_ _ _ __ _

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
6.685 Electric Machinery
Class Notes 9: Synchronous Machine Simulation Models September5,2005
c 2005JamesL.Kirtley Jr.
1 Introduction
Inthisdocumentwedevelopmodelsusefulforcalculatingthedynamicbehaviorofsynchronous
machines. Westartwithacommonlyacceptedpictureofthesynchronousmachine,assumingthat
therotorcanbefairlyrepresentedbythreeequivalentwindings: onebeingtheeldandtheother
two, thed- andq- axisdamperwindings,representingtheeectsofrotorbody,wedgechain,
amortisseurandothercurrentcarryingpaths.
While a synchronous machine is assumed here, the results are fairly directly applicable to
induction machines. Also, extension to situations in which the rotor representation must have
morethanoneextraequivalentwindingperaxisshouldbestraightforward.
2 Phase Variable Model
To begin, assume that the synchronous machine can be properly represented by six equivalent
windings. Four of these, the three armature phase windings and the eld winding, really are
windings. Theothertwo,representingtheeectsofdistributedcurrentsontherotor,arereferred
toasthedamperwindings. Fluxesare,intermsofcurrents:
L M
I
ph

ph
=
ph

R
M
T
L I
R
(1)
R
wherephase androtor uxes(and,similarly,currents)are:
_ _

ph
=_
b
_ (2)

c
_ _

R
=_
kd
_ (3)

kq
Therearethreeinductancesub- matrices. Therstofthesedescribesarmaturewindinginduc-
tances:
_ _
L
a
L
ab
L
ac

L =_ L
ab
L
b
L
bc
_ (4)
ph
L
ac
L
bc
L
c
1
3
where,foramachinethatmayhavesomesaliency:
L
a
= L
a0
+L
2
cos2 (5)
2
L
b
= L
a0
+L
2
cos2( ) (6)
3
2
L
c
= L
a0
+L
2
cos2(+ ) (7)
3

L
ab
= L
ab0
+L
2
cos2( ) (8)
3
L
bc
= L
ab0
+L
2
cos2 (9)

L
ac
= L
ab0
+L
2
cos2(+ ) (10)
3
Notethat, inthislastsetofexpressions,wehaveassumedaparticularformforthemutualin-
ductances. Thisisseeminglyrestrictive,becauseitconstrainstheformofphase- to- phasemutual
inductancevariationswithrotorposition. ThecoecientL
2
isactually thesame inallsixofthese
lastexpressions. Asitturnsout,thisassumptiondoesnotreallyrestricttheaccuracyof themodel
verymuch. Wewillhavemoretosayaboutthisabitlater.
Therotorinductancesarerelativelysimplystated:
_ _
L
f
L
fkd
0

L =_ L
fkd
L
kd
0 _ (11)
R
0 0 L
kq
Andthestator- to- rotormutualinductancesare:
_ _
Mcos L
akd
cos L
akq
sin
M =

_ Mcos(
2
3
) L
akd
cos(
2
3
) L
akq
sin(
2
3
)

_ (12)
Mcos(+
2
3
) L
akd
cos(+
2
3
) L
akq
sin(+
2
3
)
Parks Equations
Therst stepinthedevelopment of asuitablemodelistotransform thearmaturewinding variables
toacoordinatesysteminwhichtherotorisstationary. Weidentifyequivalentarmaturewindings
inthedirect andquadrature axes. Thedirect axis armaturewindingistheequivalent ofoneof
the phase windings, but aligned directly with the eld. The quadrature winding is situated so
that its axis leads the eld winding by 90 electrical degrees. The transformation used to map
thearmaturecurrents, uxesandsoforthontothedirect andquadrature axesisthecelebrated
Parks Transformation,namedafterRobertH.Park,anearlyinvestigatorintotransientbehavior
insynchronousmachines. Themappingtakestheform:
_ _ _ _
u
d
u
a

_ u
q
_=u
dq
=Tu
ph
=T_ u
b
_ (13)
u
0
u
c
Wherethetransformationanditsinverseare:
_ _
cos cos(
2
3

) cos(+
2
3

)
2

T = _ sin sin(
3
) sin(+
2
3

) _ (14)
3
1 1 1
2 2 2
2
_ _ _ __ _
_ _
cos sin 1

2 2

T
1
=_ cos(
3
) sin(
3
) 1 _ (15)
2
cos(+
2
3

) sin(+
3
) 1
Thistransformationmapsbalanced setsofphasecurrentsintoconstant currentsinthed-q frame.
Thatis,ifrotorangleis=t+
0
,andphasecurrentsare:
I
a
= Icost
2
I
b
= Icos(t )
3
2
I
c
= Icos(t+ )
3
Thenthetransformedsetofcurrentsis:
I
d
= Icos
0
I
q
= Isin
0
Now,weapplythistransformationto(1)toexpressuxesandcurrentsinthearmatureinthed-q
referenceframe. Todothis,extractthetoplinein(1):

ph
=L
ph
I
ph
+MI
R
(16)
Thetransformeduxisobtainedbypremultiplyingthiswholeexpressionbythetransformation
matrix. Phase current may be obtained from d-q current by multiplying by the inverse of the
transformationmatrix. Thus:

dq
=TL
ph
T
1
I
dq
+TMI
R
(17)
Thesameprocesscarriedoutforthelowerlineof(1)yields:

R
=M
T
T
1
I
dq
+L
R
I
R
(18)
Thusthefullytransformedversionof(1)is:
L L
C

dq
=
dq
I
dq
(19)
3
L
T
L I
R

R
2 C R
Iftheconditionsof(5) through(10)aresatised,theinductancesubmatricesof(19)windupbeing
ofparticularlysimpleform. (Pleasenotethatasubstantialamountofalgebrahasbeenleftout
here!)
_ _
L
d
0 0

L =_ 0 L
q
0 _ (20)
dq
0 0 L
0
_ _
M L
akd
0

L =_ 0 0 L
akq
_ (21)
C
0 0 0
3
Notethat(19)through(21)expressthreeseparate setsofapparentlyindependentux/current
relationships. Thesemaybere-castintothefollowingform:
_ _ _ __ _

d
L
d
L
akd
M I
d

_
kd

_=

_
3
2
L
akd
L
kd
L
fkd

_ I
kd

_ (22)

f
3
2
M L
fkd
L
f
I
f
_ _ _ __ _

kq
=
L
q
3
2
L
akq
L
akq
L
kq
I
q
I
kq
(23)

0
=L
0
I
0
(24)
Wherethecomponentinductancesare:
3
L
d
= L
a0
L
ab0
+ L
2
(25)
2
3
L
q
= L
a0
L
ab0
L
2
(26)
2
L
0
= L
a0
+2L
ab0
(27)
Notethattheapparently restrictiveassumptionsembeddedin(5) through(10)haveresultedin
theverysimpleformof(21)through(24). Inparticular,wehavethreemutuallyindependentsets
ofuxesandcurrents. Whilewemaybeconcernedabouttherestrictivenessoftheseexpressions,
notethattheorthogonalitybetweenthed- andq- axesisnotunreasonable. Infact,becausethese
axesareorthogonalinspace,itseemsreasonablethattheyshouldnothavemutualuxlinkages.
Theprincipalconsequenceoftheseassumptionsisthede-couplingofthezero-sequence component
ofuxfromthed- andq- axiscomponents. Wearenotinapositionatthistimetodetermine
thereasonablenessofthis. However, itshouldbenotedthatdeparturesfromthisform(thatis,
couplingbetweenthedirectandzeroaxes)mustbethroughhigherharmoniceldsthatwill
notcouplewelltothearmature,sothatanysuchcouplingwillbeweak.
Next,armaturevoltageis,ignoringresistance,givenby:
d d
V
ph
=
dt

ph
= T
1

dq
(28)
dt
and thatthetransformed armaturevoltagemustbe:
V
dq
= TV
ph
d
= T (T
1

dq
)
dt
d d
=
dq
+(T T
1
)
dq
(29)
dt dt
Agooddealofmanupulationgoesintoreducingthesecondtermofthis,resultingin:
_ _
0
d
0
dt
d

T T
1
=_
dt
0 0 _ (30)
dt
0 0 0
4
4
5
Thisexpressesthespeed voltage that arisesfromacoordinatetransformation. Thetwovoltage/ux
relationshipsthatareaectedare:
d
d
V
d
=
q
(31)
dt
d
q
V
q
= +
d
(32)
dt
wherewehaveused
d
= (33)
dt
Power and Torque
Instantaneouspower isgivenby:
P =V
a
I
a
+V
b
I
b
+V
c
I
c
(34)
Using thetransformationsgivenabove,thiscanbeshowntobe:
3 3
P =
2
V
d
I
d
+
2
V
q
I
q
+3V
0
I
0
(35)
which,inturn,is:
P =
3
2
(
d
I
q

q
I
d
) +
3
2
(
d
d
dt
I
d
+
d
q
dt
I
q
) +3
d
0
dt
I
0
(36)
Then,notingthatelectrical speed andshaftspeedarerelatedby =pandthat(36)
describeselectricalterminalpowerasthesumofshaftpowerandrateofchangeofstoredenergy,
wemaydeducethattorqueisgivenby:
3
T = p(
d
I
q

q
I
d
) (37)
2
Per-Unit Normalization
Thenextthingforustodoistoinvestigate thewayinwhichelectricmachinesystemarenor-
malized,orputintowhatiscalledaper-unit system. Thereasonforthisstepisthat,whenthe
voltage,current,powerandimpedancearereferredtonormaloperatingparameters,thebehavior
characteristics ofall types ofmachines become quitesimilar, giving usa better way of relating
howaparticularmachineworkstosomereasonablestandard. Therearealsonumericalreasonsfor
normalizingperformanceparameterstosomestandard.
Therststepinnormalizationistoestablishasetofbase quantities. Wewillbenormalizing
voltage, current, ux,power, impedanceandtorque, sowewillneedbasequantitiesforeach of
these. Note,however,thatthebasequantitiesarenot independent. Infact,forthearmature,we
needonlyspecifythreequantities: voltage(V
B
),current(I
B
)andfrequency(
0
). Notethatwedo
not normalizetimenorfrequency. Havingdonethisforthearmaturecircuits,wecanderiveeach
oftheotherbasequantities:
5
BasePower
3
P
B
= V
B
I
B
2
BaseImpedance
V
B
Z
B
=
I
B
BaseFlux
V
B

B
=

0
BaseTorque
p
T
B
= P
B

0
Notethat,forourpurposes,basevoltage andcurrent areexpressed aspeak quantities. Basevoltage
is taken on a phase basis (line to neutral for a wye connected machine), and base current is
similarlytakenonaphasebasis,(linecurrentforawyeconnectedmachine).
Normalized,orper-unit quantitiesarederivedby dividing theordinary variable(withunits)by
thecorrespondingbase. Forexample,per-unituxis:

0

= = (38)

B
V
B
Inthisderivation, per- unitquantitieswillusuallybedesignatedbylower caseletters. Two
notableexceptionsareux,whereweusetheletter,and torque,wherewewill still usetheupper
caseT andriskconfusion.
Now,wenotethattherewillbebase quantitiesforvoltage,currentandfrequencyforeachof
thedierentcoilsrepresentedinourmodel. Whileitisreasonabletoexpectthatthefrequency
basewillbethesameforallcoilsinaproblem,thevoltage andcurrent basesmaybedierent. We
mightwrite(22)as:
_ _
_ _

0
I
dB
L
d

0
I
kB
L
akd

0
I
f B
M

_
i
d
_
V
db
V
db
V
db
d

0
I
dB 3

0
I
f B
_
kd
_=
2
L
akd

0
I
kB
L
kd
L
fkd
_ i
kd
_ (39)
V
kb
V
kb
V
kdb
_ _

f
0
I
dB 3
M

0
I
kB
i
f
L
fkd

0
I
f B
L
f
V
f b
2 V
f b
V
f b
wherei=I/I
B
denotesper-unit,ornormalizedcurrent.
Notethat(39)maybewritteninsimpleform:
_ _ _ __ _

d
x
d
x
akd
x
ad
i
d

_
kd
_=_ x
akd
x
kd
x
fkd
__ i
kd
_ (40)

f
x
ad
x
fkd
x
f
i
f
Itisimportanttonotethat(40) assumes reciprocityinthenormalized system. Towit,thefollowing
expressionsareimplied:
I
dB
x
d
=
0
L
d
(41)
V
dB
6
_ _ _ __ _
I
kB
x
kd
=
0
L
kd
(42)
V
kB
I
fB
x
f
=
0
L
f
(43)
V
fB
I
kB
x
akd
=
0
L
akd
V
dB
3 I
dB
=
0
L
akd
(44)
2 V
kB
I
fB
x
ad
=
0
M
V
dB
3 I
dB
=
0
M (45)
2 V
fB
I
kB
x
fkd
=
0
L
fkd
V
fb
I
fB
=
0
L
fkd
(46)
V
kb
Theseinturnimply:
3
V
dB
I
dB
= V
fB
I
fB
(47)
2
3
V
dB
I
dB
= V
kB
I
kB
(48)
2
V
fB
I
fB
= V
kB
I
kB
(49)
Theseexpressionsimplythesamepower baseonallofthewindingsofthemachine. Thisis
sobecausethearmature basequantitiesV
db
andI
db
arestatedaspeak values,whiletherotor base
quantities are stated as DC values. Thus power base for the three- phase armature is
3
times
2
theproductofpeak quantities,whilethepowerbasefortherotorissimplytheproductofthose
quantities.
Thequadratureaxis,whichmay havefewerequivalentelementsthanthedirectaxisandwhich
mayhavedierentnumericalvalues, stillyieldsasimilarstructure. Withoutgoingthroughthe
details,wecanseethattheper-unitux/currentrelationshipfortheq- axisis:

q
=
x
q
x
akq
i
q
(50)

kq
x
akq
x
kq
i
kq
The voltage equations, including speed voltage terms, (31) and (32), may be augmented to
reectarmatureresistance:
d
d
V
d
=
q
+R
a
I
d
(51)
dt
d
q
V
q
=
d
+ +R
a
I
q
(52)
dt
Theper-unit equivalentsoftheseare:
1 d
d

v
d
=
q
+r
a
i
d
(53)

0
dt
0
7
1 d
q
v
q
=
d
+ +r
a
i
q
(54)

0
dt
Ra
Wheretheper-unitarmatureresistanceisjustr
a
=
Z
B
Notethatnoneoftheothercircuitsinthismodelhavespeed voltage terms, sotheirvoltage
expressionsareexactlywhatwemightexpect:
v
f
=
1

0
d
f
dt
+r
f
i
f
(55)
v
kd
=
1

0
d
kd
dt
+r
kd
i
kd
(56)
v
kq
=
1

0
d
kq
dt
+r
kq
i
kq
(57)
v
0
=
1

0
d
0
dt
+r
a
i
0
(58)
It shouldbenoted thatthedamper winding circuitsrepresent closed conductingpathsontherotor,
sothetwovoltagesv
kd
andv
kq
arealwayszero.
Per-unittorqueissimply:
T
e
=
d
i
q

q
i
d
(59)
Often,weneedtorepresentthedynamicbehaviorofthemachine,includingelectromechanical
dynamicsinvolvingrotorinertia. IfwenoteJ astherotationalinertiaconstantofthemachine
system,therotordynamicsaredescribedbythetwoordinarydierentialequations:
1 d
J = T
e
+T
m
(60)
p dt
d
=
0
(61)
dt
whereT
e
andT
m
representelectrical andmechanical torquesinordinaryvariables. Theangle
representsrotorphaseanglewithrespecttosomesynchronousreference.
Itiscustomary todeneaninertiaconstantwhichisnotdimensionlessbut which nevertheless
tsintotheper-unitsystemofanalysis. Thisis:
Rotationalkineticenergyatratedspeed
H (62)
BasePower
Or:
_ _
2
1
2
J

p
0
J
0
H = = (63)
P
B
2pT
B
Thentheper-unitequivalentto(60) is:
2Hd
=T
e
+T
m
(64)

0
dt
wherenowweuseT
e
andT
m
torepresentper-unit torques.
8
6
7
Equal Mutuals Base
Innormalizingthedierentialequationsthatmakeupourmodel,wehaveusedanumberofbase
quantities. For example, in deriving (40), the per-unit ux- current relationship for the direct
axis,weusedsixbasequantities: V
B
,I
B
,V
fB
,I
fB
,V
kB
andI
kB
. Imposingreciprocityon(40)
resultsintwoconstraintsonthesesixvariables,expressedin(47)through(49). Presumablythe
twoarmaturebasequantitieswillbexedbymachinerating. Thatleavestwomoredegreesof
freedominselectionofbasequantities. Notethattheselectionofbasequantitieswillaectthe
reactancematrixin(40).
Whiletherearedierentschoolsofthoughtonjusthowtohandlethesedegreesoffreedom,a
commonlyusedconvention istoemploywhatiscalledtheequal mutuals basesystem. Thetwo
degreesoffreedomareusedtosettheeldanddamperbaseimpedancessothatallthreemutual
inductancesof(40)areequal:
x
akd
=x
fkd
=x
ad
(65)
Thedirect- axisux- currentrelationshipbecomes:
_ _ _ __ _

d
x
d
x
ad
x
ad
i
d

_
kd

_=

_ x
ad
x
kd
x
ad

_ i
kd

_ (66)

f
x
ad
x
ad
x
f
i
f
Equivalent Circuit
i
d
i
f
r
a
x
al
x
fl r
f


+ +
(
0
v
d
+
q
)
d

x
kdl
+
v
f
x
ad
<
>
< r
kd
- - > -
<
Figure1: D- AxisEquivalentCircuit
Theux- currentrelationshipof(66)isrepresentedbytheequivalentcircuitofFigure1,ifthe
leakage inductancesaredened tobe:
x
al
= x
d
x
ad
(67)
x
kdl
= x
kd
x
ad
(68)
x
fl
= x
f
x
ad
(69)
9
Manyoftheinterestingfeaturesoftheelectricaldynamicsofthesynchronousmachinemaybe
discernedfromthiscircuit. Whileacompleteexplicationofthisthingisbeyondthescopeofthis
note,itispossibletomakeafewobservations.
Theapparentinductancemeasuredfromtheterminalsofthisequivalentcircuit(ignoringresis-
tancer
a
)will,inthefrequencydomain,beoftheform:

d
(s) P
n
(s)
x(s) = =x
d
(70)
i
d
(s) P
d
(s)
Both thenumeratoranddenominatorpolynomialsinswillbesecond order. (Youmay convince
yourselfofthisbywritinganexpressionforterminalimpedance). Sincethisisadiusiontype
circuit,havingonlyresistancesandinductances,allpolesandzerosmustbeonthenegativereal
axisofthes-plane. Theper-unitinductanceis,then:

(1+T s)(1+T s)
d
x(s) =x
d
d

(71)
(1+T s)(1+T s)
do do

ThetwotimeconstantsT
d
andT
d
arethereciprocalsofthezeros oftheimpedance,whichare
thepoles oftheadmittance. Thesearecalledtheshort circuit timeconstants.

TheothertwotimeconstantsT
do
andT
do
arethereciprocalsofthepoles of theimpedance,and
soarecalledtheopen circuit timeconstants.
Wehavecastthisthingasiftherearetwosetsofwell- denedtimeconstants. Thesearethe

transient timeconstantsT
d
andT
do
, andthesubtransient timeconstantsT andT
do
. Inmany
d
cases,theseareindeedwellseparated,meaningthat:

T
d
T
d
(72)

T
do
(73) T
do
If this is true, then the reactance is describedby the pole-zero diagram shown in Figure 2.
Underthiscircumstance,theapparentterminalinductancehasthreedistinctvalues,depending on
frequency. Thesearethesynchronous inductance,thetransient inductance,andthesubtransient
inductance,givenby:


T
d
x
d
= x
d

(74)
T
do


T
d
x
d
= x
d
T
do

T
d
T
d
= x
d

(75)
T T
do do
ABode Plot oftheterminalreactanceisshowninFigure3.
Ifthetimeconstantsarespreadwidelyapart,theyaregiven,approximately,by:

x
f
= (76) T
do

0
r
f

x
kdl
+x
fl
||x
ad
= (77) T
do

0
r
kd
10

8
1
1

T
do

do

1 1

T
d
T
d
Figure2: Pole-ZeroDiagramForTerminalInductance
log |x(j)|
1 1 1 1
log

T T T
do
T
d

do d
Figure3: FrequencyResponseofTerminalInductance
Finally,notethatthethreereactancesarefoundsimplyfromthemodel:
x
d
= x
al
+x
ad
(78)

x
d
= x
al
+x
ad
||x
fl
(79)

x
d
= x
al
+x
ad
||x
fl
||x
kdl
(80)
Statement of Simulation Model
Nowwecanwritedownthesimulationmodel. Actually,wewillderivemorethanoneof these,since
themachinecanbedrivenbyeithervoltagesorcurrents. Further,theexpressionsforpermanent
magnet machines are a bit dierent. So the rst model is one in which the terminals are all
constrainedbyvoltage.
Thestatevariablesarethetwostatoruxes
d
,
q
,twodamperuxes
kd
,
kq
,eldux
f
,
androtorspeed and torqueangle. Themoststraightforwardwayofstating themodel employs
currentsasauxiliaryvariables,andtheseare:
_ _ _ _
1
_ _
i
d
x
d
x
ad
x
ad

d

_ i
kd
_=_ x
ad
x
kd
x
ad
_ _
kd
_ (81)
i
f
x
ad
x
ad
x
f

f
_ _ _ _
1
_ _
x
q
x
aq

q
(82)
i
q
=
i
kq
x
aq
x
kq

kq
11
Thenthestateequationsare:
d
d
dt
=
0
v
d
+
q

0
r
a
i
d
(83)
d
q
dt
=
0
v
q

d

0
r
a
i
q
(84)
d
kd
dt
=
0
r
kd
i
kd
(85)
d
kq
dt
=
0
r
kq
i
kq
(86)
d
f
dt
=
0
v
f

0
r
f
i
f
(87)
d
dt
=

0
2H
(T
e
+T
m
) (88)
d
dt
=
0
(89)
and,ofcourse,
T
e
=
d
i
q

q
i
d
8.1 Statement of Parameters:

Notethatoftendataforamachinemaybegivenintermsofthereactancesx
d
,x
d
,x
d
,T and
do

T
do
,ratherthantheelementsoftheequivalentcircuitmodel. Notethattherearefourinductances
in the equivalent circuit so we have to assume one. There is no loss in generality in doing so.
Usuallyoneassumesavalueforthestatorleakageinductance,andifthisisdonethetranslationis
straightforward:
x
ad
= x
d
x
al

x
ad
(x
d
x
al
)
x
fl
=

x
ad
x
d
+x
al
1
x
kdl
=
1

1

x x
al
x
ad
x
f l
d
x
fl
+x
ad
r
f
=

0
T
do
x
kdl
+x
ad
||x
fl
r
kd
=

0
T
do
8.2 Linearized Model
Oftenitbecomesdesirabletocarryoutalinearizedanalysisofmachineoperationto,forexample,
examine the damping of the swing mode at a particular operating point. What is done, then,
istoassumeasteadystateoperatingpointandexaminethedynamicsfordeviationsfromthat
operatingpointthat aresmall. Thedenitionofsmall isreallysmall enoughthat everything
importantappearsintherst-ordertermofaTaylorseriesaboutthesteadyoperatingpoint.
Note that the expressions in the machine model are, for the most part, linear. There are,
however, a few cases in which products of state variables cause us to do the expansion of the
12
Taylor series. Assumingasteadystateoperatingpoint[
d0

kd0

f0

q0

kq0

0
], therst-
order (small-signal) variations are described by the following set of equations. First, since the
ux-currentrelationshipislinear:
_ _ _ _
1
_ _
i
d1
x
d
x
ad
x
ad

d1

_ i
kd1
_=_ x
ad
x
kd
x
ad
_ _
kd1
_ (90)
i
f1
x
ad
x
ad
x
f

f1
_ _ _ _
1
_ _
x
q
x
aq

q1
(91)
i
q1
=
i
kq1
x
aq
x
kq

kq1
Terminalvoltagewillbe,foroperationagainstavoltagesource:
V
d
=V sin V
q
=V cos
Thenthedierentialequationsgoverningtherst-ordervariationsare:
d
d1
=
0
V cos
0

1
+
0

q1
+
1

q0

0
r
a
i
d1
(92)
dt
d
q1
=
0
V sin
0

1

0

d1

1

d0

0
r
a
i
q1
(93)
dt
d
kd1
=
0
r
kd
i
kd1
(94)
dt
d
kq1
=
0
r
kq
i
kq1
(95)
dt
d
f1
=
0
r
f
i
f1
(96)
dt
d
1

0
= (T
e1
+T
m1
) (97)
dt 2H
d
1
=
1
(98)
dt
T
e
=
d0
i
q1
+
d1
i
q0

q0
i
d1

q1
i
d0
8.3 Reduced Order Model for Electromechanical Transients
In many situations the two armature variables contribute little to the dynamic responseof the
machine. Typicallythearmatureresistanceissmallenoughthatthereisverylittlevoltagedrop
acrossitandtransientsinthedierencebetweenarmatureuxandtheuxthatwouldexistin
thesteadystatedecayrapidly(orarenotevenexcited). Further,therelativelyshortarmature
timeconstantmakesforveryshorttimesteps. Forthisreasonitisoftenconvenient,particularly
whenstudyingtherelatively slow electromechanical transients, to omitthersttwo dierential
equationsandset:

d
= v
q
=V cos (99)

q
= v
d
=V sin (100)
Thesetofdierentialequationschangesonlyalittlewhenthisapproximationismade. Note,
however,thatitcanbesimulatedwithfarfewercyclesifthearmaturetimeconstantisshort.
13
9 Current Driven Model: Connection to a System
Thesimulation expressionsdeveloped sofarareusefulinavariety ofcircumstances. Theyare,
however,diculttotietonetworksimulationprogramsbecausetheyuseterminalvoltageasan
input. Generally,itismoreconvenienttousecurrent astheinputtothemachinesimulationand
acceptvoltage astheoutput. Further,itisdiculttohandleunbalancedsituationswiththisset
ofequations.
Analternativetothissetwouldbetoemploy thephase currentsasstatevariables. Eectively,
thisreplaces
d
,
q
and
0
withi
a
,i
b
,andi
c
. Theresultingmodelwill,aswewillshow,interface
nicelywithnetworksimulations.
Tostart,notethatwecouldwriteanexpressionforterminalux,onthed- axis:

x
ad
||x
kdl
x
ad
||x
fl

d
=x
d
i
d
+
f
+
kd
(101)
x
ad
||x
kdl
+x
fl
x
ad
||x
fl
+x
kdl
andhere,ofcourse,

x
d
=x
al
+x
ad
||x
kdl
||x
fl
Thisleadsustodeneauxbehindsubtransientreactance:

x
ad
x
kdl

f
+x
ad
x
fl

kd

d
= (102)
x
ad
x
kdl
+x
ad
x
fl
+x
kdl
x
fl
Sothat

d
=
d
+x
d
i
d
Onthequadratureaxisthesituationisessentiallythesame,butonestepeasierifthereisonly
onequadratureaxisrotorwinding:

q
=x
q
i
q
+
kq
x
aq
(103)
x
aq
+x
kql
where

x =x
al
+x
aq
||x
kql q

Veryoftentheseuxesarereferredtoasvoltagebehindsubtransientreactance,with =e
q d

and
q
=e
d
. Then:

d
= x
d
i
d
+e
q
(104)

q
= x
q
i
q
e
d
(105)
Now, ifi
d
andi
q
aredetermined,itisabiteasiertondtheothercurrentsrequiredinthe
simulation. Notewecanwrite:
_ _ _ __ _ _ _

kd

f
=
x
kd
x
ad
x
ad
x
f
i
kd
i
f
+
x
ad
x
ad
i
d
(106)
and thisinvertseasily:
_ _ _ _
1
__ _ _ _ _
i
kd
x
kd
x
ad

kd
x
ad
= i
d
(107)
i
f
x
ad
x
f

f
x
ad
14
_ _
_ _
Thequadratureaxisrotorcurrentissimply:
i
kq
=
1

kq

x
aq
i
q
(108)
x
kq
x
kq
Thetorqueequationisthesame,but sinceitisusually convenienttoassembletheuxesbehind
subtransientreactance,itispossibletouse:

T
e
=e
q
i
q
+e
d
i
d
+(x
d
x
q
)i
d
i
q
(109)
Now it is necessary to consider terminal voltage. This is most conveniently cast in matrix
notation. Thevectorofphasevoltagesis:
_ _
v
a

v
ph
=_ v
b
_ (110)
v
c
Then,withsimilarnotationforphaseux,terminalvoltageis,ignoringarmatureresistance:
1
d
ph
= v
ph

0
dt
1 d
= T
1
(111)
dq

0
dt
Notethatwemaydenethetransformedvectorofuxestobe:

dq
=x i
dq
+e (112)
wherethematrixofreactancesshowsorthogonality:
_

_
x 0 0
d
x

=

_ 0 x

q
0

_ (113)
0 0 x
0
andthevectorofinternaluxesis:
_ _

e
q

e =_ e
d
_ (114)
0
Now,ofcourse,i
dq
=Ti
ph
,sothatwemayre-cast(111)as:
1 d

v
ph
= T
1
x Ti
ph
+T
1
e (115)

0
dt
Now it is necessary to make one assumption and one denition. The assumption, which is
only moderately restrictive, is that subtransient saliency may be ignored. That is, we assume

that x
d
= x
q
. The denition separates the zero sequence impedance into phase and neutral
components:
15
_ _

x
0
=x
d
+3x
g
(116)
Notethat according tothisdenitionthereactancex
g
accountsforanyimpedanceintheneutral
ofthesynchronousmachineaswellasmutualcouplingbetweenphases.
Then,theimpedancematrixbecomes:
_ _ _ _

x 0 0 0 0 0
d

x =_ 0 x
d
0 _+_ 0 0 0 _ (117)

0 0 x
d
0 0 3x
g
Incompactnotation,thisis:

x =x
d
I+x (118)
g
whereI istheidentitymatrix.
Nowthevectorofphasevoltagesis:
1 d

v
ph
= x
d
i
ph
+T
1
x Ti
ph
+T
1
e (119)
g

0
dt
Notethatin(119),wehavealready factoredoutthemultiplicationby theidentitymatrix. The
nextstepistocarryoutthematrixmultiplicationinthethirdtermof(119). Thisoperationturns
outtoproducearemarkablysimpleresult:
_ _
1 1 1

T
1
x T =x
g_ 1 1 1 _ (120)
g
1 1 1
The impact of this is that each of the three phase voltages hasthe same term, and that is
relatedtothetimederivativeofthesumofthethreecurrents,multipliedbyx
g
.
Thethirdandnaltermin(119)describesvoltagesinducedbyrotoruxes. Itcanbewritten
as:
1 d
_

_
1 d
_ _
1 de


T
1
T
1
e = e + T
1
(121)

0
dt
0
dt
0
dt
Now,thetimederivativeoftheinversetransformis:
_ _
sin() cos() 0
1 d

T
1
= _ sin(
2
3

) cos(
3
) 0 _ (122)
2

0
dt
0
sin(+
2
3

) cos(+
3
) 0
Nowthethreephasevoltagescanbeextractedfromallofthismatrixalgebra:

x di
a
x
g
d
d
v
a
= + (i
a
+i
b
+i
c
) +e (123)

0
dt
0
dt
a

x di
b
x
g
d
d
v
b
= + (i
a
+i
b
+i
c
) +e (124)

0
dt
0
dt
b

x di
c
x
g
d
d
v
c
= + (i
a
+i
b
+i
c
) +e (125)

0
dt
0
dt
c
16






Wheretheinternalvoltagesare:

e = (e
q
sin() e
d
cos())
a

0

1
+ cos()
de
q
+
1
sin()
de
d
(126)

0
dt
0
dt
2

2

e
b
= (e
q
sin( ) e
d
cos( ))

0
3 3

1
+ cos(
2
)
de
q
+
1
sin(
2
)
de
d
(127)

0
3 dt
0
3 dt
2

2

e = (e
q
sin(+ ) e
d
cos(+ ))
c

0
3 3

1
+ cos(+
2
)
de
q
+
1
sin(+
2
)
de
d
(128)

0
3 dt
0
3 dt
ThissetofexpressionsdescribestheequivalentcircuitshowninFigure4.

e
a i
a x
d

v
a
+

e
b i
b x
d
x
g
v
b
+

e
c i
c x
d

v
c
+
Figure4: EquivalentNetworkModel
10 Restatement Of The Model
Thesynchronousmachinemodelwhichusesthethreephasecurrentsasstatevariablesmaynow
bestatedintheformofasetofdierentialandalgebraicequations:
d
kd
=
0
r
kd
i
kd
(129)
dt
d
kq
=
0
r
kq
i
kq
(130)
dt
d
f
=
0
r
f
i
f
(131)
dt
d
=
0
(132)
dt
17
_ _
d
0

= T
m
+e
q
i
q
+e
d
i
d
(133)
dt 2H
where:
_ _ _ _
1
__ _ _ _ _
i
kd
x
kd
x
ad

kd
x
ad
= i
d
i
f
x
ad
x
f

f
x
ad
and
i
kq
=
1

kq

x
aq
i
q
x
kq
x
kq
(Itisassumedherethatthedierencebetweensubtransientreactancesissmallenoughtobe
neglected.)
Thenetworkinterfaceequationsare,fromthenetworktothemachine:
2 2
i
d
=i
a
cos() +i
b
cos( ) +i
c
cos(+ ) (134)
3 3
2 2
i
q
=i
a
sin() i
b
sin( ) i
c
sin(+ ) (135)
3 3
and,inthereversedirection,fromthemachinetothenetwork:

e = (e
q
sin() e
d
cos())
a

0


1
+ cos()
de
q
+
1
sin()
de
d
(136)

0
dt
0
dt
2

2

e
b
= (e
q
sin( ) e
d
cos( ))

0
3 3

1
+ cos(
2
)
de
q
+
1
sin(
2
)
de
d
(137)

0
3 dt
0
3 dt
2

2

e = (e
q
sin(+ ) e
d
cos(+ ))
c

0
3 3

1
+ cos(+
2
)
de
q
+
1
sin(+
2
)
de
d
(138)

0
3 dt
0
3 dt
And,ofcourse,
=
0
t+ (139)

e
q
=
d
(140)

e
d
=
q
(141)

x
ad
x
kdl

f
+x
ad
x
fl

kd

d
= (142)
x
ad
x
kdl
+x
ad
x
fl
+x
kdl
x
fl

x
aq
=
kq
(143)
q
x
aq
+x
kql
18



11 Network Constraints
This model may be embedded in a number of networks. Dierent congurations will result in
dierentconstraintsoncurrents. Consider,forexample,thesituationinwhichalloftheterminal
voltagesareconstrained,butperhapsbyunbalanced(notentirelypositivesequence)sources. In
thatcase,thedierentialequationsforthethreephasecurrentswouldbe:

x di
a

x +2x
g
_
d d
x
g
= (v
a
e
a
)

(v
b
e
b
) +(v
c
e
c
)

(144)

0
dt x +3x
g
x +3x
g
d d

x di
b

x +2x
g
_
d d
x
g
= (v
b
e
b
)

(v
a
e
a
) +(v
c
e
c
)

(145)

0
dt x +3x
g
x +3x
g
d d

x di
c

x +2x
g
_
d d
x
g
= (v
c
e
c
)

(v
b
e
b
) +(v
a
e
a
)

(146)

0
dt x +3x
g
x +3x
g
d d
12 Example: Line-Line Fault
We are not, however, constrained to situations dened in this way. This model is suitable for
embeddingintonetworkanalysisroutines. Itisalsopossibletohandlemanydierentsituations
directly. Consider,forexample,theunbalancedfaultrepresentedbythenetworkshowninFigure
5. Thisshowsaline-linefaultsituation,withonephasestillconnectedtothenetwork.

e
i
a


a
r
a
x
d
v
a
+


e
b i
b x

x
g
r
a
d

+

e
r
a
x


c
d

+

Figure5: Line-LineFaultNetworkModel
Inthissituation, wehaveonlytwocurrentstoworryabout, andtheirdierential equations
wouldbe:
di
b

0

=

(e e
b
2r
a
i
b
) (147)
dt 2x
c
d
di
a

0

=

(v
a
e r
a
i
a
) (148)
dt x
d
+x
g
a
and,ofcourse,i
c
=i
b
.
Note that here we have included the eects of armature resistance, ignored in the previous
sectionbutobviouslyimportantiftheresultsaretobebelieved.
19
13 Permanent Magnet Machines
PermanentMagnetmachinesareonestatevariablesimplerthantheirwound-eldcounterparts.
Theymaybeaccuratelyviewedashavingconstant eldcurrent. Assumingthatwecandenethe
internal(eld)uxas:

0
=x
ad
i
f0
(149)
13.1 Model: Voltage Driven Machine
We have a reasonably simple expression for the rotor currents, in the case of a voltage driven
machine:
_ _ _ _
1
_ _
i
d
i
kd
=
x
d
x
ad
x
ad
x
kd

d

0

kd

0
(150)
_ _ _ _
1
_ _
i
q
i
kq
=
x
q
x
aq
x
aq
x
kq

kq
(151)
Thesimulationmodelthenhassixstates:
d
d
=
0
v
d
+
q

0
r
a
i
d
(152)
dt
d
q
=
0
v
q

d

0
r
a
i
q
(153)
dt
d
kd
=
0
r
kd
i
kd
(154)
dt
d
kq
=
0
r
kq
i
kq
(155)
dt
d
0
= (
d
i
q

q
i
d
+T
m
) (156)
dt 2H
d
=
0
(157)
dt
13.2 Curent-Driven Machine Model
Inthecaseofacurrent-drivenmachine,rotorcurrentsrequiredinthesimulationare:
1
i
kd
= (
kd
x
ad
i
d

0
) (158)
x
kd
1
i
kq
= (
kq
x
aq
i
q
) (159)
x
kq
Here,theuxbehindsubtransientreactanceis,onthedirectaxis:

x
kdl

0
+x
ad

kd

d
= (160)
x
ad
+x
kdl
and thesubtransientreactanceis:

x
d
=x
al
+x
ad
||x
kdl
(161)
20
_ _
Onthequadratureaxis,

=
x
ad

kq
(162)
q
x
ad
+x
kql
and

x =x
al
+x
aq
||x
kql
(163)
q
Inthiscasethereareonly fourstateequations:
d
kd
=
0
r
kd
i
kd
(164)
dt
d
kq
=
0
r
kq
i
kq
(165)
dt
d
0

= e
q
i
q
+e
d
i
d
+T
m
(166)
dt 2H
d
=
0
(167)
dt
The interconnections to and fromthe network are the same as in the case of a wound-eld
machine: intheforwarddirection,fromnetworktomachine:
2 2
i
d
=i
a
cos() +i
b
cos( ) +i
c
cos(+ ) (168)
3 3
2 2
i
q
=i
a
sin() i
b
sin( ) i
c
sin(+ ) (169)
3 3
and,inthereversedirection,fromthemachinetothenetwork:

e = (e
q
sin() e
d
cos())
a

0

1
+ cos()
de
q
+
1
sin()
de
d
(170)

0
dt
0
dt
2

2

e
b
= (e
q
sin( ) e
d
cos( ))

0
3 3

1
+ cos(
2
)
de
q
+
1
sin(
2
)
de
d
(171)

0
3 dt
0
3 dt
2

2

e = (e
q
sin(+ ) e
d
cos(+ ))
c

0
3 3

1
+ cos(+
2
)
de
q
+
1
sin(+
2
)
de
d
(172)

0
3 dt
0
3 dt
13.3 PM Machines with no damper
PMmachineswithout much rotorconductivity may oftenbehaveasif theyhavenodamperwinding
atall. Inthiscasethemodelsimpliesevenfurther.Armaturecurrentsare:
1
i
d
= (
d

0
) (173)
x
d
1
i
q
=
q
(174)
x
q
21
Thestateequationsare:
d
d
=
0
v
d
+
q

0
r
a
i
d
(175)
dt
d
q
=
0
v
q

d

0
r
a
i
q
(176)
dt
d
0
= (
d
i
q

q
i
d
+T
m
) (177)
dt 2H
d
=
0
(178)
dt
13.4 Current Driven PM Machines with no damper
Inthecaseofnodamperthemachinebecomesquitesimple. Thereisnointernaluxonthe
quadratureaxis. Further,therearenotimederivativesof theinternaluxonthed- axis. Theonly
machinestateequationsaremechanical:
d
0
= (
0
i
q
+T
m
) (179)
dt 2H
d
=
0
(180)
dt
Theforwardnetworkinterfaceisasbefore:
2 2
i
d
=i
a
cos() +i
b
cos( ) +i
c
cos(+ ) (181)
3 3
2 2
i
q
=i
a
sin() i
b
sin( ) i
c
sin(+ ) (182)
3 3
and,inthereversedirection,fromthemachinetothenetwork,thingsareabitsimplerthanbefore:

e =
0
sin() (183)
a

0
2

e
b
=
0
sin( ) (184)

0
3
2

e =
0
sin(+ ) (185)
c

0
3
(186)
22