Geotechnical and Geological Engineering (2006) 24: 227248 DOI 10.

1007/s10706-004-5723-x

Springer 2006

Blast-resistant analysis for a tunnel passing beneath Taipei Shongsan airporta parametric study
M. W. GUI1,w and M. C. CHIEN2
National Taipei University of Technology, No 1, Sec 3, Chung-Hsiao E Road, Taipei 106, Taiwan 2 Dept of Rapid Transit Systems, Taipei, Taiwan (Received 10 February 2004; revised 18 October 2004; accepted 28 October 2004) Abstract. This paper covers the blast-resistant analysis for a tunnel passing beneath Taipei Shongsan airport. It briey discusses the overall analysis process to obtain the maximum lining thrust caused by a bomb explosion for use in the structural lining design. Because there have not been any established common standards or practices governing the design of such a structure, a series of parametric studies have been carried out in order to evaluate the signicance and sensitivity of several parameters on the lining thrust. The parameters evaluated are: intensity of blast loading, size of crater, dynamic undrained shear strength, dynamic Youngs modulus, and soil-damping ratio. It was concluded that a designer should adopt dynamic soil parameters, obtained from good ground investigation and soil testing, as favorable dynamic soil properties can result in a more economical analysis. For parameters (e.g. bomb type) that are beyond the control of the designer, an additional protective layer over the tunnel structure may be considered in order to minimize the impact of the explosion, instead of designing a more costly rigid structure. Key words. blast-resistant, bomb explosion, conventional weapon, lining, numerical analysis, tunnel.
1

1. Introduction
Analysis of blast-resistant of structures has been an active topic of concern as a result of a series of terrorist events worldwide. Events such as the truck bomb explosion in the World Trade Center in New York City in February 1993, the bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City in April 1995, the bomb explosions at the nancial centers of London and Buenos Aires in July 1994 and more recently at hotels in Jakarta and Turkey have caused considerable concern as how to protect the integrity of structures and their occupants from the threat of bombings and other direct physical attacks. Blast-resistant analysis is also important in the design of structures to minimize the impact of missile attack. For instance, because of its strategic location, Taiwan has been subjected to varying degrees of missile threat from its neighboring countries.

w Corresponding author: Assoc. Prof., Civil Eng. Dept, National Taipei University of Technology, No 1, Sec 3, Chung-Hsiao E Road, Taipei 106, Taiwan. e-mail: mwgui@yahoo.com

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One of its strategies in response to the military modernization and missile buildup of its neighboring countries is to design its civil and military targets to minimize the impact of missile attacks (Swaine and Runyon, 2002). This is considered a relatively cost-eective and ecient means of defending against possible attacks and should allow Taiwan to preserve its military forces and its ability to resist follow-on attacks (Swaine and Runyon, 2002). There have not been many established standards or practices governing the design of civilian blast-resistant structures. This is mostly due to the security classication of military technology, such as the design methodologies and construction techniques developed for the protection of military facilities, which has denied the civilian sector the information needed in applying such technology (National Research Council, 1995). Besides, experimental studies related to any particular combination of structure, soil and loading are scarce as full-scale experiments are expensive and model tests seem to be unrealistic, especially in replicating the selfweight of overburden soil. Numerical simulation is relatively aordable and is becoming more and more indispensable in engineering analysis and design. The use of it is essential in the understanding of the complex response seen in some experiments prior to the development of any design guidelines. For example, the response of a partially embedded structure subjected to combined air-blast and ground shock had been performed (Isenberg et al., 1973). However, the study did not take into account the failure behavior of the soil around the blast crater, as it used an idealized elastic soil model. A more sophisticated structural response analysis of a buried reinforced concrete arch has been performed by Stevens and Krauthammer (1991 a, b). Furthermore, the concrete was simulated using a nonlocal continuum damage/plasticity model, the steel using an elastic/strain hardening plasticity model, and the soil using a straight Drucker-Prager yield surface model. However, the result was only evaluated from the viewpoint of concrete and steel reinforcement, no assessment being made on the eects of soil properties on such structure. Clearly, it is necessary to understand the eects and sensitivity of soil characteristics on the buried structure during blasting. A parametric study for a tunnel passing beneath Taipei Shongsan airport is presented here. During a war, the airport runway would be an obvious military target while an underground tunnel passing beneath it might serve as a bunker. Therefore such a tunnel must be designed to minimize the impact of missile attack. Stresses and displacements induced by blast loading at a distance are required for structural design. They must be derived from numerical analysis because of the complex soil/tunnel interaction that cannot be accounted for through simple analytical expressions. The main objective of this paper is to stimulate interest from researchers and practising engineers so that the behavior of underground tunnels under non-nuclear explosions can be understood further. With that purpose, numerical simulation was carried out to examine the signicance and sensitivity of the dynamic soil stiness, undrained shear strength, soil damping ratio, intensity of blast loading, and crater

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size on the tunnel. Parametric studies were carried out as it is impossible to evaluate their signicance without repeated parametric calculations and to determine the sensitivity of the tunnel response to these parameters.

2. Ground Conditions at Shongsan Airport Tunnel

The Taipei Rapid Transit (TRT) system consists of four main lines: (1) Danshui to Xindian; (2) Muzha Zoo to Zhongsan Junior High School; (3) Kunyang to Xinbu; and (4) Nanshijiao to Beitou. Due to the increase in passenger volume, extensions of the Kunyang to Xinbu Line from Xinbu station to Tucheng, and the Muzha Zoo to Zhongsan Junior High School Line from Zhongsan Junior High School to Neihu have been planned. The extensions involve a total of 68 tunnel drives, with a total length of 48 km (Hwang et al., 1996). Contract CB431 of the Zhongsan Junior High School to Neihu extension line required a tunnel to pass beneath Taipei Shongsan airport (Figure 1). The depth of the 6 m diameter tunnel varies between 21.0 and 25.3 m beneath the Shongsan airport. The center of the studied section of the tunnel is approximately 24.3 m deep with a 21 m thick overburden. Taipei city is located in a basin called the Taipei basin, which is surrounded by Datun Volcano on the north, Linkou Terrace on the west, and foothills on the east and the south. The basin was formed by a series of sedimentation events several hundred years ago. The formation of the Taipei basin consist of 16 m thick top soil or ll material, followed by a 4060 m thick alluvial deposit (the Shongsan formation), which lies above the Jingmei formation. The Shongsan formation comprises six alternating silty sand and silty clay layers with varying thicknesses, while the Jingmei formation is mainly composed of dense sands and gravels with diameter of up to 30 cm (Chow and Ou, 1999). The sub-formations of the Shongsan formation

Figure 1. Cross sectional view of the soil stratication at Shongsan airport tunnel.

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Table 1. Description of typical Taipei basin soil formations Layers Top soil Sub-layers Description VI V Shongsan formation IV III II I Jingmei formation

M. W. GUI AND M. C. CHIEN

Thickness SPT (m) N-value 16 4 4 5 13 14 20 06 020 530 015 215 05 0140

Yellowish brown or gray silty clay (CL-ML) Gray silty ne sand (SM) Gray silty clay (CL-ML) Gray medium dense sand interstratied with silt or silty clay seams (SM) Gray silty clay (CL, ML) Medium dense to dense silty sand (SM) or sand gravel

and their average SPT N values are given in Table 1. For a detailed description of the characteristics of the Taipei basin, readers are referred to Woo and Moh (1990). In total, seven boreholes have been drilled at various location at the Shongsan airport. The ground water table was found to vary between 1.7 and 3.5 m below the ground level. The average properties of the subsoils obtained from conventional soil laboratory testing are given in Table 2.

3. Weapon Characteristics
A large body of theoretical and empirical knowledge regarding explosions and their eects has been developed from a series of research and tests sponsored by U.S. government agencies. As a result, a number of manuals on protective structures such as those by U.S. Dept of Army (1986, 1990) and were issued in order to address the threats of both nuclear and conventional weapons. These manuals provide information for the estimation of weapon explosion loadings, the attenuation of pressure eects in the air and ground, the proportioning of structural elements, etc. Due to the frequency of their development and modication, there is an enormous variety of weapon systems available. In this study, the high-explosive-general-purpose bomb (GP 2000), which is used for general destruction by blast and fragmentation was assumed. The bomb penetrates into the earth and causes considerable
Table 2. Average soils parameters obtained from Shongsan airport site Youngs Unit Weight Cohesion Angle of modulus (kPa) friction () (MPa) SPT N value (kN/m3) 2 13 40 17.0 18.3 20.1 21.1 0 30 50 0 33 31 32 35 15 28 32 47

Depth (m) Soil type 02.5 2.530 3048 4850 Fill Low plasticity sandy clay SM silty sand

Low plasticity silty/sandy clay 5

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damage to nearby buried structures by a conned explosion. The general characteristics of GP 2000 bomb are (U.S. Dept of Army, 1986): total weight = 2090 lbs (950 kg); charge-weight = 1100 lb (500 kg); body diameter =23 inch (585 mm); slenderness ratio = 3.0; and striking velocity = 1100 ft/s (335 m/sec). 3.1. BOMB PENETRATION DEPTH Research has shown that stresses from a buried burst are usually greater in magnitude and much longer in duration than the corresponding burst in the air (U.S. Dept of Army, 1986). It is therefore necessary to rst derive the penetration and explosion depth of a bomb prior to the determination of the blast loading. The penetration of the GP 2000 bomb into the earth varies with the type of soil encountered and it normally follows a J-shaped path, such that the nal penetration depth is less than the penetration path length. It is dicult to accurately calculate the bomb penetration depth but an estimate may be made using the semi-empirical formulae (U.S. Dept of Army, 1986):
0:333 Db 3:2WT

where Db is the bomb penetration depth (ft), and WT the projectile weight (=2090 lb). The factor 3.2 takes into consideration the type of soil and also the corresponding energy loss during penetration in the soil. Db of about 12.5 m was thus derived. Protective layers of concrete or rock rubble are often provided over a buried structure with the purpose of limiting bomb penetration, hence reducing the blast eects on the structure. For the Shongsan airport, in addition to the 0.5 m thick subgrade, there was a 1.0 m thick concrete runway. Therefore, the resistance provided by both the subgrade and concrete runway can be accounted for. U.S. Dept of Army (1986) suggested that at least half of the penetration energy would be dissipated as a result of such penetration. As such, the nal penetration depth estimated here was conservatively assumed to be about 70% of the bomb penetration depth, which gave a depth of about 8.8 m (Figure 2). 3.2. BLAST LOADING The blast eect of an explosion is in the form of a shock wave composed of a highpressure shock front that expands outward from the center of the detonation, with pressure intensity decaying with distance (Balsara, 2002). As the wave front impinges on the tunnel, a portion of the tunnel will be engulfed by the shock pressures. The magnitude and distribution of the blast load acting on the tunnel then depends on the tunnel geometry and exibility, blast pressure-time history, and the dynamic soil characteristics (Balsara, 2002). The blast loading may be characterized as a pulse with an exponential-shape time history that attenuates rapidly in amplitude and broadens as it propagates outward

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8.9 m

Crater

12.1 m

Tunnel

6.0 m with 0.3 m thick lining

Figure 2. Location of the tunnel studied section in relation to the detonation center.

25 Blast pressure (MPa) 20 15 10 5 0 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 Time (sec) 0.025 0.03

Po

Figure 3. Blasting pressure-time history curve applied to the crater inner boundary.

from the detonation center, Figure 3. Thus it was also necessary to establish the variation and decay of the incident pressure with time because the eects on the tunnel structure depend not only on the peak pressure Po but also on the pressuretime history of the blast loading. In general, for sandy clay, Po (psi) may be estimated from the following expression (U.S. Dept of Army, 1986):       c C R n Po 160 2 g 144 W1 = 3 where, c is the unit weight of the soil (=18.3 kN/m3 =116 lb/ft3 ); C the average seismic velocity (=1630 m/s =5350 ft/s); R is the distance from the explosion

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Figure 4. (a) Finite dierence mesh used in the analysis; (b) close-up mesh for and around the lining; and (c) two layers of transverse reinforcement used in the lining (longitudinal reinforcement not shown).

(=12.2 m =40 ft); W the charge weight (=500 kg =1100 lb); n is the attenuation coecient which is controlled by the irreversible crushing of the void volume within a soil matrix by the passage of a stress wave; for sandy clay n 2:5 (U.S. Dept of Army, 1986). The rise time tr taken to reach Po may be estimated from tr 0:1ta 0:1 R C 3

where ta is the elapsed arrival time from the instant of detonation to the time at which the shock arrives at a given point of the tunnel. Equation (2) thus gives a Po value of about 725 psi or 5.0 MPa at the tunnel crown with an elapsed arrival time ta of 7.48 msec and rise time tr of 0.748 msec. From Po , the shock wave decays monotonically to nearly zero over a time period of about one to three times the value of ta in the fashion of the following equation: Pt Po eta
t

where Pt is the blast pressure at any given time t. Note that the arrival time ta is inversely proportional to the seismic velocity, thus an explosion in high-velocity

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media such as saturated clay will produce very short, high-frequency pulses with high accelerations and low displacements. In contrast, detonations in dry, loose materials will produce ground motions of much longer duration and lower frequency.

3.3. CRATERING A crater is normally dened as a hole in the ground formed by an explosion. The true crater is normally masked by the dirt or debris that falls back into the crater. If the explosion occurs deep enough to be completely contained below the surface, the true crater will consist of a cavity called a camouet (U.S. Dept of Army, 1986). Factors such as the type and amount of explosive, bomb penetration depth, and the type of material in which the crater forms, control the nal dimension of the crater. In general, a crater that forms in sandy soil is smaller than those in clay (U.S. Dept of Army, 1986). There is no formulation to estimate the crater diameter but an estimate may be made from Figure 5.7 in U.S. Dept of Army (1986). Therefore, one of the parametric studies carried out below examines the sensitivity of the lining moment to crater size. The initial estimate of the crater diameter for the type of soil and charge weight assumed for Shongsan airport is about 4.0 m.

4. Numerical Modelling
Numerical analysis has been found to be suited for analyzing wave propagation in continuous nonlinear media with large deformations because the complicated boundary conditions and soil models involved could be reasonably accounted for via simple equations (Stevens and Krauthammer, 1991a). The nite dierence program used in this study was FLAC2D (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua) that is well suited for modelling nonlinear systems (Itasca Consulting Group, 1999). The program adapts the dynamic equations of motion so as to ensure a stable numerical scheme when the physical system being modeled is unstable (Itasca Consulting Group, 1999). As mentioned earlier, ground shock propagation in earth media is a function of the dynamic soil properties, type of explosive materials and geometry of the explosion. Here, the signicance and sensitivity of dynamic soil properties (undrained shear strength, soil stiness, damping ratio), soil/tunnel interface resistance, intensity of blast loading, and crater size are studied. The major simplication made in this analysis was that the propagation of the three-dimensional blast wave was represented by a two-dimensional (2D) blast wave. The 2D result seemed conservative as it treated the source of the explosion as a cylindrical geometry instead of a spherical one. As a result, the whole tunnel, instead of only a particular section, is subjected to the 5 MPa blast loading. Further work in 3D modelling is required to examine the eects of two-way bending and axial loading of the lining.

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4.1. CONSTITUTIVE MODELS AND MATERIAL PARAMETERS 4.1.1. Soil As the soil surrounding the crater would inevitably fail under such intense loading, the Mohr-Coulomb elasto-plastic model with a non-associated ow rule was chosen to represent the behavior of the soil which will undergo large deformation. Its failure envelope corresponds to a Mohr Coulomb criterion (shear yield function) with tension cuto (tension yield function). In FLAC, the parameters associated with the Mohr-Coulomb model for an undrained analysis are: unit weight c, undrained shear strength Cu , Youngs modulus E, and Poissons ratio. These parameters have been obtained from a series of laboratory triaxial tests and are tabulated in Table 3. For the damping ratio, an average value of 3.5% has been adopted (Barkan, 2002). Groundwater is modeled simply by assigning a water table at 2.5 m below the ground level.

4.1.2 Tunnel lining and steel reinforcement According to Stevens and Krauthammer (1991a), the nonlinear response of concrete may be created through the combination of micro-crack growth and frictional slip. Micro-cracks that induced strength and stiness degradation could be modeled using the theory of continuum damage mechanics; and the plastic ow and pre-peak nonlinearity of concrete created by frictional slip could be modeled by the theory of plasticity. However, this was not being considered here, as micro-crack behavior of reinforced concrete was beyond the scope of this paper. For simplicity, the general behavior of the concrete was modeled in FLAC using the strain hardening/softening model with a non-associated ow rule. Its associated properties are tabulated in Table 3. Note that the dynamic strengths of the concrete have been taken to be 1.2 times the static strengths (U.S. Dept of Army, 1986). To account for the possible slip between the soil and the liner after a limiting stress condition had been reached, interface elements that were characterized by Coulomb sliding were inserted between the liner and the soil (Itasca Consulting Group, 1999). The interface element adopted here has the properties of friction, interface resistance, tensile strength, and normal Kn and shear Ks stinesses. Kn and Ks may be derived from Timoshenko and Goodier (2002): Kn 4Gro 1m and Ks 321 mGr3 o 7 8m 5

where ro is the tunnel radius; G the shear stiness of the soil; and m the Poissons ratio. The corresponding interface parameters are shown in Table 3. As soil is poor in sustaining tension, only 1 kPa of tensile strength is used here. For reinforced concrete lining without shear reinforcement, the transverse shear is resisted by the plain concrete, the dowel eects of the reinforcement, and the aggregate interlock across any large cracks (Stevens and Krauthammer, 1991a). It

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Table 3. Materials properties adopted in FLAC Materials Fill Properties Unit weight Undrained shear strength Friction angle Youngs modulus Poisson ratio CL-Soil Unit weight Undrained shear strength Friction angle Youngs modulus Poisson ratio Damping ratio Concrete Unit weight Cohesion Friction angle Youngs modulus Poisson ratio Uniaxial compressive strength Tensile strength Yield strain Cable element(Grade 60 Steel) Unit weight Youngs modulus Poisson ratio Tensile strength Yield strain Soil-tunnel interface Friction Interface resistance, f Normal stiffness, Kn Shear stiffness, Ks Tensile strength

M. W. GUI AND M. C. CHIEN

Unit kN/m Kpa Mpa kN/m KPa Mpa % kN/m3 Mpa Mpa Mpa Mpa % kN/m Mpa Mpa % Kpa Mpa Mpa KPa
3 3 3

Static 17.0 0 33 15 0.28 18.3 0 31 28 0.32 0 24 10.4 37 30500 0.20 42 0.36 0.35 78 210000 0.20 420 0.20 32 22.5 187 1402 1

Dynamic 17.0 45 33 15 0.49 18.3 45 0 253 0.49 3.5 24 12.5 37 30500 0.20 50.4 0.43 0.35 78 210000 0.20 462 0.20 32 33.75 2000 12160 1

may then be assumed that the contribution of the reinforcement to the shear resistance is small and the steel response may be taken as uniaxial. Thus, the onedimensional structural cable element in FLAC that was capable in sustaining uniaxial tension was used to model the steel reinforcement of the tunnel lining. The disadvantage of using cable element is that the lining bending moment prole cannot be calculated automatically, but it can be used to simulate the tensile and compressive yield strength of the reinforcement (Itasca Consulting Group, 1999). Rate eects were not included because experimental data from strain rate tests on steel showed that strain rates up to 10% per second had no apparent eect on the

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material properties of steels with yield strengths of 340 N/mm2 or more (Soroushian and Choi, 1987). The general properties of this cable element are shown in Table 3.

4.2. MODELLING SEQUENCE Figure 4(a) shows the rectangular nite dierence mesh created for the analysis; Figure 4(b) shows the close-up of the mesh near the tunnel and Figure 4(c) shows the layers of reinforcement in the lining. During the static run to achieve the in-situ stress state, both the left and right boundaries were xed in the horizontal direction while the bottom boundary was restrained from both horizontal and vertical movements. Quiet boundaries were then added in the subsequent dynamic runs in order to simulate the far eld condition that absorbed shock waves and prevented the waves from reecting back in to the model. After achieving the initial stress state of the ground, the mesh elements at the tunnels locations were switched to null model to model tunnels excavation, and the properties of the elements at the tunnel circumference were changed to concrete properties to model the lining installation process. Structural cable elements and structural interface elements were used to represent the steel reinforcement in the lining and the interface between the soil and the concrete lining, respectively. At this initial stage, the maximum lining thrust was found to be 230 kN. The crater was then created by nulling the mesh elements and internal pressure applied in the fashion of Figure 3 to simulate the blast loading. The applied internal pressure has been set to about 20 MPa so that the peak pressure of 5 MPa, as calculated using Equation (2), could be obtained at the tunnel crown.

4.3. MODELLING RESULTS Immediately after the burst at the crater, the surrounding soil redistributes the blast loading pressure in response to relative displacement of the tunnel, and thrust in the lining. Consider a exural segmental lining member of width b 1:0 m and height h 0:3 m. The relationship between its bending moment and maximum stress ry at its outer bers may be related using (Itasca Consulting Group, 1999): M ry bh2 6 6

Here, ry is taken to be the maximum lining thrust divided by the linings cross sectional area bh. As the critical location of the explosion was directly above the left tunnel, the maximum displacement was always observed at the crown of this tunnel; in addition, a symmetrical deformation shape was also observed around both the crater and tunnel locations (Figure 5). Ground heaving was more obvious than the tunnel deformation because the overburden above the crater was insucient to hold the explosion. In the following, the numerical results obtained were presented in the

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Figure 5. (a) Displacement eld observed around the crater; and (b) magnied displacement eld observed around the left tunnel after blasting.

form of eective major principal stress of the soil at tunnel crown, maximum lining thrust (inclusive of initial and dynamic stages) and its corresponding bending moment. A typical dynamic time function for soil major principal stress above the crown, crown displacement, and maximum lining thrust is shown in Figure 6. No discernable oscillation was observed on these data during the explosion. In particular, the displacement prole was similar to the displacement prole caused by air blast loading on ground obtained by Das (1985).

5. Results and Discussion

For better understanding of the problem, the sensitivity of several parameters on the response of tunnel structure under blast loading have been performed in order to alert a designer to the input parameters to take into account, and to help optimize similar design in the future. In particular, the eects of dynamic soil properties (undrained shear strength, soil stiness, and soil damping ratio), and weapon characteristics (blasting pressure, and crater size) have been studied. 5.1. DYNAMIC UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH There are many methods that can be used to estimate the soil static undrained shear strength Custatic ; for example, using the undrained unconsolidated triaxial test, in-situ vane shear test, or using various empirical correlations. On the other hand, the value of dynamic undrained shear strength Cudyn is not normally measured directly, and the empirical correlation proposed by Das (1993) (with b 1:5) is normally employed: Cudyn bCustatic 7

In view of this, it was necessary to examine the importance and sensitivity of the lining thrust on Cudyn . This was easily done simply by varying the values of Cudyn in the numerical analysis. Figure 7(a) shows that the major principal stress of the soil at tunnel crown increased slightly from 4.61 to 4.93 MPa for 1:5 < b < 15 and then

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Major Principal Stress (MPa)

8 6 4 2 0 -2

(a)

0.5

0.52

0.54 0.56 Time History (sec)

0.54 0.56

0.58

0.6

0.5

0.52

0.58

0.6

Crown Displacement (mm)

0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30

(b)

Time History (sec)

Max Lining Thrust (kN)

2000 1500 1000 500 0

(c)

0.5

0.52

0.54 0.56 Time History (sec)

0.58

0.6

Figure 6. Time history function for: (a) major principal stress of soil at tunnel crown; (b) crown displacement; and (c) maximum lining thrust.

remains nearly constant between 4.93 and 5.13 MPa for 15 < b < 150. This was because the stresses in the soil mainly depended on the applied loading rather than its own strength property. As a result, the lining thrust and its corresponding bending moment also attain a similar prole with b (Figure 7(b) and (c)). The lining thrust increased from 1518 to 1578 kN for 1:5 < b < 15 and then uctuated between 1578 and 1618 kN for 15 < b < 150; the bending moment remained nearly constant between 76 and 81 kNm. 5.2. DYNAMIC SOIL STIFFNESS The downhole velocity-logging test carried out on site revealed that the average dynamic Youngs modulus, E, was about 253 MPa. However, only two tests were carried out and it was reported that noise and vibration from within the airport

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Major Principal Stress ( M Pa )

M. W. GUI AND M. C. CHIEN

8 6 4 2 0 0

(a)

50 Factor

100

150

M a x L i ni n g T h r u s t ( k N )

2000 1500 1000 500 0 0

(b)

50 Factor

100

150

Bending Moment (kNm)

100 80 60 40 20 0 0

(c)

50 Factor

100

150

Figure 7. Sensitivity of (a) major principal stress of soil at tunnel crown; (b) maximum lining thrust; and (c) lining bending moment to dynamic undrained shear strength Cudyn , where Cudyn b Custatic and that Custatic 30 kPa.

might corrupt the measured values. Thus, this sensitivity analysis was performed to evaluate its importance and sensitivity on the lining thrust analysis. Figure 8(a) shows the relation between E and eective major principal stress of the soil at the tunnel crown location. The major principal stress initially increased with the increase of E until E  1520 MPa; this is followed by a nearly stable prole between 1520 and 8100 MPa before it gradually decreased again. Figure 8(b) shows the relation between E and maximum lining thrust. The thrust decreased by 17% from 1518 to 1263 kN when E was increased 100% from 253 to 506 MPa. The rate of decrease of the lining thrust reduces when E > 1012 MPa. The

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Major Principal Stresses (MPa)

8 6 4 2 0 0

(a)

5000

10000

15000

20000

Dynamic Young's modulus(MPa)

Max Lining Thrust (kN)

2000 1500 1000 500 0 0

(b)

5000

10000

15000

20000

Dynamic Young's modulus (MPa)

Bending Moment (kNm)
100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 Dynamic Young's modulus (MPa)
Figure 8. Sensitivity of (a) major principal stress of soil at tunnel crown; (b) maximum lining thrust; and (c) lining bending moment to dynamic soil stiness.
(c)

reduction showed that a stier soil medium would be more capable in restraining ground movement and thus lining deformation than a softer soil, therefore the thrust induced in the lining decreased as E was increased. As the value of bending moment was directly derived from the value of lining thrust, Figure 8(c) therefore shows a similar prole as Figure 8(b). 5.3. SOIL DAMPING RATIO The characteristics of a vibration that undergo a gradual decrease of amplitude with time are referred to as damping. There are two types of damping: (1) the loss of the amplitude of waves due to spreading out is dened as geometrical damping; and (2)

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the loss due to absorption in real earth material is called material damping (Das, 1993). The values of the material damping could vary between 1% and 10% (Hardin, 1965; Stevens, 1996). Thus, it was necessary to examine the sensitivity of this eect on the lining thrust. Figure 9(a) shows the eective major principal stress of the soil observed at the tunnel crown. It decreased linearly from 5.18 to 4.11 MPa with the increase of soil damping ratio from 0.2% to 10%. The relation between the lining thrust and soil damping ratio is shown in Figure 9(b). The thrust decreased linearly by a total of 13.2% when the damping ratio was increased from 0.2% to 10%. The result was reasonable as a higher damping value corresponds to more energy absorption in the soil and therefore exerted less thrust in the lining. Figure 9(c) shows that the bending moment was also linearly related to the soil-damping ratio.

Major Principal Stress (MPa)

8 6 4 2

(a)

0 0.1%

1.0% Damping (%)

10.0%

Max Lining Thrust (kN)

2000 1500 1000 500

(b)

0 0.1%

1.0%

10.0%

Damping (%)
Bending moment (kNm)
100 80 60 40 20 0 0.1% 1.0% Damping (%) 10.0%

(c)

Figure 9. Sensitivity of (a) major principal stress of soil at tunnel crown; (b) maximum lining thrust; and (c) lining bending moment to damping ratio.

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5.4. INTENSITY OF BLAST LOADING The intensity of blast loading depends mainly on the characteristic of the bomb such as the charge weight, and the properties of the soil such as the acoustic impedance and attenuation characteristics. Uncertainty exists in the determination of the values of the acoustic impedance and attenuation coecient. To examine its signicance and sensitivity, several values of blasting intensity have been used in the analysis. Figure 10(a) shows that the relation between the intensity of blast loading with eective major principal stress of the soil at the tunnel crown is a linear one. A 100%

Major Principal Stress (MPa)

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0

(a)

10

20

30

40

50

Intensity of blast-loading (MPa)

Max Lining Thrust (kN)

3000 2000 1000 0 0

(b)

10 20 30 40 Intensity of blast-loading (MPa)

(c)

50

Bending moment (kNm)

150

100 50

0 0 10 20 30 40 Intensity of blast-loading (MPa) 50

Figure 10. Sensitivity of (a) major principal stress of soil at tunnel crown; (b) maximum lining thrust; and (c) lining bending moment to intensity of blast loading.

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increase in the intensity of blast loading leads to almost 100% of an increase in the major principal stress. Figure 10(b) shows the relation between the intensity of blast loading and maximum lining thrust. It is obvious that the thrust increased with the increase of the intensity of blast loading in the fashion of a power law (this is to force the trend line passing through the graph origin). If the intensity of the blast loading at the crater was increased 100% from 20 to 40 MPa, the corresponding lining thrust increased by nearly 53% from 1518 to 2329 kN. For completeness, Figure 10(c) shows its corresponding bending moment. This parameter has a signicant eect on the lining thrust. However, this is a parameter that is highly uncertain and is beyond the control/knowledge of the designer. It is uneconomical to design such a structure to withstand an extremely high blast loading. Therefore, other measures such as providing a protective layer should be considered in order to reduce the bomb penetration and hence the impact of bomb blasting on the lining structure. Having said that, the maximum charge weight found in the list of high-explosive bombs in U.S. Dept of Army (1996) was only 857 kg (1890 lb), which is equivalent to a 30 MPa pressure applied in this case at the crater. 5.5. CRATER SIZE Most conventional bombs were designed in such a way that once they hit the surface of the ground, they would rst penetrate into the ground for a certain depth before they nally exploded. The true crater would consist of a cavity in which the earth material remains in place but has been severely disturbed by the force of explosion. The rupture zone is, in turn, surrounded by a larger region of lesser disturbance. The main variables that govern the crater dimension are the amount and type of explosive, depth of burst, and the type of material in which the cratering occurs (U.S. Dept of Army, 1986). Therefore, there was uncertainty in the determination of the crater size. Figure 11(a) shows that the soil eective major principal stress at the crown increased with the increase of crater size. Figure 11(b) shows that the relation between crater radius and maximum lining thrust is a nonlinear one. A 100% increase in the crater radius from 2 to 4 m caused the thrust to increase by 43% from 1518 to 2177 kN. This was mainly due to the reduction in the clear distance between the source of the explosion and the tunnel crown (Figure 2). For a 2 m radius crater, the clear distance was 10.2 m but for a 4 m crater, this distance reduced accordingly to 8.2 m. Thus, there should be more forces exerted on the lining in the latter case. Its corresponding bending moment is shown, for completeness, in Figure 11(c). For structural lining design, provisions in the ACI 318-99 (ACI, 1999) code may be adopted. The lining is considered as a wall for calculation of its capacity. The capacity for a 0.3 m thick lining with 16 numbers of D22 high yield bars, in the form of force-moment interaction diagram, is presented in Figure 12. The values of the lining

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245

Major Principal Stress (MPa)

10 8 6 4 2 0

(a)

0.0

1.0

2.0 3.0 4.0 Crater radius (m)

5.0

Max Lining Thrust (kN)

3000 2000 1000 0

(b)

0.0

1.0

2.0 3.0 4.0 Crater radius (m)

5.0

Bending moment (kNm)

150 100 50 0

(c)

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Crater radius (m)

Figure 11. Sensitivity of (a) major principal stress of soil at tunnel crown; (b) maximum lining thrust; and (c) lining bending moment to crater radius.

thrust and moment obtained from the above analyses are also shown in this gure so as to evaluate the performance of the lining, which is safe for all the above cases.

6. Practical Considerations
The parameters used in a blast-resistant analysis of an underground tunnel may be divided into two major groups: soil parameters and weapon characteristics. The soil parameters are determinable or controllable by the designer whereas the weapon characteristics are most likely undeterminable or uncontrollable by the designer.

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Crater size Blast Intensity E_dyn Damping Ratio

M. W. GUI AND M. C. CHIEN

Cu_dyn

500
0.8 x Moment (kNm)

250

0 -2500 -250 -500 0 2500 5000 7500 10000

0.8 x Force (kN)

Figure 12. Forcemoment interaction diagram for a 0.3 m thick lining with 16 numbers of D22 bars.

For the controllable parameters, it is obvious that the dynamic soil properties should be obtained and used instead of the static soil properties. The use of static soil properties would result in a conservative and costly structure. As the values of soil properties used can under- or over-estimate the lining thrust, these parameters must be obtained through good quality ground investigation and dynamic laboratory testing performed on undisturbed soil specimens. In particular, the dynamic Youngs stiness is the most sensitive soil parameter to the lining thrust derivation. Therefore, ground improvement may be considered in order to enhance the stiness of the soil. For the uncontrollable parameters, it is unwise to assume a very high intensity of blast-loading for the lining thrust analysis because this would result in a tunnel structure that can not fulll its economic purpose. Instead of designing a rigid tunnel, the designer may consider laying a protective layer, such as an concrete apron at the ground surface directly over the tunnel. This would help to minimize the penetration of the bomb thus reduce its impact on the tunnel structure.

7. Conclusion
Analysis of blast-resistant of structures has been an active topic of concern as a result of a series of terrorist events worldwide. However, due to the classication of military technology there have not been many established standards or practices governing the design of civilian blast-resistant structures. Because full-scale experiments are expensive and model tests are unrealistic, numerical simulation becomes essential in the understanding of the complex response of underground structure subjected to a buried blast. A blast-resistant analysis for an underground tunnel passing beneath Taipei Shongsan airport has been performed. A series of parametric studies has been

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247

carried out in order to study the signicance and sensitivity of certain soil parameters and weapon characteristics on the lining response. Dynamic Youngs modulus of soil was found to be more sensitive than soil damping ratio and undrained shear strength in controlling the magnitude of the lining thrust. The eects of weapon characteristics (intensity of blast loading and crater size) were found to be even more sensitive than the soil parameters in the lining thrust analysis but they are most likely beyond the control of the designer. It is therefore suggested that a protective layer, which can absorb most of the bomb penetration energy, be considered instead of designing a very rigid and costly structure to resist extremely high blast loading.

Acknowledgements
This work was partial supported (D922608) by the Dept. of Technology and Vocational Education, Ministry of Education, ROC. The writers would like to thank Dr Steve Huang of NTUT, and Dr Robert Wang of Integrate International Engrng. Inc. for their technical support in the above study. The second writer acknowledged the suggestions given by China Engrng. Consultants Inc. and Sinotech Engrng. Consultants Ltd. in performing the numerical work.

References
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