Fourier Series Tutorial

Series
FOURIER SERIES
Graham S McDonald
A self-contained Tutorial Module for learning
the technique of Fourier series analysis
G Table of contents
G Begin Tutorial
c 2004 g.s.mcdonald@salford.ac.uk
Table of contents
1. Theory
2. Exercises
3. Answers
4. Integrals
5. Useful trig results
6. Alternative notation
7. Tips on using solutions
Full worked solutions
Section 1: Theory 3
1. Theory
G A graph of periodic function f(x) that has period L exhibits the
same pattern every L units along the x-axis, so that f(x +L) = f(x)
for every value of x. If we know what the function looks like over one
complete period, we can thus sketch a graph of the function over a
wider interval of x (that may contain many periods)

f(x)
x
PERIOD =L
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Section 1: Theory 4
G This property of repetition denes a fundamental spatial fre-
quency k =
2
L
that can be used to give a rst approximation to
the periodic pattern f(x):
f(x) c
1
sin(kx +
1
) = a
1
cos(kx) + b
1
sin(kx),
where symbols with subscript 1 are constants that determine the am-
plitude and phase of this rst approximation
G A much better approximation of the periodic pattern f(x) can
be built up by adding an appropriate combination of harmonics to
this fundamental (sine-wave) pattern. For example, adding
c
2
sin(2kx +
2
) = a
2
cos(2kx) + b
2
sin(2kx) (the 2nd harmonic)
c
3
sin(3kx +
3
) = a
3
cos(3kx) + b
3
sin(3kx) (the 3rd harmonic)
Here, symbols with subscripts are constants that determine the am-
plitude and phase of each harmonic contribution
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Section 1: Theory 5
One can even approximate a square-wave pattern with a suitable sum
that involves a fundamental sine-wave plus a combination of harmon-
ics of this fundamental frequency. This sum is called a Fourier series
Fundamental +5 harmonics

x
PERIOD =L
Fundamental
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Section 1: Theory 6
G In this Tutorial, we consider working out Fourier series for func-
tions f(x) with period L = 2. Their fundamental frequency is then
k =
2
L
= 1, and their Fourier series representations involve terms like
a
1
cos x , b
1
sinx
a
2
cos 2x , b
2
sin2x
a
3
cos 3x , b
3
sin3x
We also include a constant term a
0
/2 in the Fourier series. This
allows us to represent functions that are, for example, entirely above
the xaxis. With a sucient number of harmonics included, our ap-
proximate series can exactly represent a given function f(x)
f(x) = a
0
/2 + a
1
cos x + a
2
cos 2x + a
3
cos 3x + ...
+ b
1
sinx + b
2
sin2x + b
3
sin3x + ...
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Section 1: Theory 7
A more compact way of writing the Fourier series of a function f(x),
with period 2, uses the variable subscript n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
f(x) =
a
0
2
+
n=1
[a
n
cos nx + b
n
sinnx]
G We need to work out the Fourier coecients (a
0
, a
n
and b
n
) for
given functions f(x). This process is broken down into three steps
STEP ONE
a
0
=
1
_
2
f(x) dx
STEP TWO
a
n
=
1
_
2
f(x) cos nx dx
STEP THREE
b
n
=
1
_
2
f(x) sinnx dx
where integrations are over a single interval in x of L = 2
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Section 1: Theory 8
G Finally, specifying a particular value of x = x
1
in a Fourier series,
gives a series of constants that should equal f(x
1
). However, if f(x)
is discontinuous at this value of x, then the series converges to a value
that is half-way between the two possible function values

f(x)
x
Fourier series
converges to
half-way point
"Vertical jump"/discontinuity
in the function represented
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Section 2: Exercises 9
2. Exercises
Click on Exercise links for full worked solutions (7 exercises in total).
Exercise 1.
Let f(x) be a function of period 2 such that
f(x) =
_
1, < x < 0
0, 0 < x < .
a) Sketch a graph of f(x) in the interval 2 < x < 2
b) Show that the Fourier series for f(x) in the interval < x < is
1
2

2
_
sinx +
1
3
sin3x +
1
5
sin5x + ...
_
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
4
= 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ . . .
G Theory G Answers G Integrals G Trig G Notation
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Exercise 2.
f(x) =
_
0, < x < 0
x, 0 < x < .
4

2
_
cos x +
1
3
2
cos 3x +
1
5
2
cos 5x + ...
_
+
_
sinx
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x ...
_
c) By giving appropriate values to x, show that
(i)

4
= 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+. . . and (ii)

2
8
= 1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+. . .
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Exercise 3.
f(x) =
_
x, 0 < x <
, < x < 2 .
b) Show that the Fourier series for f(x) in the interval 0 < x < 2 is
3
4

2
_
cos x +
1
3
2
cos 3x +
1
5
2
cos 5x + . . .
_
_
sinx +
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x + . . .
_
c) By giving appropriate values to x, show that
(i)

4
= 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+. . . and (ii)

2
8
= 1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+. . .
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Exercise 4.
f(x) =
x
2
over the interval 0 < x < 2.
2

_
sinx +
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x + . . .
_
4
= 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+
1
9
. . .
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Exercise 5.
f(x) =
_
x, 0 < x <
0, < x < 2
4
+
2
_
cos x +
1
3
2
cos 3x +
1
5
2
cos 5x + . . .
_
+ sinx +
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x +
1
4
sin4x + . . .
2
8
= 1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+ . . .
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Exercise 6.
f(x) = x in the range < x < .
2
_
sinx
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x . . .
_
4
= 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ . . .
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Exercise 7.
f(x) = x
2
over the interval < x < .
2
3
4
_
cos x
1
2
2
cos 2x +
1
3
2
cos 3x . . .
_
2
6
= 1 +
1
2
2
+
1
3
2
+
1
4
2
+ . . .
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Section 3: Answers 16
3. Answers
The sketches asked for in part (a) of each exercise are given within
the full worked solutions click on the Exercise links to see these
solutions
The answers below are suggested values of x to get the series of
constants quoted in part (c) of each exercise
1. x =

2
,
2. (i) x =

2
, (ii) x = 0,
3. (i) x =

2
, (ii) x = 0,
4. x =

2
,
5. x = 0,
6. x =

2
,
7. x = .
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Section 4: Integrals 17
4. Integrals
Formula for integration by parts:
_
b
a
u
dv
dx
dx = [uv]
b
a

_
b
a
du
dx
v dx
f (x)
_
f(x)dx f (x)
_
f(x)dx
x
n x
n+1
n+1
(n = 1) [g (x)]
n
g
(x)
[g(x)]
n+1
n+1
(n = 1)
1
x
ln|x|
g
(x)
g(x)
ln|g (x)|
e
x
e
x
a
x a
x
ln a
(a > 0)
sinx cos x sinhx coshx
cos x sinx coshx sinhx
tanx ln|cos x| tanhx lncoshx
cosec x ln
tan
x
2
cosechx ln
tanh
x
2
sec x ln|sec x + tanx| sechx 2 tan

1
e
x
sec
2
x tanx sech
2
x tanhx
cot x ln|sinx| cothx ln|sinhx|
sin
2
x
x
2

sin 2x
4
sinh
2
x
sinh 2x
4

x
2
cos
2
x
x
2
+
sin 2x
4
cosh
2
x
sinh 2x
4
+
x
2
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Section 4: Integrals 18
f (x)
_
f (x) dx f (x)
_
f (x) dx
1
a
2
+x
2
1
a
tan
1 x
a
1
a
2
x
2
1
2a
ln
a+x
ax
(0<|x| <a)
(a > 0)
1
x
2
a
2
1
2a
ln
xa
x+a
(|x| > a>0)

1
a
2
x
2
sin
1 x
a
1
a
2
+x
2
ln
x+
a
2
+x
2
a
(a > 0)
(a < x < a)
1
x
2
a
2
ln
x+
x
2
a
2
a
(x>a>0)
a
2
x
2
a
2
2
_
sin
1
_
x
a
_
a
2
+x
2
a
2
2
_
sinh
1
_
x
a
_
+
x
a
2
+x
2
a
2
_
+
x
a
2
x
2
a
2
_

x
2
a
2
a
2
2
_
cosh
1
_
x
a
_
+
x
x
2
a
2
a
2
_
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Section 5: Useful trig results 19
5. Useful trig results
When calculating the Fourier coecients a
n
and b
n
, for which n =
1, 2, 3, . . . , the following trig. results are useful. Each of these results,
which are also true for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , can be deduced from
the graph of sinx or that of cos x
G sinn = 0
1
0
1
2
3
3 2

sin(x)
x
G cos n = (1)
n
1
0
1
2
3
3 2

cos(x)
x
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Section 5: Useful trig results 20
1
0
1
2
3
3 2

sin(x)
x
1
0
1
2
3
3 2

cos(x)
x
Gsinn
2
=
_
_
_
0 , n even
1 , n = 1, 5, 9, ...
1 , n = 3, 7, 11, ...
Gcos n
2
=
_
_
_
0 , n odd
1 , n = 0, 4, 8, ...
1 , n = 2, 6, 10, ...
Areas cancel when
when integrating
over whole periods
G
_
2
sinnxdx = 0
G
_
2
cos nxdx = 0

+ +
1
0
1
2 3 3 2

sin(x)
x
+
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Section 6: Alternative notation 21
6. Alternative notation
G For a waveform f(x) with period L =
2
k
f(x) =
a
0
2
+
n=1
[a
n
cos nkx + b
n
sinnkx]
The corresponding Fourier coecients are
STEP ONE
a
0
=
2
L
_
L
f(x) dx
STEP TWO
a
n
=
2
L
_
L
f(x) cos nkx dx
STEP THREE
b
n
=
2
L
_
L
f(x) sinnkx dx
and integrations are over a single interval in x of L
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G For a waveform f(x) with period 2L =
2
k
, we have that
k =
2
2L
=

L
and nkx =
nx
L
f(x) =
a
0
2
+
n=1
_
a
n
cos
nx
L
+ b
n
sin
nx
L
_
STEP ONE
a
0
=
1
L
_
2L
f(x) dx
STEP TWO
a
n
=
1
L
_
2L
f(x) cos
nx
L
dx
STEP THREE
b
n
=
1
L
_
2L
f(x) sin
nx
L
dx
and integrations are over a single interval in x of 2L
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G For a waveform f(t) with period T =
2
f(t) =
a
0
2
+
n=1
[a
n
cos nt + b
n
sinnt]
STEP ONE
a
0
=
2
T
_
T
f(t) dt
STEP TWO
a
n
=
2
T
_
T
f(t) cos nt dt
STEP THREE
b
n
=
2
T
_
T
f(t) sinnt dt
and integrations are over a single interval in t of T
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Section 7: Tips on using solutions 24
7. Tips on using solutions
G When looking at the THEORY, ANSWERS, INTEGRALS, TRIG
or NOTATION pages, use the Back button (at the bottom of the
page) to return to the exercises
G Use the solutions intelligently. For example, they can help you get
started on an exercise, or they can allow you to check whether your
intermediate results are correct
G Try to make less use of the full solutions as you work your way
through the Tutorial
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Solutions to exercises 25
Full worked solutions
Exercise 1.
f(x) =
_
1, < x < 0
0, 0 < x < , and has period 2
0
1
2 2

f(x)
x
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b) Fourier series representation of f(x)
STEP ONE
a
0
=
1
f(x)dx =
1
_
0
f(x)dx +
1
_

0
f(x)dx
=
1
_
0
1 dx +
1
_

0
0 dx
=
1
_
0
dx
=
1
[x]
0
=
1
(0 ())
=
1
()
i.e. a
0
= 1 .
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STEP TWO
a
n
=
1
f(x) cos nxdx =

1
_
0
f(x) cos nxdx +

1
_

0
f(x) cos nxdx
=
1
_
0
1 cos nxdx +
1
_

0
0 cos nxdx
=
1
_
0
cos nx dx
=
1
_
sinnx
n
_
0
=
1
n
[sinnx]
0
=
1
n
(sin0 sin(n))
=
1
n
(0 + sinn)
i.e. a
n
=
1
n
(0 + 0) = 0.
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STEP THREE
b
n
=
1
f(x) sinnx dx
=
1
_
0
f(x) sinnx dx +
1
_

0
f(x) sinnx dx
=
1
_
0
1 sinnx dx +
1
_

0
0 sinnx dx
i.e. b
n
=
1
_
0
sinnx dx =
1
_
cos nx
n
_
0
=
1
n
[cos nx]
0
=
1
n
(cos 0 cos(n))
=
1
n
(1 cos n) =
1
n
(1 (1)
n
) , see Trig
i.e. b
n
=
_
0 , n even
2
n
, n odd
, since (1)
n
=
_
1 , n even
1 , n odd
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We now have that
f(x) =
a
0
2
+
n=1
[a
n
cos nx + b
n
sinnx]
with the three steps giving
a
0
= 1, a
n
= 0 , and b
n
=
_
0 , n even
2
n
, n odd
It may be helpful to construct a table of values of b
n
n 1 2 3 4 5
b
n

2
0
2
_
1
3
_
0
2
_
1
5
_
Substituting our results now gives the required series
f(x) =
1
2

2
_
sinx +
1
3
sin3x +
1
5
sin5x + . . .
_
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c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that
4
= 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ . . .
Comparing this series with
f(x) =
1
2

2
_
sinx +
1
3
sin3x +
1
5
sin5x + . . .
_
,
we need to introduce a minus sign in front of the constants
1
3
,
1
7
,. . .
So we need sinx = 1, sin3x = 1, sin 5x = 1, sin7x = 1, etc
The rst condition of sinx = 1 suggests trying x =

2
.
This choice gives sin

2
+
1
3
sin3
2
+
1
5
sin5
2
+
1
7
sin7
2
i.e. 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
Looking at the graph of f(x), we also have that f(
2
) = 0.
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Picking x =

2
thus gives
0 =
1
2

2
_
sin

2
+
1
3
sin
3
2
+
1
5
sin
5
2
+
1
7
sin
7
2
+ . . .
_
i.e. 0 =
1
2

2
_
1
1
3
+
1
5
1
7
+ . . .
_
A little manipulation then gives a series representation of

4
2
_
1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ . . .
_
=
1
2
1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ . . . =

4
.
Return to Exercise 1
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Exercise 2.
f(x) =
_
0, < x < 0
x, 0 < x < , and has period 2
2 3
3 2

f(x)
x
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STEP ONE
a
0
=
1
f(x)dx =
1
_
0
f(x)dx +
1
_

0
f(x)dx
=
1
_
0
0 dx +
1
_

0
xdx
=
1
_
x
2
2
_
0
=
1
2
2
0
_
i.e. a
0
=

2
.
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STEP TWO
a
n
=
1
f(x) cos nxdx =

1
_
0
f(x) cos nxdx +

1
_

0
f(x) cos nxdx
=
1
_
0
0 cos nxdx +
1
_

0
xcos nxdx
i.e. a
n
=
1
_

0
xcos nx dx =
1
__
x
sinnx
n
_
_

0
sinnx
n
dx
_
(using integration by parts)
i.e. a
n
=
1
__
sinn
n
0
_
1
n
_
cos nx
n
_
0
_
=
1
_
( 0 0) +
1
n
2
[cos nx]
0
_
=
1
n
2
{cos n cos 0} =
1
n
2
{(1)
n
1}
i.e. a
n
=
_
0 , n even
2
n
2
, n odd
, see Trig.
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STEP THREE
b
n
=
1
f(x) sinnxdx =
1
_
0
f(x) sinnxdx +
1
_

0
f(x) sinnxdx
=
1
_
0
0 sinnxdx +
1
_

0
xsinnxdx
i.e. b
n
=
1
_

0
xsinnxdx =
1
_
_
x
_
cos nx
n
__
_

0
_
cos nx
n
_
dx
_
(using integration by parts)
=
1
1
n
[xcos nx]
0
+
1
n
_

0
cos nxdx
_
=
1
1
n
( cos n 0) +
1
n
_
sinnx
n
_
0
_
=
1
n
(1)
n
+
1
n
2
(0 0), see Trig
=
1
n
(1)
n
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i.e. b
n
=
_

1
n
, n even
+
1
n
, n odd
We now have
f(x) =
a
0
2
+
n=1
[a
n
cos nx + b
n
sinnx]
where a
0
=

2
, a
n
=
_
0 , n even
2
n
2
, n odd
, b
n
=
_

1
n
, n even
1
n
, n odd
Constructing a table of values gives
n 1 2 3 4 5
a
n

2
0
2

1
3
2
0
2

1
5
2
b
n
1
1
2
1
3

1
4
1
5
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This table of coecients gives
f(x) =
1
2
_
2
_
+
_
_
cos x + 0 cos 2x
+
_

1
3
2
_
cos 3x + 0 cos 4x
+
_

1
5
2
_
cos 5x + ...
+ sinx
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x ...
i.e. f(x) =

4

2
_
cos x +
1
3
2
cos 3x +
1
5
2
cos 5x + ...
_
+
_
sinx
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x ...
_
and we have found the required series!
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(i)

4
= 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ ...
Comparing this series with
f(x) =

4

2
_
cos x +
1
3
2
cos 3x +
1
5
2
cos 5x + ...
_
+
_
sinx
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x ...
_
,
the required series of constants does not involve terms like
1
3
2
,
1
5
2
,
1
7
2
, ....
So we need to pick a value of x that sets the cos nx terms to zero.
The Trig section shows that cos n
2
= 0 when n is odd, and note also
that cos nx terms in the Fourier series all have odd n
i.e. cos x = cos 3x = cos 5x = ... = 0 when x =

2
,
i.e. cos

2
= cos 3
2
= cos 5
2
= ... = 0
Toc
Back
Setting x =

2
in the series for f(x) gives
f
_
2
_
=

4

2
_
cos

2
+
1
3
2
cos
3
2
+
1
5
2
cos
5
2
+ ...
_
+
_
sin

2

1
2
sin
2
2
+
1
3
sin
3
2

1
4
sin
4
2
+
1
5
sin
5
2
...
_
=

4

2
[0 + 0 + 0 + ...]
+
_
_
1
1
2
sin
..
=0
+
1
3
(1)
1
4
sin2
. .
=0
+
1
5
(1) ...
_
_
The graph of f(x) shows that f
_
2
_
=

2
, so that
2
=

4
+ 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ ...
i.e.

4
= 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ ...
Toc
Back
Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that
(ii)

2
8
= 1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+ ...
Compare this series with
f(x) =

4

2
_
cos x +
1
3
2
cos 3x +
1
5
2
cos 5x + ...
_
+
_
sinx
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x ...
_
.
This time, we want to use the coecients of the cos nx terms, and
the same choice of x needs to set the sinnx terms to zero
Picking x = 0 gives
sinx = sin2x = sin3x = 0 and cos x = cos 3x = cos 5x = 1
Note also that the graph of f(x) gives f(x) = 0 when x = 0
Toc
Back
So, picking x = 0 gives
0 =

4

2
_
cos 0 +
1
3
2
cos 0 +
1
5
2
cos 0 +
1
7
2
cos 0 + ...
_
+sin0
sin0
2
+
sin0
3
...
i.e. 0 =

4

2
_
1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+ ...
_
+ 0 0 + 0 ...
We then nd that
2
_
1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+ ...
_
=

4
and 1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+ ... =

2
8
.
Toc
Back
Exercise 3.
f(x) =
_
x, 0 < x <
, < x < 2, and has period 2
0
2 2

f(x)
x
Toc
Back
STEP ONE
a
0
=
1
_
2
0
f(x)dx =
1
_

0
f(x)dx +
1
_
2
f(x)dx
=
1
_

0
xdx +
1
_
2
dx
=
1
_
x
2
2
_
0
+

_
x
_
2
=
1
2
2
0
_
+
_
2
_
=

2
+
i.e. a
0
=
3
2
.
Toc
Back
STEP TWO
a
n
=
1
_
2
0
f(x) cos nxdx
=
1
_

0
xcos nxdx +
1
_
2
cos nxdx
=
1
_
_
x
sinnx
n
_
_

0
sinnx
n
dx
_
. .
using integration by parts
+
_
sinnx
n
_
2
=
1
_
1
n
_
sinn 0 sinn0
_
_
cos nx
n
2
_
0
_
+
1
n
(sinn2 sinn)
Toc
Back
i.e. a
n
=
1
_
1
n
_
0 0
_
+
_
cos n
n
2

cos 0
n
2
_
_
+
1
n
_
0 0
_
=
1
n
2
(cos n 1), see Trig

=
1
n
2
_
(1)
n
1
_
,
i.e. a
n
=
_

2
n
2
, n odd
0 , n even.
Toc
Back
STEP THREE
b
n
=
1
_
2
0
f(x) sinnxdx
=
1
_

0
xsinnxdx +
1
_
2
sinnxdx
=
1
_
_
x
_
cos nx
n
__
_

0
_
cos nx
n
_
dx
_
. .
+
_
cos nx
n
_
2
=
1
_
_
cos n
n
+ 0
_
+
_
sinnx
n
2
_
0
_
1
n
(cos 2n cos n)
=
1
_
(1)
n
n
+
_
sinn sin0
n
2
_
_
1
n
_
1 (1)
n
_
=
1
n
(1)
n
+ 0
1
n
_
1 (1)
n
_
Toc
Back
i.e. b
n
=
1
n
(1)
n
1
n
+
1
n
(1)
n
i.e. b
n
=
1
n
.
We now have
f(x) =
a
0
2
+
n=1
[a
n
cos nx + b
n
sinnx]
where a
0
=
3
2
, a
n
=
_
0 , n even
2
n
2
, n odd
, b
n
=
1
n
Constructing a table of values gives
n 1 2 3 4 5
a
n

2
0
2
_
1
3
2
_
0
2
_
1
5
2
_
b
n
1
1
2

1
3

1
4

1
5
Toc
Back
This table of coecients gives
f(x) =
1
2
_
3
2
_
+
_
_ _
cos x + 0 cos 2x +
1
3
2
cos 3x + . . .
_
+
_
1
_ _
sinx +
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x + . . .
_
i.e. f(x) =
3
4

2
_
cos x +
1
3
2
cos 3x +
1
5
2
cos 5x + . . .
_
_
sinx +
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x + . . .
_
and we have found the required series.
Toc
Back
(i)

4
= 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ . . .
Compare this series with
f(x) =
3
4

2
_
cos x +
1
3
2
cos 3x +
1
5
2
cos 5x + . . .
_
_
sinx +
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x + . . .
_
Here, we want to set the cos nx terms to zero (since their coecients
are 1,
1
3
2
,
1
5
2
, . . .). Since cos n
2
= 0 when n is odd, we will try setting
x =

2
in the series. Note also that f(
2
) =

2
This gives
2
=
3
4

2
_
cos

2
+
1
3
2
cos 3
2
+
1
5
2
cos 5
2
+ . . .
_
sin

2
+
1
2
sin2
2
+
1
3
sin3
2
+
1
4
sin4
2
+
1
5
sin5
2
+ . . .
Toc
Back
and
2
=
3
4

2
[0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]
_
(1) +
1
2
(0) +
1
3
(1) +
1
4
(0) +
1
5
(1) + . . .
then
2
=
3
4

_
1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ . . .
_
1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ . . . =
3
4

2
1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ . . . =

4
, as required.
To show that
(ii)

2
8
= 1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+ . . . ,
We want zero sinnx terms and to use the coecients of cos nx
Toc
Back
Setting x = 0 eliminates the sinnx terms from the series, and also
gives
cos x+
1
3
2
cos 3x+
1
5
2
cos 5x+
1
7
2
cos 7x+. . . = 1+
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+. . .
(i.e. the desired series).
The graph of f(x) shows a discontinuity (a vertical jump) at x = 0
The Fourier series converges to a value that is half-way between the
two values of f(x) around this discontinuity. That is the series will
converge to

2
at x = 0
i.e.

2
=
3
4

2
_
cos 0 +
1
3
2
cos 0 +
1
5
2
cos 0 +
1
7
2
cos 0 + . . .
_
_
sin0 +
1
2
sin0 +
1
3
sin0 + . . .
_
and

2
=
3
4

2
_
1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+ . . .
_
[0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]
Toc
Back
Finally, this gives
4
=
2
_
1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+ . . .
_
and

2
8
= 1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+ . . .
Toc
Back
Exercise 4.
f(x) =
x
2
, over the interval 0 < x < 2 and has period 2
3 4 0 2

f(x)
x
Toc
Back
STEP ONE
a
0
=
1
_
2
0
f(x) dx
=
1
_
2
0
x
2
dx
=
1
_
x
2
4
_
2
0
=
1
_
(2)
2
4
0
_
i.e. a
0
= .
Toc
Back
STEP TWO
a
n
=
1
_
2
0
f(x) cos nxdx
=
1
_
2
0
x
2
cos nxdx
=
1
2
_
_
x
sinnx
n
_
2
0
1
n
_
2
0
sinnxdx
_
. .
=
1
2
_
_
2
sinn2
n
0
sinn 0
n
_
1
n
0
_
=
1
2
_
(0 0)
1
n
0
_
, see Trig
i.e. a
n
= 0.
Toc
Back
STEP THREE
b
n
=
1
_
2
0
f(x) sinnxdx =
1
_
2
0
_
x
2
_
sinnxdx
=
1
2
_
2
0
xsinnxdx
=
1
2
_
_
x
_
cos nx
n
__
2
0
_
2
0
_
cos nx
n
_
dx
_
. .
=
1
2
_
1
n
(2 cos n2 + 0) +
1
n
0
_
, see Trig
=
2
2n
cos(n2)
=
1
n
cos(2n)
i.e. b
n
=
1
n
, since 2n is even (see Trig)
Toc
Back
We now have
f(x) =
a
0
2
+
n=1
[a
n
cos nx + b
n
sinnx]
where a
0
= , a
n
= 0, b
n
=
1
n
These Fourier coecients give
f(x) =

2
+
n=1
_
0
1
n
sinnx
_
i.e. f(x) =

2

_
sinx +
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x + . . .
_
.
Toc
Back
4
= 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+
1
9
. . .
Setting x =

2
gives f(x) =

4
and
4
=

2

_
1 + 0
1
3
+ 0 +
1
5
+ 0 . . .
_
4
=

2

_
1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+
1
9
. . .
_
_
1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+
1
9
. . .
_
=

4
i.e. 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+
1
9
. . . =

4
.
Toc
Back
Exercise 5.
f(x) =
_
x , 0 < x <
0 , < x < 2, and has period 2
0
2 2

f(x)
x
Toc
Back
STEP ONE
a
0
=
1
_
2
0
f(x) dx
=
1
_

0
( x) dx +
1
_
2
0 dx
=
1
_
x
1
2
x
2
_
0
+ 0
=
1

2
2
0
_
i.e. a
0
=

2
.
Toc
Back
STEP TWO
a
n
=
1
_
2
0
f(x) cos nxdx
=
1
_

0
( x) cos nxdx +
1
_
2
0 dx
i.e. a
n
=
1
__
( x)
sinnx
n
_
_

0
(1)
sinnx
n
dx
_
. .
+0
=
1
_
(0 0) +
_

0
sinnx
n
dx
_
, see Trig
=
1
n
_
cos nx
n
_
0
=
1
n
2
(cos n cos 0)
i.e. a
n
=
1
n
2
((1)
n
1) , see Trig
Toc
Back
i.e. a
n
=
_
_
_
0 , n even
2
n
2
, n odd
STEP THREE
b
n
=
1
_
2
0
f(x) sinnxdx
=
1
_

0
( x) sinnxdx +
_
2
0 dx
=
1
_
_
( x)
_
cos nx
n
__
_

0
(1)
_
cos nx
n
_
dx
_
+ 0
=
1
_
_
0
_
n
__
1
n
0
_
, see Trig
i.e. b
n
=
1
n
.
Toc
Back
In summary, a
0
=

2
and a table of other Fourier cocients is
n 1 2 3 4 5
a
n
=
2
n
2
(when n is odd)
2
0
2
1
3
2
0
2
1
5
2
b
n
=
1
n
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
f(x) =
a
0
2
+
n=1
[a
n
cos nx + b
n
sinnx]
=

4
+
2
cos x +
2
1
3
2
cos 3x +
2
1
5
2
cos 5x + . . .
+ sinx +
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x +
1
4
sin4x + . . .
i.e. f(x) =

4
+
2
_
cos x +
1
3
2
cos 3x +
1
5
2
cos 5x + . . .
_
+ sinx +
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x +
1
4
sin4x + . . .
Toc
Back
c) To show that

2
8
= 1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+ . . . ,
note that, as x 0 , the series converges to the half-way value of

2
,
and then

2
=

4
+
2
_
cos 0 +
1
3
2
cos 0 +
1
5
2
cos 0 + . . .
_
+ sin0 +
1
2
sin0 +
1
3
sin0 + . . .
2
=

4
+
2
_
1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+ . . .
_
+ 0
4
=
2
_
1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+ . . .
_
giving

2
8
= 1 +
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+ . . .
Toc
Back
Exercise 6.
f(x) = x, over the interval < x < and has period 2
2
3
3 2

f(x)
x
Toc
Back
STEP ONE
a
0
=
1
f(x) dx
=
1
xdx
=
1
_
x
2
2
_
=
1
2
2

2
2
_
i.e. a
0
= 0.
Toc
Back
STEP TWO
a
n
=
1
f(x) cos nxdx

=
1
xcos nxdx
=
1
_
_
x
sinnx
n
_
_
sinnx
n
_
dx
_
. .
i.e. a
n
=
1
_
1
n
( sinn () sin(n))
1
n
_

sinnxdx
_
=
1
_
1
n
(0 0)
1
n
0
_
,
since sinn = 0 and
_
2
sinnxdx = 0,
i.e. a
n
= 0.
Toc
Back
STEP THREE
b
n
=
1
f(x) sinnxdx
=
1
xsinnxdx
=
1
_
_
xcos nx
n
_
_
cos nx
n
_
dx
_
=
1
1
n
[xcos nx]
+
1
n
_

cos nxdx
_
=
1
1
n
( cos n () cos(n)) +
1
n
0
_
=

n
(cos n + cos n)
=
1
n
(2 cos n)
i.e. b
n
=
2
n
(1)
n
.
Toc
Back
We thus have
f(x) =
a
0
2
+
n=1
_
a
n
cos nx + b
n
sinnx
_
with a
0
= 0, a
n
= 0, b
n
=
2
n
(1)
n
and
n 1 2 3
b
n
2 1
2
3
Therefore
f(x) = b
1
sinx + b
2
sin2x + b
3
sin3x + . . .
i.e. f(x) = 2
_
sinx
1
2
sin2x +
1
3
sin3x . . .
_
and we have found the required Fourier series.
Toc
Back
4
= 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ . . .
Setting x =

2
gives f(x) =

2
and
2
= 2
_
sin

2

1
2
sin
2
2
+
1
3
sin
3
2

1
4
sin
4
2
+
1
5
sin
5
2
. . .
_
This gives
2
= 2
_
1 + 0 +
1
3
(1) 0 +
1
5
(1) 0 +
1
7
(1) + . . .
_
2
= 2
_
1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ . . .
_
i.e.

4
= 1
1
3
+
1
5

1
7
+ . . .
Toc
Back
Exercise 7.
f(x) = x
2
, over the interval < x < and has period 2
0
2
2 3
3 2

f(x)
x
Toc
Back
STEP ONE
a
0
=
1
f(x)dx =
1
x
2
dx
=
1
_
x
3
3
_
=
1
3
3

_
3
3
__
=
1
_
2
3
3
_
i.e. a
0
=
2
2
3
.
Toc
Back
STEP TWO
a
n
=
1
f(x) cos nxdx

=
1
x
2
cos nxdx
=
1
_
_
x
2
sinnx
n
_
2x
_
sinnx
n
_
dx
_
. .
=
1
_
1
n
_
2
sinn
2
sin(n)
_
2
n
_

xsinnxdx
_
=
1
_
1
n
(0 0)
2
n
_

xsinnxdx
_
, see Trig
=
2
n
_

xsinnxdx
Toc
Back
i.e. a
n
=
2
n
_
_
x
_
cos nx
n
__
_
cos nx
n
_
dx
_
. .
using integration by parts again
=
2
n
_
1
n
[xcos nx]
+
1
n
_

cos nxdx
_
=
2
n
_
1
n
_
cos n () cos(n)
_
+
1
n
0
_
=
2
n
_
1
n
_
(1)
n
+ (1)
n
_
_
=
2
n
_
2
n
(1)
n
_
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i.e. a
n
=
2
n
_
2
n
(1)
n
_
=
+4
n
2
(1)
n
=
4
n
2
(1)
n
i.e. a
n
=
_
4
n
2
, n even
4
n
2
, n odd.
Toc
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STEP THREE
b
n
=
1
f(x) sinnxdx =
1
x
2
sinnxdx
=
1
_
_
x
2
_
cos nx
n
__
2x
_
cos nx
n
_
dx
_
. .
=
1
1
n
_
x
2
cos nx
+
2
n
_

xcos nxdx
_
=
1
1
n
_
2
cos n
2
cos(n)
_
+
2
n
_

xcos nxdx
_
=
1
1
n
_
2
cos n
2
cos(n)
_
. .
=0
+
2
n
_

xcos nxdx
_
=
2
n
_

xcos nxdx
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i.e. b
n
=
2
n
_
_
x
sinnx
n
_
sinnx
n
dx
_
. .
=
2
n
_
1
n
( sinn () sin(n))
1
n
_

sinnxdx
_
=
2
n
_
1
n
(0 + 0)
1
n
_

sinnxdx
_
=
2
n
2
_

sinnxdx
i.e. b
n
= 0.
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f(x) =
a
0
2
+
n=1
[a
n
cos nx + b
n
sinnx]
where a
0
=
2
2
3
, a
n
=
_
4
n
2
, n even
4
n
2
, n odd
, b
n
= 0
n 1 2 3 4
a
n
4(1) 4
_
1
2
2
_
4
_
1
3
2
_
4
_
1
4
2
_
i.e. f(x) =
1
2
_
2
2
3
_
4
_
cos x
1
2
2
cos 2x +
1
3
2
cos 3x
1
4
2
cos 4x. . .
_
+ [0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]
i.e. f(x) =

2
3
4
_
cos x
1
2
2
cos 2x +
1
3
2
cos 3x
1
4
2
cos 4x + . . .
_
.
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c) To show that

2
6
= 1 +
1
2
2
+
1
3
2
+
1
4
2
+ . . . ,
use the fact that cos n =
_
1 , n even
1 , n odd
i.e. cos x
1
2
2
cos 2x +
1
3
2
cos 3x
1
4
2
cos 4x +. . . with x =
gives cos
1
2
2
cos 2 +
1
3
2
cos 3
1
4
2
cos 4 +. . .
i.e. (1)
1
2
2
(1) +
1
3
2
(1)
1
4
2
(1) +. . .
i.e. 1
1
2
2

1
3
2

1
4
2
+. . .
= 1
_
1 +
1
2
2
+
1
3
2
+
1
4
2
+ . . .
_
. .
(the desired series)
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The graph of f(x) gives that f() =
2
and the series converges to
this value.
Setting x = in the Fourier series thus gives
2
=

2
3
4
_
cos
1
2
2
cos 2 +
1
3
2
cos 3
1
4
2
cos 4 + . . .
_
2
=

2
3
4
_
1
1
2
2

1
3
2

1
4
2
. . .
_
2
=

2
3
+ 4
_
1 +
1
2
2
+
1
3
2
+
1
4
2
+ . . .
_
2
2
3
= 4
_
1 +
1
2
2
+
1
3
2
+
1
4
2
+ . . .
_
i.e.

2
6
= 1 +
1
2
2
+
1
3
2
+
1
4
2
+ . . .
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Fourier Series Tutorial

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Fourier Series Tutorial

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Series

sec x ln|sec x + tanx| sechx 2 tan

(|x| > a>0)

f(x) cos nxdx =

f(x) cos nxdx +

f(x) cos nxdx =

f(x) cos nxdx +

(cos n 1), see Trig

f(x) cos nxdx

f(x) cos nxdx

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