaborate with the organisations mentioned above in this area. )isciculture *ams affect migration of fish species li2e salmon and trout. rovision of fish ladders can ta2e care of this problem in barrages and low dams. The reduction of fish can be compensated by rearing fish in the reservoirs. 8any new species have ta2en firm hold in the newly created environment. -lose co'operation is needed between the +rrigation and 0isheries *epartments of the State 9overnments for developing new species of fish in the reservoirs. Watershed Management ,atershed development in Galegaon Sidhi (8aharashtra!, Alwar(Ga1asthan!, anipanchayat in urandhar Talu2a (8aharashtra!, soil conservation in Adgaon (8aharashtra!, water harvesting in Gandhar (>ttar radesh!, afforestation by Aanrai ( une!, integrated watershed development in Su2homa1ri (Haryana! are all e(periments by ?9/s which have proved a resounding success. However, as in the case of many other areas related to water and environment, there are many players in this field also. ,hile the >nion 8inistry of Agriculture is implementing a number of schemes on watershed management and soil conservation the -entral ,ater -ommission is also wor2ing in this area. A number of ?9/s are also wor2ing in this field. As indicated earlier, immense benefits can be derived from watershed management. Study on cost and benefits of
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implemented pro1ects needs to be made to facilitate financially efficient implementation of future pro1ects. ?evertheless, there should be proper co'ordination between various agencies wor2ing in this field. Water ;ualit1 Management Gapid urbanisation and industrialisation during the last few decades have resulted in increased use of water as well as pollution thereby deteriorating the water 5uality standards in rivers and other water bodies. The reduced flows in natural streams on account of various storage and diversion schemes also contribute to this problem. +ncreased irrigation and conse5uent draining of agro'chemicals into water bodies is another ma1or cause for deterioration in water 5uality. The issues relating to water 5uality are, therefore gaining importance. ,ater 5uality management is a comple( issue and may need the following actionsL a! *ata collection b! +dentification of polluting sources c! Adoption of management measures d! Strict implementation of e(isting legislation e! Adoption of strategies li2e & olluter pays principle) There are many agencies wor2ing on the data collection. These include the -entral ,ater -ommission and -entralFState ollution -ontrol Eoards. Similarly, a number of agencies are involved in policy related issues vi.. 8inistry of ,ater Gesources, 8inistry of Environment and 0orests, +ndira 9andhi +nstitute of *evelopment Gesearch(+9+*G!, 8umbai etc. Bi2e many other fields, some ?9/s are wor2ing in this field also. As the water 5uality degradation results from agro'chemicals, industrial and domestic waste, its management would re5uire collaboration and co'operation between a number of agencies such as 8inistries of ,ater Gesources, Environment C 0orests, Agriculture and >rban *evelopment, -entral ,ater -ommission, -entral 9round ,ater Eoard, -entral and State ollution -ontrol Eoards, Gesearch +nstitutes, +ndustries and Begal e(perts. ,ater 5uality management offers tremendous scope for collaboration between various institutesForganisations. The -entral ,ater -ommission can collaborate with 8inistry of Environment C 0orests and +9+*G on policy'related issues. There can be collaboration with academic institutes on water'5uality modelling. The industries can collaborate with academic institutions and research organisations for evolving methods to reduce industrial pollution of water. There is also a need of evolving an acceptable compilation of water 5uality correcting techni5ues, their efficiency and cost effectiveness for various applications. Climate related issues ,ater resources pro1ects do have an impact on the climate in their vicinity. +rrigation increases the moisture content in the surrounding air, leading to a slight increase in the humidity but decrease in temperature due to evaporation from irrigated area. However, these impacts are reported to be very insignificant.

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/n the other hand, there is the issue related to impact of climate change on water resources. This issue is so significant that it has been included as one of the seven programme areas proposed for the freshwater sector in Agenda @"(Geport of the >nited ?ations -onference on Environment and *evelopment ' Gio de Daneiro ' Dune, "##@!("! . +t is stated therein &There is uncertainty with respect to the prediction of climate change at the global level. Although the uncertainties increase greatly at the regional, national and local levels, it is at the national level that the most important decisions would need to be made. Higher temperatures and decreased precipitation would lead to decreased water'supplies and increased water demands3 they might cause deterioration in the 5uality of freshwater bodies, putting strains on the already fragile balance between supply and demand in many countries.) There is need for e(tensive research in this area as the information already available on the sub1ect is very little and inconclusive. This research can form a collaborative effort between the -entral ,ater -ommission, ?ational +nstitute of Hydrology(?+H!, Goor2ee, +ndian 8eteorological *epartment, the academic institutions and research organisations. 4ealth Aspects /ne of the possible environmental impacts of reservoirs is the impact on community health. These pro1ects can generally lead to improvement in the health status of the people by providing ade5uate drin2ing water supply and sanitation facilities. The use of ma1or storage facilities, both e(isting and proposed, needs to be oriented towards this goal. However, these are also blamed for spreading some water borne and water related diseases such as hepatitis, malaria etc. +t is understood that no authentic study has been carried out to assess the health impacts of reservoir pro1ects, at least in +ndia. Such studies can be ta2en up by the -entral ,ater -ommission in collaboration with premeir health institutes li2e the All +ndia +nstitute of 8edical Sciences, ?ew *elhi. Apart from the health impacts of water resources pro1ects, there are other environment'related health problems. The degradation of water 5uality from industrial and domestic pollution is reportedly a ma1or cause of environment'related illness. +n 8aharashtra alone, about 7.< million people suffer from various water'related illnesses(@!. The research in these areas can be ta2en up by -entral ,ater -ommission, 8inistry of Environment C 0orests, -entral ollution -ontrol Eoard and +ndian -ouncil of 8edical Gesearch. 3lora and 3auna 8erits and demerits of a reservoir with reference to loss of flora and fauna have been debated e(tensively. As the pro1ect submerges only a small fraction of forest land, it is not difficult to preserve the endangered species of plants or animals in the vicinity of the pro1ect in the same watershed. The submergence of wildlife can be ta2en care of by relocating the sanctuaries at suitable places and by carrying out wild life rescue operations as was done at *udhganga Geservoir(8aharashtra!. The positive aspect of water resources development is the assured water supply for wild life in all the seasons. ?evertheless, the impact of water resources pro1ects on flora and fauna needs to be studied in detail. Such studies regarding impact on wildlife and other fauna can be studied by the -entral ,ater -ommission or the concerned irrigation departments in collaboration with the ,ildlife
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+nstitute of +ndia, *ehradun and the Moological Survey of +ndia. The impact on flora can be studied in collaboration with the Eotanical Survey of +ndia. Reservoir #nduced /iesmicit1 (R#/) G+S has not been proved so far. Hoyna dam in 8aharashtra is very often cited in this connection but there is no conclusive evidence to support it. However, reservoirs li2e Eha2ra and Gamganga, although located in earth5ua2e prone areas, have not influenced seismicity since their impoundment. As in the case of climate related issues, a lot of research is needed in this area. This research can be ta2en up by the -entral ,ater -ommission, ?+H, Goor2ee, academic institutions and research organisations. Management of Wetlands ,etlands provide the habitats for a gamut of fauna and flora. They carry out a crucial role as breeding grounds for fish and other a5uatic life. The wetlands also serve as important life support systems by helping in flood control, recharging of ground water, regulation of hydrological regime and in reduction of sediment load as well as pollution. The -hil2a la2e in /rissa, Holleru in Andhra radesh, *al Ba2e in Hashmir and Bo2ta2 in 8anipur are among the many wetlands which serve as life line for the local communities. ,e are often confronted with reports from various 5uarters that wetlands are shrin2ing, or getting polluted at an alarming rate. This is happening not as much due to natural reasons but more so because of incursions and encroachment. -onservation and proper management of wetlands is a necessity from the view point of environment and economics. The importance of conservation and management of wetlands is now being increasingly realised and many organisations have been attracted towards this field. The 8inistry of Environment and 0orests is implementing -entrally sponsored schemes on -onservation and 8anagement of ,etlands and ?ational Ba2e -onservation lan. Some other agencies wor2ing in this area are ,etlands +nternational, +ndia -anada Environment 0acility(+-E0!, ,,0 ' +ndia and a number of academic institutions. The management of wetlands is of special interest to the 8inistry of ,ater GesourcesF-entral ,ater -ommission as many of the wetlands are man'made i.e. reservoirs. There is a need for collaboration between 8/,GF-,- and other organisations wor2ing in this field. >ender #ssues 9ender issues involved in the water resources pro1ects especially role of women deserve special mention. +mplementation of water resources pro1ects does bring about relief to the women fol2 by providing water nearer to their homesteads so that they need not traverse long distances on foot to fetch water. However, there is need to involve women in a big way in various other activities of water resources development such as participatory management, decision'ma2ing process, technology improvement measures, 2nowledge, information and training programme
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etc. There can be collaboration in this regard between the *eptt. of ,omen and -hild ,elfare, >?+-E0, various Social Science +nstitutes, ?9/s and ,omens organisations. &egal #ssues 0or the optimum development and utilisation of water resources in the country, there are a number of comple( legal issues related to integrated development of inter'state rivers, allocation of river waters amongst the states, interbasin transfers, utilisation of ground water, water rights and peopleN participation in irrigation management etc. >nion 9overnment may pass laws to deal more effectively with inter'state rivers, for which it has powers under the constitution. There is also need for the >nion to put in place centre 4 state consultative mechanisms of effective 2ind through which the centre and the states could agree on a number of issues relating to water. There is a need for institutional arrangements with the re5uisite legal bac2ing for ma2ing the states come together for holding serious discussions on sharing of waters including diversion to non 4 basin states, ultimately paving the way for reaching an agreement on the basis of mutual needs. The old irrigation acts are based on a concept of social contact which is not appropriate in the present times. The state irrigation acts should be farmer'friendly. -hanges are, therefore, essential in the e(isting irrigation acts to include laws so that participatory irrigation management initiatives could become possible. The general laws on environment protection and pollution control are not ade5uate to arrest and reverse the trend of the deteriorating water 5uality of inter 4 state rivers. 0or this purpose, more specific laws, mechanisms and inter'state agreements have to be evolved. 0or the rivers of e(isting laws are introduction of new laws in this regard needs close co' ordination and collaboration between the 8inistries ,ater Gesources, Environment and 0orests, laws and other concerned departments. Child Environment A large no. of child die in over country every year due to diarrhoeal diseases directly as a result of drin2ing unsafe water and living in unhygienic conditions. A number of agencies li2e >?+-E0, etc. are wor2ing for betterment of the status of children. erhaps there is a possibility of better co'ordination between the various agencies wor2ing in this direction. 5.* Role of >?s >ntil now, the 9overnment has held e(clusive responsibility for all decision ma2ing and management in the water sector. However, more and more ?9/s are now getting associated with the sector. They can play an effective rule in tac2ling various environmental issues li2e GCG of displaced persons, social forestry, catchment area treatment, watershed development, education and mass awareness, etc. 8any ?9/s have done commendable wor2 in these areas. ,hile 9overnment should ensure effective involvement of ?9/s, the latter, on their part should adopt a pragmatic approach.
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5., Data Collection Ade5uate data regarding the environmental impacts of various pro1ects is unfortunately, not available at present. The available data has also not been documented properly. There is a need for systematic data collection on the environmental impacts, both beneficial and adverse, of completed water resources pro1ects. 5.5 Research and Education Gesearch and development programmes are needed in order to reduce pollution of water bodies. Scientific and technical personnel should be encouraged to underta2e specific research pro1ects. There is a need to upgrade the technology so that water consumption is reduced without affecting productivity. This will also lead to reduction in wastewater 5uantity to be treated and the pollutants entering the water bodies. A lot of research has already been ta2en up on environmental aspects by various institutes such as the +ndira 9andhi +nstitute of *evelopment Gesearch, Eombay, +ndian +nstitute of ublic Administration, ?ew *elhi, ++Ts etc. There is a need to co'ordinate all such wor2. 5.8 Role of Women As $6I of the water resources are used for irrigated agriculture in which women play a ma1or role, women have a significant role to play in &,ater and Environment). There is a need to ma2e the role of women more direct, visible and recognised. The role of women in sustainable development of water resources has also been highlighted in the modified ?ational ,ater olicy. 5.9 )ollution Control & olluter pays) or & olluter gets punished). The polluting agency should be made responsible to meet the costs of cleaning the polluted waters. Gecycling and reuse of industrial and municipal wastewater after treatment would reduce pollution of water bodies. 5.": Development of Cit1 Water 3ronts

0rom time immemorial human civili.ations thrived along water fronts. 8a1ority of the population depends on the streams, rivers and la2es for fresh water supplies. Eut unfortunately, the same streams, rivers and la2es have also been convenient, ine(pensive and apparently ine(haustible dumping areas for human and animal wastes and residues from industrial production. Sustaining the environment along water bodies calls for monitoring of the water 5uality. There is an urgent need for development of the city water fronts and la2es in an environmentally sustainable manner. 5."" /ome other concerns

A lot of concern is being shown about the environmental and social issues related to water resources development. ,hile some of it is genuine most of it arises out of misinformation or e(aggeration in reporting the impacts of water resources pro1ects. Here a distinction would have to be made between the genuine and pseudo issues. ?o doubt the genuine issues have to be
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managed properly and effectively. E5ually important is that the pseudo e(posed by launching an awareness campaign.

issues should be

The concern about the environmental issues is being e(pressed through the media and even through literature. Some of the ma1or issues raised in this regard are as underL' a! *am oustees 4,hile e(pressing concern about the dam oustees, it is stated in a recent boo2 that ;7 million people in +ndia have been displaced due to dams in the last fifty years. -onsidering that the population of the country has 1ust crossed the one billion mar2, it implies that out of every twenty five people in the country, one( in fact, even more that one! has been displaced due to dams. This is obviously unbelievable. ?everthless, as per the broad assessment made by -entral ,ater -ommission, the indications are that the total affected persons may range between % to < million ( This assesment is based on review of the relevant data of @<$; large dams in "; states!. Thus there is a need to ma2e a realistic and acurate assessment of the dam oustees for which the states should provide the relevant data to -entral ,ater -ommission. b! +rrigation Efficiency 4 +t is generally stated that the irrigation efficiency in +ndia is around 6=I. +t implies that the irrigation efficiency in other countries is much more. However, according to a publication of >S+S, & probably half of that amount ( of water! is wasted before it reaches the intended crop..............) Thus the efficiency of irrigation systems, worldwide, is around =7I. The discussion of the reasons for this low efficiency would be beyond the sropre of this paper . However, what is needed are steps for improvement of the irrigation efficiency rather than abandon the dams and pro1ects. c! otential creation vs utilisation' Another aspect inviting criticism of water resources pro1ects is the low utilisation of irrigation potential already created. +n this connection various steps are being ta2en for increasing the utilisation of the created potential under the -entrally sponsored -ommand Area *evelopment rogramme. There is a need to ta2e detailed studies regarding various controversial impacts related to water resources pro1ects so that things can be seen in the right perspective. 8. Conclusions The water re5uirements of the country would continue to grow partly due to the rise in population and partly as a result of the improvement in the 5uality of life. As the developmental efforts to meet the water re5uirements ta2e shape, simultaneously the environmental issues gain importance. Although less evident than the more obvious 5uantity related problems, these are critically important and need to be addressed to ensure sustainable development which is a formidable challenge, but one which can be accepted and negotiated successfully. However, what is more difficult to negotiate is the challenge posed by environmental activism, which if not contained may throw up remedies that may prove to be worse than the disease.
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