ENERGIE

This ENERGIE publication is one of a series highlighting the potential for innovative non-nuclear energy
technologies to be applied widely and contribute to provision of superior services. European Commission strategies
aim to influence the scientific and engineering communities, policy makers and key market actors so that they
develop and apply cleaner, more efficient and more sustainable energy solutions to benefit themselves and society
in general.

Funded under the European Union’s Fifth Framework Programme for Research, Technological Development and
Demonstration (RTD), ENERGIE’s range of supports cover research, development, demonstration, dissemination,
replication and market uptake - the full process of converting new ideas into practical solutions to real needs. Its
print and electronic publications disseminate the results of activities carried out under current and previous
Framework Programmes, including former JOULE-THERMIE actions. Jointly managed by the Directorates-General
Research and Energy & Transport, ENERGIE has a total budget of €1042 million for 1999 to 2002.

ENERGIE is organised principally around two Key Actions, (Cleaner Energy Systems, including Renewable
Energies, and Economic and Efficient Energy for a Competitive Europe), within the theme “Energy, Environment and
Sustainable Development”. With targets guided by the Kyoto Protocol and associated policies, ENERGIE’s
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Produced by
Energy Research Group, University College Dublin,
School of Architecture, Richview, Clonskeagh, Dublin 14, Ireland
Tel: + 353.1-269 2750, Fax: +353.1-283 8908
WWW: http://erg.ucd.ie/, E-mail: erg@erg.ucd.ie

Written by: Vivienne Brophy, Crea O’Dowd,

Rachel Bannon, John Goulding and J. Owen Lewis
Design: Sinéad McKeon and Pierre Jolivet

with the support of the EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Directorate-General Energy & Transport

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following who supplied valuable information for this publication:
Case study material: Anke Benstem, KUKA (Kronsberg Environmental Liaison Agency), Germany; Cathie Curran, Richard Rogers Partnership, UK; Christine
Oehlinger, O.Ö. Energiesparverband, Austria.
Photographs and diagrams: Alfanso Sevilla, Geohabitat, Almeria, Spain; Tjeerd Deelstra, Ministry of Housing, The Hague, Amsterdam; Marylene Ferrand,
FFL Architectes, France; Bill Hastings, ARC Survey, Ireland; Jaime Lopez de Asiain, ETS de Arquitectura de Seville, Spain; Maurice Stack, Architect, Ireland; Derry
O’Connell, John Goulding, Brian O’Brien and Crea O’Dowd, University College Dublin, Ireland; International Dark Sky Association.

Expert review: Philip Geoghegan, Derry O’Connell, University College Dublin, Ireland.

LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission,
is responsible for the use which might be made of the information contained in this publication.
The views given in this publication do not necessarily represent the views of the European Commission.

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

Printed in Ireland 2000

 European Commission

General information

Sustainable
Urban Design

ENERGIE
Sustainable Urban Design

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

2. Urban impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
2.1 Ecological Footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
2.2 Urban Heat Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
2.3 Buildings and Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
2.4 Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
2.5 Wastes (solid, liquid, gaseous) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
2.6 Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
2.7 Air Quality, Ozone Depletion, Greenhouse Gases, Solar Radiation . . . .4
2.8 Aerodynamic Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
2.9 Urban Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

3. Urban Design Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

3.1 Site Selection and Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
3.2 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
3.3 Climate Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
3.4 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
3.5 Resource Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
3.6 Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

4. Selected Design Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

5. References and Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

This is an ENERGIE publication, funded under the European Union’s Fifth Framework
Programme for Research, Technological Development and Demonstration. Jointly
managed by the Directorates-General for Research and Energy & Transport of the
European Commission.

Partners on the project were:

Energy Research Group, University College Dublin, Ireland
Institut Catala D’Energia, Barcelona, Spain
O.Ö. Energiesparverband, Linz, Austria

1
 1. INTRODUCTION
In urban settlements, where over 80% of Europeans live, the concentrations of people
and their activities create intensified demands on the environment. However, this very
Environment
concentration offers opportunities, through design and actions at an urban scale, to
minimise the various environmental impacts - ideally to the point where they can be
assimilated by the ecosystems of the region without lasting damage. It can then be said
Society Economy
that a level of sustainable existence has been reached at which the community can live
in symbiotic harmony with its environment.

Sustainable
Development
Sustainable development is develop-
ment that delivers environmental,
economical and social services to all
residents of a community, without
threatening the viability of the
natural, built, economic and social
systems upon which the delivery of
these systems depend. [2]
The best known definition of sustainable development, that of the World Commission
on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission), dates from the
publication in 1987 of ’Our Common Future‘ [1]:
(Sustainable development is)…“development that meets the needs of today‘s
generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs”.
It is worth emphasising that it is our needs, not wants, that deserve primary attention.
It is also worth reminding ourselves that we in the developed countries have used
power and knowledge to help ourselves to a grossly disproportionate share of the
world's resources leaving much environmental, social and economic degradation in
less developed countries - and sometimes closer to home.

There are many indicators of sustainability that can help in assessing the present
condition, and strategies that may be adopted by a community to ensure its continued
existence and development. An holistic, interdisciplinary approach involving the
Economy natural and physical sciences and the humanities is a feature of most comprehensive
analyses, and the issues involved in developing and implementing action plans for
Society sustainable urban living are diverse and often interdependent.
Environment
While recognising that social and economic factors are also of fundamental
importance, the focus of this maxibrochure is on physical environmental issues. It aims
Two models of sustainable developments. to outline some of the current thinking in urban design, and show some exemplary
responses, as an aid to the process of making urban settlements in Europe more
environmentally sustainable.

1.1 BACKGROUND

The knowledge of an appropriate response to climate was fundamental to the planning

Evaporative cooling at the Alhambra,
Granada, Spain.
of many traditional settlements. Vernacular architecture and urban design often
embodied an intimate knowledge of the locality, climatically and geographically, and
its potential for sustainable life. Long before the Roman architect Vitruvius wrote the
Ten Books of Architecture two thousand years ago, builders, were of neccessity,
optimising their local environment, through the manipulation of site, the forms,
organisation of external spaces, and the building layout itself. During the Industrial
Revolution in the mid-1800s, the design of buildings came to depend less on ambient
energy and more on the abundant supply of fossil fuels for their thermal comfort.
Current trends in architecture and urbanism often continue to ignore the potential of
passive measures to achieve thermal comfort. The resulting impacts can be measured
in environmental, social and economic terms.

There is increasing acceptance among planners, urban designers and governments

that current modes of human existence in developed countries are unsustainable in
environmental, social and economic terms. Some of the factors supporting this view
are indications of: global climate change; resource depletion; droughts and floods;
local pollution and damage to ecosystems; species extinction; deterioration in the
quality of life, especially in cities; increasing polarisation in wealth distribution; and
poor equality in access to resources and knowledge.

The nature of the problem, now beginning to be recognised in broad terms and
sometimes only from indications at a global or regional scale, is such that it is still
Evaporative cooling at EXPO ’92, Seville, possible to take corrective action and begin to halt the decline, and reverse it in many
Spain. instances, if measures are urgently applied. However, failure to act appropriately at
this stage may soon result in our having to face catastrophic failure of the
2
environmental (and socio-economic) systems on which our existence depends.
Taking corrective action in the development
Therefore, it is vital that we begin to understand in specific terms the damage we are
of Curitiba.
doing and what measures can be applied to rectify that damage and support our
continued existence and welfare.

Many of these issues come to a focus in urban settlements. In general terms they may
be considered as inputs and outputs of the ‘urban system’ including: non-renewable
and renewable resource use (both including energy); solid, liquid and gaseous wastes
and their recycling, treatment or disposal; and manpower and knowledge.

Utilization of external spaces.

Input - output model of energy and material flows of a city.

More specifically, we can consider the environmental impacts of buildings, transport,

Conservation of existing buildings.
industry and commerce, agriculture, institutions (education, health care, etc.), and
recreational or social facilities and what is involved in their establishment and
maintenance. Population size, its affluence and the extent and nature of its economic
and social activities will determine the scale of the issues to be considered.

Further subdivision and characterisation of these issues is addressed in this

maxibrochure with the overall objective of raising awareness of the specific nature of
the damage we do to the environment and of opportunities for remedial measures we
can undertake locally as individuals or communities which, cumulatively, will have
beneficial regional and global effects.

2. URBAN IMPACTS
Integration of public transport within new
2.1 ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT development.

The ‘ecological footprint’ is a measure of sustainable development by which categories

of human consumption are translated into areas of productive land needed to provide Our aim should be to promote
resources and assimilate waste products. Included in the calculations of the ecological sustainable urban developments
footprint of a community, are the volumes of ‘imported’ raw materials, food and fuel, which are designed in response to the
taking into account land, water or air used for production or waste disposal. Cities in climatic, topographic and environ-
mental characteristics of a site,
developed countries generally have a much larger ecological footprint than those in
protecting its natural features and
developing countries. For example, the average ecological footprint in Italy is 4
promoting an efficient, prudent use of
ha/person, representating 320% of the land available in Italy, while Switzerland and resources.
Germany have ecological footprints greater than 5 ha/person. London’s ecological
footprint is almost equivalent to the entire area of Britain’s farmland. By comparison,
the world’s average ecological footprint is 2.4 ha/person. [4] Ecological Footprints per per-
son in Canada [3]
Ecological Footprint
2.2 URBAN HEAT ISLANDS hectares per capita
Housing 0.89
A heat island is an area of land whose ambient temperature is higher than the land
Transportation 0.89
surrounding it. Many studies show a direct correlation between the density and
Consumer Goods 0.89
population of a city and the intensity of the heat island effect. Higher urban Services 0.3
temperatures increase the demand for electricity for cooling and air conditioning in Food 1.3
warm conditions which leads to an increase in the production of carbon dioxide and (0.02 vegetable and fruit)
other pollutants. These pollutants in turn contribute to increasing global temperatures Total 4.27
due to the ‘greenhouse effect’.
3
 High point
Some of the main factors contributing

Temperature
to increased temperatures in urban
areas are: ∆τ
• air pollution and heat production
from buildings and traffic;
• building and other hard surfaces Base temperature
which absorb solar radiation and
reflect heat;
• reduction in airflow and humidity
caused by the sheltering effect of
buildings.
Urban heat island effect.

2.3 BUILDINGS AND LAND USE

Buildings are required for almost every activity and are the principal elements of the
urban fabric. There are environmental impacts associated with their construction use
and disposal. Land use for buildings and other purposes is a scarce, finite resource
that has hitherto often been used wastefully, especially in and near cities and towns
and in suburban areas. Future sustainable development needs to address land use and
planning according to function to ensure that optimal use is made of the available land
resource to serve the needs of society as a whole. Issues of sustainability associated
with buildings and the land they occupy are discussed in detail in the following pages.

Traffic congestion in Dublin. 2.4 TRAFFIC

Traffic congestion reduces the quality of life in cities, wastes time and energy, and
increases environmental degradation. The design, placement and density of buildings
Too many
cars on in an urban environment have a great influence on the consequent transportation
streets patterns. The prolific use of the private car is both a cause and result of inadequate
public transport facilities in many European cities.
Less use Increasing
of public traffic 2.5 WASTES (SOLID, LIQUID, GASEOUS)
transport congestion
The domestic, commercial and industrial waste generated by urban living are of
Slower mass concern to local authorities and inhabitants and a major source of environmental
transport
less mobility pollution. The smells and other emissions associated with sewage treatment plants and
reduced service
landfill sites, traffic and industrial processes are a regular source of irritation,
particularly where large numbers of people live close to such pollution.

2.6 WATER QUALITY

The quality of our water is influenced greatly by human development. Acid rain is a
common problem in and downwind of urban communities and industrial facilities. The
expanse of hard impermeable surfaces in cities results in large bodies of rainwater
requiring collection and discharge elsewhere. Dust, dirt and other solid pollutants are
washed with rainwater into drains, the water sometimes discharged untreated into
local waterways. Drinking water from local waterways often requires treatment with
chemicals to combat bacteria and other micro-organisms from such pollution.

2.7 AIR QUALITY, OZONE DEPLETION, GREENHOUSE GASES, SOLAR

RADIATION
Impermeable city surfaces.
Many cities have succeeded in reducing the high levels of pollution traditionally caused
by large-scale fossil fuel combustion. In London prior to the 1956 Clean Act, air
pollution had reduced midwinter solar radiation in the city by 50% compared with the
surrounding countryside [5]. The sun’s capacity to contribute to thermal comfort in
winter was thus halved. Today, vehicle use is one of the main contributors to air
pollution in cities. Despite reductions in individual vehicular emissions, the increasing
number of vehicles on the roads in cities ensures the continuing rise of urban air
pollution levels.

2.8 AERODYNAMIC IMPACT

Wind velocities in cities are generally lower than those in the surrounding countryside
due to the obstructions to air flow caused by buildings. Wind affects the temperature,
Smog over Paris. rates of evaporative cooling and plant transpiration and is thus an important factor at
4 a micro-climatic level. Built-up areas with tall buildings may lead to complex air
movement through a combination of wind channelling and resistance, and this often
In older settlements and mediaeval
results in wind turbulence in some areas and concentrated pollution where there are
towns, low buildings following curved
wind shadows. street lines result in low wind
velocities at street level. Contem-
porary cities populated by high-rise
600 Windspeed : m/s buildings experience down draughts
40
on windward faces and suction on lee
500
faces causing turbulence at ground
400 40 level particularly around corners,
Altitude

30 through arcades, building openings

300
and passageways.
30 40
200
20
100 20
30
0 20

Wind speed at a given height, is lower in towns than over open land.

2.9 URBAN DUST

Urban dust is particulate matter released into the air as a by-product of building
works, exhaust fumes from buildings and vehicular traffic, manufacturing and other
processes. It clings to porous surfaces such as stone, brick or concrete. The streaking
effect under windows and architectural mouldings is a result of this dust being washed
off non-porous surfaces such as glass, and lodging itself on the porous material below. Stone decay in Dublin.
Extensive sealed surfaces and insufficient planted areas intensify this problem. Apart
from the aesthetic effects of urban dust, studies have shown that excessive exposure to
this dust may aggravate pulmonary disorders.

3. URBAN DESIGN STRATEGIES

Environmental strategies for sustainable development should be based on an
understanding of the climate, geography, culture and traditions of a location,
combined with knowledge of best practice experience and innovation. Such contextual
influences have been implicit in traditional landscapes, settlements and lifestyles, and
they often continue to serve as exemplars, although technological developments can
offer solutions hitherto unavailable. Sustainable urban design and planning should
promote an environment which offers:

Diversity - allowing variety, flexibility

• Comprising a mix of different building types, activities and social classes and
considering the 24 hour occupation of urban areas
• Developed around ‘green’ spaces with a diversity of flora and fauna species
• Utilising a range of energy sources (primarily renewable) thus reducing
dependence on a single resource

Productivity - efficient, closed-loop production

• In the near future building-integrated systems, such as photovoltaics, heat recovery,
water recycling and solar thermal, will give every urban block the potential to
produce energy and water both for its own use and to contribute to urban networks
of energy production. This use, recovery and reuse could reduce the demand on
electricity grids and water supply networks
• Through resource use minimisation, reuse and recycling, waste can be largely dealt
with within city boundaries and the environmental impact of urban developments
contained

Protection - mitigating climatic extremes

• Bioclimatic, ecological planning and design can offer a means of climatic
moderation to benefit people, flora and fauna in urban settlements
• Strategies include optimising solar energy, wind and acoustic sheltering, natural
cooling, groundwater management and vegetative pollution filters
• Natural shelters (e.g. tree shelter belts) can create climatic buffer zones between
differing land uses
Traditional sustainable design.

5
 3.1 SITE SELECTION AND ORIENTATION
Site planning aims:
• Maximise the potential for passive Solar access should be a principal influence on the planning of any development.
solar gain in winter Consideration must be given to the need for heating or cooling and to daily and
• Allow solar access at street level, seasonal variations in solar radiation and wind flows, which will determine the relative
appropriate to the climate importance of solar and wind strategies. These factors vary across Europe; for
• Enable a degree of freedom in example, in northern Europe the sun is at a lower angle for any given time of the year,
placing buildings on plots without
causing longer shadows, and more solar radiation is desirable in buildings there than
causing excessive solar
in countries further south. Daylight penetration and thermal comfort within any built
obstructions to/by adjacent
buildings environment are largely the result of the building’s exposure, and these are influenced
• Use street proportions and by:
external landscaping features
which take into account variations • Orientation
in climate and sun angles In relation to the sun’s daily and seasonal movement, and wind flows. North-South
occurring across Europe orientations are generally preferable to East-West facing buildings, where excessive
solar gain may be problematic.

• Form
The design, relative size and glazing ratio of each facade can play a major role in
the energy efficiency of a building.

• Surrounding terrain
Topography, windbreaks and surface roughness determine protection or exposure.

• Adjoining developments
In general, denser developments result in a greater reduction in wind speeds but
proportionally increased turbulence. The edges of built-up urban areas in
particular need protection from prevailing winds and driving rain in northern
High altitude siting. Europe.

Optimal siting: Consideration must be given to optimising the solar access of any site, particularly as
• Cool climate passive solar technologies become increasingly common in urban situations. Where
low to mid slope to avoid strong solar gain is desired (during the heating season, for example) adjacent structures or
winds and cool air pockets vegetation should not be permitted to obstruct sunlight. The planning of access roads
• Temperate on a site influences solar access considerably by determining plot orientations,
mid slope preferable to exploit
particularly on smaller sites. Roads laid on an east/west axis, with smaller north/south
summer breezes, upper and lower
links where necessary, are most conducive to southerly oriented buildings, but this may
slope also possible when sheltered
from prevailing winds without not be viable in every situation.
compromising the benefits of
summer breezes
• Hot arid N N
high altitudes preferable above E E E
N
sloped ground to benefit from cool
5° W S
air flows W S W
S
• Hot humid 5°
high altitudes on windward side to (II) North facing slope
(I) Standard house
increase evaporative cooling 0° inclination
5° inclination (III) South facing slope
potential +400 kWh/year 5° inclination
-150 kWh/year

Secondary access road

In a typical residential development with houses at 21m spacing, compare the heating
requirements of the same house on: (i) flat ground (ii) a 5°slope, north facing (iii) a 5°slope,
south facing.
Primary access road

N Common planning constraints:

• Site topography (steep contours, water courses, geological characteristics, patterns
of water run-off)
• Landscape features and obstacles
• Existing roads, buildings and infrastructure routes
• Planning and building legislation (setbacks, plot ratio, site coverage, rights to light,
emergency services access)

Providing secondary access roads Where such constraints require roads to be on a north/south axis, innovative design
along east/west axis giving buildings
side-entry and side-gardens. This can and configuration of buildings within urban plots can help ensure adequate solar
create open spaces serving as solar / access. Considerable tolerance in orientation (+/- 30° of south) is possible and the use
thermal buffers in front of buildings.
of appropriate building forms can result in successful, climate-responsive buildings.
6
In developments with a mix of building types and forms, buildings should be arranged
with respect to the sun’s path and orientation of the site. Taller buildings should be 1 roof
placed to the north of lower ones, at site boundaries or corners surrounded by roads, 2 south facing glazing
3 south facing external space
where they cause least solar obstruction and overshadowing.Varying roof profiles 4 north elevation
1
across a site helps to increase the number of buildings with good solar access.
Grouping and spacing of buildings should be designed to prevent undesirable wind- 2
4

tunnel effects.
3

Southern European site layouts should aim to optimise natural cooling. Building forms
and densities can be designed to optimise shading. The cooling potential of wind flows
across a site should be considered at the early stages of a design.
Surfaces to consider when assessing
Air movement up or down a slope can significantly influence cooling. Anabatic flows, solar access.
where air is warmed by the ground on a calm, sunny day, rise up a slope. Katabatic
flows, where air is cooled by the ground on a calm, clear night, move downwards and
have more noticeable effects, creating cold pockets in hollows or valleys and Most solar thermal systems in Europe
are used for domestic hot water
aggravating frosty conditions due to trapped cold air.
(DHW]; In NW Europe a 3m2 solar
installation can provide up to 50% of
As pressure on land for development increases, designers are often faced with sites in average annual DHW demand. [6]
ecologically sensitive areas or on difficult soil conditions. Such developments, if they
are to occur, require especially careful design to minimise environmental impact,
particularly in terms of ground and surface water conditions. Sites located near Objectives of ParcBIT project:
wetlands, for example, should limit water run-off to avoid disrupting salinity levels, • To provide a masterplan for a high-
water-based wildlife and vegetation. quality living and work environ-
ment
3.1.1 Case Study – ParcBIT Project, Mallorca • To encourage state-of-the-art tele-
communications technologies in a
As part of the EXPO CITIES project in the Balearic Islands, the architectural firm, pilot community that offers
Richard Rogers Partnership, together with a multi-disciplinary design team, has solutions to the problems of
provided a masterplan for a new sustainable community near the capital city of Palma. modern urban living
As a residential community of 2,500 people with a peak working population of 6,000 • To make ecological concerns
paramount in the design solutions
people, ParcBIT is intended to be a business and science park set within the context of
• To create a vibrant, publicly
a full community development.
focused, compact urban
community
The communities are arranged within three urban clusters each of which is in itself a • To use the naturally available
village, and which together form a distinct balanced community. Each cluster gradually resources on the site to create an
diffuses from a vibrant, publicly focused centre, through a working district of offices, enriched agricultural landscape
production, manufacturing and housing to a quieter residential area on the outskirts.
The proposal aims to maintain a balanced cycle of activities over the day and
throughout the year. The phasing of the construction is structured so that each of the
villages will grow from the core outwards, establishing life in the centre to form a focus
for each village, preceded by the progressive laying down of infrastructure.

Careful analysis of the site and its landscape has influenced the masterplan which is
designed to preserve natural landscape features. The topography of the site has
played a significant role in the definition of built form and circulation patterns.
Buildings are located on terraces which wrap around a ridge following the contours
of the land. Ten percent of the winter floodwater from two flood torrents traversing the
site is to be collected in a storage area and released over the year to provide both
irrigation and drinking water.
Model of ParcBIT, Mallorca.

Traditionally constructed buildings with thick masonry walls will help ensure that rooms
are cool and comfortable. Height to width ratios for streets and squares are controlled
to ensure good daylight penetration to buildings, while providing shade to public
spaces in summer and allowing solar access in winter. Building facades are designed
to open in summer to provide shade and ventilation to buildings and pedestrian routes,
and when closed in winter provide a buffer zone.

The energy strategy for the development proposes to reduce demand by 70% by
constructing energy-efficient buildings and by using a combined heat and power
system fuelled using renewable energy sources.

An important part of the concept at ParcBIT is the proposed integrated transport system
with trams, buses, and electric cars connecting each cluster with the university and Plan of urban clusters.
7

Energy strategy.
Comfortable walking distances.
A net density of 100 people per
hectare [or about 40 – 50
dwellings] is recommended for
neighbourhood developments
on average in the UK on the
basis that: [13]
• it is the necessary density to
support a good bus service
• it is the lowest density viable for
district heating schemes
• it is the highest density capable of
allowing good solar access with
appropriate layout
Traditional inner city density.
Advantages of medium to high
density developments:
• Increasing the density will leave
more land for green areas within
and adjacent to urban areas
• Schemes for food production at a
community scale become feasible.
• Reduced travel distances favour
cyclists and pedestrians
• District heating and cooling
systems become more feasible
where local sources of waste heat
are available
8 and macro-climatic characteristics of the site, an exercise which will indicate
Palma. A road-based tram system will serve 7,000 inhabitants and a further 5,000
people on the university campus. Green-planted cycle and pedestrian routes will
provide access to residential areas from road and tram links. Parking areas will be
located so that residents and office workers can share spaces, thus reducing the overall
number of spaces required.
Bio-climatic design for buildings and open spaces in ParcBIT, Mallorca.
3.2 DENSITY
3.2.1 Buildings
The move towards revitalising and repopulating inner city sites with high density,
mixed-use developments aims to improve the viability and vitality of urban centres,
increase the potential for shared resources and reduce vehicle use generated by
suburban dispersal. A sustainable approach to the issue of density reduces the
dominance of the role of the car and instead considers less environmentally damaging
ways of achieving the horizontal and vertical movement of people, energy, food,
goods, water and waste.
In general, developments with higher densities use less energy for horizontal
movement: in mixed use developments most facilities can be located within walking
distance or integrated within an efficient public transport system. Reducing travel
distances will reduce car use and its related greenhouse gas emissions, allowing
design strategies to focus on the needs of cyclists, pedestrians and the provision of
green spaces between buildings. Higher density developments enable the sharing of
facilities and resources. Infrastructure supply lines can be shorter, reducing distances
for energy and water service runs.
For maximum density developments containing high-rise buildings, the additional
energy required for the vertical transfer of people and services such as energy, water
and waste must be addressed. Moving infrastructure upwards against gravity requires
more energy than horizontal flows. However, a higher density scheme will allow a
greater area of land to be dedicated to landscaped public areas and activities,
including allotments for food production and on-site bio waste treatments, for
example. At an architectural level, the embodied energy of the building materials must
be considered. High-rise structures often require materials (e.g. steel) with a higher
embodied energy than traditional materials used in low rise construction.
The optimum densities for mixed development of a site depend on variables such as
climatic, social, and topographical factors, location and existing settlement.
Fundamental to the success of any new development is planning foresight and well-
programmed investment in high quality infrastructure and facilities.
The potential disadvantages of high-density developments in terms of daylight access,
wind tunnelling and urban heat island effects for example, can be mitigated by
climate-responsive design. A starting point in any project must be to assess the micro-
appropriate bioclimatic design strategies. Some basic considerations for developments
in different European climates are outlined below:

Cool climate
• Aim for optimum balance between maximum solar access and wind shelter
• Use vegetation to reduce heat loss in winter and at night

Temperate climate
• Maximise solar access and natural ventilation potential in buildings
• Use vegetation for seasonal wind-shelter and solar shading

Hot-arid climate
• Plan high-density developments which allow space for shaded external areas; e.g.
courtyards Mutual shading.

• Select vegetation appropriate to the climate for shading

• Provide adequate solar access in winter New forests planted in four year
rotations of fast growing willow or
Hot-humid climate poplar within a framework of mixed
• Plan high-density developments around shaded external areas conducive to a free hardwoods, whose timber can be
flow of air used as a substitute for coal, could
• Design buildings to facilitate natural air movement patterns reduce the amount of carbon in the
• Provide adequate solar access in winter atmosphere by 3 tonnes/hectare per
year. [7]

3.2.2 Case Study – Kronsberg, Hannover

Another example of an EXPO CITIES project, the new district of Kronsberg, Hannover,
is being developed according to the International Council for Local Environmental
Initiatives recommendations of Agenda 21, coordinated by the Kronsberg
Environmental Liason Agency, with an ecological concept in the spirit of the Charter of
Aalborg, which commits it to a new sustainable design approach. A mixed residential
district of terraced houses and large and small apartments, will provide 6,000
dwellings for 15,000 inhabitants, almost half of whom will be living there by the
opening of the EXPO in June 2000. Services and amenities for the new district will
include a primary school, a schools centre and three kindergartens, neighbourhood
parks, and reserved areas for social services and commercial uses. An Arts and
Community Centre will house the city council’s advice bureau, church and community
Commercial development at Kronsberg.
centre, health centre, shops, cafes and restaurants.

A grid layout incorporates avenues, parks, squares and planted courtyards, with each
section of the district containing 1000 dwellings in eight blocks grouped around a
neighbourhood park. It is a high-density development respecting the principles of
efficient resource and land-use. There will be three zones from west to east with
differing levels, density and dwelling types; four storey apartment buildings to the west
next to the service road and tram route; three storey housing in the middle; and two
storey terraced housing to the east. Ten per cent of the housing will be owner-occupied;
the remaining ninety per cent will be subsidised rented accommodation. All of the
dwellings will have direct access to a green space in the form of a courtyard and
nearly all of the dwellings will have a private garden, a balcony or a roof garden. The
landscape plan for Kronsberg incorporates the planting of woodland on the Kronsberg
ridge with diverse habitats created in the vicinity for wild plants and animals .
Residential district at Kronsberg.

Extensive commercial estates are being developed directly adjacent to the residential
district, fulfilling the aim to develop workplaces close to home, accessible by public
transport. The long-term planning aim is to expand the current commercial
development to the south after EXPO 2000. The simultaneous realisation of the
residential area with its infrastructure and amenities, comprehensive landscaping and
green space, constitute attractive conditions for the location of businesses and
employment.

A new tram service connecting Kronsberg to the city centre will have a journey time of
20 minutes, with sufficient tram-stops to ensure that no dwelling is more than 600m
from a stop. The main service road runs parallel to the tramway on the edge of the
residential area to minimise disruption. From the main service road, the district has a
network of minor streets, serving only local traffic, bordered with trees and grass
Transport route, Kronsberg.
verges. The streets are laid out to favour pedestrians and cyclists. Car parking
9
 requirements in Kronsberg have been set at 0.8 parking space per dwelling, much of
it located in underground car parks.

3.2.3 External Spaces

Much research has been done on the psychological benefits of comfortable external
spaces and how these can be influenced by climatic, spatial and architectural design
parameters. Social issues such as maintenance, security, and visual privacy or
openness must also be addressed when designing external spaces.Climatic
considerations to be addressed in providing comfortable external spaces include solar
and wind access and proximity to sources of noise or air pollution.

Solar houses, Kronsberg. The most significant benefits of climate control are usually gained from localised
features such as courtyards, sheltered or shaded areas creating microclimates more
comfortable than surrounding public open spaces. Thus when considering climate and
air quality at an urban scale, the provision of a network of many small green spaces
or ‘urban forests’ throughout a city is often preferable to a few large parks. Derelict
land in cities may be reused to provide community forests and parks, climatic shelter
belts and buffer zones, and visual and acoustic screening of motorways.

3.2.4 Case Study - Urban Parks in Paris

Paris has many large and small public parks and gardens. As part of the regeneration
of disused and derelict parts of the city, three new parks have been formed; the Parc
de Bercy, the Parc André-Citroën, and the Bastille Viaduct. Filled with vegetation, from
External space, Berlin. mature trees to flower beds, these amenity spaces improve the immediate and general
environment through the provision of natural air filtration mechanisms, water retention
areas, summer shading canopies, as well as habitats for the area’s local fauna.

Parc de Bercy, Paris.

Parc de Bercy, Paris.

Parc de Bercy is built in the centre of a former wine quarter in the east of Paris.
Much of the area was derelict and in need of renovation. The park was designed by
Bernard Huet and FFL architectes, and encompasses an area of 14 hectares. It is
divided into three rectangular sections: an open grassed play area, containing trees
informally interspersed within an orthogonal grid of paths; a central garden section,
Bastille Viaduct, Paris.
subdivided into regularly planted and shaped plots, and traversed by a canal which
leads to the third, ‘water’ section of the park. A raised walkway, designed to act as a
10
visual and noise buffer to the nearby motorway was also planned but financial
constraints have prevented the construction of this part of the development.

Parc André-Citroën is located on the site of the former Citroën car factory in the
west of Paris. Gilles Clement and Patrick Berger designed the northern sector and Jean
Paul Viguier, Jean-Francois Jodry and Alain Provost were responsible for the southern
part. The park covers an area of 14 hectares, and is centred around a large green
expanse of grass. Geometrically sculpted gardens contain and control the vegetation.
Each garden has a different theme: deciduous trees are scattered throughout one
garden; another contains a pattern of evergreens; yet another is left to grow wild. A
terrace of fountains saturates and cools the paved area between the orangeries, while
a row of limestone pillars containing small water fountains lines the western end of the Bastille Viaduct, Paris.
park.
SPECIES SOLAR
The Bastille Viaduct is an example of the advantages of reusing existing urban RETENTION
fabric to improve a local environment socially, economically and environmentally. A %
disused viaduct was renovated to provide an elevated linear park, along which runs a
promenade lined with trees and other vegetation. Patrick Berger was the architect Acer Negundo 88.6
responsible for the design of the renovation works, comprising the viaduct, the 13 Catalpa Bignoinoides 85.8
hectare park above, and shops under the arches of the viaduct at street level. Celtis Australis 91.0
Ceratonia Silicua 83.6
Cercis Siliquastrum 90.1
3.3 CLIMATE OPTIMISATION
Citrus Aurantium 87.0
3.3.1 Solar Radiation Ficus Macrophilia 93.8
Gleditsia Triacanthos 89.0
The aim when addressing solar access to any development is to design for maximum Ligustrum Japonicum 89.0
desirable solar radiation when heating is required, while protecting against unwanted Melia Azedarach 89.1
solar radiation when overheating may occur. Maximising solar access is generally Mioporum Pictum 91.4
desirable in northern latitudes, while in southern latitudes protection from excessive Morus Alba 77.5
solar access is generally required in summer. Nerium Oleander 91.6
Olea Europea 89.8
Phoenis Dactilifera 90.6
Deciduous trees are particularly effective seasonal shading devices, providing Pinus Alpensis 85.8
protection in the summer months while allowing daylight and solar penetration in Platanus Acerofilia 85.8
winter. Where sunlight reaches ground surfaces directly (plazas, wide streets) Populus Alba Bolleana 94.3
vegetation can be used effectively as a means of solar shading (trees and shrubs) and Robina Pseudoacacia 86.0
absorption (grass). Sophora Japonica 93.2
[8]
COMPARISON OF TREE FORMS:
Y2 < Y1 AND X 2 > X1 ,WIDE, SHORT TREES GIVE BETTER SHADE
PATTERNS BOTH SUMMER AND WINTER

AL WINTER SHADE

Y1 Y2
X1 X2
X : BENEFICIAL SUMMER SHADE
Y :DETRIMENTAL
Seasonal shading, Dublin.
The main considerations in the design of planting are species type, growth rate and
location. Different species of vegetation have different capacities to absorb solar
radiation. Local species generally have stronger resistance to local pest and climatic
conditions, requiring less maintenance than exotic species. The characteristics of plants
that can significantly affect their contribution to solar shading are:
• Growth pattern
the time taken for sufficient growth to provide shade/cooling benefits
• Diameter and height
implications for tree-spacing, distance from buildings, extent of shadows at
maturity
• Duration of leaf season
timing relative to the heating/cooling season, implications for solar access and the
appearance of the trees in winter
11

N solar access requirements.
45º 45º
Selective tree siting to maintain solar
access.
Swiss municipalities are encouraging
the planting of existing flat roofs. In
Bern, a law has been introduced
requiring the provision of planted
roofs on all new construction or
existing buildings undergoing retro-
fitting.
Green roofs, Vienna.
Roof ponds are an alternative to
planted roofs, covering entire roof
surfaces or incorporated within roof
gardens, especially in warm climates.
They provide a thermal mass which
helps stabilise roof temperatures,
and, through evaporation of the
water, provides cooling.
Turbulant wind conditions around tall
buildings.
12
• Pollution resistance
durable species are needed in urban areas to avoid premature plant death
When planning trees near buildings, consider crown diameter and height relative to
the location of solar collectors and windows. Trees in sheltered locations retain their
leaves for longer, which may or may not be desirable depending on the climate and
Green spaces provide shelter, shade Gardens and living spaces are oriented
r sun
and a more pleasant environment. south to maximise light and heat to living Winte
areas and to garden.
Service and circulation spaces are to the
north of the house and act as thermal buffers.
Prevailing winds
GREEN SPACE ACCESS HOUSE AND GARDEN BUFFER MAJOR ROAD
ROAD SPACE
Deciduous planting provides shade in Planting and landscaping act as
summer and allows light to penetrate in winter insulation and shelters against motorway
noise and pollution, and prevailing winds.
Roof gardens can be established on the flat roofs of buildings using potted trees,
shrubs and plants. Roof planting also reduces the area of roof surface exposed directly
to the sun and the summer and winter temperature extremes to which a building’s roof
structure is subjected.
Planted, or grassed roofs, though not common, are beginning to be found on buildings
in urban centres across Europe. Low maintenance grass roof systems are increasingly
available. Some of the benefits include:
• Improved thermal stability of building structures and, consequently, interiors
• Reduced thermal stress in roofing materials, which extends their lifetime
• Acoustic insulation from the additional roof mass
• A natural habitat for species is created in an often otherwise hostile urban
environment
• Up to 50% reduction in rain water discharge from roofs due to vegetation retention
and evapo-transpiration of water
• Reduction of the urban heat island effect through the absorption of solar radiation
by vegetation
• Replacement of green space lost to the building’s footprint
3.3.2 Wind
Wind velocities have a significant impact on thermal comfort in urban microclimates.
Although average wind velocities in cities can be as little as 50% of those over open
water, tall buildings separated by open spaces can create local turbulence with
implications for driving rain and drifting snow.
In cool climates and locations subject to high winds, vegetation can be used as a wind
break, reducing excessive wind speeds, yet allowing enough air flow through external
spaces. Dense planting around narrow openings in the urban fabric will mitigate
wind-tunnel effects, impede the movement of dust and improve thermal comfort within
surrounding buildings by reducing fabric heat transfer and infiltration.
To reduce wind speeds so to provide shelter:
• Configure buildings to give wind protection without creating tunnels
• Use wind shelter belts (vegetation or architectural elements) to provide protection
from prevailing winds
• Plant a mixture of high- and low-branching trees and shrubs, to reduce wind speeds
at different levels
• Provide protected public spaces, using earth berms or changes in ground levels, for
example
 By placing trees along promenade, Landscaping elements used to
1. Orientate long
wind tunnelling is avoided and obstruct the path of the winter wind
axis parallel to
summer evaporative cooling is through public spaces
dominant wind
provided creating a protected
microclimate.
evaporative cooling
from river
2. Avoid large flank
walls facing
dominant wind

Urban heat stored in landscaping mass dissipates, and is replaced with

cooled external air, thus inducing natural ventilation in buildings.
3. Avoid funnel-like
gaps between
To increase wind speeds, promoting natural ventilation: buildings

• Use vegetation, architectural elements (screens, walls, buildings) and configuration

of streets and buildings to direct prevailing winds where needed while not
obstructing desirable summer air flows 4. Avoid long, parallel
• Limit the use of low-branching trees and shrubs rows of smooth
• Locate public spaces where they will benefit from katabatic air flows down valleys faced buildings.

and slopes

3.3.3 Temperature
Evaporative cooling has been used to reduce temperatures locally in Southern
European countries for centuries, from the Gardens of Alhambra to the 1992 Seville
EXPO. Water evaporation absorbs a considerable amount of heat energy – 590
calories per cubic cm of water evaporated.

Direct evaporation of water raises the moisture content of surrounding air, from bodies
of water, fountains or evapo-transpiration of vegetation, inducing cooling of the air
and adjacent surfaces.

Passive direct evaporation strategies at an urban scale can be achieved by simple

means, such as the provision of vegetation, fountains or ponds in public spaces, or by
more complex means such as water towers. When using evaporation in hot climates Evaporative cooling, EXPO’ 92, Seville.
an expansive surface of water is not needed but natural ventilation should be designed
to avoid problems with increased humidity levels. Indirect evaporation avoids
problems with humidity levels and does not require as high a velocity of air flow as
direct systems, although its use often entails a greater level of planning, design and
equipment.

Due to the evaporation of water from vegetation, temperatures can be up to 10K lower
in urban parks than in surrounding densely built areas (see section 3.3.6). Alternating
densely planted areas with open spaces enhances night cooling, by allowing the
humid air from around the vegetation to escape. Concentrated sources of heat
production, e.g. kitchens or plant rooms, should be located near densely planted
areas. Evaporative cooling, Sydney.

The presence of a body of water will help to moderate temperature extremes due to its Opportunities for integrating vege-
high thermal storage capacity. Evaporative cooling is most effective downwind of a tation within urban developments:
cool, dry air flow, seen in many traditional settlements in hot-arid climates which • Public and semi-public open
spaces: plazas, squares, court-
feature ponds or wetted surfaces placed along known air-paths. The temperature of
yards, passageways, arcades and
hard landscaping materials can be lowered when water is sprinkled, run over or
other spaces between buildings at
through them. This is especially beneficial in built-up areas with large surfaces of heat ground level
retaining materials, exposed to high solar radiation. • Private gardens, courtyards,
building plots and allotments
To increase air temperatures at a site: • Alongside roads, paved streets,
pedestrian streets, motorways
• Optimise solar exposure and create `sun traps’ on south-east to south-west facing
• Down the centre of roads and
sites motorways
• Provide windbreaks to direct cold air flows away from open occupied spaces and • Roof gardens
buildings • Pergolas
• Use dark coloured heat retaining materials (concrete, masonry) on south facing • Planted roofs
surfaces • Planting applied to vertical
building surfaces as ‘organic’
facades
13

Over one day, a single, large tree can
transpire 450 litres, diverting
230,000 Kcal of energy away from
raising air temperatures, equivalent
to five average air-conditioner units
running for 19 hours each. [9]
To increase humidity at a site:
• Increase the water retention of
surfaces and reduce drainage
• Provide a means of evaporative
cooling using fountains, ponds,
sprinklers and sprays for example
• Use vegetation in preference to
hard landscaping materials where
possible
• Use low planting to reduce
moisture evaporation from ground
• Vegetation absorbs ozone, sulphur
dioxide, carbon dioxide, and
other polutants, reducing the
amounts present in the atmos-
phere
• Soil micro-organisms are part-
icularly effective in contributing to
the conversion of carbon mono-
xide to carbon dioxide
• Plants placed at roadsides release
oxygen which combines with
nitrogen oxide to form nitrogen
dioxide, which is again absorbed
by plants
Bio-climatically controlled external
spaces, EXPO’ 92, Seville.
14
To decrease air temperatures:
• Use vegatation for solar shading, particularly in summer
• Site any wind shelter belts to avoid impeding air flows, use only branching trees
• Provide measures for evaporative cooling
• Limit the amount of exposed hard landscaping materials and use ground cover
vegetation extensively
3.3.4 Relative Humidity
In landscaped urban areas the evapo-transpiration process of plants influences the
relative humidity and air temperature. Relative humidities under planting or dense
trees can be 3% to 10% higher than in unplanted areas [10]. As the level of
evaporation is directly proportional to the density of vegetation, leaf surface-to-air
temperature and relative humidity of the air, effects are greatest in hot dry summers,
and least in winter.
Studies have shown that for mid-European latitudes, if at least 20% of an urban area
is planted, more solar radiation is used to evaporate water on the leaves of the plants
than to raise the temperature of the air, providing an effective natural cooling strategy.
[9].
3.3.5 Air Quality
Plants and soil survive through the exchange of light, water and gases. In areas where
air quality is poor, many species of vegetation can absorb substantial levels of common
urban pollutants such as CO2, NOx, SO2. Some plants are not only resistant to air
pollution, but can significantly improve the local air quality by filtering particulate
matter from the air through their leaves. A Douglas Fir, for example, with a trunk
diameter of 38cm can remove 19.7kg of sulphur dioxide per annum, without damage
to itself, where atmospheric pollution is around 0.25 p.p.m. [9]. Deciduous trees have
the added advantage of a seasonal replenishment of their leaf supply, with which to
filter the air. Consider planting near or downwind from sources of dust or pollution
such as motorways and dry and dusty ground surfaces.
3.3.6 Case Study – EXPO’ 92, Seville
One of the main aims of the designers of the 1992 Seville EXPO was to provide a
comfortable external environment in which the estimated 290,000 visitors per day
could relax between visits to over a hundred international pavilions on the site. The
area of the EXPO site was 215 hectares with pavilions taking up an area of 50
hectares, leaving three quarters of the site as external spaces.
A master plan was devised for EXPO ’92 by a team of architects, planners and local
authorities which established criteria to achieve a bio-climatic, ecological framework
for the development. Fundamental to the development was the provision of the most
comfortable external conditions possible through natural and passive cooling
measures using vegetation and water. Extensive planting of vegetation took place very
early in the process to provide sufficient time for plant growth before the opening of
EXPO. The pavilions were grouped to allow the public open spaces to give a sense of
unity to the site while providing external spaces for restaurants, meeting and resting
areas which could be bio-climatically controlled. Reductions in outdoor air
temperatures of up to 10K were claimed.
The ratio of soft to hard landscaping was proposed at 60:40, with vegetation
integrated with the built areas as much as possible. Vegetation species of different
heights were used to maximise the filtration of air at different levels. Planted screens
were designed to channel prevailing winds into the site, enhancing their cooling.
Water was used throughout the site in fountains, water walls, sprays, cascades, ponds.
Studies prior to the construction of the EXPO, and further in-use assessments have
shown that comfortable external environments were achieved by the natural means
described above when climatic conditions in Seville remained below the following
levels:
 Relative humidity 40% and Max. temperature = 36°C
Relative humidity 60% and Max. temperature = 30°C*
Strategies used for microclimate
*with minimum wind speeds of 1m/second.
control throughout the EXPO ’92 site
include the design of:
• Vegetation
• Shading
• Ventilation
• Water evaporation
• Thermal inertia of the ground,
landscaping features
• Heat dissipation systems
• Air filtration systems

Shaded pedestrian routes, EXPO ’92, Seville.

3.4 BUILDINGS

3.4.1 Building Materials

EXPO ’92, Seville.
A building’s envelope not only acts as a climatic filter determining internal comfort but,
due to its thermal mass, solar reflectance and transmittance, also influences thermal
and visual comfort conditions in adjacent external spaces. In general, construction materials
should be:
Building materials exposed to direct solar radiation will store this as heat which is • appropriate to the climate
released after a time period depending on the reflectance and heat storage capacity • preferably indigenous
of the material. At an urban level this can be an advantage in contexts where a • of low embodied-energy
delayed release of stored heat will benefit external spaces used in the evening time. In • recycled, recyclable, non-toxic
• dependant on local skills
hot climates, light coloured, reflective surfaces are preferable for reducing the heat
gain of a structure by day, but care should be taken to reduce exposure to glare
caused by light reflected off these surfaces, and glass facades in particular.

Using dark coloured finishes to reduce glare may result in an increase in the solar heat
gain of the structure, which can in turn increase the cooling load of the building. The
use of vegetation and architectural features to providing shade in such situations may
be more appropriate. Vertical and horizontal shading can shield large surfaces of a
facade, offering solar, wind and rain protection. In cold climates where solar heat gain
by day is beneficial for evening heat release, south facing walls can be covered with
deciduous vegetation to avoid obstructing desirable solar gain in winter.

Conventional dark coloured roof finishes (asphalt, PVC, EPDM) absorb large amounts
of solar radiation especially in summer. Lighter coloured or reflective finishes, grassed
roofs and roof gardens can significantly mitigate heat gain. Appropriate light-coloured reflective
facade in hot climate.

3.4.2 Building Form and Construction

Optimum building forms vary according to climatic parameters and can have a
profound impact on the form of urban spaces. In all climates, building design should
aim to maximise daylighting, energy conservation, and shelter (solar or wind shelter,
depending on the climate). In general compact building forms are preferable. By Workshop
Bath
BUFFER SPACES Bedroom
minimising the surface to volume ratio, heat losses and gains can also be minimised. Bath
Hallways, Storage, Stairs, etc.

Kitchen /
Bedroom Living Dining
Area
Building construction with a high thermal mass can be beneficial in both cool and hot
climates. The thermal stabilty provided by high mass construction contributes to slower N

heat transfer in hot dry climates, while in cooler climates, solid construction exposed
to winter sun can act as a heat sink. S

The use of light colours on external finishes reduces thermal gains in building Location of indoor spaces.
envelopes, but consideration should be made to avoid problems with glare.
15

In all climate zones it is beneficial to
zone activities within buildings
according to solar and wind
exposure, daily and seasonal occu-
pancy.
Buildings should be designed to encourage natural ventilation in the summer months
while providing wind shelter in winter.
Zoning rooms to provide thermal buffers can benefit both hot and cool climates. In
Northern European climates, buffer zones located to the north of buildings prevent
excessive heat loss, while in the warmer southern European climates uninhabited
rooms to the west of buildings provides a thermal buffer against low afternoon sun.

3.4.3 Case Study - GREEN City; Radstadt, Austria

The European GREEN (Global Renewable Energy and Environmentally responsible
Neighbourhoods) Cities project, supported by the EU Thermie programme, included
GREEN City Project Planning
Principles eleven low-energy residential projects in seven EU Member States: Austria; Belgium;
• Sustainable urban planning Denmark; France; Italy; Spain and the UK, and involves the planned construction of
• Sustainable and healthy building over 900 new dwellings.
design
• Energy and environmental The main purpose is twofold: to initiate low-energy and environmentally sound house-
assessment building practice in these cities using best available technologies in new-build and
• Optimised energy and water
retrofit projects based on energy and environmental assessment; and to provide
supply systems
information and demonstration of this practice for city authorities, builders and
• Building-integrated solar energy
design consultants. A special design tool was developed and is being used throughout the
project, which assesses, from an economic viewpoint, the implementation of different
energy-saving measures in the new and retrofitted buildings.

Some of the sustainable building measures to be carried out include:

• Reduced ventilation rates achieved by improved ventilation design and the use of
low-emissivity building materials
• Integrated solar heating design, PV solar energy for ventilation and optimised
energy supply systems with an Energy Management Control System
• Sustainable low energy design which aims for:
- 40 – 60% energy savings for space heating and hot water
- 30% saving on electricity use
- 30 – 40% saving on water usage
• Monitoring programmes which will be carried out for all the projects

In the 13th century city of Radstadt, fifty new dwellings were planned, of which thirty-
Cavity wall construction, Radstadt.
six have been completed. This solar low-energy development has become a model
residential area, giving new identity and an improved quality of life to one of the oldest
parts of Radstadt.

Optimisation of the micro-climate and passive solar design were major objectives in
site selection and building orientation. A primary aim was to minimise the total energy
consumption for both construction and operation of the buildings. Life-cycle
environmental impacts of ten construction methods and heating systems were
undertaken to determine the most cost-effective, environmentally acceptable systems.
To achieve low-energy buildings standards, the walls to the north, west and east are
constructed of brick cavity walls with 160mm insulation, and to the south of lightweight
timber construction. The design U-values of 0.2 W/m2K for walls and 0.7 W/m2K for
windows respectively indicate the high thermal standards applied.

The project is served by 108m2 of solar collectors for hot water, while a wood-chip
fuelled district heating system and a heat recovery ventilation system help ensure low
Light-weight timber construction, energy consumption. The total energy consumption for heating and domestic hot water
Radstadt.
for an average multi-family house is 76kWh/m2/yr; 14kWh/m2/yr provided by solar
energy and 62kWh/m2/yr by biomass.

3.5 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Waste management strategy:
1. Reduce waste at source 3.5.1Energy and Resource Management
2. Sort wastes
The efficient management of energy and other resources is of great importance in any
3. Re-use/re-cycle
4. Dispose of waste safely sustainable urban design strategy. Minimisation of activities and functions that waste
[11] energy and resources is a primary consideration where effective action can result in a
much smaller energy and resource supply task.
16
While energy and resource optimisation at the scale of the individual building or other
facility is important and the cumulative effects of such measures can be large, there
are many energy and resource supply measures that are often best undertaken at an
urban scale including: district heating systems; large-scale photovoltaic energy
generation; large-scale combined heat and power production (eg using biomass as a
fuel), wind power, and hydro-electric power production.

3.5.2 Waste Management

The provision of adequate storage is necessary for different categories of waste,
particularly for domestic waste in high density residential developments. This includes
recycling collection points and communal waste-disposal areas. Particular attention
should be paid to construction wastes and the potential for re-use of materials ranging
Photovoltaic application.
from formwork to top-soil. Designated access routes of adequate dimensions for waste
collection vehicles must be provided. Strategies for as much on-site treatment of waste
as possible should be established, to reduce transportation energy costs and minimise
landfill.

Communal strategies for waste collection and treatment must be managed properly
and supported by a large enough population for the process to be feasible. For
example, the scale of waste combustion operations must be large enough to meet the
cost of efficient, environmentally acceptable waste treatment equipment and controls
which minimise the level of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere.

The principle of a CHP plant.

100 m3

Volume of water ...2 persons living

used by... in 40 m2 apt. per year

3.5.3 Water Management

Strategies with regard to water use should promote sustainable water management,
reduced consumption, water conservation, and the re-use and efficient treatment of
Reed bed, Earth Centre, Doncaster.
water. Efficient removal of surface water (street drainage) and the high run-off
coefficients of hard landscaping materials in contemporary cities reduce the amount
of water retained on or in the ground with effects on drainage, vegetation, soil stability
and oppurtunities for natural cooling through evaporation. Whilst the use of water Typically, households require 30 to 50
features (fountains, ponds) for natural cooling is most effective in high temperatures, cubic metres of water per person per
year for direct domestic consumption
increasing ground water retention within urban areas will be of benefit in most
alone. [12]
climates by addressing the important issue of water management.

Septic Tanks Accidental spillage

Leaking storage container Waste incinerator

Refuse dump

Leaky sewer
Well

River
Water table

Polluted groundwater

Water channeling as design feature,

Copenhagen.
Impact of poor waste handling on water resources.
17

Fresh water, Brazil.
Canal, Lucca.
Sky glow at night.
Low-energy housing, Kronsberg.
Wind turbine, Kronsberg.
18
It is important to establish an efficient water conservation system. Even in countries
with high rainfall, due to the inadequate provision of water storage, water shortages
may occur during prolonged dry weather. A comprehensive analysis of precipitation
and evaporation data for a site should be carried out at the early stages of a project.
Rainwater Storage Strategies
• Below ground
Underground tanks and lakes, effectively acting as thermal heat sinks, contribute to
natural cooling within the immediate microclimate
• Above ground
- Lakes, canals and reservoirs can collect rainwater whilst providing areas of
natural habitats and amenity
- Rivers and canals can form the edge of landscaped pedestrian routes,
introducing a greater variety of vegetation into urban areas
- Roadways and pavements can be designed to incorporate rainwater retention
and infiltration systems e.g. using protected channels and soakaways to create
small water-courses along urban routes
Rainwater collected and stored may then be used for irrigation and other purposes,
where water of potable quality is not required.
3.5.4 Light Pollution
Measures to reduce light pollution in urban areas:
• Reduce the use of non-essential lighting (turn off neon signage or shop-window
displays in the early hours of the morning for example)
• Where lighting is required for emergency, security or operational reasons, use
energy efficient luminaires of the minimum necessary wattage and, where possible,
shield fittings to avoid light spillage
• Infrared motion-sensor lights are successful in security applications and help to
reduce electricity consumption
• On public roads, uniform lighting with a low glare co-efficient and fully shielded
fixtures effectively pointed downwards reduce light pollution and through more
efficient lighting, can provide safer road conditions
Low pressure sodium lighting is one of the most efficient light sources and has a low
operating cost. The bright yellow monochromatic light causes less glare than mercury
vapour lamps which are commonly used for all-night lighting.
3.5.5 Case Study – EXPO 2000 Kronsberg, Hannover
An energy target has been set for the Kronsberg development, to reduce CO2
emissions by up to 60% through savings on heating, hot-water and electricity, but with
no reduction in comfort. This will be achieved by optimising energy use in low-energy
housing and the incorporation of renewable energy sources and innovative
technolgies. A standard ‘Low Energy House’ in Germany has an energy requirement
of 70–100 kWh/m2/yr. At Kronsberg, a maximum level of 55 kWh/m2/yr was
established. Specific energy-efficient construction methods and the use of
environmentally sound building materials are mandatory. All buildings are to be linked
to a district heating system.
In the Solar City part of the development, 100 passive solar dwellings and a children’s
day-centre are to draw half of their heating requirements from active solar energy and
the other half from the district heating network. Another 32 dwellings are to be
constructed as ‘passive solar houses’ to demonstrate a building standard that will
enable the space heating to be reduced to 15–20 kWh/m2/yr while significantly
reducing energy needs for hot water and household appliances.
A district co-generation plant will produce power and heat with reduced emissions.
Photovoltaic cells installed on the roofs of the primary school and the community and
district arts centres produce power for these buildings. Two wind turbines have been
erected which will supply the electricity needs of 3,000 dwellings.
Waste Management Concept
High priority is given in Kronsberg to waste-minimisation strategies. Strategies for
minimising construction waste as well as household, commercial and industrial waste,
were developed.

Construction waste makes up 40% by weight of Hannover’s waste. The City

administration has made regulations obliging property developers to choose
environmentally friendly materials, low waste building methods, and materials that can
be recycled. The on-site sorting of building waste for reuse, is supported by Hannover
Waste management.

Waste avoidance is the key principle in household waste management. Retailers will Sorting of construction waste.
minimise packaging, and the nearby Kronsberg Farm will sell its produce directly in
the district. Pre-sorting of household waste into organic matter, paper, glass and
packaging will facilitate recycling. Organic matter may be composted by each
household, with help and advice from the Hannover Waste management and
Kronsberg Environmental Liason Agency. Recycling banks near dwellings will
substantially reduce waste collection (by about 75%) and will subsequently reduce
householders’ waste collection charges.

Water Management Concept

The water management strategy for Kronsberg comprises three main principles:
• rainwater management
• reduction in potable water use
Composting of organic waste.
• awareness-raising programmes

Rainwater from hard-landscaped areas is collected, filtered and redirected into the
water features on site in a “Mulden-Rigolen-System”. In the community centre and
school, rainwater is reused for flushing toilets, watering gardens and green areas. All
new houses will be equipped with water-saving fittings (flow restricters and pressure
regulators), contributing to an estimated reduction in drinking water use of about 26
litres per person per year.

Residents are encouraged to save potable water. A public awareness campaign,

incorporating exhibitions, leaflets and brochures, will promote water-saving strategies
for residents. Training for water engineers and school teachers will also be provided.

Water conservation project.

The value of water will be emphasised through school projects by primary school
children. All the rainwater falling in the school grounds and from the grassed roof of
the school will be collected and used for flushing toilets and to water the school
garden.

General Water Strategies:

• Follow natural drainage paths as closely as possible
• Minimise the use of impervious ground surfaces
• Facilitate the absorption of rainwater in the cleanest condition possible
• Provide for collection and storage of rainwater for irrigation and other uses
• Consider on-site treatment of grey water

Infiltration Strategy - the Mulden-Rigolen System:

Public awareness campaign.
• Rainwater falls towards open gulleys, which run alongside roadways and
pavements, and is channelled into a grassed-over hollow (mulde) which acts as a
filter
• Beneath the hollow runs a pebble-filled underground storage basin (rigole) into
which the water seeps
• Some of the water is allowed to seep back into the ground to maintain the water
table level
• The rainwater is gradually released from the basin into surrounding retention areas
via a drainage pipe with a restricted-flow outlet

Retention Strategy:
• Most of the water leaves the site at this stage, via the existing stream which runs
through the site. Some of the filtered rainwater is collected in retention basins and Water retention area.
fed to points of use for toilet flushing and irrigating landscaped areas 19
 3.6 TRANSPORT
Some European car parking Whilst patterns of movement are influential in defining and sustaining a city,
requirements particularly in terms of integrating different areas within an urban settlement, modes
spaces per
of movement are a major source of environmental and social degradation, due to
dwelling
UK & Ireland-standard 1.5
vehicle emissions and the loss of land to roads and parking facilities.
Germany-standard 1.0
Kronsberg, Hannover 0.8 An increase in ‘sustainable mobility’ is needed. ‘Sustainable mobility’ is the facilitation
DWM Terrain, Amsterdam 0.3 of transport which fulfils its economic and social functions while limiting its detrimental
effect on the environment. This includes design and planning strategies which support
and promote less environmentally damaging transport systems for people and goods.
Often, this may involve urban zoning to reduce travel distances and the provision of
Pedestrian Bus Bicycle Car
facilities which encourage low or zero energy modes of transport.
45

40 Underground
35 3.6.1 Urban traffic control
Time in minutes

30
Developments should be planned and designed according to a road management
10km+ faster by
underground (or lightrail)
25

20 < 4500m faster by bicycle hierarchy primarily favouring pedestrians and cyclists.
15

10
< 450m faster to walk
Planning
5

0
< 250m faster to walk
Development should be:
• located around or close to public transport nodes and frequently used routes
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Distance in km

• planned around a network of pedestrian routes and footpaths which encourage

Travel times from door to door for walking and cycling by minimising distances between frequented facilities
different modes of transport in urban • served by an efficient low-emission public transport network with stations planned
areas. [11] to facilitate minimum walking distances, and measures to reduce traffic speeds
(traffic calming) outside of established transport corridors
• provided with an infrastructure of ample cycle parks, sheltered bus stops and the
Incentives for using ‘low-energy / minimum necessary car parking spaces
zero-emission public transport’:
• Cycle-path networks integrated
with urban planning policies
• Providing municipal bicycles and
low-energy vehicles for hire
• Adequate charging / fuelling
stations for electric and biodiesel
vehicles
• Restricted access for private cars
within city centres and environ-
mentally sensitive sites
• Public awareness campaigns and
incentives

Alternative fuels for vehicles:

DME DiMethyl Ester
RME RapsMethyl Ester Energy used in transportation. [14]
Biogas
Ethanol Strategies to reduce private car use will be most beneficial and successful in mixed-use
Electricity developments where alternative modes of transport can be offered i.e. an efficiently
run public transport network.

Design
Pedestrian routes should be safe, attractive, and easy to use. The following issues
should be considered:
• seasonal solar shading or access depending on the climate
• shelter from wind, driving rain and snow
• landscaping materials
• energy-efficient street lighting of minimum wattage and with shielded fixtures

3.6.2 Renewable vehicle fuels

Renewable vehicle fuels have a range of benefits, including lower emissions, and
unlimited supply when compared with conventional fossil fuels. Biodiesel fuels such as
Internal street network favours RME, a product of rapeseed oil, offer the benefits of a renewable energy source whose
pedestrians and cyclists, Kronsberg. pollutant emissions may be eliminated using vehicles equipped with catalytic
20 converters.
3.6.3 Information systems and telematics
Technology has its part to play in improving urban transport networks, and many
examples of its use in increasing the efficiency of public transport can be found across
Europe. Advanced Transport Telematics (ATT), the transmission of computerised
information over long distances, is used for giving priority to buses at traffic lights, or
data to passengers, for example.

Road management systems which improve the efficiency of public transport and
reduce private car use include co-ordinated fares, and road charges based on car
use. Microprocessor chips and smart cards can be used to track municipally-owned
bicycles and low-energy vehicles available for hire.

3.6.4 Case Study – Copenhagen Free Bike Scheme

Greater Copenhagen has 1. 7 million inhabitants, with 480,000 people living in the
municipality of Copenhagen. Approximately one third of commuters in Copenhagen
travel to work by bicycle, a third by public transport and a third by private car. The
City of Copenhagen has an extensive network of bicycle tracks throughout the city. To
encourage the use of bicycles in the city, the “Free-of-Charge City Bikes Project” was
launched in 1994, and today there are 2,500 free City Bikes in the streets.

City-Bikes are available from numerous City-Bike racks throughout the city, for a
nominal deposit. The bikes are available from April to December. In December they
are collected, repaired and stored during the winter. The City-Bikes can only be used
in the city centre, as specified on maps provided at each City-Bike rack. After use, the
City bikes project, Copenhagen.
City-Bike can be locked at any City-Bike rack and the deposit is returned. The bike can
be used for an unlimited time, but can only be locked at a City-Bike rack with the
special lock provided. In this way, City-Bikes are kept in circulation continuously.

3.6.5 Case Study – ZEUS in Bremen

The THERMIE Integrated Quality Targeted Project ZEUS, (Zero and low Emission
vehicles in Urban Society) involves a consortium of organisations active in the
procurement of such vehicles in eight European cities.

Cost and availability factors such as pricing, lack of fuelling and charging
infrastructure, and lack of maintenance facilities, all contribute to limiting the use of
zero and low emission vehicles. The aim of ZEUS is to demonstrate the role that
European city and regional bodies can play in overcoming these market obstacles.
The aim is also to generate wider interest in zero and low emission vehicles among
large fleet operators, public transport and taxi services in participating cities, and
allow such groups the benefits of lower prices by the procurement of these vehicles
through ZEUS.

The consortium is putting into service more than 1,200 low or zero emissions vehicles,
of which more than 150 buses will use alternative fuels and PV generated electric
vehicles. It is expected to save more than 4,600 tonnes oil equivalent annually, and to
reduce CO2 emissions by 14,200 tonnes, CO emissions by 300 tonnes and NOx
emissions by 115 tonnes.

Car-share, Bremen, Germany

As partner in the ZEUS project, Bremen has developed an efficient intermodal mobility
service; a combination of public transport and an extensive car sharing system. This
service offers a high level of flexibility and new options for reducing and adapting car
use. Key technologies are modern telematics as well as the AUTOCARD car rental
system.

AUTOCARD members pay an annual fee of 30 Euros and are then only charged for
actual costs based on the type of car used and kilometres driven. The prices for five
different car categories vary from 1,2 Euro/h to 4,4 Euro/h. There are no extra costs
for insurance and petrol. Special prices apply to cars hired for a full day or week.
Users of small cars pay no charge between 11.00 pm and 7.00 am. The AUTOCARD
incorporates an integrated computer chip, allowing it to be used as a personal car key.
Users can collect a car at one of 28 public traffic nodes in Bremen. Cars may be Zeus car sharing system, Bremen.
booked at any time and when returning the car, a parking space is always available.
21
 4. SELECTED DESIGN TOOLS
The complexity of urban design, which incorporates several levels of analysis from
climatic to cultural, geographic to geometric, is fundamental to the difficulties
encountered in the development of successful urban design tools.

A wide range of design tools is available to aid in the design of more energy-efficient
buildings. However, few tools have been developed to assess conditions in the urban
environment at city block or neighbourhood scale, or to predict the impact of proposed
buildings on an existing urban environment. Some design tools which address the
environmental impact of a proposed development on surrounding areas are outlined
below.

ZEIS
Sustainability Indicators are methods of analysis which attempt to quantify the many
levels of environmental, social and economic impact of concern in urban design. The
aim of urban sustainability indicators is to analyse an urban complex in terms of its
environmental impacts. These impacts can be described broadly as inputs and outputs.
Inputs refer to a city’s resource consumption, outputs refer to its by-products, wastes or
goods manufactured. ZEIS is a prototype for a computer aided urban design tool.
Within six main categories (Energy, Emissions, Buildings, Transport, Services, and
Environment), the programme has established approximately 100 criteria for
sustainability.
Developed by: L’Ecole d’Architecture de Toulouse, France.

Building Indoor
Comfort Chemical
Building Quality Compon. Solid
Neighbour- Form
Compon. Sound
hood
Urban Discomfort
Pattern
Grey
Renewable Water
Energy
Recycling
Incineration
BUILDING EMISSIONS Waste
Building
Public
Lighting
Transport

URBAN Water
Industry ENERGY SERVICES
SUSTAINABILITY
Lectures
Water

Grey Education
Water
Public
Lighting ENVIRONMENT TRANSPORT Health

Waste Shopping

Private
Hydrology Transport
Natural Pedestrian
Zones Natural Roads
DOMAIN Public Parking CRITERIA
Risks Industrial Road Syst.
Risks Efficiency Transport

Canyon
Canyon is a tool developed to calculate the dynamic evolution of ambient air in urban
street configurations. The tool calculates the thermal balance in the street, taking into
account short and long wave radiation, as well as other transfer phenomena
associated with materials and components in the street.
Developed by: Group Building Environmental Physics, University of Athens, Greece

CPCALC
CPCALC is a tool developed to calculate the air pressure distribution around buildings.
The programme is designed for a large number of building configurations.
Developed by: Polytecnico di Torino, Italy

Townscope
Townscope II assesses thermal comfort, critical wind discomfort risk and perceptive
qualities of urban open space, and provides an integrated multi-criteria decision
module to rank various alternative proposals.
Developed by: University of Liège, Belgium

22
5. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Conference Papers
[1] United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future,
Environmentally Friendly Cities -
(The Bruntland Report), 1987
Proceedings of PLEA ‘98 Lisbon,
[6] Alcock R, King C, Lewis J O, Solar Thermal Systems in Europe, EC DG XVII, ESIF, 1998 Portugal, James and James Science
Publishers Ltd, 1998
[9] Hough M, Cities and Natural Process, Routledge, 1995 • [3] Viljoen A, Tardiveau A,
Sustainable Cities and Landscape
[10] Mascaro L, Urban Environment / Ambiencia Urbana, Sagra-Luzzatto, 1996
Patterns

[11] O’Cofaigh E, Fitzgerald E, Lewis J O, A Green Vitruvius - Principles and Practice of • [5] Yannas S, Living with the City -
Sustainable Architectural Design, James and James, 1999 Urban Design and Environmental
Sustainability
[12] Sevilla A, Landabaso A, Present Tools to Shape Sustainable Cities, Geohabitat, 1998
• [8] Gomez F, Dominguez E,
Salvador P, The Green Zones in
[13] Barton H, Sustainable Settlements - a Guide for Planners, Designers and Developers, Bristol;
Bioclimatic Studies of the
Luton; University of the West of England; Local Government Management Board,1995
Mediterranean City

[14] Vilanove R, The Balearic Islands shaping the 21st century, The Balearic Government, 1998 • Gonçalves J, The Environmental
Impact of Tall Buildings in Urban
Benstem A, Wenau A, Hannover Kronsberg: Model of a Sustainable New Urban Community, Centres
Kronsberg Environmental Liaison Agency GmbH (KUKA) and the City of Hannover, revised
• Nikolopoulou M, Baker N,
version 1998
Steemers K, Thermal Comfort in
Outdoor Urban Spaces
Daniels K, The Technology of Ecological Building, Birkhåuser Verlag 1997
Solar Energy in Architecture and
DETR, UK, Building a Sustainable Future - Homes for an Autonomous Community, Best Practice
Urban Planning, 4th European
Programme, General Information Report 53, 1998
Conference, Berlin Germany 26–29
March 1996, H.S. Stephens and
Givoni B, Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1998
Associates, supported by the
European Commission, 1996
Gleiniger A, Paris - Contemporary Architecture, Prestel, 1997
• Deabate M, Peretti G,
Herzog T, Solar Energy in Architecture and Urban Planning, Prestel Verlag, 1996 Environmental Conscious Urban
Renewal in Turin (Italy)
Lloyd Jones D, Hudson J, Architecture and the Environment - Bioclimatic Building Design,
Laurence King, 1998

Lopez de Asiain J, Arquitectura 5, Open Spaces of Expo ’92, The Superior Technical School of Web Sites
Architecture of Seville (ETSAS), 1997
[2] www.iclei.org
McNicholl A, Lewis J O, Green Design - Sustainable Building for Ireland, Stationary Office, 1996 International Council for Local
Environmental Iniatives
O’Cofaigh E, Olley J, Lewis J O, The Climatic Dwelling, EC DG XII, James and James, 1996
[4] www.progress.org/
Olgyay V, Design With Climate: A Bioclimatic Approach To Architectural Regionalism, Van What We Use and What We Have:
Nostrand Reinhold, 1992 Ecological Footprint and Ecological
Capacity
Passive Solar Design Studies Project Summary 045, Estate Layout For Passive Solar Housing
www.uia.org/uiares/reshum.htm
Design, UK Dept. of Energy Contractors Report, Reprint Dec.1990
Excessive Ecological Footprint
Encyclopedia of World Problems and
Rogers R, Gumuchdjian P, Cities For a Small Planet, Faber and Faber, 1997
Human Potential

Urban Technologies Sectoral Report 1995–1997, EC DG XVII Thermie publication, 1998 www.ire.ubc.ca/ecoresearch/ecoftpr
.html
White R, Urban Environmental Management, John Wiley and Sons, 1996 How sustainable are our choices?

www.darksky.org
Articles
International Dark Sky Association
[7] Dodd J, Landscaping To Save Energy: The Protective Landscape, Architects Journal, July 1993
www.environment-agency.gov.uk
Battle G, McCarthy C, Dynamic Cities, Architectural Design, 1996 Environment Acency, UK

www.urbed.co.uk
Battle G, McCarthy C, Landscape Sustained by Nature, Architectural Design, 1994 Sustainable Urban Neighbourhood

Battle G, McCarthy C, The Design of Sustainable New Towns, Architectural Design, 1994 www.greendesign.net/greenclips
NASA takes aim at hot roofs
Glass Dr. J, Keeping The Lid On Overheating, Concrete Quarterly, Winter 1998 www.eurofound.ie
The European Foundation for the
Rogers R, Creating the Cities and Citizens of Tomorrow, Building Design, December 1998
Improvement of Living and Working
Conditions

23
 OPET NETWORK:
ORGANISATIONS FOR THE PROMOTION OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

The network of Organisations for the Promotion of Energy Technologies (OPET], supported by the European Commission, helps to disseminate new, clean and
efficient energy technology solutions emerging from the research, development and demonstration activities of ENERGIE and its predecessor programmes. The
activities of OPET Members across all member states, and of OPET Associates covering key world regions, include conferences, seminars, workshops, exhibitions,
publications and other information and promotional actions aimed at stimulating the transfer and exploitation of improved energy technologies. Full details can be
obtained through the OPET internet website address http://www.cordis.lu/opet/home.html

OPET
ADEME CORA Telephone: +34.94-423 5050 Contact: Mr Xavier Dubuisson
27, rue Louis Vicat Altenkesselerstrasse 17 Facsimile: +34.94-435 5600 Telephone: +32.81-250 480
75737 Paris, France 66115 Saarbrucken, Germany E-mail: jreig@eve.es Facsimile: +32.81-250 490
Manager: Mr Yves Lambert Manager: Mr Michael Brand E-mail:
Contact: Ms Florence Clement Contact: Mr Nicola Sacca FAST xavier.dubuisson@iwallon.be
Telephone: +33.1-47 65 20 41 Telephone: +49.681-976 2174 2, P. le R. Morandi
Facsimile: +33.1-46 45 52 36 Facsimile: +49.681-976 2175 20121 Milan, Italy Irish Energy Centre
E-mail: florence.clement@ademe.fr E-mail: sacca@sea.sb.uunet.de Manager: Ms Paola Gabaldi Glasnevin
Contact: Ms Debora Barone Dublin 9, Ireland
ASTER-CESEN CRES Telephone: +39.02-7601 5672 Manager: Ms Rita Ward
Via Morgagni 4 19 km Marathonos Ave Facsimile: +39.02-782485 Contact: Ms Rita Ward
40122 Bologna, Italy 190 09 Pikermi, Greece E-mail: paola.gabaldi@fast.mi.it Telephone: +353.1-808 2073
Manager: Ms Leda Bologni Manager: Ms Maria Kontoni Facsimile: +353.1-837 2848
Contact: Ms Verdiana Bandini Contact: Ms Maria Kontoni ICAEN E-mail: opetiec@irish-energy.ie
Telephone: +39.051-236242 Telephone: +30.1-603 9900 Avinguda Diagonal, 453 bis, atic
Facsimile: +39.051-227803 Facsimile: +30.1-603 9911 08036 Barcelona, Spain LDK
E-mail: opet@aster.it E-mail: mkontoni@cres.gr Manager: Mr Joan Josep Escobar 7, Sp. Triantafyllou St.
Contact: Mr Joan Josep Escobar 113 61 Athens, Greece
BEO Cross Border OPET- Bavaria- Telephone: +34.93-439 2800 Manager:
BEO c/o Projekttraeger Biologie, Austria Facsimile: +34.93-419 7253 Mr Leonidas Damianidis
Energie, Umwelt Wieshuberstr. 3 E-mail: edificis@icaen.es Contact:
Forschungszentrum 93059 Regensburg, Germany Ms Marianna Kondilidou
Juelich GmbH Manager: Mr Johann Fenzl ICEU Telephone: +30.1-856 3181
52425 Julich, Germany Contact: Mr Toni Lautenschlaeger Auenstrasse 25 Facsimile: +30.1-856 3180
Manager: Mr Norbert Schacht Telephone: +49.941-46419-0 04105 Leipzig, Germany E-mail: ldkopet@mail.hol.gr
Contact: Mrs Gillian Glaze Facsimile: +49.941-46419-10 Manager: Mr Jörg Matthies
Telephone: +49.2461-615 928 E-mail: fenzl.zreu@t-online.de Contact: Mrs Petra Seidler / NIFES
Facsimile: +49.2461-612 880 Mrs Sabine Märker 8 Woodside Terrace
E-mail: g.glaze@fz-juelich.de Telephone: +49.341-980 4969 G3 7UY Glasgow, UK
ENEA-ISNOVA Facsimile: +49.341-980 3486 Manager: Mr Andrew Hannah
BRECSU CR Casaccia E-mail: krause@iceu.manner.de Contact: Mr John Smith
Bucknalls Lane, Garston S Maria di Galeria Telephone: +44.141-332 4140
WD2 7JR Watford, UK 00060 Roma, Italy ICIE Facsimile: +44.141-332 4255
Manager: Mr Mike Trim Manager: Mr Francesco Ciampa Via Velletri, 35 E-mail: glasgow@nifes.co.uk.
Contact: Mr Mike Trim Contact: Ms Wen Guo 00198 Roma, Italy
Telephone: +44.1923-664 754 Telephone: +39.06-3048 4118 Manager: Mariella Melchiorri Novem
Facsimile: +44.1923-664 097 Facsimile: +39.06-3048 4447 Contact: Rossella Ceccarelli Swentiboldstraat 21
E-mail: trimm@bre.co.uk E-mail: Telephone: +39.06-854 9141 P.O. Box 17
enea_opet@casaccia.enea.it +39.06-854 3467 6130 AA Sittard, Netherlands
CCE Facsimile: +39.06-855 0250 Manager: Mr Theo Haanen
Estrada de Alfragide, Praceta 1 Energy Centre Denmark E-mail: icie.rm@rm.icie.it Contact: Mrs Antoinette Deckers
2720 Alfragide, Portugal DTI Telephone: +31.46-420 2326
Manager: Mr Luis Silva P.O. Box 141 IDAE Facsimile: +31.46-452 8260
Contact: Mr Diogo Beirao 2630 Taastrup, Denmark Paseo de la Castellana 95, E-mail: A.Deckers@Novem.nl
Telephone: +351.1-4722818 Manager: Mr Poul Kristensen planta 21 T.Haanen@Novem.nl
Facsimile: +351.1-4722898 Contact: Cross Border OPET 28046 Madrid, Spain
E-mail: dmre.cce@mail.telepac.pt Bavaria Mr Nils Daugaard Manager: NVE
Telephone: +45.43-507 080 Mr José Donoso Alonso P.O. Box 5091, Majorstua
CLER Facsimile: +45.43-507 088 Contact: 0301 Oslo, Norway
28 rue Basfroi E-mail: ecd@teknolgisk.dk Ms Virginia Vivanco Cohn Manager: Mr Roar W. Fjeld
75011 Paris, France Telephone: +34.91-456 5024 Contact: Mr Roar W. Fjeld
Manager: Ms Liliane Battais ETSU Facsimile: +34.91-555 1389 Telephone: +47.22-959 083
Contact: Mr Richard Loyen Harwell E-mail: vvivanco@idae.es Facsimile: +47.22-959 099
Telephone: +33.1-4659 0444 Didcot E-mail: rwf@nve.no
Facsimile: +33.1-4659 0392 OX11 0RA Oxfordshire IMPIVA
E-mail: cler@worldnet.fr United Kingdom Plaza Ayuntamiento, 6 OPET Austria
Manager: Ms Cathy Durston 46002 Valencia, Spain Linke Wienzeile 18
CMPT Contact: Ms Lorraine Watling Manager: José-Carlos Garcia 1060 Vienna, Austria
Exploration House Telephone: +44.1235-432 014 Contact: Joaquin Ortola Manager: Mr Günter Simader
Offshore Technology Park Facsimile: +44.1235-433 434 Telephone: +34.96-398 6336 Contact: Mr Günter Simader
Aberdeen AB23 8GX E-mail: lorraine.watling@aeat.co.uk Facsimile: +34.96-398 6201 Telephone: +43.1-586 1524
United Kingdom E-mail: ext 21
Manager: EVE ximo.ortola@impiva.m400.gva.es Facsimile: +43.1-586 9488
Mr Jonathan Shackleton Edificio Albia I planta 14, E-mail: simader@eva.wsr.at
Contact Ms Jane Kennedy C. San Vicente, 8 Institut Wallon
Telephone: +44.870-608 3440 48001 Bilbao, Spain Boulevard Frère Orban 4 OPET EM
Facsimile: +44.870-608 3480 Manager: Mr Juan Reig Giner 5000 Namur, Belgium Swedish National Energy
E-mail: j.kennedy@cmpt.com Contact: Mr Guillermo Basanez Manager: Mr Francis Ghigny Administration

These data are subject to possible change. For further information, please contact the above internet website address or Fax +32.2-296 6016
c/o Institutet för framtidsstudier
Box 591
S- 101 31 Stockholm, Sweden
Manager: Ms Sonja Ewerstein
Contact: Mr Anders Haaker
Telephone: +46.70-648 6919/
+46.85-452 0388
Facsimile: +46.8-245 014
E-mail: sonja.ewerstein@stem.se.
OPET Finland
Technology Development Centre
Tekes
P.O. Box 69,
Malminkatu 34
0101 Helsinki, Finland
Manager: Ms Marjatta Aarniala
Contact: Ms Marjatta Aarniala
Telephone: +358.10-521 5736
Facsimile: +358.10-521 5908
E-mail: marjatta.aarniala@tekes.fi
OPET Israel
Tel-Aviv University
69978 Tel Aviv, Israel
Manager: Mr Yair Sharan
Contact: Mr Yair Sharan
Telephone: +972.3-640 7573
Facsimile: +972.3-641 0193
E-mail: sharany@post.tau.ac.il
Black Sea Regional Energy
Centre (BSREC]
8, Triaditza Str.
1040 Sofia, Bulgaria
Manager: Dr L. Radulov
Contact: Dr L. Radulov
Telephone: +359.2-980 6854
Facsimile: +359.2-980 6855
E-mail: ecsynkk@bsrec.bg
EC BREC - LEI FEMOPET
c/o EC BREC/IBMER
Warsaw Office
ul. Rakowiecka 32
02-532 Warsaw, Poland
Manager: Mr Krzysztof Gierulski
Contact: Mr Krzysztof Gierulski
Telephone: +48.22-484 832
Facsimile: +48.22-484 832
E-mail: grewis@ibmer.waw.pl
Energy Centre Bratislava
c/o SEI-EA
Bajkalská 27
82799 Bratislava, Slovakia
Manager: Mr Michael Wild
Contact: Mr Michael Wild
Telephone: +421.7-582 48 472
Facsimile: +421.7-582 48 470
E-mail: ecbratislava@ibm.net
Energy Centre Hungary
Könyves Kálmán Körút 76
H-1087 Budapest, Hungary
Manager: Mr Andras Szalóki
Contact: Mr Zoltan Csepiga
Telephone: +36.1-313 4824/
+36.1-313 7837
Facsimile: +36.1-303 9065
E-mail:
Andras.szalóki @energycentre.hu
These data are subject to possible change. For further information, please contact the above internet website address or Fax +32.2-296 6016
OPET Luxembourg
Avenue des Terres Rouges 1
4004 Esch-sur-Alzette
Luxembourg
Manager: Mr Jean Offermann
(Agence de l’Energie]
Contact: Mr Ralf Goldmann
[Luxcontrol]
Telephone: +352.547-711 282
Facsimile: +352.547-711 266
E-mail: goldmann@luxcontrol.com
OPET Bothnia
Norrlandsgatan 13, Box 443
901 09 Umea - Blaviksskolan
910 60 Asele - Sweden
Manager: Ms France Goulet
Telephone: +46.90-163 709
Facsimile: +46.90-193 719
Contact: Mr Anders Lidholm
Telephone: +46.941-108 33
Facsimile: +46.70-632 5588
E-mail: opet.venet@swipnet.se
Orkustofnun
Grensasvegi 9
IS-108 Reykjavik, Iceland
Manager: Mr Einar Tjörvi Eliasson
Contact: Mr Einar Tjörvi Eliasson
Telephone: +354.569 6105
Facsimile: +354.568 8896
E-mail: ete@os.is
FEMOPET
Estonia FEMOPET
Estonian Energy Research Institute
Paldiski mnt.1
EE0001 Tallinn, Estonia
Manager: Mr Villu Vares
Contact: Mr Rene Tonnisson
Telephone: +372.245 0303
Facsimile: +372.631 1570
E-mail: femopet@femopet.ee
FEMOPET LEI - Lithuania
Lithuanian Energy Institute
3 Breslaujos Str.
3035 Kaunas, Lithuania
Manager: Mr Romualdas Skemas
Contact: Mr Sigitas Bartkus
Telephone: +370.7-351 403
Facsimile: +370.7-351 271
E-mail: bartkus@isag.lei.lt
FEMOPET Poland KAPE-
BAPE-GRAPE
c/o KAPE
ul. Nowogrodzka 35/41 XII p.
PL-00-950 Warsaw, Poland
Manager: Ms Marina Coey
Contact: Ms Marina Coey
Telephone: +48.22-622 2794
Facsimile: +48.22-622 4392
E-mail: kape4@pol.pl
FEMOPET Slovenia
Jozef Stefan Institute
Energy Efficiency Centre
Jamova 39
SLO-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Manager: Mr Boris Selan
Contact: Mr Tomaz Fatur
Telephone: +386.61-188 5210
Facsimile: +386.61-161 2335
E-mail: tomaz.fatur@ijs.si
CEEETA-PARTEX SOGES
Rua Gustavo de Matos Sequeira, Corso Turati 49
28-1. Dt. 10128 Turin, Italy
1200-215 Lisboa, Portugal Manager:
Manager: Mr Aníbal Fernandes Mr Antonio Maria Barbero
Contact: Mr Aníbal Fernandes Contact: Mr Fernando Garzello
Telephone: +351.1-395 6019 Telephone: +39.011-319 0833
Facsimile: +351.1-395 2490 +39.011-318 6492
E-mail: ceeeta@ceeeta.pt Facsimile: +39.011-319 0292
E-mail: opet@grupposoges.it
RARE
50 rue Gustave Delory VTC
59800 Lille, France Boeretang 200
Manager: Mr Pierre Sachse 2400 Mol, Belgium
Contact: Mr Jean-Michel Poupart Manager:
Telephone: +33.3-20 88 64 30 Mr Hubert van den Bergh
Facsimile: +33.3-20 88 64 40 Contact: Ms Greet Vanuytsel
E-mail: are@nordnet.fr Telephone: +32.14-335 822
Facsimile: +32.14-321 185
SODEAN E-mail: opetvtc@vito.be
Isaac Newton s/n
Pabellón de Portugal - Edifico Wales OPET Cymru
SODEAN Dyfi EcoParc
41092 Sevilla, Spain Machynlleth
Manager: SY20 8AX Powys
Mr Juan Antonio Barragán Rico United Kingdom
Contact: Manager: Ms Janet Sanders
Ms Maria Luisa Borra Marcos Contact: Mr Rod Edwards
Telephone: +34.95-446 0966 Telephone: +44.1654-705 000
Facsimile: +34.95-446 0628 Facsimile: +44.1654-703 000
E-mail: mborra.sodean@sadiel.es E-mail: opetdulas@gn.apc.org
Latvia FEMOPET Sofia Energy Centre Ltd
c/o B.V. EKODOMA Ltd 51, James Boucher Blvd.
Zentenes Street 12-49 1407 Sofia, Bulgaria
1069 Riga, Latvia Manager: Ms Violetta Groseva
Manager: Ms Dagnija Blumberga Contact: Ms Violetta Groseva
Contact: Ms Dagnija Blumberga Telephone: +359.2-962 5158
Telephone: +371.721-05 97/ Facsimile: +359.2-681 461
241 98 53 E-mail: ecencentre@enpro.bg
Facsimile: +371.721-05 97/
241 98 53 Technology Centre AS CR
E-mail: ekodoma@mail.bkc.lv Rozvojova 135
165 02 Prague 6, Czech Republic
OMIKK Manager: Mr Karel Klusacek
National Technical Information Contact: Mr Radan Panacek
Centre and Library Telephone: +420.2-203 90203
Muzeum Utca 17 Facsimile: +420.2-325 630
H-1088 Budapest, Hungary E-mail: klusacek@tc.cas.cz
Manager: Mr Gyula Nyerges
Contact: Mr Gyula Nyerges FEMOPET Cyprus
Telephone: +36.1-266 3123 Andreas Araouzos, 6
Facsimile: +36.1-338 2702 1421 Nicosia, Cyprus
E-mail: nyerges@omk.omikk.hu Manager: Mr. Solon Kassinis
Contact: Mr. Solon Kassinis
FEMOPET Romania ENERO Telephone: +357.2-867140/
8, Energeticienilor Blvd. +357.2-305797
3, Bucharest 79619, Romania Facsimile: +357.2-375120/
Manager: Mr Alexandru Florescu +357.2-305159
Contact: Mr Christian Tintareanu E-mail: mcienerg@cytanet.com.cy
Telephone: +401.322 0917
Facsimile: +401.322 2790
E-mail: crit@mail.gsci.vsat.ro
 NOTICE TO THE READER

Extensive information on the European Union is available through the EUROPA service
at internet website address http://europa.eu.int/

The overall objective of the European Union’s energy policy is to help ensure a sustainable energy
system for Europe’s citizens and businesses, by supporting and promoting secure energy supplies of
high service quality at competitive prices and in an environmentally compatible way. The European
Commission Directorate-General Energy & Transport initiates, coordinates and manages energy
policy actions at transnational level in the fields of solid fuels, oil and gas, electricity, nuclear energy,
renewable energy sources and the efficient use of energy. The most important actions concern
maintaining and enhancing security of energy supply and international cooperation, strengthening the
integrity of energy markets and promoting sustainable development in the energy field.

A central policy instrument is support and promotion of energy research, technological development
and demonstration (RTD), principally through the ENERGIE sub-programme (jointly managed with the
Directorate-General Research) within the theme “Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development”
under the European Union’s Fifth Framework Programme for RTD. This contributes to sustainable
development by focusing on key activities crucial for social well-being and economic competitiveness
in Europe.

Other programmes managed by Directorate-General Energy & Transport, such as SAVE, ALTENER
and SYNERGY, focus on accelerating the market uptake of cleaner and more efficient energy systems
through legal, administrative, promotional and structural change measures on a trans-regional basis.
As part of the wider Energy Framework Programme, they logically complement and reinforce the
impacts of ENERGIE.

The internet website address for the Fifth Framework Programme is

http://www.cordis.lu/fp5/home.html

Further information on Directorate-General Energy & Transport activities is available at the internet
website address
http://europa.eu.int/en/comm/dg17/dg17home.htm

This maxibrochure is available for downloading as a pdf file at the internet website address
http://erg.ucd.ie/erg_downloads.html

The European Commission

Energy & Transport Directorate-General
200 Rue de la Loi
B-1049 Brussels
Belgium

Faxsimile: +32.2-295 0577

E-mail: info@bxl.dg17.cec.be