CHINESE JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

VOL. 50, NO. 1

February 2012

Relativistic Rigid Motion and the Ehrenfest Paradox Sang Gyu Jo

Department of Physics, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 702-701 Korea (Received June 17, 2010) We discuss the properties of one-dimensional rigid motion in detail and explain how to utilize a rod, which is assumed to move rigidly, to measure the length of a moving object. We explicitly calculate the length of the rim of a rigidly rotating circular disk in the classical sense. It is shown that the measured length increases as the angular velocity of the disk increases. We also observe that when the angular velocity increases linearly in time, the corresponding motion of the rod is a hyperbolic rigid motion. Furthermore, we show that the length of the rim of a disk rotating with a constant angular velocity sums up to be gamma times the original length at rest.
PACS numbers: 03.30.+p

I. INTRODUCTION

According to the special theory of relativity [1], the speed of propagation of any signal that carries energy is limited by that of light, c = 3 1010 (cm/s). This implies that in the special theory of relativity there is no notion of a rigid body, which is possible in classical mechanics where forces can be transferred at innite speed. A rigid body in classical mechanics is dened as a collection of particles whose relative distances are constrained to remain constant in the process of motion. In order to maintain the relative distances between the particles, a force imposed at one point of the body should propagate through the body immediately. This is impossible in the special theory of relativity, and the concept of rigid body fails to exist. However, one can still dene a rigid motion for a collection of particles if the relative distances are xed in a relativistic sense. More precisely, two particles are said to be under a rigid motion if in every instantaneous inertial rest frame of one particle the distance between the two remains the same. This distance is called the relativistic distance. Note that there have been several versions of rigid motion, among which Borns denition is most popularly used [28]. His denition deals with innitesimal spatial length elements to accommodate general relativity. Here, we use a nite version of rigid motion and consider only the special relativistic case. It can be shown that this relativistic distance is shared by two particles if their motion is rigid. In other words, the other particle measures the same distance between them in its instantaneous inertial rest frame [9, 10]. Note here that in order to maintain the rigidity each particle should be accelerated in a systematic manner.

Electronic address: sgjo@knu.ac.kr

http://PSROC.phys.ntu.edu.tw/cjp

c 2012 THE PHYSICAL SOCIETY OF THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA

RELATIVISTIC RIGID MOTION AND . . .

VOL. 50

Similarly, a collection of particles, or an extended object, is said to be under a rigid motion if in every instantaneous inertial rest frame of one particle the observed distances to the other particles do not change in the process of the motion. Again, in order to achieve this rigidity, each particle should be properly accelerated. Even though it may be impossible to practically impose a force on each particle in such a way that the whole body undergoes a rigid motion, there is no problem in the denition of a rigid motion in special relativity. Can there be such a relativistic rigid motion for an extended object? Unlike the case of classical mechanics where both translational and rotational motions can be rigid, it turns out that only one-dimensional translational motion of an extended object can be a rigid motion [9]. Rigid motions are very much restricted in special relativity. For example, in an accelerated rotation of a circular ring around the symmetric axis passing through the center as the rotation axis, the relativistic distances between all pairs of particles on the ring cannot be maintained rigid. Historically, the rotating disk has been a topic with many conicts [1114]. This problem was rst pointed out by Ehrenfest in 1909 [15]. Consider a rotating disk of radius R with a constant angular velocity satisfying R < c. If one naively assumes that the disk has of the rim must be contracted by the been rotated rigidly from rest, the length factor 1 v 2 /c2 with v = R resulting in 2R 1 v 2 /c2 . The radius, whose direction is orthogonal to the direction of motion, is not aected by the motion. Thus, one arrives at a problematic conclusion that for a rotating disk, the ratio of the length of circumference to that of the radius becomes 2 1 v 2 /c2 instead of 2 . This problem is known as Ehrenfests paradox. As mentioned above, a rotational motion cannot be rigid, and the distances between two particles on the disk change as the angular velocity increases. At the nal stage when the angular velocity of the disk becomes constant the motion becomes rigid, and obviously the relativistic distances remain xed while the angular velocity is constant. It was argued that the instantaneous distance between two adjacent points sum up to be 2R/ 1 v 2 /c2 , which is longer than the original length 2R [10]. One might say that there is another problem here, in that the ratio of the radius to the length of the rim in the rest frame of the disk is again dierent from 2 . The explanation in Ref. [10] for this new problem is that each time shift corresponding to the instantaneous simultaneity of two adjacent points sums up to be non-zero. This means that the extension of the simultaneous separation is not a closed loop in space-time. Only in an inertial frame where the disk is at rest, each time shift is zero and the sum vanishes. Therefore, the extension is a closed loop, a circle. Here, of course, the ratio is 2 . In this paper we show more explicitly how to measure the sum of the relativistic distances of adjacent pairs of points along the rim of the disk. For that purpose we use the fact that a one-dimensional rigid motion for an extended object is possible. We can use a one-dimensional rod which is assumed to be controlled in such a way that it moves rigidly while a disk tangent to the rod rotates without slipping at the contact point between the disk and the rod. The rod will move along a one-dimensional line, and this motion is designed to be rigid. Therefore we can assume that the rod carries calibrations on it. The calibrations l and l of two points on the rod determine the relativistic distance between the

VOL. 50

SANG GYU JO

two points, and this distance is the distance when the rod is at rest. These calibrations can be used to measure the length of the rim while the disk undergoes an arbitrary rotation. In other words, the rod can be used as a ruler for a rotating object. Obviously, the motion of the rod is determined by the pattern of rotation of the disk. An interesting result we have found is that a constantly accelerating rotation of the disk with the angular velocity (t) = t with being a constant induces a hyperbolic rigid motion for the rod. We also show that when the angular velocity becomes constant, the measured length of the rim by the rod is 2R/ 1 v 2 /c2 , as predicted. In Section II, we review the meaning of a rigid motion and see how a rigidly moving rod can be used as a ruler for a relativistically moving object. In Section III, we investigate the procedure to measure the length of the rim of a rotating disk. Finally in Section IV, we discuss and summarize our results in connection with Ehrenfests paradox.

II. ONE-DIMENSIONAL RIGID MOTION

In this section we consider a one-dimensional translational motion. Starting from a rigid motion of two point particles, we rst briey review known results about a translational rigid motion. And then we set up necessary formulas for the discussion of a rotating disk. II-1. Rigid Motion of Two Point Particles Consider two point particles A and B on a straight one-dimensional space, say the x-axis xed in an inertial frame O0 . Their locations are assumed to be xA (t = 0) = 0, xB (t = 0) = L before they move. The distance between the two particles is observed to be L in their rest frame O0 . At t = 0, particle A begins to move in an arbitrary manner given by xA (t). We now have the following question. How should particle B move for their motion to be rigid? The answer to this question should be given by a relation between xB (t) and xA (t). In order for the motion described by xA (t) and xB (t) to be a rigid motion, in an instantaneous rest frame OA (t) of particle A the distance to particle B should be observed to be L as in the original rest frame O0 . In other words, the corresponding two events should be separated by (0, L) in frame OA (t). By Lorentz transforming this coordinate separation of two events back to frame O0 , we get the coordinates of particle B in frame O0 ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ct (t) (t) (t) 0 ct (t) (t)L + = , (1) xA (t) (t) (t) (t) L xA (t) (t)L where (t) = x A (t) , c (t) = 1 1 2 (t) . (2)

RELATIVISTIC RIGID MOTION AND . . .

VOL. 50

The right hand side of Eq. (1) determines the world line of particle B , and we get ( ) A (t)A (t)L xB t = xA (t) A (t)L. c

(3)

The argument of xB is shifted to the past by the amount of A (t)A (t)L/c, which is also a function of t. Solving t A (t)A (t)L = c (4)

to get t = t( ) and substituting t( ) in Eq. (3), we obtain xB ( ) = xA (t( )) A (t( ))L. (5)

We therefore see that the motion of particle B is completely determined by the motion of particle A if we require their motion to be rigid. We now dierentiate Eq. (3) with respect to t to further investigate the properties of rigid motion. Using (t) = 3 , the right hand side becomes ( ) 3 A L A d (xA (t) A (t)L) = x A ( t) 1 , dt c and using the chain rule the left hand side becomes ( ) d A (t)A (t)L d dxB ( ) xB (t )= (t) (t)L dt c dt d =t A cA ( ) A L 3 A (t)A (t)L = 1 A x B (t ). c c We therefore get ( ) A (t)A (t)L x B t =x A (t). c (6)

(7)

(8)

From this, we see that a so called rigid body does not exist in the realm of special relativity. This is because particle B should adjust its velocity x B even before particle A reveals its velocity x A . No matter how rmly the two particles are connected, for instance with an innitely strong thin wire, the transfer of force from A to B and backward in time is impossible. In order to achieve a rigid motion, two particles should know each others motion in advance and each of them has to be separately accelerated by a planned scenario. We do not worry about the possibility to realize a rigid motion. We just accept the fact that rigid motions are possible theoretically for a one-dimensional translational motion.

VOL. 50

SANG GYU JO

Another important property of rigid motion comes from Eq. (3) and Eq. (8). To make things easier to understand, let t = tA and tA Then A (tA )A (tA )L = tB . c (9)

) ( A (tA )A (tA )L = xB (tB ) = xA (tA ) A (tA )L, xB tA c

(10)

and from Eq. (8) x B (tB ) = x A (tA ). Consequently B (tB ) = A (tA ), and tB + B (tB )B (tB )L = tA . c (13) B (tB ) = A (tA ), (12) (11)

Therefore, Eq. (10) can be rewritten as ( ) B (tB )B (tB )L xB (tB ) = xA tB + B (tB )L, c which, after rearrangement, becomes ( ) B (tB )B (tB )L xA tB + = xB (tB ) + B (tB )L. c

(14)

(15)

Eq. (13) and Eq. (15) are obtained from Eq. (9) and Eq. (10), respectively, by pairwise exchanging {A and B } and {L and L}. The meaning of this symmetry can be summarized as follows. Eq. (10) has been derived from the condition that in any instantaneous rest frame OA (tA ) of particle A, particle B should be the same distance away from particle A. If we impose a similar requirement in the instantaneous rest frame OB (tB ) of particle B , we will get Eq. (15). What the symmetry explains is that both give the same equation. So, in order to dene a rigid motion of two particles A and B , one requirement either in frame OA (tA ) or frame OB (tB ) is enough. This kind of property is called reexivity. If particle A undergoes a rigid motion with particle B , then particle B also undergoes a rigid motion with particle A. So far, we have discussed a rigid motion of two particles. Next we consider a rigid motion of a collection of particles or an extended object.

RELATIVISTIC RIGID MOTION AND . . .

VOL. 50

II-2. Rigid Motion of a Rod We now introduce one more particle, particle C , to the system of rigidly moving two particles of the previous subsection. The location of particle C is assumed to be xC (t = 0) = L on the x-axis. Requiring the motion of the two particles A and C to be rigid, we get xC (tC ) = xA (tA ) A (tA )L with tA A (tA )A (tA )L = tC . c (17) (16)

We also have x C (tC ) = x A (tA ), and therefore C (tC ) = A (tA ), C (tC ) = A (tA ). (19) (18)

Subtracting Eq. (9) from Eq. (17) and using Eq. (12), we get tB B (tB )B (tB )(L L) = tC . c (20)

Also subtracting Eq. (10) from Eq. (16) and using Eq. (20), we get ( ) B (tB )B (tB )L xC tB = xB (tB ) B (tB )(L L). c

(21)

These two equations imply that the relative motion of the two particles B and C is also a rigid motion. This kind of property is called transitivity. If two particles A and B are under a rigid motion and two particles A and C are under a rigid motion, then the two particles B and C are also under a rigid motion. Then, we say three particles A, B , and C are under a rigid motion. We now consider a one-dimensional extended object or a rod. At t = 0, it lies on the x-axis of the frame O0 with the right end point at the origin. We name particles on the rod by the absolute values of their x coordinates at t = 0. Note that at t = 0 there is no particle on the positive side of the x-axis. When t > 0, particle 0, the leading particle at the right end of the rod, begins to move with an arbitrary pattern given by x0 (t). Each particle of the rod also begins to move in a way to retain rigidity with particle 0. The motion of particle l should be given by ( ) 0 (t)0 (t)l xl t = x0 (t) 0 (t)l. (22) c

VOL. 50

SANG GYU JO

As was discussed above, any two particles on the rod are under a rigid motion, and we say the motion of the rod is a rigid motion. Eq. (22) uniquely xes the motion of each particle l for any l. In other words, a rigid motion of the rod is solely determined by the motion of the right end particle, particle 0. In fact, the reference particle can be any particle of the rod. For example, if we choose particle l0 to be the reference particle, then Eq. (22) will be written as ( ) l0 (t)l0 (t)(l l0 ) xl t = xl0 (t) l0 (t)(l l0 ). (23) c Therefore, a rigid motion of the rod is determined by a motion of any single particle of the rod. We just mention here that there is a certain limit in the length of the rod for the motion of the rod to be rigid. This limit depends on the acceleration a of the end point and it is roughly given by lmax c2 /a. We consider the label l of the rod as calibrations on it and let the rod play the role of a ruler for a moving object. For example, when two particles A and B are moving along the x-axis by the trajectories xA (t) and xB (t) with xA (t) > xB (t), we attach the right end point of the rod to particle A and let the point move together with particle A. This end point motion will uniquely x the motion of the whole rod through Eq. (22). Then, we read the label lB (t) of the point of particle B on the rod. If lB (t) is time independent, then we can say that the two particles are moving rigidly and the value l is the relativistic distance between the two points. Otherwise their motion is not rigid and the value lB (t) does not seem to have any signicant meaning. However, as we will see in Section III, for a rotating disk the rod plays the role of a ruler. II-3. Hyperbolic Rigid Motion As an example of a rigid motion of a rod, we consider the case when the right endpoint particle undergoes a hyperbolic motion given by ( ) c2 a2 t2 x0 (t) = 1+ 2 1 . (24) a c Here a is a constant corresponding to the acceleration of the right end-point particle in its instantaneous rest frame. From this equation we get at a 2 t2 0 (t) = , 0 (t) = 1 + 2 , (25) 2 2 c c 1+ a t
c2

and Eq. (22) becomes c2 alt xl (t 2 ) = c a ( a2 t2 1+ 2 1 c ) 1+ a 2 t2 l. c2 (26)

This equation makes sense only when l < c2 /a. If l = c2 /a, then the argument of xl becomes zero for all t, and this equation cannot determine xl (t). We therefore assume that l < c2 /a

RELATIVISTIC RIGID MOTION AND . . .

VOL. 50

for all l on the rod. After a little algebra applied to Eq. (26), we get ( ) c2 al 2 a2 t2 xl (t) = (1 2 ) + 2 1 . a c c This can also be written as 2 2 2 a t c xl (t) = 1 + l 2 1 l al c with al = a . al 1 c 2

(27)

(28)

Therefore, every particle on the rod undergoes a hyperbolic motion with its rest-frame acceleration al . Note that al approaches innity when l approaches c2 /a. This is another way to explain why there is a limit for the length of rod. The velocity of particle l is given by Eq. (25) with a substituted by al . Therefore at t = 0 the rod begins to move and the velocity increases as l increases. The distance between particle l and 0 in frame O0 can be obtained by subtracting Eq. (27) from Eq. (24): x0 (t) xl (t) = l 1+
al 2 c 2 + (1

a2 t2 c2

al 2 ) c2

a2 t2 c2

(29)

From this equation, we see that the observed length between two particles is decreasing as time goes on, which is natural in the sense of length contraction. In the next subsection, we will see that when they stop accelerating and move at a constant velocity, the observed distance becomes exactly the distance contracted by the gamma factor. II-4. Rigid Motion with a Constant Velocity In this subsection, we consider the case when the right-end particle ceases to accelerate at t = T and undergoes a constant-velocity motion: ) ( a2 t2 c2 1 + 2 1 , 0 t T, (30) x0 (t) = a c x0 (t) = x0 (T ) + c0 (T )(t T ), T t. (31)

In order to maintain the rigidity, the motion of particle l should satisfy Eq. (22) with x0 (t) given by the above two equations. When 0 t T , xl (t) is given by Eq. (26), which can also be written as Eq. (27) with 0 t T (1 al/c2 ). When T t, we get ( ) 0 (T )0 (T )l xl t = x0 (t) 0 (T )l. (32) c

VOL. 50

SANG GYU JO

Using 0 (T )0 (T ) = aT /c, this equation can be written as ( ) aT l al xl (t) = x0 t + 2 0 (T )l, T (1 2 ) t c c which, using Eq. (31), becomes ) ( al xl (t) = x0 (T ) 0 (T )l + c0 (T ) t T (1 2 ) , c T ( ) al 1 2 t. c

(33)

(34)

Note that when T (1 al/c2 ) t T , particle l moves with a constant velocity vl = c0 (T ) while particle 0 is still under the hyperbolic motion given in Eq. (30). When T t, both particles l and 0 move with the same constant velocity c0 (T ). From Eq. (31) and Eq. (34), we get x0 (t) xl (t) = 0 (T )l l 0 (T )aT l= . c 0 ( T ) (35)

This result is consistent with the well-known length contraction.

III. ROTATION OF A DISK AND RIGID MOTION OF A ROD

Consider a thin circular disk with a radius R whose center is xed in the inertial frame O0 . We choose the coordinates of the center to be (0, R, 0) and the axis of rotation to be parallel to the z -axis. The disk lies on x y plane. We now introduce a rod which lies on the x-axis. The right-end point, l = 0, of the rod is at the origin before it moves as described in Section II. We use A as the name of the particle on the rim of the disk located at the origin when the disk is at rest. The particle A on the rim of the disk and the particle l = 0 on the rod are at the origin when t 0. The disk and the rod are tangent to each other. When they move, we assume that the rod undergoes a one-dimensional translational rigid motion while the disk rotates with angular velocity being a function of time. Every point on the disk, therefore, rotates rigidly in the classical sense. We further assume that at the contact point between rod and disk, there is no slipping. At t = 0, the disk begins to rotate with an arbitrary angular velocity (t) with (0) = 0. Classical rigidity indicates that the angular velocity is the same at every point on the disk in the frame O0 . Accordingly, the rod also begins to slide on the x-axis rigidly in such a way that there is no slipping at the contact point. Therefore, two particles at the contact point, one on the rod and the other on the rim of the disk, share the instantaneous rest frame and the accumulated rest length should be measured by the calibration of the rod. More precisely, the accumulated rest length of the partial circumference from time zero to t > 0 is obtained just by reading the calibration l of the part at the origin at time t: xl (t) = 0. (36)

10

RELATIVISTIC RIGID MOTION AND . . .

VOL. 50

This equation determines l(t) as a function of t. Of course, xl (t) satises the rigidity condition, Eq. (22). The motion of the rod is determined by the contact point velocity: x l (t)|l=l(t) = R (t). (37)

For a given rotational motion of the disk described by (t), the motion of the rod is xed by Eq. (22), Eq. (36), and Eq. (37). Likewise the rotation of the disk may be xed by a given rigid motion of the rod using the same equations. We now consider two cases for the motions of the rod, a hyperbolic rigid motion described by Eq. (27) and a constant velocity motion given by Eq. (34). Let us nd the corresponding rotational motion of the disk. First, we solve for l(t) from Eq. (27) and Eq. (36): ( ) c2 al 2 a2 t2 (1 2 ) + 2 1 = 0. (38) a c c We get c2 l(t) = a ( 1 a2 t2 1 2 c ) . (39)

Dierentiating Eq. (27) we get x l ( t) = at (1

al 2 ) c2

a2 t2 c2

(40)

Substituting l(t) in Eq. (39) into Eq. (25) and using Eq. (36), we get (t) = at . R (41)

Therefore, the motion of the disk, which is tangent to the rod which undergoes a hyperbolic rigid motion, turns out to be a rotation with a constant angular acceleration. We would have obtained the same result in classical mechanics if the rod undergoes a motion of a constant acceleration. The angle of rotation (t) for time t is ( t) = a 2 t , 2R (42)

and the particle A returns to the origin when t = 4R/a. We, therefore, obtain the accumulated rest length l1 of the circumference during the rst cycle: ( ) c2 4aR 4R l1 = 1 1 = . (43) 2 a c 1 + 1 4aR
c2

VOL. 50

SANG GYU JO

11

We see that this length is longer than 2R. If a is very small compared to c2 /R, we have l1 2R(1 + aR ). c2 (44)

As time goes on, the speed of the disk increases and we expect lk , the accumulated rest length of the circumference during the k -th cycle, will become longer as k increases. In order to get lk , we notice that the time interval of the k -th cycle is from t = 4 ( k 1)R/a to t = 4kR/a. Therefore, lk = l( 4kR/a) l( 4 (k 1)R/a) and we get lk = 4R + 1
4a(k1)R c2

(45)

4akR c2

We see that lk increases as k increases. Next, we consider the case when the rod stops its hyperbolic rigid motion and moves rigidly with a constant velocity. This motion is governed by Eq. (34). Solving for l(t) from this equation we get l(t) = 0 (T )x0 (T ) aT 2 + aT t . Here, we have used 0 (T ) = c 1+ aT
a2 T 2 c2

(46)

0 (T ) =

1+

a2 T 2 . c2

(47)

In this case x l (t) = c0 (T ), which is independent of l, and we get the angular velocity of the disk to be (t) = c0 (T ) , R (48)

which is also a constant as we expect. The time interval t for one cycle is 2/ = 2R/(c0 (T )). Therefore, the accumulated rest length of the circumference for each cycle l becomes l = aT t = 2R 0 (T ) . (49)

This length diers from its original length by the factor 0 (T ) = 1 + a2 T 2 /c2 . The accumulated rest length of the circumference, therefore, cannot be maintained to be 2R when the disk is rotating.

IV. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

The Ehrenfest paradox arises from the assumption that a rigidly rotating disk should maintain its original length. The radius of the disk, the length along a direction orthogonal

12

RELATIVISTIC RIGID MOTION AND . . .

VOL. 50

to the direction of each particles motion, should remain unchanged while the circumference should be contracted due to Lorentz contraction along the direction of motion. This would result in the modication of the ratio between the length of circumference and the radius, which leads to a contradiction. However, it is known that for a rotational motion the rigidity cannot be maintained. Therefore, there is no Lorentz contraction and the observed length of the circumference is 2R in the frame O0 . Another and related issue of the paradox is about the length of the circumference in its rest frame. In the frame rotating with respect to the frame O0 , the disk will be at rest. But this frame is not an inertial frame. The metric on this rotating frame will be ( ) ds2 = c2 dt2 dr2 r2 d2 + sin2 (d + (t)dt)2 . (50) Putting dt = dr = d = 0, r = R, = /2 and = 2 we get l = s2 = 2R .

(51)

This is just the length observed in the frame O0 . A more interesting length will be the length measured in an inertial rest frame. However, there is no such inertial frame where all the points on the disk are at rest instantaneously. Therefore we have to give up nding an overall inertial rest frame. Instead we have to work in a point-wise instantaneous inertial rest frame and sum up the innitesimal rest length along the rim of the disk. What we have shown in the previous section is to illustrate this procedure explicitly and naturally. We now summarize our result obtained in the previous section. Even though a disk cannot rotate rigidly, we can still ask what the accumulated rest length of the circumference is. The answer is given by introducing a rigidly moving rod, playing the role of a ruler for the disk. This rod is calibrated by its relative distance measured while it is at rest. A rotation of the disk is accompanied by a translational rigid motion of the disk with no slipping at the contact. When the disk rotates with a constant angular acceleration a/R, the rod undergoes a hyperbolic rigid motion and the accumulated rest length of the circumference of the k -th cycle is given by Eq. (45). It increases as k increases. Furthermore, when the disk rotates at a constant angular velocity the rod undergoes a constant velocity rigid motion and the accumulated rest length of the circumference of each cycle is given by Eq. (49). Here, 1 0 (T ) = 2 2 1 Rc2 with given in Eq. (48). One important comment on our result is that the accumulated rest length is the relativistic length along a space-like curve whose end points are separated by a time-like curve of the particle A on the rim. The curve is not closed in a time slice of the total 4dimensional space-time. Therefore, there is no rule on the ratio between this accumulated rest length and the radius.

VOL. 50

SANG GYU JO

13

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea(NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (Grant No. 2010-0008479).

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] A. Einstein, Ann. Phys. 17, 891 (1905); 18, 639 (1905). M. Born, Ann. Phys. 30, 1 (1909). G. Herglotz, Ann. Phys. 31, 393 (1910). F. Noether, Ann. Phys. 31, 919 (1910). E. L. Hill, Phys. Rev. 69, 488 (1946). A. D. Fokker, Rev. Mod. Phys. 21, 406 (1949). G. Salzman and A. H. Taub, Phys. Rev. 95, 1659 (1954). C. Bona, Phys. Rev. D27, 1243 (1983). D. Kim and S. G. Jo, J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 37, 4369 (2004). J. H. Hur and S. G. Jo, J. Kor. Phys. Soc. 47, 568 (2005). M. Strass, Int. J. Theor. Phys. 11, 107 (1974). R. D. Klauber, Found. Phys. Lett. 11, 405 (1998); Amer. J. Phys. 67, 158 (1999). G. Rizzi and M. L. Ruggiero, Found. Phys. 32, 1525 (2002). M. L. Ruggiero, Eur. J. Phys. 24, 563 (2003). P. Ehrenfest, Phys. Z. 10, 918 (1909).