1

Chapter 6
Analog Electrical Devices
and Measurements
Material from Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements; Figliola, Third Edition
Analog Devices
Most devices measure in one form or another the
common electrical response to a physical
phenomenon. Voltage, current, and resistance-based
measurements are the most common.
Current Measurement
Most analog meters are calibrated to indicate
another variable than what it is actually sensing,
current through a resistor can be measured as voltage
Ex: current flow through galvanometer
DC
Basic analog measurement of current uses the
inductive forces on the current carrying conductor in
magnetic field. This force can be used to measure
the needle deflection on a display.
Force for
90
o
(angle between
field and current)
Else
The direction of
force is dependent
on the right-hand
rule.
F I = |
F I k x =
^
|
Figliola, 2000
2
Current loop will
experience a torque if
not aligned with the
magnetic field.
Torque on loop
T NIA | o = sin
N = turns
I = current
A = cross-sectional area
defined by perimeter of
current loop
o = normal to current loop
and magnetic field
Figliola, 2000
Figliola, 2000
A Galvanometer is
sensitive to current flow
through torque exerted
on current loop in
magnetic field.
t's useful to turn an
electric signal into a
visibly discernable signal.
The deflection of pointer
represents the current
through the loop and is
held steady by spring.
Multi-range meter,
where shunt
resistors are
selected to reduce
current flow through
meter movement.
This system
requires current to
power movement. t
therefore puts a load
on the current.
Figliola, 2000
3
Voltage measurement = can vary from micro-volt
range on some transducers to several volts at the output
stage of the system. Power systems can be in the
kilovolt or larger range.
The measurement of dc voltage by using analog
instruments may be accomplished through this
circuit, where a D'Arsonval movement is
employed in series with a register.
Figliola, 2000
Analog Meters
The D'Arsonval movement is
fundamentally sensitive to current flow,
but in conjunction with an appropriate
known fixed resistance can be
calibrated in terms of voltage.
This basic circuit is employed in the
construction of analog voltage dials, volt
ohmmeters (VOM).
Analog Meters
The measurement of ac voltage can be
accomplished through rectification of the ac
signal or through use of an electromagnet,
either in an electrodynamometer, or with a
movable iron vane.
These instruments are basically sensitive to
the rms value of a simple periodic ac current
and can be calibrated in terms of voltage;
shunt resistors can be used to establish the
appropriate scale.
4
The voltage divider circuit is constructed by using a
resistor made of a length of wire wound around an
appropriate insulating support.
The point labeled A represents a sliding contact,
which makes an electrical connection with the
resistor R at any point along its length.
The resistance between point A and point B in the
circuit is a linear function of the distance from A to
B, for an ideal resistor.
Figliola, 2000
Voltage Divider Circuit
The output voltage sensed by the
voltmeter is given by:
if the internal resistance of the meter is
very large relative to R
T
so as to ignore
the current draw of the meter.
i
T
x
i
T
x
o E
R
R
E
L
L
E = =
Potentiometer Circuit
Potentiometer = useful to measure
voltages in the micro-volt and milli-volt
range. Equivalent to a balance scale, it
balances an unknown input voltage
against a known internal voltage.
A simple potentiometer circuit is derived
from the voltage divider circuit.
n this circuit, a galvanometer is used to
detect current flow.
5
Potentiometer Circuit
Any current flow through the
galvanometer, G, would be a result of
an imbalance in the measured voltage,
E
m
, and the voltage imposed across
points A to B, E
AB
.
f E
m
is not equal to E
AB
, a current will
flow through the galvanometer, G.
Galvanometer detects
current flow, due to
imbalance in voltage E
m
and E
AB
. When E
AB
=E
m
,
there is a balance and
no current means no
displacement in
galvanometer. The
position of A indicates
the voltage E
m
.
Figliola, 2000
Practical circuit with
standard cell. S cell
is balanced to W cell
using potentiometer
and calibration
resistor.
When balanced
G = 0 and A gives
value of E
m.
6
Analog Resistance Measurements
Checking continuity in electric circuit
Measure resistance
Measure change in resistance in order of
10
-6
O over range 10
-5
to 10
15
O
Compensate for change in ambient
condition
Working principle is to measure change
in resistance relative to a measured
standard.
Ohmmeter Circuit
mpose a known
voltage across an
unknown resistance
and measure
resulting current
flow using
galvanometer.
Shunt resistors and
D'Arsonval
mechanism is used
to measure wide
range of
resistances.
Ohmmeter Circuit
Shunt resistor protects
meter from excess
current
Maximum current is
limited by heat
dissipation in shunt
resistor
Power =
2
R
Make sure the watt
ratings of resistors are
ok for the current
applied
Figliola, 2000
7
Bridge circuits used to
measure capacitance,
inductance, and most often
resistance
Wheatstone bridge
accurately measures
resistance and detects
small changes in resistance
Changes in R
1
reflect
change in system
When g =0, the bridge is
balanced and there is no
voltage drop from B to C
Then (node current)

1
R
1
-
3
R
3
=0

2
R
2
-
4
R
4
=0
Also when balanced
1
=
2
,
3
=
4
Solving: R
2
/R
1
= R
4
/R
3
Figliola, 2000
Application
1. f R
1
varies, adjust R
2
to maintain
balanced system called nulling
(zeroing).
2. f the galvanometer is replaced with a
voltmeter, the voltage drop is an
indication of the change in the
resistance R
1
.
Null Method
f R
1
varies, R
2
is adjusted to directly
compensate for change in R
1
. R
2
is a
calibrated variable resistance which can be
controlled manually or automatically. n this
case we do not care about the value of "E
i
-
only if there is a current flow through the
galvanometer.
There is error introduced by the
galvanometer, which does not have exactly
zero current flow.
Uncertainty in R
1
:
ur
1
/R
1
=
g
(R
1
+R
g
)/E
i
Note: This can be used to
select the right battery and
galvanometer. Caution must
be taken to dissipate heat
properly. (Watts = I
1
2
R
1
)
8
Deflection Method
n an unbalanced condition, the magnitude of
the current or voltage drop for the meter or
galvanometer portion of a bridge circuit is a
direct indication of the change in resistance of
one or more of the arms of the bridge.
Consider first the case in which the voltage
drop from node B to node C in the basic
bridge is measured by a meter having an
infinite internal impedance, so that there is no
current flow through the meter, as shown on
the next slide.
Deflection Method
Since
m
=0 and balanced
1
=
2
,
3
=
4
, then
E
0
=
1
R
1
-
3
R
3
through substitution of prior
equations
E
0
= E
i
(R
1
/(R
1
+ R
2
) R
3
/ (R
3
+ R
4
))
f there is a change in R
1
, R
1
' = R
1
+ oR
n many cases, R
1
= R
2
= R
3
= R
4
oE
0
/ E
i
= (oR / R) / 4 + 2(oR / R)
)
R R
R
-
R ' R
' R
[( E E E
4 3
3
2 1
1
i 0 0
+ +
= o +

) R )(R R ' (R
) R R - R ' [(R E
4 3 2 1
2 3 4 1 i
+ +
=
9
f voltage meter is replaced by a low impedance
current measuring device and bridge operated
un-balanced, we have a current sensitive bridge.
Then, E
i
=
1
R
1
+
2
R
2

2
=
1

g
Then, E
i
=
1
(R
1
+R
2
) -
g
R
2
Consider voltage drop through loop R
1
, R
g
, R
3
1.
1
R
1
+
g
R
g

3
R
3
= 0
For R
g
, R
4
, R
2
2.
g
R
g
+
4
R
4

2
R
2
= 0
3.
g
R
g
+ (
3
+
g
)R
4
(
1
-
g
)R
2
= 0
Solving 3 equations simultaneously for
g

g
= [E
i
(R
3
R
2
-R
1
R
4
)]
[R
3
(R
1
+R
2
)(R
g
+R
2
+R
4
)+R
1
R
2
R
4
-R
3
R
2
2
+R
g
R
4
(R
1
+R
2
)]
Substituting
2
=
1

g
and
4
=
3
+
g
from node current
Then, change in R
1
in terms of bridge
deflection voltage E
0
f all resistors equal to R and R
1
changes
oR, the current
g
= E
i
(oR / R) / (4(R+R
g
))
output voltage E
0
=
g
R
g
E
0
=E
i
(oR / R) / (4(1 + R / R
g
))
1
1
4 2
2 0
4 2
2 0
1
3
1

+

+
+
=
o
]
) (
[
]
) (
[
R R
R
E
E
R R
R
E
E
R
R
R
R
i
i
10
Bridge Impedance
The bridge impedance can affect output
of constant voltage source having an
internal resistance R
s
.
R
B
= bridge resistance
R
B
=R
1
R
3
/(R
1
+R
3
) + R
2
R
4
/(R
2
+R
4
)
f R
S
is voltage source internal
resistance, E
S
is voltage
E
i
= E
S
R
B
/R
S
+R
B
R
B
=R
1
R
3
/ (R
1
+ R
3
) + R
2
R
4
/ (R
2
+ R
4
)

Similarly, bridge impedance can affect

voltage indicated by voltage measuring
device, if R
g
is internal impedance of
VOM.
E
M
= E
0
R
B
' / R
g
+ R
B
'
R
B
' = R
1
||R
2
+ R
3
||R
4
R
B
' = (R
1
R
2
/ (R
1
+ R
2
))+ (R
3
R
4
/ (R
3
+ R
4
))
b s
b s
i
R R
R E
E
+
=
Deflection Method
This can be written as:
The difference between the measured
voltage, E
m
, and the actual voltage, E
o
,
is called a loading error, in this case
caused by the bridge impedance load.
) ( g
g
m
o R
R R
R R
R R
R R
R
E
E +
+
+
+
=
4 3
4 3
2 1
2 1
11
Loading Errors and Impedance
Matching
deally an instrument should not in itself affect the variable
being measured (non-invasive)
Loading when measurement system alters variable being
measured
Loading Error difference between unaltered value and
observed/recorded value of variable
Process Loading Error when the insertion of a sensor into
the process alters in some way the physical variable
nterstage Loading Error if output from one stage is
affected by subsequent stages.
Goal minimize loading errors
Ex: nsert a thermometer at room temperature into a
specimen at some higher temperature. Heat removed to
achieve equilibrium is loading.
Ex: galvanometer in wheatstone bridge
removes current from circuit to activate meter
movement.
Note: Null balance methods generally minimize
magnitude of loading errors to negligible levels,
while deflection method can add significant
loading if care is not taken.
Loading Error in Voltage Divider
Total: R
1
+ R
2
= R
T
R1||Rm
R
L
= R
1
R
m
/ (R
1
+ R
m
)
R
eq
= R
2
+ R
1
R
m
/ (R
1
+R
m
)
= E
i
/ R
eq
= E
1
/ (R
2
+ R
1
R
m
/(R
1
+R
m
))
Figliola, 2000
12
Output Voltage
E
0
= E
i
R
2
or
As R
m
goes to infinity
E
0
/ E
i
= R
1
/ (R
1
+ R
2
) ; E
0
/ E
i
= R
1
/ R
1
as R
2
0
Then, using
(E
0
/ E
i
)' = R
1
/ (R
1
+ R
2
) = R
1
/ R
T
Error: e

= E
i
[(E
0
/ E
i
)' E
0
/ E
i
]
Then
e

= E
i
(R
1
R
T
+ (R
T
R
1
) [(R
1
/ R
m
) + 1]
R
T
+ [(R
T
2
/ R
1
) R
T
] [(R
1
/ R
m
) + 1]
The loading error goes to zero as R
m

) / )( / ( 1 1
1
1 1 2 + +
=
m i
o
R R R R E
E
Interstage Loading Errors
Consider the common situation in which the output voltage signal from
one measurement system provides the input to the following device.
The open circuit potential, E
1
, is present at the output terminal of
device 1 with output impedance, Z
1
.
However, the output signal from device 1 provides the input to a
second device, which, at its input terminals, has an input impedance,
Z
m
.
Figliola, 2000
Interstage Loading Errors
Using Thevenin's equivalent of Device 1
E
m
= * Z
th
= E
1
(1 / (1 + z
1
/z
m
))
E
1
potential at output of Device 1 is input to
Device 2
Device 1 has output voltage E
1
and output
impedance z
1
Device 2 has input impedance z
2
The original potential has been charged by
interstage connection causing loading error,
e

= E
1
E
m
e

= E
1
(1 (1/(1 + z
1
/z
m
))) e

0 as z
m
>> z
1
E
1
= E
m
+ E
m
(z
1
/z
m
)
E
m
= E
1
E
m
(z
1
/z
m
)
13
Analog Signal Conditioning
Amplifiers scale the magnitude of analog
input signal
A linear scaling amplifier
G = gain
t is a constant that may be positive or negative
E t h E t o i ( ) { ( )} =
h E t GE t i i { ( )} ( ) =
Analog Signal Conditioning
Amplifiers have a finite frequency
response and limited input voltage
range.
OP-Amp is most common
1. Very high input impedance z
i
>10
7

2. Low output impedance z

o
<100
3. High internal gain A = 10
5
Since z
i
>> 0, ~ 0
Signal in-phase for non-inverting input
Signal 180
o
out of phase for inverting
input
Requires dual polarity dc excitation
voltage ranging from 5 V to 15V
Figliola, 2000
14
High internal open-loop gain, A, (no external loads)
Gain "A is flat at low frequency, but drops off quickly
at high frequency.
By using External Resistances at input and at
feedback, the circuit is stabilized and gain is fixed.
Resistors R
1
and R
2
are used to form a feedback loop
and controls overall amplifier circuit gain.
E t A E t E t o i i ( ) [ ( ) ( )] = 2 1
Figliola, 2000
For Non-Inverting Circuit
E
o
- i
o
(R
1
+ R
2
) = 0
E
i
- i
o
(R
2
) = 0
E
o
= i
o
(R
1
+ R
2
)
E
i
= i
o
(R
2
)
E
i
/ R
2
= E
o
/ (R
1
+ R
2
)
G = E
o
/ E
i
= (R
1
+ R
2
) / R
2
Figliola, 2000
Inverting Amp Circuit
E
i
- i
i
(R
1
+ R
2
) + E
o
= 0
E
i
- i
i
R
1
= 0
i
i
= E
i
/ R
1
E
i
(E
i
/ R
1
) (R
1
+R
2
) +
E
o
= 0
E
i
E
i
E
i
(R
2
/ R
1
) +
E
o
= 0
E
o
= E
i
(R
2
/ R
1
)
G = E
o
/ E
i
= (R
2
/ R
1
)
Figliola, 2000
15
Differential Amplifier Circuit (OP-Amp)
Use both inputs to compare input voltage
"voltage comparator
E
o
(t) = [E
i1
(t) E
i2
(t)] (R
2
/ R
1
)
Figliola, 2000
Special Analog Voltage Comparator
Output proportional to difference in input voltage
E
0
= G(E
i1
E
i2
) for |E
i1
E
i2
| < E
T
E
0
= + E bias for E
i1
E
i2
> E
T
E
0
= - E bias for E
i1
E
i2
< -E
T
Often E
i2
is equal to some reference voltage, which
allows the comparator to detect if the input is greater
or less than reference used in A/D converters.
The threshold E
t
is fixed by bias voltage
Output saturates at E
i
values = E
T
Figliola, 2000
16
Sample and Hold Circuit
The sample and hold circuit (SHC) is used to
take a narrow-band measurement of a time-
changing signal and to hold that measured
value until reset.
t is widely used in data-acquisition systems
using A/D converters.
The circuit tracks the signal until it is triggered
to sample the signal and hold it.
Charge Amplifier
A charge amplifier is used to convert a
high-impedance charge, q, into an
output voltage, E
o
.
The circuit consists of a high gain,
inverting voltage operational amplifier.
These circuits are commonly used with
transducers that utilize piezoelectric
crystals.
17
Current Loop: 4-20 mA
A problem with voltage signals below ~100
mV is that they are quite vulnerable to noise
along the transmission lines.
One means of transmitting low-level voltage
signals over long-distances is by signal
boosting.
A common alternative method is a 4-20 mA
current loop (read as 4 to 20).
The low-level voltage is converted into a
standard current loop signal of between 4 and
20 mA, the lower constant current value for
the minimum voltage and the higher value for
the maximum voltage in the range.
Analog Signal Conditioning
Filters areusedtoremoveundesirablefrequencyinformation.
M(f) is magnituderatioof dynamicsystemresponse.
F
c
=cutoff frequency
Low-pass filter permits frequencies belowcutoff frequencyandblocks frequencies
aboveit.
Figliola, 2000
18
Filters Types
Passive filters are circuits made up of resistors, capacitors,
and inductors.
Active filters incorporate operational amplifiers.
The sharp cut off of an ideal filter can not be realized.
Roll off designated in decibels per decade
Phase shift between input and output
Filter design is based on its cut off frequency, which is the
frequency where the signal power is reduced to , which is
equivalent to m(w) = 0.707
Decibels; db = 20 log m(w) = 20 log (0.707) = -3 db
Figliola, 2000
Butterworth Low Pass Filter
A simple passive low-pass Butterworth filter
can be constructed by using the resistor and
capacitor (RC) circuit.
Figliola, 2000
Butterworth Low Pass Filter
RC + E
0
= E
i
RC + E
0
= KA sin wt
E
0
(t) = c
e
-t/t
+ B(w)sin [wt+(w)]; t=RC w = 2tf
Phase shift: (w) = -tan -wt
Magnitude ratio: m(w) = B/KA
=
Design: f
c
occurs at m(w) = 0.707 or 3dB
t = RC = 1/2tf
c
; so f
c
= 2tRC
0
o
E
0
o
E
1/2 2
] ) (w [1
1
t +
19
The roll off slope can be improved by cascading low
pass filter stages
K-Stage Filter:
M(f) = 1/ [1 + (f / f
c
)
2k
]
1/2

Alternation at any frequency

dB = 10 log [1 + (f / f
c
)
2k
]
Values and Expressions for sizing L
i
and C
i
are given
in Table 1 and Eq 6.60

=
| = u
K
1 i
i ) f ( ) f (
Figliola, 2000
Roll off is a function of the K number of stages.
Note: steeper slopeof attenuation for K =4 &5
Figliola, 2000
1
st
order single stage
low pass active
Butterworth filter
f
c
= 1/ (2tR
2
C
2
)
High Pass
f
c
= 1/ (2tR
1
C
1
)
Magnitude Ratio
Figliola, 2000
)
) ) (f/f (1
) (f/f
( )
R
R
( KM(f)
1/2 2
c
c
1
2
+
=
20
Grounding and Shielding
Type of connecting wire can have a significant
impact on noise levels, especially for low-level
signals (<100 mV).
Rule of Thumb:
1. Keep wires as short as possible
2. Keep signal wires away from noise sources
a) Separate conduit from high-voltage AC, and especially
variable speed PWM drives
b) Avoid motors when possible
c) Run perpendicular to AC lines
3. Use individual wire shielded cables
a) 2 conductor shielded cables
b) Twisted pair with individual shields
c) Drain wires
Ground a conductor connected to a probe
that is driven far into the earth provides a
return path to earth.
The ground at the feeder box may not be at
the earth ground potential due to the voltages
that have been induced into the down stream
ground conductor.
The difference between the two ground point
voltages is called common-mode voltage.
Ground loops exist when a signal circuit is
connected to ground at two or more points
having different ground potential. This
potential induces a current in circuit that can
bias the signal or create unwanted
frequencies (usually 60 hz).
Proper Connection
Shields
Long wires act like antennas to pick up wet
noise. A shield is used to protect the signal
conductors from RF (radio frequency) and
EM noise. The shield is either metal foil or
wire braid with a drain wire that is
connected on one end (only) to ground.
f the shield is connected on both ends, a
ground loop is created.
21
Noise Sources Noise Solutions
Motors
Transformers
Solenoids
Relays
Motor drives
Switch gears
Motor contactors
Filters
Shields
DC chokes
Diodes
Avoidance
Separate conduits
Perpendicular
crossing
Connecting Wires
Twisted pairs tend to cancel induced voltage,
common for analog signals
Conductor size should be selected to
minimize voltage drop in conductor.
Coaxial cable (single internal conductor with
return path through shield) is common for
high frequency applications, and can be sent
over long distances. A triaxial cable is better
(2 internal wires) and gives excellent noise
suppression. But it is very expensive!