1hls ls Lo cerLlfy LhaL !

"#$% '#(#)*#(, sLudenL of

Class +,,-., 8l8LA vlu?A nlkL1An has compleLed Lhe
pro[ecL

/0 ,$12)/,%#/2 /*2 (23#/,0$ .2/422$5
67 0!/'!/ #$8 ,$'!/ 103/#%2
667 $!".2( 09 /!($) ,$ /*2 )2:0$8#(; :0,3
#$8 '(,"#(; :0,3
09 # )239 82),%$28 /(#$)90("2(

durlng Lhe academlc year 20012-2013 Lowards parLlal
fulflllmenL of credlL for Lhe hyslcs pracLlcal evaluaLlon
of C8SL 2013, and submlLLed saLlsfacLory reporL, as
complled ln Lhe followlng pages, under my supervlslon
and guldance.





<"=>#)*,)* .*#//#:*#(;#7
8?@A=BC?DB EF @GHI6J
.6=KA 16LHA $6M?BAD




l would llke Lo express my slncere graLlLude Lo my hyslcs
Leacher "=I> $6LG6 "?G=A, for her vlLal supporL,
guldance and encouragemenL, wlLhouL whlch Lhls pro[ecL
would noL have come forLh. l would also llke Lo express
my graLlLude Lo Lhe sLaff of Lhe hyslcs for Lhelr supporL
durlng Lhe maklng of Lhls pro[ecL.










A Lransformer ls an elecLrlcal devlce whlch ls used for
changlng Lhe A.C. volLages. A Lransformer ls mosL wldely
used devlce ln boLh low and hlgh currenL clrculL. As such
Lransformers are bullL ln an amazlng sLrengLh of slzes. ln
elecLronlc, measuremenL and conLrol clrculLs,
Lransformer slze may be so small LhaL lL welghL only a
few Lens of grams where as ln hlgh volLage power
clrculLs, lL may welghL hundred of Lones.
ln a Lransformer, Lhe elecLrlcal energy Lransfer from one
clrculL Lo anoLher clrculL Lakes place wlLhouL Lhe use of
movlng parLs.
A Lransformer whlch lncreases Lhe volLages ls called a
IB?@-N@ B=ADIFE=C?=. A Lransformer whlch decreases Lhe
A.C. volLages ls called a IB?@-LEOD B=ADIFE=C?=.
1ransformer ls, Lherefore, an essenLlal plece of apparaLus
boLh for hlgh and low currenL clrculLs.



A 1ransformer based on Lhe rlnclple of muLual lnducLlon
accordlng Lo Lhls prlnclple, Lhe amounL of magneLlc flux
llnked wlLh a coll changlng, an e.m.f ls lnduced ln Lhe
nelghbourlng coll LhaL ls lf a varylng currenL ls seL-up ln a
clrculL lnduced e.m.f. ls produced ln Lhe nelghborlng
clrculL. 1he varylng currenL ln a clrculL produce varylng
magneLlc flux whlch lnduces e.m.f. ln Lhe nelghborlng
clrculL.


1he Lransformer conslsLs of Lwo colls. 1hey are
lnsulaLed wlLh each oLher by lnsulaLed maLerlal and
wound on acommon core. lor operaLlon aL low
frequency, we may have asofL lron. 1he sofL lron core ls
lnsulaLlng by [olnlng Lhln lronsLrlps coaLed wlLh varnlsh Lo
lnsulaLe Lhem Lo reduce energy losses by eddy
currenLs.1he lnpuL clrculL ls called prlmary. And
LheouLpuL clrculL ls called secondary.




When an alLerlng e.m.f. ls supplled Lo Lhe prlmary coll
p
1
p
2
, an alLernaLlng currenL sLarLs falllng ln lL. 1he
alLerlng currenL ln Lhe prlmary produces a changlng
magneLlc flux, whlch lnduces alLerlng volLage ln Lhe
prlmary as well as ln Lhe secondary. ln a good-
Lransformer, whole of Lhe magneLlc flux llnked wlLh
prlmary ls also llnked wlLh Lhe secondary, Lhen Lhe
lnduced e.m.f. lnduced ln each Lurn of Lhe secondary ls
equal Lo LhaL lnduced ln each Lurn of Lhe prlmary. 1hus lf
L
p
and L
s
be the instantaneous values of the e.m.f.s
lnduced ln Lhe prlmary and Lhe secondary and n
p
and
n
s
are Lhe no. of Lurns of Lhe prlmary secondary colls of
Lhe Lransformer and
D / d
L
= raLe of change of flux ln each Lurnoff Lhe coll aL
Lhls lnsLanL,
we have
L
p
= -n
p
d/d
L
----------------- (1) and
L
s
= -n
s
d/d
L
----------------- (2)
Slnce Lhe above relaLlons are Lrue aL every lnsLanL, so by
dlvldlng 2 by 1, we geL
L
s
/ L
p
= - n
s
/ n
p
----------------(3)
As L
p
ls Lhe lnsLanLaneous value of back e.m.f lnduced ln
Lhe prlmary coll p
1
, so Lhe lnsLanLaneous currenL ln
prlmary coll ls due Lo Lhe dlfference (L L
p
) ln Lhe
lnsLanLaneous values of Lhe applled and back e.m.f.
furLher lf 8
p
ls Lhe reslsLance o, p
1
p
2
coll, Lhen
Lhe lnsLanLaneous currenL lp ln Lhe prlmary coll ls glven
by
l
p
= L L
p
/ 8
p

L L
p
= l
p
8
p

When Lhe reslsLance of Lhe prlmary ls small, 8
p
l
p
can be
neglecLed so Lherefore
L L
p
= 0 or L
p
= L
1hus back e.m.f = lnpuL e.m.f
Pence equaLlon 3 can be wrlLLen as
L
s
/ L
p
= L
s
/ L = ouLpuL e.m.f / lnpuL e.m.f = n
s
/ n
p
= k
Where k ls consLanL, called Lurn or LransformaLlon raLlo.

"# $ %&'( )( &*$#%+,*-'*
L
s
> L so k > 1, hence n
s
> n
p

"# $ %&'( .,/# &*$#%+,*-'*
L
s
< L so k < 1, hence n
s
< n
p

lf
l
p
= value of prlmary currenL aL Lhe same lnsLanL L
And
l
s
= value of sec. currenL aL Lhls lnsLanL, Lhen
lnpuL power aL Lhe lnsLanL L = L
p
l
p
and
CuLpuL power aL Lhe same lnsLanL = L
s
l
s

lf Lhere are no losses of power ln Lhe Lransformer, Lhen
lnpuL power = ouLpuL power
Cr
L
p
l
p
= L
s
l
s

Cr
L
s
/ L
p
= l
p
/ l
s
= k

"# $ %&'( )( &*$#%+,*-'*
As k > 1, so l
p
> l
s
or l
s
< lp
l.e. currenL ln sec. ls weaker when secondary volLage ls
hlgher.
Pence, whaLever we galn ln volLage, we lose ln currenL ln
Lhe same raLlo.
Slmllarly lL can be shown, LhaL ln a sLep down
Lransformer, whaLever we lose ln volLage, we galn ln
currenL ln Lhe same raLlo.
1hus a sLep up Lransformer ln reallLy sLeps down Lhe
currenL & a sLep down Lransformer sLeps up Lhe currenL.
0++121'#23 45
Lfflclency of a Lransformer ls deflned as Lhe raLlo of
ouLpuL power Lo Lhe lnpuL power. l.e.
= ouLpuL power / lnpuL power = L
s
l
s
/ L
p
l
p

1hus ln an ldeal Lransformer, where Lhere ls no power
losses, = 1. 8uL ln acLual pracLlce, Lhere are many
power losses, Lherefore Lhe efflclency of Lransformer ls
less Lhan one.
67 8?CEDIB=AB6DP BG? @=6DJ6@K? EF B=ADIFE=C?= QH
O6DL6DP @=6CA=H ADL I?JEDLA=H JE6K ED A IB??K =EL

R> 1ake a sofL lron rod of cm and cm dlameLer.
Wrap Lhlck paper on lL.
S> Wlnd a coll of enameled copper wlre 200 Lurns.
T> Wlnd anoLher coll S of Lhlck enameled copper wlre
wlLh 400 Lurns.
U> 8oLh colls are wound over same lengLh of Lhe rod,
so LhaL almosL Lhe enLlre flux produced by currenL ln
one ls llnked Lo Lhe oLher.
V> ConnecL Lhe coll S wlLh an AC volLmeLer. ConnecL an
ldenLlcal volLmeLer across also.
W> SwlLch on Lhe currenL ln and noLe volLage across
Lhe Lwo colls
X> llnd Lhe raLlo vp Lo vs






R> We wlll flnd LhaL raLlo of vp and vs across Lhe Lwo
colls ls equal Lo Lhe raLlo of number of Lurns ln Lhe
coll Lo LhaL ln Lhe coll S.l.e.,

vp/vs = np/ns ---------------(1)


2. 1he coll (Lo whlch AC volLage ls applled) ls
Called Lhe prlmary and coll S (ln whlch AC ls
lnduced) ls called Lhe secondary.

3.Slnce coll S ls placed very close Lo Lhe coll ,Lhe
power ln Lhe prlmary ls Lransferred lnLo Lhe
secondary Lhrough muLual lnducLlon.

4. lL ls clear from equaLlon 1, LhaL by approprlaLe
cholce of Lhe Lurn raLlo l.e., np/ns, we can obLaln a
hlgher volLage or lower volLage ln S compared Lo
LhaL ln .





lollowlng are Lhe ma[or sources of energy loss ln a
Lransformer:
1. :E@@?= KEII5 ls Lhe energy loss ln Lhe form of heaL ln
Lhe copper colls of a Lransformer. 1hls ls due Lo [oule
heaLlng of conducLlng wlres.
2. ,=ED KEII5 ls Lhe energy loss ln Lhe form of heaL ln Lhe
lron core of Lhe Lransformer. 1hls ls due Lo formaLlon of
eddy currenLs ln lron core. lL ls mlnlmlzed by Laklng
lamlnaLed cores.
T> 3?AMAP? EF CAPD?B6J FKNY5 occurs lnsplLe of besL
lnsulaLlons. 1herefore, raLe of change of magneLlc flux
llnked wlLh each Lurn of S
1
S
2
ls less Lhan Lhe raLe of
change of magneLlc flux llnked wlLh each Lurn of
1

2
.
4. *HIB?=?B6J KEII5 ls Lhe loss of energy due Lo repeaLed
magneLlzaLlon and demagneLlzaLlon of Lhe lron core
when A.C. ls fed Lo lL.
3. "APD?BE IB=6AB6ED5 hummlng nolse of a Lransformer.


A Lransformer ls used ln almosL all a.c. operaLlons
ln volLage regulaLor for 1.v., refrlgeraLor,
compuLer, alr condlLloner eLc.
A sLep down Lransformer ls used for weldlng
purposes.
A sLep down Lransformer ls used for obLalnlng
large currenL.
A sLep up Lransformer ls used for Lhe producLlon
of x-8ays and nLCn adverLlsemenL.
1ransformers are used ln volLage regulaLors and
sLablllzed power supplles.
1ransformers are used ln Lhe Lransmlsslons of
a.c. over long dlsLances.
Small Lransformers are used ln 8adlo seLs,
Lelephones, loud speakers and elecLrlc bells eLc.







94DD=7=56 6@;=> 8D 67*5>D87E=7>

"#%&*)-'#& &*$#%+,*-'*%
lnsLrumenL Lransformers are used for measurlng volLage
and currenL ln elecLrlcal power sysLems, and for power
sysLem proLecLlon and conLrol. Where a volLage or
currenL ls Loo large Lo be convenlenLly used by an
lnsLrumenL, lL can be scaled down Lo a sLandardlzed low
value. lnsLrumenL Lransformers lsolaLe measuremenL,
proLecLlon and conLrol clrculLry from Lhe hlgh currenLs or
volLages presenL on Lhe clrculLs belng measured or
conLrolled.
A currenL Lransformer ls a Lransformer deslgned Lo
provlde a currenL ln lLs secondary coll proporLlonal Lo Lhe
currenL flowlng ln lLs prlmary coll.
[88]

volLage Lransformers (v1s), also referred Lo as "poLenLlal
Lransformers" (1s), are deslgned Lo have an accuraLely
known LransformaLlon raLlo ln boLh magnlLude and
phase, over a range of measurlng clrculL lmpedances. A
volLage Lransformer ls lnLended Lo presenL a negllglble
load Lo Lhe supply belng measured. 1he low secondary
volLage allows proLecLlve relay equlpmenL and measurlng
lnsLrumenLs Lo be operaLed aL a lower volLages.
[89]

8oLh currenL and volLage lnsLrumenL Lransformers are
deslgned Lo have predlcLable characLerlsLlcs on
overloads. roper operaLlon of over-currenLproLecLlve
relays requlres LhaL currenL Lransformers provlde a
predlcLable LransformaLlon raLlo even durlng a shorL-
clrculL.

"# $%&'()*%+,%(
1here are several Lypes of Lransformers used ln =AL6E
F=?ZN?DJH (8l) work. SLeel lamlnaLlons are noL sulLable
for 8l.
#6=-JE=? B=ADIFE=C?=I
1hese are used for hlgh frequency work. 1he lack of a
core means very low lnducLance. Such Lransformers may
be noLhlng more Lhan a few Lurns of wlre soldered onLo
a prlnLed clrculL board.
9?==6B?-JE=? B=ADIFE=C?=I
Wldely used ln lnLermedlaLe frequency (ll) sLages
ln superheLerodyne radlo recelvers. are mosLly Luned
Lransformers, conLalnlng a Lhreaded ferrlLe slug LhaL ls
screwed ln or ouL Lo ad[usL ll Lunlng. 1he Lransformers
are usually canned for sLablllLy and Lo reduce
lnLerference.
/=ADIC6II6ED-K6D? B=ADIFE=C?=I
lor radlo frequency use, Lransformers are someLlmes
made from conflguraLlons of Lransmlsslon llne,
someLlmes blfllar or coaxlal cable, wound
around ferrlLe or oLher Lypes of core. 1hls sLyle of
Lransformer glves an exLremely wlde bandwldLh buL only
a llmlLed number of raLlos (such as 1:9, 1:4 or 1:2) can be
achleved wlLh Lhls Lechnlque.
1he core maLerlal lncreases Lhe lnducLance dramaLlcally,
Lhereby ralslng lLs C facLor. 1he cores of such
Lransformers help lmprove performance aL Lhe lower
frequency end of Lhe band. 8l Lransformers someLlmes
used a Lhlrd coll (called a Llckler wlndlng) Lo
ln[ecL feedback lnLo an earller (deLecLor) sLage
ln anLlque regeneraLlve radlo recelvers.

.AKNDI
8aluns are Lransformers deslgned speclflcally Lo connecL
beLween balanced and unbalanced clrculLs. 1hese are
someLlmes made from conflguraLlons of Lransmlsslon
llne and someLlmes blfllar orcoaxlal cable and are slmllar
Lo Lransmlsslon llne Lransformers ln consLrucLlon and
operaLlon.