Cau Hoi Va Bai Tap On Thi Kinh Te Moi Truong

1
KINH T MI TRNG
CU HI, BI TP V TR LI
B sung cho ti liu hng dn ging dy dnh cho

Chng trnh i hc
I HC VIT NAM
Thng 8, 2005 Chng trnh Kinh t v Mi trng ng Nam

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005
BI 1: GII THIU
CH : Kinh t Mi trng l g? Ngun: F & O (2005) and F, O, & F (2002) Cu hi 1. Ti sao thu xng du to khuyn khch gim thi kh t xe t nhiu hn so vi thu s hu/s dng xe hng nm? Gii p: Cu tr li tu thuc vo mc thu xng du so vi thu s hu xe. Thu xng du nhm vo ba yu t ca gim pht thi [ l a)s xe tham gia giao thng; b) qung ng mi xe chy; v c) lng kh thi mi dm xe chy]. Mt khc, thu hng nm ch nh hng quyt nh c nn tng s xe tham gia giao thng (bao gm c mua hoc thi khng tham gia giao thng). Tuy nhin, nu thu xe l cao rt t ngi a xe tham gia giao thng, khi kh thi s gim tng ng vi thu nhin liu thp v ngi ta ch li xe mt lng ti a no mi ngy. Bi v thu xe cao nh vy l khng kh thi v mt chnh tr (l do bnh ng), v vy thu xng du s c nh hng gim thi ln hn. Cu hi 2. Nhng yu t no nh hng nhng nh i (trade-offs) c minh ho ng gii hn cong kh nng sn xut? Chnh sch mi trng c th nh hng nhng nh i ny nh th no? Gii p: C kh nng cng ngh ca nn kinh t v iu kin sinh thi c th nh hng s nh i dc theo ng cong kh nng sn xut. nh hng c hi i vi mi trng xut hin l do nn kinh t s dng dng ti nguyn thin nhin v do cht thi ca qu trnh sn xut v tiu dng. i mi cng ngh lm gim lng u vo hoc cht thi cho mi n v u ra c th lm dch chuyn ng cong kh nng sn xut ln pha trn nhiu hng ho c sn xut hn cho mi n v cht lng mi trng. iu ny l ng trong trng hp ti ch v ti s dng cng ngh. Chnh sch cng c th nh hng nhng nh i bng cch khuyn khch ngi tiu dng v cc hng thc hin nghin cu v pht trin (R&D) v p dng cng ngh cho php gim nh hng mi trng cho mi n v u ra. Chnh ph cng c th thc hin R&D v cung cp thng tin v cc cng ngh sn c nhng ng cong kh nng sn xut tim nng c th c thc hin (v d tim nng t C ch Pht trin sch cho c nc pht trin v ang pht trin). Cui cng, vai tr ca vic ci thin sinh thi gim thiu nhng nh i c th c tho lun. tng l cc c th trong mt cn bng sinh thi to ra cht thi v s dng cc u vo duy tr s hot ng ca h sinh thi nh l mt tng th.
Cu hi 3. Hy ch r i mi cng ngh cho php cc hng sn xut hng ho v dch v vi nhim t hn nh th no? S dng th ng cong kh nng sn xut gii thch. Gii p: Nhiu hng ho hn c th sn xut vi mi n v cht lng mi trng ng cong gii hn kh nng sn xut dch chuyn (xem S 1.1 trong sch do Fill and Olewiler bin son) ln pha trn, vi mc cht lng mi trng khng thay i. Cht lng mi trng tng ln hoc gim xung tu thuc vo ng bng quan ca cng ng/x hi (CIC). Gi s cng ngh tng ln cho php ngi ta c nhiu con hn. Mc tiu dnh bnh qun u ngi gim thp s lm tng gi tr ca hng ho so vi vi cht lng mi trng lm cho ng bng quan ca cng ng tr nn bt hn th hin sn lng cn bin cao hn trong nh i cht lng mi trng cho hng ho. Trong trng hp ny, cht lng mi trng b gim thp so vi trc thay i cng ngh. l nhng g din ra trong sut lch s. Mt khc, nu ngi ta giu hn mc trung bnh, h c th c c gi tr tng ln t cht lng mi trng so vi tiu dng. Trong trng hp ny CIC s tr nn dc hn phn nh sn lng cn bin thp hn nh i cht lng mi trng cho hng ho. Cu hi 4. Anh/ch hy cho bit bt k khuyn khch no c tc ng nht qun vi tnh bn vng? Anh/ch hy cho bit bt k khuyn khch no c tc ng ngc li? Lm th no c th thay i nhng khuyn khch c tc ng ngc li ? Gii p: Trc ht cn phi tr li nhng hnh vi no th nht qun vi pht trin bn vng. Trong nhiu trng hp, y l vn tranh ci. V d, ngi ta tin tng rng mi lc mi ni ti ch nhiu hn l iu tt nu mun t c bn vng bi v n gim c lng cht thi v mc khai thc ti nguyn nguyn thu. iu ny khng phi khi no cng ng. Ti ch s dng ti nguyn thin nhin v nng lng. Nhng chuyn xe hi ca cc c nhn ch vi mc tiu duy nht l a cht thi n cc phng tin ti ch c th gy nn thit hi mi trng ln hn do t chy nhin liu so vi thit hi phng trnh. T vin cnh thay i kh hu, gim t chy nhin liu t lng t chc chn lun lun lm tng trin vng bn vng. i li bng thuyn, tu la, hoc xe but, ch khng phi bng xe hi c nhn, nhn chung l nht qun vi tnh bn vng hn. C cu khuyn khch chn la phng tin giao thng thay i theo theo tng quc gia v iu kin a phng. Thay i khuyn khch theo hng gim s dng xe hi c nhn v my bay l mt vn ca chnh sch chnh ph. Xut pht t thc t phn ln ngi cc nc cng nghip pht trin c thi quen s dng xe hi t nhn v my bay, v h thng cai tr c tnh dn ch hin c cc x hi , trin vng thay i khuyn khch theo hng l c l khng ln. C th k n l vic thi rc, mua sn phm vi nhiu bao b so vi khng bao b, ti thiu ho s dng nc ca cc h gia nh.
BI 2: MI QUAN H GIA MI TRNG V NN KINH T V TNG QUAN V NHNG VN TI NGUYN, MI TRNG CH 1: Mi quan h gia mi trng v nn kinh t
Ngun: F & O, Chng 2; v F, O, & F 2002 Cu hi 1: Tng trng dn s nh hng nh th no n s cn bng ca cc dng trong S 2.1? Gii p: Tng trng dn s ph v quan h trc tip gia khi lng vt cht v nng lng c a vo h thng v khi lng pht thi. Tng trng c ngha mt phn ca ti nguyn tch lu trong dn s ang tng. iu ny cng ng cho h thng vt cht, nhu s tch t ca ti sn vt cht. Chng no tng trng vn tip tc s khc nhau gia u vo v u ra vn tn ti. Cu hi 2: Nu tt c cc hng ho c th thay i ngay tc th (overnight) chng c th tn ti lu gp i so vi trc y, iu ny lm thay i cc dng lun chuyn trong S 2.1 nh th no? Gii p: iu ny s lm gim rt ln lng cht thi bi v n lm gim mt cch ng k lng ti nguyn duy tr cc hot ng kinh t mt mc nht nh. Thc cht, l s gim Rp, theo thut ng ca m hnh. Tt nhin, iu ny khng ph v cn bng di hn ca u vo v cht thi. Nhng lng ti nguyn cn thit phc v cho mt mc hot ng kinh t nht nh cng nh lng cht thi s gim i mt na. Cu hi 3: Mt lng cht thi c thi vo mt thi im no mt ni no c th l cht gy nhim; nu n c thi mt thi im khc hoc mt ni khc th n c th khng to thnh cht gy nhim. Ti sao iu ny li ng? Gii p: Cu hi ny nhm nhn mnh rng khng ch c loi cht thi l quan trng, m c khi no v u n c thi. Cht nhim l ci g gy thit hi, v mc thit hi ph thuc vo kh nng hp ph/ng ho ca mi trng cng nh dn s v ti nguyn sinh thi tip xc vi cht thi. V d: ting n t sn bay gn thnh ph v cng mc ting n nh vy nhng sn bay xa; cht thi do khng kh mang theo trong thi gian hon nghch nhit so vi nhng ngy lng gi. Cu hi 4: Ti sao nhng cht gy nhim tch lu tn ti lu li kh qun l hn cht gy nhim khng tch lu tn ti trong thi gian ngn?
5 Gii p: Cht gy nhim khng tch lu, tn ti trong thi gian ngn gy thit hi v bin mt, cho nn nu chng ta mun gim thit hi chng ta ch cn gim mc thi hin thi. Nhng cht thi tch lu tn ti y gy thit hi trong tng lai, v vy cn thy trc qun l thit hi, v iu thng kh t c. iu l hc ba v vic nghin cu tr nn kh khn hn - phi d bo nh hng lu di trong tng lai; v n hc ba v ngi ta thng thc hin chit khu theo thi gian. Cu hi 5. Gi s chng ta quan st thy pht thi cht nhim gim xung nhng cht lng mi trng khng tng ln c th gii thch iu ny nh th no? Gii p: Mt s nguyn nhn c lit k: 1) mc pht thi c th gim nhng cht nhim c tnh tch lu nn lng cht nhim tng ln. cht nhim gim xung, tc phn hu hoc hp th ca mi trng t nhin phi ln hn tc thi cht nhim, 2) Trc khi gim thi cht lng mi trng c th b suy thoi n ni mc thi thp cng gy thit hai nh mc thi cao gy nn, 3) C th c s tr gia pht thi v thit hi mi trng do tnh phc tp ca h sinh thi. H sinh thi c th t mc thit hi ngng v sau n hu hoi mt cch nhanh chng. 4) Thit hi mi trng c th do nh hng kt hp t nhng cht gy nhim khc nhau. V d, cc nh khoa hc bo co rng mc kh CO2 cao c th lm tng tc hnh thnh cc l hng zn, 5)Mc du pht thi mt cht gy nhim l thp hn, cc hng c th tm gii php thay th, nhng gii php ny cng gy thit hi. Cu hi 6: Vic nghin cu cc vn ti nguyn thin nhin cn phi tha nhn tm quan trng v k thut/khoa hc, kinh t, v chnh tr x hi. Hy gii thch ( Trch dn t Perman, Ma, McGilvray, and Common, 2003) Gii p: Trch dn ny gi rng c c li gii p y v cht ch v vn ti nguyn thin nhin cn p dng phng php a ngnh. Tuy nhin, trong nghin cu vn mi trng, nh kinh t s sm pht hin ra rng s tc ng qua li gia h thng kinh t v mi trng i hi cn phi a vo cc ni dung, phng php ca khoa hc t nhin, tri t v s sng. Hn th na, vn phn phi thu nhp v ca ci trong nc v quc t v qua thi gian, v vn thit lp v thc hin chnh sch m bo chc chn rng nhng quan tm v x hi chnh tr s lun lun l c ngha.
BI 3: NGUYN NHN CA CC VN MI TRNG CH : Nguyn nhn ch yu ca cc vn mi trng trn th gii l g?

Ngun: Field & Olewiler, trang 84, v Forsdyke, Field v Olewiler, 2002
6 Bi tp 1. Di y l mt phn ng cu ca ba c nhn v cht lng khng kh ca vng ln cn. Cht lng khng kh (ch mang gi tr nguyn) c o bng g/m3 (micrograms kh SO2 c trong mt mt khi kh). Nu chi ph cn bin gim kh SO2 vng xung quanh l 40 $ cho mi g/m3, mc cht lng khng kh hiu qu x hi l g, gi s rng x hi trong trng hp ny ch bao gm ba ngi ny. Chi ph x l kh SO2 ( la/microgram/m3) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Gii p: y l cu hi sinh vin thc hnh tm ng cu tng ca hng cng cng. Trc honh o mc cht lng khng kh tng ln theo chiu sang phi, c ngha gim kh SO2 trong khng kh. Trong trng hp ny ng tng cu c xc nh tng theo chiu dc sn lng chi tr ca c nhn: g/m3 1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 Tng gi sn lng chi tr cn bin (MWTP) 130 100 70 40 20 10 0 A 1.400 1.300 1.200 1.100 1.000 900 800 Lng cu B 1.200 1.100 1.000 900 800 700 600 C 1.500 1.400 1.300 1.200 1.100 1.000 900
ng tng cu khng c xc nh r rng ti mc cao hn 1200 g/m3 ng cu c nhn B ch c bit n mc . Hiu qu t c mc 900 g/m3. Bi tp 2: i vi bi tp 1, hy chng ming rng mc cht lng khng kh hiu qu x hi s ti a ho li ch rng x hi. Gii p: Sinh vin c th chng minh theo hai cch rng mc cht lng khng kh hiu qu x hi s ti a ho li ch rng x hi. S dng phng php 1, i vi mc cht lng khng kh trn 900, MWTP (li ch cn bin x hi) gim kh SO2 vt qu chi ph x l cn bin x hi. V vy, nu cht lng khng kh c ci thin, mc gim thit hi phi vt qu chi ph c c li ch rng x hi tng thm. Ngc li, nu cht
7 lng khng kh di mc 900, gi sn lng chi tr cn bin nh hn chi ph x l cn bin(MAC). Bng cch gim cht lng khng khi mt n v, chi ph x l tit kim c s ln hn thit hi gim xung li ch rng tng thm. Thng d x hi khng th tng thm y nu MAC = MD (thit hi cn bin). Phng php th hai v th ng MWTP v MAC v s dng din tch pha di nhng ng ny tnh ton li ch rng x hi. Gi s ch s cht lng khng kh ban u l 1200, gi tr rng tng thm do lm sch n mc cht lng mi trng di y c minh ho sau y. Ch s cht lng khng kh 7500 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 Tng WTP 11500 20000 25500 27500 29000 29500 29500 29500 29500 Tng chi ph 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000 24000 28000 32000 36000 Gi tr rng x hi 7500 12000 13500 (MAX) 11500 9000 5500 1500 -2500 -6500
Ngun: Perman, Ma, McGilvray, v Common, 2003 Cu hi 1. Quan h gia hng ho cng cng v ti nguyn t do tip cn l g? Gii p: Khi con ngi s dng qu mc ti nguyn t do tip cn, s gn gi ti nguyn ca mt ngi s dng s em li li ch cho tt c cc ngi s dng khc; s gn gi ca mt c nhn, ni cch khc, l mt hng ho cng cng, cung hng ho cng cng khng (v n theo) dn n s dng ti nguyn qu mc. Cu hi 2. Mt s hng ha c v l hng cng cng, nh sng radio, dch v nh n, v thm ch dch v cng an v v sinh, c th c cung cp bi cc hng t nhn. Ti sao li nh vy? C nhng khc nhau gia nhng hng ho cng cng ny vi dch v mi trng khng? Nu c, nhng khc nhau l g? Gii p: Hng t nhn c th khng cung cp hng ho cng cng dn n cn c hnh ng tp th. Chnh ph hnh ng nh l ngi phc v cng chng. Trong mt s trng hp, chnh ph c th hp ng cung cp dch v hng ho cng cng cho cc hng t nhn. Ti sao nh nc c th hp ng mt s dch v ny m khng hp ng i vi dch v khc? Li gii p ph thuc vo bn cht ca hng ho hoc dch v cng cng. Nu n c th sn xut v hp l t nhn c th cung cp. Chnh ph c th tr tin v gim st vic cung cp dch v. V d, mt nh thu t nhn c chnh qun thnh ph thu cung cp dch v mi trng nh thu gom rc thi v dch v v sinh. Mt khc, quy
8 nh mi trng l cn thit m bo rng mc tiu cht lng mi trng c p ng i vi phn ln cc hng ho cng cng nh cht lng khng kh. Cc hng t nhn khng c quyn lc iu tit cc hng khc v hnh ng ca ngi tiu dng. Cu hi 3: Ti sao chng ta phi quan tm t c hiu qu x hi? Gii p: Hiu qu x hi (SE) cung cp phng php nh gi x hi hot ng tt nh th no v liu thay i v chnh sch c t c nhng ci thin hay khng. SE l thc s ph hp trong kinh t mi trng bi v n xc nh gi tr ca cc tin nghi mi trng khng c gi th trng. Lm nh vy, n thu ht s ch i vi nhng tht bi th trng to ln v quan trng. Trong trng hp phn phi ca ci khng bt bnh ng nhiu, SE c th c iu chnh bng cch gn trng s cho nhng nhm ngi c thu nhp khc nhau (xem di y). Cn nhn mnh rng mc du nhng ngi ra quyt nh c th chn la thc hin phn phi , th trng khng lm c iu . Mc du, hm hu ch ch th hin trt t chn la v mt l thuyt khng th gp li, c l t gic bnh ng iu tt nht chng ta c th lm l tnh ton hu ch ca mi ngi nh nhau. Cu hi 4: Cc kt qa hiu qu x hi c nht thit cng bng khng? Chng c cn phi nh vy khng? Gii p: Phn phi t hiu qu x hi khng nht thit phi cng bng. Nu nh ngi ta c ng c v li ch c nhn v tn tu lm vic tch cc hn da trn nhng n b khc nhau, khi tng sn lng c th cao hn. Mc sn xut cao hn c th dn n thng mi nhiu hn cho nn c nhiu c hi hn chuyn mn ho v v vy c nhiu vic lm trong nn kinh t. V vy, trong mt x hi khng bnh ng nhng ngi ngho nht c th c cuc sng vt cht tt hn trong mt x hi bnh ng. ng c li nhun (n b khng cng bng) c th khuyn khch nghin cu v pht trin cng ngh mi. ng c gim thp chi ph c th lm gim nh hng mi trng bt li v s dng u vo t hn sn xut mi n v sn phm. Mc d mi n v sn phm sn xut to ra t cht thi hn, sn lng nhiu hn lm tng chi ph ngoi vi i vi mi trng (v d Hoa K l quc gia thi nhiu kh CO2 trn th gii). Nu ngi ngho khng kh ln v mt tuyt i v ci bnh ln hn, bi thng c th c thc hin v mt nguyn tc. V d, thu sut cao c th dn n thay i v tr kinh doanh. Hiu qu x hi c th c iu chnh xem xt bnh ng bng cch gn trng s phc li cho cc nhm thu nhp khc nhau. Do , hu ch cn bin ca mt la i vi ngi ngho l cao hn so vi ngi giu, iu ny phn nh MWTP khng ch ph thuc vo li ch m cn ph thuc vo kh nng thanh ton. Cu hi 5. Tho lun s thch hp v s vn dng khi nim nh hng ngoi vi trong kinh t mi trng.
9 Gii p: Hc thuyt nh hng ngoi vi l mt trong nhng nn tng quan trng ca kinh t mi trng. Chng hn phn ln cc hc thuyt kinh t v nhim c xy dng theo khun kh nh hng ngoi vi. Kinh t mi trng nhm ti ni ho nh hng ngoi vi. V iu ny qun xuyn ton b ch cng c kim sot nhim. Khi nim ny cng rt quan trng trong khc ch khc trong kinh t mi trng v c th xem n trung tm ca nhng tho lun v kinh t mi trng. Cu hi 6: Cc nh kinh t mi trng xem vn nhim nh l mt loi hin tng nh hng ngoi vi bt li. nh hng ngoi vi xut hin khi quyt nh ca mt ch th nh hng ch th khc mt cch khng c , v khng c bi thng. C phi iu ny c ngha l nu mt ngun nhim, chng hn nh my nng lng bi thng nhng ngi b nh hng bi cht thi, th khi khng c vn nhim? Gii p: iu ny ph thuc vo vn nhim c ngha l g. Ni chung, thm ch khi c bi thng, pht thi vn din ra v nhim vn tip tc. Tuy nhin, cc nh kinh t c khuynh hng s dng thut ng vn nhim khng phi hm rng c tn ti nhim mi trng m m t mc nhim mi trng khng hiu qu x hi. Nu thc hin bi thng cho tt c nhng ngi b nh hng bt li v bi thng c thc hin ng n cho nhng c nhn b thit hi v nh my tr bi thng iu chnh hnh vi ca mnh mt cch ti u xem xt cc khon bi thng phi tr, khi tnh trng sau bi thng s t hiu qu kinh t, v nh vy khng phi l vn nhim. Cu hi 6: Trong khi mt s nh kinh t tranh lun cn thit lp quyn ti sn t nhn bo v mi trng, nhiu ngi quan tm v mi trng cho rng phng php ny khng ph hp. Vn ct yu trong tranh lun l g? Gii p: Thit lp quyn ti sn t nhn c th ci thin hiu qu phn phi ti nguyn tnh v ng. Ch s hu ti nguyn s tnh n chi ph c hi cu vic tip cn, hoc khai thc/thu hoch, ti nguyn. Nhng khon chi ph ny s c tnh vo gi bi nhng ngi s dng ti nguyn. y l bi cnh m dng nh xu hng s dng ti nguyn theo thi gian c th ng vi ti u x hi khc vi nhng g c th xy ra khi khng c quyn ti sn. N cng c th dn n phn phi ti nguyn gn vi m hnh bn vng (mc du mt kt qu hiu qu khng nht thit phi l mt kt qu bn vng). Tuy nhin, d c nhng phn i v mt o c i vic thit lp quyn ti sn t nhn. nhng nn kinh t giu c, nhiu ngi tranh lun phn ln t gi thuyt cho rng vng ni v nhng vng hoang d khc ang v nn c qun l bi tp th cng ng c phn nh kh rng. nhiu ni trn th gii, c tn ti quyn s hu tp th hoc cng cng lu i v ti nguyn nc, bi chn th gia sc, nhng loi c th thu hoch
10 hoc nhng g tng t. D thy rng c nhng mu thun tim n gia duy tr truyn thng vn ho v mc tiu hiu qu kinh t. Ngi ta ni khng c l do ti sao quyn ti sn t nhn cn thit l da vo c nhn. Tt c nhng g cn c l mt tp hp c nh ngha r rng gm nhng ngi c giao quyn ti sn v tp hp l b nhng quyn c cng ch vi chi ph hp l. Cu hi 8: Mi trng trong lnh l mt hng ho cng cng, li ch ca n khng th b mt ai chim ot lm ti sn ring. V vy, nghnh cng nghip t nhn tm kim li ch c nhn s lun lun l k th ca mi trng trong lnh. Hy bnh lun v tuyn b ny. Gii p: Nu mt hng ho cng cng c hai c im khng cnh tranh v khng loi tr (nh vy n l hng ho cng cng thun tu), khi th trng khng th cung cp hng ho ny vi mc cho php t hiu qu phn phi. iu ny gi rng nu mi trng trong lnh l mt hng ho cng cng thun tu, n s khng c cung ng y trn th trng m quyt nh cung do cc hng ti a ho li nhun thc hin. Thc cht, vic xem xt vn n theo gi rng c th c thiu cung tng th. Tuy nhin, mt mi trng trong lnh c m t ng n nh l mt hng ho cng cng thun tu l khng r rng. Cng nh vy khng th tng tng rng cc k hoch cn c thit k mc du chng khng hon ho m cc hng t nhn c n b cho vic cung cp hng ho cng cng mc ti u x hi. Nhng k hoch/chng trnh ny c th i hi, mt trong nhiu vic, thay i hnh thc quyn s hu ti sn. C th c li nhun t nhng hnh vi kinh doanh thn thin vi mi trng. Tuy nhin, gi nh rng hnh vi ca th trng khng b iu khin dng nh l th ch i vi mi trng trong lnh l hp l.
BI 4: TM LC CC KHI NIM C BN TRONG KINH T HC PHC LI

CH 1: Hiu qu th trng: Li ch (cu) v Chi ph (cung) Ngun: Field & Olewiler (2002) Cu 1: iu g xy ra i vi ng tng cu khi ngi tiu dng cho rng gi hng ha s tng (hoc gim) trong tng lai? Liu tnh hung ny c ph nhn l thuyt trnh by ch ny? p n: K vng v mc gi tng lai cao hn (thp hn) s dch chuyn ng cu qua bn phi (bn tri). Liu s suy on v gi c c ph nhn l thuyt cho rng th trng hot ng nhm ti a ha thng d s ph thuc vo suy on c ng hay khng. Gi s
11 nim tin ca nhng ngi d on gi l ng, h s c gng li dng s tng gi ny, rng ngi ta s sn lng tr nhiu hn trong tng lai so v hm nay. Do vy, h s ng vai trn nhng ngi trung gian gia nhng ngi tiu dng c gi sn lng tr cao v nhng ngi c gi sn lng tr thp. Do nhng li ch t c t vic mua bn ny, s c s gia tng trong tha dng rng. Th hai l h s ng vai tr nhng phong v biu d bo nhng thay i trong tng lai. Mt s gia tng trong gi c s dn n doanh nghip tng sn lng. Hnh vi u c tch tr c th lm tng gi trong thi k u v t cc doanh nghip s tng sn lng ca h trong nhng nm sau. C s ca s gia tng v mc gi c th l s gia tng trong nhu cu, do vy vic d bo s gip nng cao xc sut cn bng th trng trong nm sau vi mc thng d t nhn cao hn. S d bo do vy cng c cng c. Mt khc, s d bo cng c th mt n nh v lm gim thng s x hi. Nim tin rng gi c s tng c th khng c mt c s ng n no v c th ch l mt hin tng t n gy ra. Nim tin sai lm rng gi c s tng c th dn n vic nhng nh u c mua hng ha v t lm tng gi... Mc gi tng c th dn n sn lng tng v do vy s c qu nhiu hng ha c sn xut trong nm tip theo, v nh vy gi s gim. Trong trng hp ny, nhng nh u c s l v ngi tiu dng cng vy t hin tng gi cao v cung thp. D cung trong nm tip theo c th dn n mc gi thp v gim thng d sn xut, dn n thit hi phc li rng. Cu 2. Vic cn bng li ch v gi sn lng tr c th dn n kt lun rng vic lm sch khng kh m nhng ngi thu nhp thp ang sng trong s to ra t li ch hn so vi vic lm sch khng kh ca nhng ngi c thu nhp cao. Liu iu ny c ph nhn tng cn bng li ch v gi sn lng tr? Cc nh kinh t hc c th gii quyt vn ny nh th no? p n: Nhng suy xt v mt phn phi khng ph nhn khi nim gi sn lng tr nhng hm rng n phi c s dng cn thn, c bit l trong nhng trng hp lin quan n nhng ngi c mc thu nhp khc nhau. Trong nhiu trng hp y khng phi l vn quan trng. V d, so snh WTP vi mt th khc (nh cht lng mi trng) ca mt nhm c th, v xem xt s khc bit trong WTP gia cc nhm khng chnh lch ng k v thu nhp. Mt cch gii quyt nhng vn phn phi lin quan n cc nhm thu nhp khc nhau l gn trng s cho WTP bin. Trng s ny lm cho tha dng bin t mt -la i vi ngi ngho cao hn i vi ngi giu. Tng MB khi c tnh n kh nng chi tr khc nhau v gi sn lng tr. Cu 3. Nhng nhn t no nh hng n hnh dng ca ng chi ph bin? Nhng nhn t ny c khc nhau ng k gia cc ngnh? p n: Hnh dng ca ng MC v c bn s ph thuc vo cng ngh c s dng. Cc yu t c th xem xt l cc yu t c nh, di hn so vi ngn hn, li tc tng, gim hay
12 khng i theo quy m. Mt s ngnh c th c nhiu yu t nh hng m rt kh tng trong ngn hn, dn n ng MC ngn hn tng rt nhanh. Kh nng thay th ca cc yu t sn xut, khong cch n th trng u vo, s thiu lao ng v cht lng lao ng gim st u nh hng n chi ph sn xut. Cu 4. Hy gii thch cho mt ngi khng c chuyn mn v kinh t ti sao cc gi tr cn bin li quan trng trong phn tch kinh t. Bn s phn ng nh th no vi lp lun ca ngi rng h cha bao gi da vo cc gi tr cn bin trong vic ra quyt nh? p n: Cc nh kinh t hc gi nh rng cc c nhn v n v theo ui li ch c nhn, mc d iu ny khng hm ch ngha v k thun ty. H cng gi nh rng cc hot ng em li li ch v chi ph, v thng thng l c s nh i. Hy ngh hc vin th tng tng mt ngy khng c s nh i. V d, mc d vic thc dy em li nhiu li ch hn l vic ng thm mt pht, nhng nu h khng theo ui li ch c nhn th c th h s ng tip. H c th s khng ung c ph, mc d kinh nghim cho h bit rng nu khng c c ph h s b nhc u... Bn cng c th thy rng trong rt nhiu vic, h khng tun theo mt qu trnh ti u ha mt cch c thc. Tuy nhin, nu nhn li th h s nhn thy rng mc d khng ngh n, nhng h thng ng x theo cch rt gn vi vic cn bng li ch bin v chi ph bin. CH 2: nh ngha v o lng nhng thay i v Phc li Ngun: Field & Olewiler, 2002, Chng 3 Cu 1. Nhu cu ca Alvin i vi nc ng chai c biu din qua th QdA = 8 0.5P. Hm cu ca Betty l QdB = 6 P. Hy tnh tng gi sn lng tr v gi sn lng tr cn bin ca Alvin v Betty cho 4 chai nc v minh ha bng th. p n: ng cu c nhn th hin lng nc ti a m mi c nhn sn lng mua ti mt mc gi. Sp xp li phng trnh theo mc gi, ta c mt hm biu din mc gi ti a m mi c nhn sn lng tr (gi sn lng tr bin; MWTP) cho n v th Q. MWTPA =16-2 QdA v MWTPB =6 - QdB. Vi lng cu l 4 n v cho mi ngi, MWTP ca Alvin l $8, trong khi MWTP ca Betty l $2. Tng WTP ca Alvin l din tch nm di ng WTP bin ca anh ta t QdA = 0 n QdA =4, v tng t cho Betty. Tng WTPA = (8 x 4) x [(16-8) x 4]/2 = $48. Tng WTPB = (2 x 4) x [(6-2) x 4]/2 = $16.
13
MWTP ($/n v)
16
MWTP
($/n v)
8 6 0 4 8 Qa 2 0 4 6 Qa
Cu 2. Vi cc phng trnh nh trong Cu 1, hy tnh tng cu i vi nc ng chai, gi nh rng Alvin v Betty nhng ngi tiu dng duy nht. Xc nh ng tng cu nu c 5 ngi c ng cu nh Alvin v 5 ngi c ng cu nh Betty. p n: tnh tng cu ca Alvin v Betty, cng gp lng cu ti mi mc gi (cng theo chiu ngang). ng cu s gp khc mc gi $6, ti Alvin mua 5 v Betty mua 0 n v sn phm. H s ct trn trc gi l $16 v trn trc lng l 14 n v. Vi mc gi t 0 n 6, c hai ngi tiu dng s c nhu cu v nc ng chai, tnh tng lng cu s cho ta hm tng cu QdB & A = 14 3P/2. Vi mc gi cao hn $6, ch c Alvin l c nhu cu, t c hm cu QdB & A = 16 2P. Vi 5 ngi tiu dng cho mi hm cu c nhn trn, hm tng cu cho 5 ngi ging Alvin v 5 ngi ging Betty tng ng l QdaggA = 40 2.5P v QdaggB =30 5P. ng tng cu ca 10 ngi l gp khc ti mc gi $6 v sn lng 25 n v. mc gi t 0 n 6, c th tm ra ng cu bng cch tnh tng lng cu ca 10 ngi Qdagg = 70 7.5P. Vi mc gi cao hn $6, ch c Alvin c nhu cu mua nc, vi tng cu l Qdagg = 40 2.5P. H s ct trn trc gi l $16 v trn trc lng l 55. MWTP 16 ($/n v)
10
0 5 14
QdB & A
14
Cu 3. Nu gi ca bng tennis l $4 cho mi container, nhng nh sn xut sau y c th tip tc sn xut hay khng? Ti sao? Mi ngi s sn xut bao nhiu ti mc gi ny? p n: Mi doanh nghip s thu c thng d t nhn dng nu li ch bin m n nhn c ( y l $4 trn mt n v) cao hn chi ph bin sn xut ra n v sn phm . Doanh nghip s c li nu MC <4. MC gim khi sn lng tng do li tc gim dn theo quy m, cui cng mi doanh nghip s t c sn lng m ti MC = P. Nu doanh nghip sn xut nhiu hn, MC> P, v n s l. Chng ta c th tm ra sn lng ca mi doanh nghip bng cch t MC = P = 4 v tm n s. i vi doanh nghip A, kt qu l 3 + 0.3 Qs =4, t Qs =3.33 (1,000 n v). Tng t, doanh nghip B khng th cung ng n v sn lng no, trong khi doanh nghip C s cung cp 30 (1,000 n v). Cu 4. ng cu ca mt c nhn i vi nc ung ng chai c biu din bi phng trnh: Q= 6- 0.5p + 0.0001I Vi Q l lng cu ti mc gi p khi thu nhn ca c nhn l I. Gi s ban u thu nhp ca c nhn ny l $40,000. a) Ti mc gi no th lng cu bng khng? Mc gi ny c gi l mc gi ti a (choke price) bi v n l mc gi trit tiu nhu cu. b) Nu gi tt ca nc ng chai l $10, lng cu l bao nhiu? c) Ti mc gi $10, co gin ca cu theo gi l bao nhiu? d) Ti mc gi $10, thng d tiu dng l bao nhiu? e) Nu gi tng ln $12, thng d tiu dng s gim bao nhiu? f) Nu thu nhp l $60,000, thng d tiu dng b mt l bao nhiu nu mc gi tng t $10 ln $12? p n: a) Q = 6 0.5p + 0.0001I Q = 6 0.5 p + 0.0001 (40,000) Q = 10 0.5p Ti Q =0 P =20 b) Q = 10 0.5 (10) = 5 c) co gin ca cu theo gi l (q/p) (p/q). Vi ng cu tuyn tnh nh phng trnh trong bi ny, (q/p) bng dc ca ng cu, v trong bi tp ny l 0.5. Do co gin ca cu theo gi l (-0.5) (10/5) = -1. Lu rng vi
15 ng cu tuyn tnh, co gin ca cu theo gi l khng c nh, gi tr tuyt i ca n tng khi mc gi tng. d) Thng d tiu dng l tam gic nm di ng cu (ngc) v trn mc gi cn bng. ng cao ca tam gic l mc gi ti a choke price tr gi tt (20-10 = 10) v y l lng cu (5). Din tch tam gic l (10) (5)/2=$25. e) Mc gi tng ln $12 lm lng cu gim xung 4 chai. Thng d tiu dng mi l (20-12) (4)/2=$16. Phn gim trong thng d tiu dng l $25-$16=$9. f) Khi thu nhp l $60,000, nh cu i vi nc ng chai l Q=6-0.5p+ (0.0001) (60,000) = 12 0.5p. Vi p = 10, q=7, v p=12, q=6, s thay i trong thng d tiu dng l (12-10) (6) + (2) (1)/2 = 13. S thay i trong thng d tiu dng tng ln theo thu nhp cho thy s ph thuc ca gi sn lng tr vo thu nhp. Cu 5. Gi s mt nh my xay bt g c t b sng Mekong. Chi ph t nhn bin (MC) ca vic sn xut bt g ($/tn) c biu din qua phng trnh: MC = 10 + 0.5 Y Vi Y l tn bt g c sn xut. Bn cnh chi ph t nhn bin cn c mt chi ph ngoi tc. Mi tn bt g s to ra mt lung nhim cho con sng, to ra mt thit hi $10. y l mt chi ph ngoi tc do cng ng gnh chu ch khng phi do ngi gy nhim. Li ch bin (MB) i vi x hi ca mi tn bt, tnh theo $, l: MB = 30 0.5 Y a) Hy v th minh ha chi ph bin (MC), li ch bin (MB), chi ph ngoi tc bin (EMC), v hm chi ph x hi bin.
SMC = 20 +0.5Y MC =10 +0.5 Y
MB= 30-0.5Y EMC =10
Y*=10 b) Tm mc sn lng bt g ti a ha li nhun, gi s rng ngi bn c th t c doanh thu bin bng li ch bin ca x hi t bt g.
16 MC = 10 + 0.5 Y MR = 30 0.5 Y MC = MR ti a ha li nhun: 10 + 0.5Y = 30 - 0.5Yta c Y* = 20.
c) Tm mc sn lng bt g ti a ha li ch x hi rng Vi MEC =10 SMC = MC + MEC = 10 + 0.5Y + 10 = 20 + 0.5 Y v ti a ha li ch x hi rng i hi: SMC = MB Suy ra: 20 + 0.5 Y = 30 0.5 Y = > Y* = 10. d) Chi ph ngoi tc bin phi l bao nhiu vic sn xut bt g khng cn ng mong mun i vi x hi? MC + MEC = MB 10 + 0.5Y + MEC = 30 0.5YDo , vi Y =0, MEC=20. Cu 6. Gi s mt c nhn c hm tha dng: U = E0.25 + Y 0.75 Vi E l ch s cht lng mi trng v Y l thu nhp. T tnh hung ban u vi E =1 v Y=100, tnh CS v ES tm ra s thay i do E ln 2 v E gim xung 0.5. p n: Vi s ci thin cht lng mi trng E, ta c: U0 = 10.25 + 1000.75 = 32.6228 U1 = 20.25 + 1000.75 = 32.8120 CS l WTP cho s ci thin, do chng ta phi gii phng trnh: 32.6228 = 20.25 + Y0.75N tm ra YN, nh sau:
Y = 20 MEC.
17
32.6228 = 1.1892 + Y0.75N Y0.75N = 31.4336 0.75ln(YN) = ln (31.4336) = 3.4479 ln (YN) = 4.5972 YN = 99.2032 Khi , CS = Y0- YN = 100 99.2032 = 0.7968 ES l WTA cho s ci thin b mt i, do ta phi gii: 32.8120 = 10.25 + Y0.75N tm ra YN, kt qu l YN = 100.7928 Do ES = YN Y0 = 0.7928. Vi s gim st cht lng mi trng E, ta c: U0 = 10.25 + 1000.75 = 32.6228 U1 = 0.50.25 + 1000.75 = 32.4637 CS l WTA cho s thay i. Ta gii phng trnh: 32.6228 = 0.50.25 + Y0.75N tm ra YN = 100.6815 kt qu l CS = YN Y0 = 100.6715 100 = 0.6715 ES l WTP khng xy ra s thay i, ta gii: 32.4637 = 10.25 + Y0.75N tm ra YN = 99.3298, kt qu l ES = Y0 YN = 100 99.3298 = 0.6702 Cu 7. Ch c nhng tiu chun mi trng cao nht mi c th ti a ha phc li x hi. Hy bnh lun. p n: Pht biu ny ni ln rng cn phi huy ng mt cch khng gii hn cc ngun lc x l (hay phng chng) nhim hay suy thoi mi trng, bt k quy m ca li ch
18 m vic lm ny em li. Hiu qu kinh t i hi s cn bng gia li ch v chi ph bin. Tuy nhin, pht biu ny l ph hp vi vn hiu qu kinh t nu chi ph lm sch/ngn nga nhim lun bng khng, hay cc thit hi l ln v cng, hay ni mt cch tng qut hn, nu li ch bin di hn lun ln hn chi ph x l bin di hn cho n khi nhim c x l hon ton.
BI 5: KINH T NHIM MI TRNG CH 1: Mc nhim ti u

Ngun: Field, Olewiler, and Forsdyke, 2002 Cu 1: Cho MNPB = 1000-10Q v MEC = 10Q. Gi s c sn xut mt n v sn phm th to ra mt n v nhim. Hy xc nh mc nhim ti u di dng thit hi hoc chi ph ngoi ng. (1) Khi lng sn phm ti u l Q* tho mn iu kin cn bng cn bin. MNPB = MEC 1000 -10Q = 10Q Q* = 50 Mc nhim ti u tng ng vi mc sn lng Q* = 50 n v sn phm. mc sn lng ny tng thit hi l din tch pha di ng MEC t 0 n Q* hoc tam gic OEQ* bng (50 * 500)/2 = $ 1250.
C,B
MEC MNPB
Q* 50
100
Q/W
CH 2: nh l Coase v quyn ti sn
Ngun: F, O, and F, 2002; (Perman, Ma, McGilvray, and Common, 2003) Cu hi 1. Gi s ch th gy nhim c quyn ti sn v ch th b nh hng nhim phi chu ton b chi ph giao dch. Mc nhim s nh th no so snh vi trng hp chi ph giao dch bng khng?
19 Gii p: Khi ch th gy nhim c quyn ti sn, ch th b nh hng nhim s l ngi khi xng mc c. Nu ch th b nh hng nhim phi chu ton b chi ph giao dch, khi chi ph mc c ca ch th b nh hng nhim khng ch bao gm tin bi thng cho ch th gy nhim cho li nhun b mt i m c chi ph giao dch. iu ny hm rng ng chi ph cn bin MC trong mc c ca ch th b nh hng nhim l cao hn so vi trng hp chi ph giao dch bng khng. Trong khi MB ca ch th b nh hng nhim khng thay i. V vy mc nhim l c th cao hn so vi trng hp chi ph giao dch bng. Cu hi 2: Trong hon cnh no mc c c th xy ra t c mc nhim hiu qu? Gii p: Mc c c th xy ra dn n mc nhim hiu qu khi: 1. Quyn ti sn c phn ch r rng 2. S ngi can d tng i t 3. Quan h nhn qu l r rng 4. Thit hi d o lng v chi ph giao dch kh thp. Cu 3. Hy phn bit nh hng ngoi vi hng c nhn v hng cng cng. Tho lun kh nng mc c dn n phn phi ti nguyn hiu qu trong mi trng hp. Gii p: nh hng ngoi vi hng c nhn ch gy nh hng mt tp hp nht nh cc c nhn trong cng ng; ch th pht thi nhim c th kim sot c i tng b nh hng. nh hng ngoi v hng cng cng gy nh hng n tt c mi ngi trong cng ng; mi khi nh hng l tc ng n ngi ny th cng s tc ng n ngi khc. Gii php mc c i vi nh hng ngoi vi hng cng cng thng t xut hin; v thm ch khi mc c xut hin, kt qu thng t khi hiu qu. Nguyn nhn mt phn l do s lng ngi b tc ng bi nh hng ngoi vi thng kh ln. Xc nh v lin lc gia cc i tng b nh hng v t chc mc c thng c chi ph cao v kh khn. Nguyn nhn khc c th ny sinh t vn n theo; cc c nhn thng khng tit l ng gi ch quan thc cht ca h v nh hng ngoi vi, hoc c gn ln trnh ph tn nu tham gia trc tip vo qu trinh mc c.
CH 3: Tiu chun mi trng

Ngun: Field, Olewiler, v Forsdyke, 2002; Perman, Ma McGilvray, v Common, 2003
20 Cu hi 1: Hy lit k v gii thch ba vn /hn ch ca tiu chun cng ngh, s dng th h tr tr li. Gii p: Tiu chun cng ngh c tc dng hn ch trong vic khuyn khch pht trin v p dng cng ngh x l c chi ph thp hn tiu chun. Trn th, MAC ca cng ngh quy nh l cao hn ca cc cng ngh sn c khc hoc cha sng ch. Tiu chun cng ngh gim thp kh nng linh hot ca doanh nghip gim chi ph x l theo cch thc tit kim nht c th c. V d, phng php qun l tit kim chi ph hn c th c khm ph thng qua hc t thc t; nhn vin chnh ph khng th d bo nhng k thut nh vy. iu ny dn n vn ph thuc tuyn; khng phi chnh ph m nh my c kh nng tt hn trong tm kim trong khng gian cng ngh pht hin c qu o cng ngh x l hiu qu nht theo thi gian. Nh my c th khng p dng k thut c chi ph thp v s b kt ti khng tun th. Nhn vin chnh ph c th hon ton khng linh hot, v c ng c hn ch linh hot vi nhng nh my nm bt nhng phng php x l tt hn. Mt ch th v nn tho lun l nh hng ca tiu chun cng ngh i vi cng nghip kim sot nhim. Nu bit rng chnh ph s p dng mt cng ngh, c th c gii thng ln cho vic c kh nng nm bt kp tiu chun tip theo. Tr cp pht trin cng ngh sch c th cho php pht trin quan h hp tc gia cc ngnh, i lp vi quan h i nghch thng thy gia chnh ph v doanh nghip trong qun l mi trng. Chnh ph thiu thng tin v phng tin x l r nht (so vi doanh nghip) v thiu ng c pht trin v thc hin cng ngh x l cht thi tit kim chi ph nht. Hn th na, cng ngh x l r nht l c th cho tng doanh nghip; theo ngha ny tiu chun cng ngh l ng b. Chi ph cng ch c th cao, bi v cn phi gim st c tun th ban u v tun th tip tc. Thit b x l cn c kim tra xem c hot ng v s dng theo ng quy nh hay khng. Bi v quy nh do cp quc gia t ra nhng li c cng ch/thc thi cc a phng, khng c g m bo rng cc nhn vin a phng c ngn sch hoc chuyn mn cng ch ng n cc tiu chun. Bn cht ng b ca cc tiu chun c n v hiu qu gia cc nhm. V d, khu vc nng thn do hm lng cht gy nhim mi trng xung quanh thp, doanh nghip c th buc phi s dng cng ngh m chi ph x l cn bin vt qu thit hi cn bin gim c. Cu 2: Loi tiu chun no c th s dng cho ngun nhim khng c im ngun (non-point) (v d: ho cht nng nghip t sn xut nng nghip) v nhim do mi ch th gy nn khng th o lng c? Gii thch, ti sao Gii p:
21 Tiu chun cho vic s dng u vo (v d: kim sot khi lng v loi thuc tr su c php s dng); tiu chun v quy trnh hot ng (v d: nhit ti thiu ca l t rc); tiu chun v cng ngh cho php; tiu chun mi trng xung quanh (v d: nu hm lng kh zn tng trn mt t vt qu gii hn, li xe c th c khuyn co khng nn hoc nghim cm khng s dng xe hi v xe m t. Cu 3: Gi s c quan qun l c ngn sch cng ch hn hp. T gic x hi l tt hn nu s dng ngun lc hn ch gim st nhng ngun pht thi ln v khi t gt gao cc trng hp vi phm tiu chun hay l gim st tt c mi ch th gy nhim. Hy bo v quan im ca anh/ch. Gii p: C th l r hn thc hin gim st cc ch th gy nhim ln v p dng mc pht ln i vi trng hp vi phm so vi vic dn tri ngun lc gim st tt c cc ch th gy nhim v trng pht t nng n hn. iu ny l hon ton ng nu chi ph cng ch ln v c nh cho mi ch th gy nhim. Mc pht cao c th lm gim s cn thit phi gim st gt gao. Tuy nhin mc pht nng c nh hng ngc li lm gim nh hng tnh cht ng tin cy ca tin pht (s chuyn v kinh t) v lm gim mc pht k vng. Tuy nhin nu ch th gy nhim ln c gim st gt gao v b khi t vi xc sut cao hn thi s c tc dng rn e cho nhng nh my nh. Cu hi 4: Ngi ta gi rng l cng bng nu tt c cc quc gia p dng tiu chun thi nh nhau. V d, nu Hoa K c tiu chun cao hn Vit Nam, khi Vit Nam c th sn xut hng ho gy nhim nhiu r hn, dnh c li th trn th trng th gii, v c th tr thnh ni cha ng nhim. T nhng g tho lun trong ch ny, anh/ch c ng vi gi ny khng? T gic kinh t nhng lp lun tn thnh v phn i l g? Gii p: tng p dng cng mt tiu chun nhng quc gia khc nhau c th loi tr bt c quc gia no c gng t c li th chi ph trong thng mi quc t bng cch p dng tiu chun t kht khe hn. Nhng cng tiu chun nh nhau c th c nhng nh hng chi ph khac nhau nhng quc gia khc nhau. Nu chi ph x l cn bin khc nhau, cng mt chun mc c th lm tng ch nhiu hn mt nc so vi nc khc. Nu chng ta mun quy nh tiu chun tng chi ph tng ln l nh nhau cho mi quc gia, chng ta phi quy nh tiu chun t kht khe cho nhng quc gia c chi ph x l cn bin cao v tiu chun kht khe hn cho nhng quc gia c chi ph x l cn bin thp hn. Tuy nhin, ng t tiu chun khc nhau theo MACs khc nhau l kh khn bi v nhiu quc gia mun phng i MAC h thp tiu chun. Chnh sch da vo khuyn khch li ch l phng tin vt qua chng ngi v hiu qu chi ph mc du cc vn khc nh phc tp trong qun l, sc mnh th trng, v v s bnh ng ny sinh. Kha cnh tch cc chnh ca tiu chun nh nhn mnh trong ch ny l tnh
22 n gin ca chng (v bnh ng hin nhin) c th dn n tho thun v p dng c ch kim sot nhim thng nht vo thc t. V d, T chc thng mi th gii (1999) tha nhn rng thng mi th gii c t do ho c th lm tng s cn thit c mt c ch iu phi nh vy trnh mt cuc chy ua v qun l n cng. Cu hi 5: Xem s di y. N cho thy hai hm MD. MDU v MDR l hm thit hi cn bin ca khu vc thnh th v nng thn mt cch tng ng. MDR = 5ER; MDU = 10EU v MAC = 600 5E Tm hai cn bng hiu qu cho hai hm MD v nhim carbon monoxide. Gi s ngi qun l p dng mt tiu chun ng b mc thi trung bnh cng ca hai mc thi hiu qu. Thit hi qu mc ca khu vc thnh th do kim sot cha mc v ca khu vc nng thn do kim sot qu mc l bao nhiu?
$ 600 MAC MDU MDR
40
60
120
Lng thi carbon monoxide (kg/thng)
Gi p: Ti mc thi hiu qu x hi, MAC = MD cho mi vng Nng thn: MAC = MDR Thnh th : MAC = MDU 5ER = 600 5ER 10EU = 600 5EU E*R = 60 E*U = 40 MACR (60) = 300 MACU (40) = 400 Tiu chun c t mc 50 lng thi l trung bnh cng ca hai mc thi hiu qu x hi: MAC (50) = 350 MDR (50) = 250 MDU (50) = 500 Thay i ca tng thit hi mi vng so vi tng thit hi hiu qu x hi l:
TDR = (250+300) x 10/2 = $2750 (gim)

23
TDU = + (400 + 500) x 10/2 = +$4500 (tng)

Chng ta c th tnh thng d x hi b mt mi vng bng cch tnh thay i trong tng chi ph x l (TAC). TAC ca khu vc thnh th gim 3750 la trong khi TAC ca khu vc nng thn tng 3250 la. Thng d x hi b mt khu vc thnh th v nng thn do tiu chun ng b l 750 la v 500 la mt cch tng ng.
CH 4: Thu v tr cp
Ngun: Field, Olewiler and Forsdyke, 2002 Cu hi: Gi s chng ta gii thiu thu thi i vi mt cht gy nhim no , v chng ta s dng tin thu tr cp chi ph u t ngn hn cho nhng hng trong cng mt ngnh lp t cc thit b gim thi. Phng php ny c lm o ln tc dng khuyn khch ca thu thi khng? Gii p: Tc dng khuyn khch ca thu s vn nguyn vn chng no tr cp c quy nh da trn mt c s khc bit vi thu. V d, tr cp c th c chi tr mt ln trang tri chi ph mua sm thit b, hoc tham gia vo cc hot ng nghin cu v pht trin v kim sot nhim, hoc nhng g khng lin quan trc tip khi lng nhim c gim. Trong trng hp ny cc hng s thc hin gim thi v ng c ti thiu ho chi ph ca h. Cu 2. Gi s chnh ph xut thu thi kh SO2. Thu s nh theo hm lng sulfur ca nhin liu s dng ca cc ngnh cng nghip bi v lng thi t cc ngun ny l kh o lng. Nhng trong nhng trng hp hng c phng php o hm lng kh SO2 ca kh thi, thu s nh theo hm lng kh SO2 ca kh thi. H thng ny c dn n cn bng hiu qu x hi hay khng? (Anh/ch cn a ra mt s gi nh tr li cu hi ny). Gii p: Thu nh theo hm lng sulfur ca nhin liu s to khuyn khch gim sulfur bng cch gim khi lng nhin liu s dng, chuyn t nhin liu c hm lng sulfur cao sang nhin liu c hm lng sulfure thp hn, x l nhin liu gim hm lng sulfure trc khi s dng, v cc bin php khc. Nhng loi thu ny khng to khuyn khch thay i quy trnh sn xut gim sulfure trong kh thi. Mi khi nhin liu u vo (vi bt c hm lng suulfure no) c s dng s khng c khuyn khch trong tng lai gim sulfure trong cc giai on sau ca qu trnh sn xut. Cu hi 3. Nhng ngi chng i thu/ph thi tranh lun rng ch th gy nhim d dng tr thu v chuyn chi ph ny n ngi tiu dng m khng gim thi. iu ny c ng khng? Hy gii thch. Gii p:
24 Cu hi ny c hai phn: H s gim thi khng? V h s chuyn phn chi ph tng ln cho ngi tiu dng khng? Hng, d l cnh tranh hay c quyn, s gim s dng nhng u vo no c gi tng ln, iu ny cng ng vi pht thi. Nhng chng ta cng hy vng chi ph c chuyn trong trng hp ngnh cnh tranh; gi ca sn phm s tng ln bi mt lng b p chi ph sn xut tng ln. Nu ngnh sn xut tr nn tp trung hn do vic iu tit, khi gi c s tng hn na. Theo mt cch gii thch tch cc hn, thu c th dn ti pht trin nhng mt hng thay th thn thin vi mi trng hn, v c th l r hn cho ngi tiu dng. Cu 4: S dng s di y v phng trnh MAC1 = 200 5E v MAC2 = 160 4E, hy tnh chi ph tit kim c ca ch th gy nhim nu p dng cng ngh mi (MAC2) sau khi ban hnh thu thi 100 la mi tn. Hy tnh chi ph tit kim c khi p dng tiu chun 20 tn. Gii thch ti sao thu em li khuyn khch ci tin ln hn so vi tiu chun.
$ 200 160 Thu =100 mi tn e 0 15 d 20
MAC1 MAC2
c a b 40 Pht thi (tn mi nm)
Gii p:
Hng s x l n mc MAC bng thu sut, vt qu im , np thu l tit kim chi ph hn x l. Vi cng ngh c, hng s x l 20 tn cht thi. TAC1 = [(40 20) x 100]/2 = 1000 la (din tch a+b) vi cng ngh mi, x l l r hn gy nhim ti mc thi 15 tn. Nh my x l thm 5 tn v tin thu tit kim c l 5 x 100 = 500 la (bng din tch c +d). Nh my x l 15 tn v TAC2 = [(40-15) x100]/2 = $ 1250 (din tch b+d). Tng chi ph tit kim nh cng ngh x l tt hn l TAC1 TAC2 + tin thu tit kim c = $ 250 (din tch a+c). Vi tiu chun 20 tn, tng chi ph TAC vi cng ngh c l 1000 la (din tch a+b), v vi cng ngh mi l [(80 x (40 200)]/2 = 800 la (din tch b). Tng chi ph tit kim c l 200 la, s khc bit ca TAC (din tch a). Chi ph tit kim thm c l 50 la tin thu. Thu em li khuyn khch ci tin ln hn bi v ng MAC gim xung tng i so vi thu sut khuyn khch nh my gim nhim trnh thu. Khi p dng tiu chun, nh my khng linh hot nh vy bi v lng pht thi ti a l c nh.
CH 5: Giy php thi c th chuyn nhng

25
Ngun: Field, Olewiler, and Forsdyke. 2002 Cu hi 1. Chnh ph thit lp mt h thng TDP, cp min ph giy php cho ch th gy nhim v yu cu h mua bn/trao i sau . H thng ny phn ng nh th no i vi nhng hng mi tham gia ngnh sn xut v c gy nhim? Anh ch thy trc vn g? Hy gii thch. Gii p: Cp min ph giy php c ngha l cp quyn gy nhim cho ch th gy nhim hoc bn giy php vi mt gi tr ng k. V vy, nhng nh my c cp giy php min ph ban u c li th chi ph hn cc nh my tham gia th trng sau ny bi v cc nh my ny phi mua giy php. Sinh vin thng ch rng nh qun l ch n gin ban hnh thm giy php cho nhng nh my mi. Tuy nhin, sau sinh vin s nhn thy rng s lng giy php s tng ln v vy mc tiu thi khng t c. Gii php l quy nh thi hn c gi tr ca giy php v sau pht hnh li (bng bn u gi hoc cp min ph) lng giy php mc tiu theo nh k. Gi tr ca giy php c th b gim theo thi gian gn vi vic ban hnh giy php mi. Mt gii php khc l tr cp cc nh my mi tham gia san bng sn chi. Mt vn khc l vn sc mnh th trng. Nu th trng tp trung cao, ch c mt vi nh my cng cnh tranh trn cng mt th trng hng ho, cc nh my c th cu kt tho thun khng bn giy php cho nhng doanh nghip mi tham gia, mt ro cn thm nhp c hiu qu. C quan qun l cn kim sot th trng giy php v nhng hnh vi chng cnh tranh. Tt c nhng yu t c th lm cho th trng giy php khng chc chn ngn cn hot ng ca th trng giy php cng nh phc tp v qun l v chi ph. Cu hi 2. Nhng ng h v phn i v vic cho php bt c ngi no (v d: ngn hng, c nhn, nhm mi trng, t chc chnh ph) mua v bn giy php thi c th chuyn nhng l g? Gii p: Cc ng h v phn i c th khc nhau cho nhng nhm v nhng ngi tham gia th trng khc nhau, v vy chng ta tp trung c gn d bo nh hng ca nhng nguyn tc mua bn khc nhau i vi th trng. Nu mua bn ch gii hn i vi ch th gy nhim nhng ngi c tt c cc giy php lc ban u th tng i d dng xc nh ai l ngi bn v ngi mua th trng giy php. Vic d bo gi giy php v i tc mua bn cng tng i d, bi v th trng hot ng phn phi li lng giy php hin c cho cc ngun gy nhim. Tnh khng chc chn ca th trng c ti thiu ho. Nu cc nhm khc cng c php tham gia th trng giy php, tnh khng chc chn s tng bi v s kh khn hn trong vic d bo hnh vi ng x ca nhng ngi mi tham gia th trng. Gi giy php h tr th hin WTP ca h gim thit hi, v n c th cao hoc thp ph thuc vo nhm no tham gia v kh nng ngn sch mua giy php ca h. iu ny s lm tng tnh khng chc chn ca th trng giy php, v bt c ci g lm tng tnh khng chc chn ca th trng s lm th trng hot ng km m . Trng hp c quan cng v cc nhm khng gy nhim cng tng t nh vy. Tuy nhin, s lng ln ngi tham gia th trng cng ln th trng dng nh s hot ng hiu qu hn. Thc t p dng TDP c vn /kh khn
26 vi th trng mng v mua bn khng mc. V vy gi cn bng th trng l kh thit lp. Cu 3. C xut thit lp h thng TDP cho bo tn ng thc vt v bo v mi trng. iu c th thc hin nh th no? Gii p: Hy xem xt mt h thng giy php v bo tn cc loi c th. Nh qun l c th phn phi mt lng giy php khai thc cy g hoc c voi trong mt khong thi gian nht nh. Giy php s c mua bn v nhng ngi inh gi c voi hoc cy g cao nht s mua quyn thu hoch/khai thc. Tn dng cng c th phn phi cho nhng nhm trng cy. Mt hn ch l cc h sinh thi lin quan ln nhau; mt th trng da vo mt loi c th b qua iu ny. Quyn pht trin c th chuyn nhng, vi gii hn v din tch t c th c pht trin trong mi n v thi gian. Giy php c th tch ri s dng t khi s hu t. c quyn ph hu mi trng, ch t c yu cu mua giy php. t c quy nh bi dng mi trng v giy php ban hnh cho mi loi mi trng (tng t nh vng trao i). Quyn ph hu l t hn cho nhng vng nhy cm sinh thi. Tn dng cng c th cp cho ch t phc hi li mi trng thin nhin. Li th/u im ca phng php ny so vi vic dnh t cng cho mc ch bo tng l tnh hiu lc chi ph. Tnh phc tp v qun l cao. Phn nh quyn ti sn v loi hoc h sinh thi t ra vn o c can of worm m ngy cng tr nn quan trng do nhng ci tin gn y v cng ngh sinh hc. iu ny dn n vn pht minh cc dng sng. Vic s dng t khng bn vng nhng nc km pht trin c th l do c ch t chc yu km bo v quyn s hu t. iu ny dn n khai thc qu mc bi ngi ta khng chc chn liu h c t cnh php l khai thc li ch trong tng lai (v vy h khai thc tt c ngay by gi). Theo ngha ny, quyn ti sn i vi t c th gip bo tn mi trng. Theo trng phi tn c in, sa cha khun kh th ch th trng t hot ng nh cc nc pht trin s khuyn khch vic s dng t tt hn. Tuy nhin, iu quan trong l phi hiu r rng nhng th ch nh vy khng xut hin nhanh chng m c th tu theo vn ho c th. Theo truyn thng, t cng trong nhiu trng hp c qun l tt theo tp th . Vic chuyn sang c ch th trng to ra a mt khong trng v th ch duy tr s dng t bn vng trong nhng bi cnh m th ch s hu chung trc y khng hot ng hiu qu v c ch th trng mi cn cha pht trin. cp vn t do tip cn c l l c ch - nhn mnh rng s hu t nhn l mt cch gii quyt vn . Cu 4. Hai nh my gy nhim c th kim sot/x l nhim ca mt cht no c MAC nh sau: MAC1 = $300 10 E1 v MAC2 = $90 5 E1 Ga s mc nhim mc tiu l 30 n v. Chng ta khng bit c phi l mc hiu qu x hi hay khng. (a) Hy tnh mc thi ca mi nh my t hiu qu chi ph x hi.
27 (b) Gii thch h thng giy php thi c th chuyn nhng c th p dng nh th no t c mc thi mc tiu. Gi s khi bt u ngi qun l cp min ph 15 giy php cho mi ch th gy nhim. Tm s lng giy php m mi nh my gi khi th trng giy php hot ng, gi ca giy php, v tng chi ph t nhn ca h thng giy php. Chi ph t nhn ca mi nh my s thay i nh th no nu t u nh nc bn u gi giy php cho cc ch th gy nhim? Gii p: (a) Mc tiu l E1 +E2 = 30 n v (1). x l l hiu qu chi ph: MAC1 =MAC2 (2) T (1) & (2) ta c: E1 =24 v E2 =6 (b) Nu nh qun l cp 15 giy php cho mi nh my. MAC1 = MAC2 = gi giy php khi nh my 1 gi 24 giy php v nh my 2 gi 6 giy php. C ngha nh my 1 mua 9 giy php t nh my hai. Trc khi trao i: Sau khi trao i: TAC01 = [(30-15) x150]/2 = $1125 TAC02 = [(18-15) x15]/2 = $22.5 TAC11 = [(30-15) x60]/2 = $180 TAC12 = [(18-6) x60]/2 = $360 Chn (9) giy php c mua bn vi gi tr: 60 la x 9 = 540 la (gi s tt c cc giy php u bn gi cn bng). Chi ph c nhn tit kim c do trao i l: Nh my 1: TAC01 TAC11 chi ph mua giy php = 1125 180 540 = 405 la Nh my 2: TAC02 TAC12 + doanh thu giy php = 22.5 360 + 540 = 202.5 la Tng chi ph tit kim c nu lc u giy php c cp min ph l 607,5 la. Nu giy php c bn u gi, mi nh my b thit mt khon bng gi tr giy php c cp min ph ban u 900 la, tng chi ph ca c hai nh my tng thm 1800 la. Cu 5. Cng c chnh sch no trong s cc cng c: tiu chun ng b, tiu chun c nhn, thu thi, hoc giy php nhim c th chuyn nhng to khuyn khch ln nht i vi u t nghin cu pht trin h thp chi ph x l? Hy chng minh bng th. Gii p: TDPs (trong iu kin cnh tranh) v thu to khuyn khch ci tin ngang bng vi tiu chun c nhn. Xem s di y.
28
$/tn MAC (trc ci tin)
P* = t*
c d a
0 E2 E1
MAC (sau ci tin) Pht thi (tn)
Khi tiu chun c nhn t ti E1, nu nh my ci tin, tit kim ca nh my nh gim tng chi ph x l l din tch (a+b) a = b. Khi thu sut c nh l t*, n khin nh my x l n E2, tng chi ph x l l din tch (a+d) v tit kim c (c+d) v tin thu. Tit kim rng khi l (a+b) (a+d) + (c+d) = b+c. Vi h thng TDP, tng chi ph xa l ban u ca nh my l nh trng hp thu l (a+b). Nu nh my ci tin chi ph x l cn bin s thp hn so vi tr tin mua giy php cho tt c cc mc thi ln hn E2 v vy nh my bn (E1- E2) giy php. Tng chi ph x l mi TAC khi l (a+d) v doanh thu giy php l (c+d). Tit kim nh ci tin l (a+b) (a+d) + (c+d) = (c+b). Tit kim ging nh trng hp thu. Nu th trng giy php l khng cnh tranh hon ho tt c li ch c thm t trao i c thc hin, khi thu to nn li ch tng thm t ci tin ln hn so vi h thng TDP. V d, nh my l khch hng ln th trng giy php cho nn bn ht mt s lng ln giy php s lm cho gi giy php gim xung. Li ch tng thm nh ci tin s gim khi gi giy php gim. Cng nh vy, bn ht giy php c th gy tr ngi cho n lc ca nh my gi giy php lm ro cn s tham gia ca nhng nh my cng cnh tranh trn mt th trng hng ho. Cnh tranh tng ln c th nh hng li ch c thm c t ci tin bi v li nhun ca nh my gim do gi hng ho gim v gi u vo tng. Mt yu t khc c th tip tc lm gim khuyn khch ci tin khi p dng tiu chun l tim nng c quan qun l tng tnh nghim ngt ca tiu chun sau khi c ci tin.
CH 6: nh gi cng c chnh sch mi trng

Ngun: Field, Olewiler, v Forsdyke, 2002 Cu hi 1. Chnh sch da vo th trng khc chnh sch mnh lnh v kim sot nh th no trn phng din khuyn khch ch th gy nhim th hin/tit l thng tin v MAC cho nh qun l?
29 Gii p: Chnh sch da vo th trng khuyn khch ch th gy nhim th hin/tit l thng tin v MAC v c thng tin trong s phn ng ca ch th gy nhim i vi bt c mc thu no hoc gi giy php trn th trng. Tiu chun khng cung cp nhng thng tin nh vy bi v ch th gy nhim tun th ng tiu chun ch n gin p ng cc tiu chun thm ch ngay c khi tiu chun c quy nh sai, khng ng mc. Mc pht thi d bo l mc pht thi thc t. Khi p dng chnh sch da vo th trng, mc thi d bo da vo MAC c tnh. Nu pht thi c o sau khi p dng chnh sch cao hn mc mong i, ngi qun l bit rng MAC c tnh l qu thp v ngc li. Nu thu sut c th thay i, chnh ph c th d/tm ra v tr ca ng MAC (gi nh khng c hnh vi chin lc v pha ch th gy nhim). Vi giy php, th trng cui cng s th hin thng tin v ng MAC v gi c iu chnh theo d tha cu hoc cung. Cu hi 2. Ti sao hiu qu chi ph l mt mc tiu mong mun ca chnh sch mi trng? N c th t c nh th no? Gii p: Hiu qu chi ph l mt mc tiu ca chnh sch bi v n cho php x hi t c mc tiu mi trng vi mc tng chi ph thp nht c th c. iu quan trng l sinh vin phi nhn thy rng chnh sch khng hiu qu chi ph c th t c mc tiu nhim nhng ly i ngun lc c th s dng hiu qu hn ni khc. V d, nu ch th gy nhim s dng nhiu gp i mc cn thit t c tiu chun; iu ny s nh hng kh nng ca h trong vic sn xut hnh ho v dch v. Chng ta coi trng nhng hng ho dch v ny hoc nhng g khc khng c sn xut. Hiu qu chi ph t c khi ch ph x l cn bin l bng nhau cho tt c cc ch th gy nhim. y chnh l nguyn tc cn bng cn bin m chng ta nhn mnh nhiu ln. Cu hi 3. Ti sao thu nhim c nh hng km chc chn hn v mc nhim so vi tiu chun? Gii p: Ch th gy nhim cn bng thu vi MAC. Nu nh qun l khng bit v tr ca ng MAC, th khng th bit chnh xc lng thi s c thc hin. Vi tiu chun, nu ch th gy nhim tun th tiu chun, mc thi l chc chn. Cu hi 4. Gi s ngi qun l mi trng ca chnh ph c gn thit k cng c kim sot nhim cho mt cht gy nhim nc khng th thoi ho nh dioxin. Mc tiu ca anh/ch l gim ngay tc khc pht thi v khuyn khch nh my chuyn sang s dng nhng cng ngh sn xut thi t hn nhng hp cht ny. Chnh sch no trong ba chnh sch sau anh ch s xut, ti sao? Cc chnh sch l tiu chun ng b, thu ng b, hoc tiu chun c nhn. S dng th hoc i s h tr cu tr li.
30 Gii p: Cn tin v thi gian thit lp cc tiu chun c nhn t hiu qu chi ph, v vy gim nhim s khng din ra ngay tc th. Khi s dng tiu chun ng b, c th t c mc tiu tng th nhng n khng t hiu qu chi ph v cng khng hiu qu x hi. Tuy nhin, ng thit hi cn bin dng nh dc khi mc nhim tch lu cao. Trong nhng iu kin nh vy thit hi v thng d x hi c th l thp hn so vi thu bi v nh qun l khng th d bo x l thc t i vi thu. Mc du ngi qun l c th iu chnh thu sau ny (khi thng tin v ng MAC ca nh my c th hin/tit l), hu qu tc th ca thu l gy nn thit hi phc li ng k m khng th b p c bi nhng iu chnh v sau. iu ny l c bit ng do bn cht tch lu ca cht gy nhim. Mc du tiu chun c khuyn khch ci tin cao hn so vi thu, trong trng hp ny v cht gy nhim gy thit hi rt cao, c tranh lun mnh m cho l sai lm khi qu cn thn v p dng tiu chun qu kht khe ch trng vo cng ngh. V d, ngi qun l nh gi thp MAC v quy nh tiu chun qu kht khe v p dng thu qu thp. Khuyn khch ci tin ca tiu chun c th l cao hn so vi thu. Tiu chun khng ng b khuyn khch ci tin thp hn, bi v nh my c th tin tng chnh ph s iu chnh tiu chun sau khi ci tin. Vi tiu chun ng b, iu chnh mc kht khe ca tiu chun ph thuc vo ci tin ca nhiu nh my. S di y minh ho rng khuyn khch ci tin l cao hn trong trng hp tiu chun ng b so vi thu thi. Trong trng hp thu, chi ph tit kim c ca nh my nh ci tin l din tch c+f+d+g+h. Trong trng hp tiu chun, chi ph tit kim l a+b+c+d+f. V a+b>g+h, nh my c th tit kim nhiu hn trong trng hp tiu chun.
$/n v thi MAC (nh gi thp)
MAC thc t (trc ci tin ) a g b h ES e d c f E1t lng thi thu
MAC thc t (sau ci tin)
E2t
Cu 5. Gi s c hai ch th gy nhim vi ng MAC khc nhau. Hy ch r ngi qun l c th tng hp hai ng MAC v s dng chng nh th no xc nh mc thi cn bng hiu qu x hi, E*. Mt khi E* c xc nh, lm th no ngi qun l c th m bo chc chn rng tng lng thi t mi ch th gy nhim l E*? (gi : Tng hp cn phn nh nguyn tc cn bng cn bin).
31 Gii p: X l l vic c nhn ca cc nh my v vy MAC cn c tng theo chiu ngang. ng MAC tng sau c v trn cng th vi ng MD. im giao nhau ca hai ng cho bit mc thi hiu qu x hi. Gi tr ca MAC v MD ti im giao nhau l gi bng (shadow price) ca nhim. Khi s dng tiu chun c nhn, nh qun l cn xc nh MAC ca mi nh my v tnh ton khi lng thi MAC ca mi nh my bng gi bng v p dng tiu chun mc ny. Trong trng hp tiu chun ng b, nh qun l phn phi tng khi lng thi cho cc nh my theo mt s nguyn tc no . Trong trng hp thu, nh qun l t thu sut bng gi bng. Khi s dng h thng TDP, nh qun l phi phn phi giy php theo mc tiu v thit lp th trng giy php. Cu 6. So snh v i lp tnh hiu qu chi ph ca a) Thu thi sulphur dioxide b) Thu thi sulphur dioxide vi mc thu nh trng hp a) v tin thu thu c c s dng tr cp thit b thit k lm sch/hu sulphur t cht thi ca cc ngnh sn xut v cc nh my nng lng. Gii p: Cu hi ny lin quan n tnh ng n ca tranh lun c cc nh mi trng ng h rng doanh thu thu mi trng cn c dnh cho vic bo v mi trng hoc qu trnh lm sch mi trng. kin cho rng quyt nh v doanh thu v chi tiu cn c thc hin theo cc tiu ch khc nhau. Nu x triu la thu c t thu mi trng, khng c l g gi nh rng s dng s tin cho d n mi trng s em li t l sinh li cao nht t khon tin . Tt nhin, nu n em li t l sinh li cao nht, khi tin thu nn s dng theo cch . Nhng iu cn c thit lp trong mt tp hp nhng bi cnh ca quyt nh. Tuy nhin c tranh lun bin minh cho vic dnh ring nh vy. Mt s trong cc tranh lun ny quan tm n iu kin c th chp nhn mt thu mi; c l thc hin nh l mt phn ca cc mt gii php trn gi v mi trng l d hn. V c th c li th v quy m. Thng tin thu c t nghin cu, gim st, v thc hin thu mi trng l hu ch trong vic s dng doanh thu thu trong lnh vc . Tuy nhin, mi khi dnh ring thu nh vy tr nn qu hn ch, tim nng tn tht v hiu qu tr nn rt ln. V d, ngay khi vo thi im ny nu s dng my lc hi t l cch thc thn thin mi trng nht ca vic s dng thu mi trng (thm ch b qua nhng s dng khng lin quan n mi trng), nhng dng nh khng phi l cnh thc tt nht, hoc khng phi l tt nht trong mi bi cnh v cho tt c cc cp quy m. N khng phi l tt nht khuyn khch ch th gy nhim gim thi, hy h t chn phng php tit kim chi ph nht cho mnh.
32
BI 6: NH GI GI TR MI TRNG
CH 1: Ti sao nh gi gi tr mi trng v khi nim tng gi tr kinh t (Ngun: Perman, Ma, McGilvray, v Common. 2003) Cu 1: Tng tng mt vng t c din tch 200 dm Cng vin Cc Phng. Bn cho bit tng nhn t no sau y tc ng nh th no n sn lng chi tr ca con ngi cho vic bo tn cng vin? a. Phm vi vng hoang d vn thuc rng Cc Phng. b. Hin din ca loi qu him trong vng ny. c. Mc thnh vng ca quc gia. Gii p: a) Cc yu t khc gi nguyn, chng ta mong i con ngi nh gi cao hn vic bo tn vng t quan tm ny, khi tng tr lng ca vng hoang d Cc Phng cn li t hn. L do ni chung l do tha dng bin gim dn khi tiu dng thm thm bt k hng ha no , cho d s dng hay khng s dng. b) Cc yu t khc gi nguyn, vng hoang d cng him c hn dng c im vt cht hay cc ging loi lm cho vng thnh mi trng sng ca chng, cng khin cho con ngi sn lng tr cao hn bo tn. Mt cch hiu s khan him l dng qun th ca cc vng c th so snh vi nhau. Con ngi dng nh sn lng tr ln nht cho nhng vng c coi l c nht theo mt s cch hp l, v nu tht s l duy nht, vng s thit lp tng s qun th cn li. c) Cc yu t khc gi nguyn, khi ngi ta giu hn, th ngi ta cng sn lng chi tr nhiu hn cho tt c cc loi hng thng thng, bao gm hng ha mang li gi tr khng s dng c. y c th l l do ti sao cc hnh ng v mi trng xut hin mnh m hn nhng nc pht trin. Cu hi 2: Mt nh phn tch mong mun c tnh li ch ca vic bo tn mt vng t ngp nc kt hp thng tin thu thp c t 2 phng php. u tin, c y kho st nhng ngi i tham quan vng t ngp nc nhng ng dn, nhng ngi ngm chim, v.v. - xc nh sn lng tr ca h cho nhng li ch . Cch th hai, c ta tin hnh mt mu kho st nhng c dn khp tiu bang v WTP (sn lng chi tr) ca h cho vic bo tn vng m ly. Cuc kho st th hai tp trung duy nht vo gi tr khng s dng ca vng m ly. Sau , c kt hp c tnh cc li ch s dng v li ch khng s dng li vi nhau to ra c tnh tng gi tr cho s bo tn vng m ly. Cch tip cn ny c hp l khng? (Gi s nhng ngi gii p trong hai cuc kho st iu u khng chng cho nhau). Gii p:
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Tht nguy him khi tnh tng cc c tnh s a ra kt qu c tnh vt trn cho tng WTP. L do c mt vi ngi gii p phng vn t cuc kho st ton tiu bang c th cng l ngi s dng v ngi s dng tim nng. Nhng ngi tr li c th a ra WTP nh hn i vi vic khng s dng nu cu hi u tin t ra v WTP ca h dnh cho vic s dng. n gin l iu ng v mt l thuyt khi hi nhng ngi tr li trong cuc kho st khp tiu bang s tin WTP dnh cho vic s dng v khng s dng cng lc. Th nhng, cch tip cn ny c vn nu ch mt phn nh trong s nhng ngi tr li l nhng ngi s dng mu ca kho st c th mang li qu nhiu ph s dng khin cho cc gi tr s dng c tnh ng tin tng. Mt khc, vic c tnh cc gi tr khng s dng c th khc vi tng dn s theo nhng cch thc quan trng no ngi s dng c th gn gi hn vi vng ngp ncv cng sng gn hn. Cu hi 3: Tn tht cc loi gng thc vt hay ng vt c cn thit l mi quan tm kinh t khng? iu ny c ng khng i vi cc ging loi hin ang tn ti? Chng ta hin nay c ang chu ng hu qu ca tuyt ging loi sm khng? Gii p: Simon v Wildavsky (1993) tr li l khng, khng a ra cu tr li l ng ngay cu hi u tin, v cng khng c vn g vi cu tr li khng: u tin l da trn s xem xt cc yu t u vo trc tip duy nht cho qu trnh sn xut (ngun ti nguyn thin nhin) v tiu dng (dch v tin nghi), l i vai tr ca a dng sinh hc trong chc nng ca h thng sinh thi, v mt phn dch v h tr s sng, v cng l i vai tr ca a dng di truyn hc trong vic hnh thnh nn tng cho tin ha tng lai. Vi cu tr li khng th hai, cc tc gi tranh ci rng trong khi c th c mt vi ging loi m s tuyt ging gy tn tht nhng th vui con ngi: iu ny khng th ng cho tt c cc ging loi. Cc nh sinh thi, thc te, tha nhn tng lai ca h sinh thi s c th c mt vi ging loi khng cn thit na. Vn l khng bit l ging loi no, v trong trng hp no. H cng tranh ci v iu gi nh l cc hnh ng ca con ngi gy ra s tuyt chng ca bt k ging loi no l c th trnh c. Cng lc , hu ht nhng ging loi khng d tha hay ging loi chnh hoc khng l yu t u vo trc tip ca qui trnh sn xut hoc khng c c nhn quan tm nhiu - ngi tiu dng thin nhin iu ny c ngha l cc bi kim tra s sn lng chi tr khng cung cp cho ging loi s bo v nhiu. Lin quan cu hi thc 3, cc nh sinh thi tranh lut l c nhiu v d v s tuyt chng ging loi mang li s thit hi khng thc cho li ch con ngi, v khng tn tht no l ng k v ko di. Tt nhin, thm ch l ng s tht, iu ny khng a ra s m bo rng s tuyt chng tng lai s khng lm thit hi li ch con ngi. Cu hi 4: Nu th trng gn gi tr cho nhng ci cy c xem l ti nguyn bo tn thp hn so vi cy l ngun cung cp g xy dng, do vy, nhng ci cy ny b n xung lm g?. Cho bit nhn xt?
34 Nu chng ta ch quan tm n cc cu hi v hiu qu, th li ni trn s c gi tr trong th trng cnh tranh hon ho ni m tt c ti nguyn v dch v ti nguyn, v tt c tiu dng v sn xut hng ha u ra c trao i mua bn thng qua th trng mc gi mang li hiu qu x hi. Tuy nhin, cc iu kin ny thc t khng p ng c (v d, c nhiu sn phm ca rng kt hp nhau nh l mi trng sng hoang d v lng carbon c nh khng th trao i mua bn v nh gi thng qua th trng) do vy li ni trn nhn chung khng c gi tr. CH 2: Tng quan v cc phng php nh gi v cc bc trong nh gi Cu hi 1: K thut nh gi no bn s dng o lng gi tr bo tn rng nc nhit i? Ti sao? Gii p: Mt vn tranh ci trong vic tr li cu hi l gi tr cho ai? Liu n ch dnh cho dn c a phng hay cho dn s c nc. Nu ch dnh cho dn c a phng, th nhiu gi tr u l gi tr s dng v n c th l rt nh, nh vy li ch rng c th l s m. Nu bao gm c gi tr dnh cho nhng ngi xa hin trng d n, th iu ny c ngha l bao gm c gi tr khng s dng. Trong trng hp ny, bn phi s dng mt vi k thut ph thuc vo ci m bn s o lng. i vi gi tr khng s dng, k thut s thch ni r nh l k thut nh gi ngu nhin c th s dng. i vi gi tr s dng, bn c th dng kt hp c cch tip cn da trn th trng v cch tip cn s thch phi by nh l chi ph du hnh, o lng gi tr s dng c tnh gii tr. Cu hi 2: Tho lun nhng tranh ci ng h hay chng i s loi b, hay khu tr ca chi ph bo tn hay bo v mi trng ra khi GDP. Xc nhc cc thnh phn khc trong GDP c th b loi b ra vi l do tng t. Gii p: Tranh lun tiu biu cho vn chi ph khng phi l phc li gia tng nhng c xem l b p hay bin php cu cha, nhng thay i ngc li s gim phc li. Cc tranh ci chng i s l nhng kh khn cho vic xc nh chi ph bo v mi trng mt cch chnh xc, v c nhiu dng chi ph khc hin nay c tnh vo trong GDP cng l chi ph bo v vic chp nhn trng hp loi b chi ph bo v mi trng c th t ra cc cu hi c bn v s nhn thc phc li ca cc bin php GDP, v v tng trng kinh t cng nh gia tng phc li. Cu hi 3: Cho trc nhng vn nh gi hin hu trong qu trnh nh gi nhiu dng thit hi hay thoi ha mi trng, tt hn l n lc tp trung vo pht trin h thng hch ton mi trng vt cht ton din, hn l n lc kt hp chi ph v li ch mi trng trong h thng qui c ca hch ton quc gia?
35 Gii p: y l vn thuc v phn xt. mc no v dnh cho mc ch no , ti khon thu nhp quc gia c iu chnh theo mi trng sao cho hu ch, cho d nhng iu chnh l c khng cn thit v khng chnh xc khng? Cng nn ghi nhn rng cc ti khon vt cht l mt u vo cn thit thc hin vic nh gi, vic iu chnh ti khon thu nhp quc gia i hi ti khon vt cht, v theo kha cnh , s la chn t ra trong cu hi l khng c tht. CH 3: Cc k thut da trn th trng Cu hi 1: Ti sao tng chi ph ca mt hng ha khng i din cho li ch rng t vic mua hng ha ? Ti sao gia tng hng ha u ra l do bi mc nhim thp hn v hu nh l c tnh vt qu ca li ch? Gii p: Tng chi ph mt mt hng l chi ph ngi tiu dng tr nhng l li ch ngi sn xut nhn c. chnh v vy, i vi ton th x hi, li ch ny b hy b. Trong trng hp mt ngi tiu dng khng b chi ph cho mt mt hng no , gi s chi ph li dnh cho mt s hng ha khc v v th m li ch rng t mt hng ha l tng chi ph rng m ngi tiu dng sn lng chi tr. Gia tng trong xut lng do mc nhim thp hn chnh l li ch c tnh trn v h khng quan tm ti chi ph ca xut lng gia tng. o lng chnh xc l s thay i trong thng d ca nh sn xut. Cu hi 2: Mt loi chi ph x hi ca vic bo tn nhng khu rng t nhin l thit hi trong xut lng g sau khi c s bo tn. Bng cch no o lng tn tht nyM? Gii p: Tn tht ny c th c o lng bng s gim i trong thu nhp t vic n cy, c th gii quyt theo 2 cch sau y: - Thit hi trong thu nhp do thu hoch t rng tht bt. - Thit hi thu nhp do thu hoch t rng tht bt v tip theo vic ti trng rng v thu hoch t rng sau . Bao gm c chi ph tht nghip do ngn cm n cy c th m rng khi nim tn tht sn xut. Cu hi 3: Gi s chnh ph mun cng b chin dch kim sot lng oxide sulphur. V l thuyt, chng minh k thut thay i thu nhp c th c s dng nh th no c tnh li ch cho sc khe t chnh sch. Gii p:
36 Trc ht, tc ng ln s tp trung sulphur oxide ca mt vi chin lc phc v qun l nhim nn c d on v mi quan h tuyn tnh s gi s c gia lng sulphure oxide gim v s ngy lm vic gia tng. Lng tng do kim sot nhim gia tng s c tnh ton t d on s ngy lm vic tng ln. Li ch ca vic kim sot nhim c xc nh bng tin lng gia tng. CH 4: Phng php chi ph du hnh Cu hi 1: Phng php chi ph du hnh c l mt k thut tt cho vic nh gi mt chnh sch gia tng che ph san h Hn Mun MPA khng? Bo v cu tr li ca bn. Gii p: Mc ch trc tin ca vic ci thin lp ph san h l duy tr s a dng sinh vt. Phng php chi ph du hnh hu nh c lng di gi tr ca 1 chnh sch ci thin lp ph san h gia tng s a dng sinh hc. Trc ht, con ngi nhnh chung thc ngho nn v li ch ca a dng sinh hc (ton vn h sinh thi). Thm ch cc nh khoa hc khng ng v mc mau phc hi h sinh thi i vi thit hi ging loi. Nhng ngi xem c c th tr tin thm du hnh tham quan s a dng c ln hn v v th chi ph du hnh c tnh c th cung cp cho chng ra nhng c lng mt phn nh trong dn s nh gi s a dng sinh vt . Nhng ngi khc c th du hnh cc yu t khc nh l bi li hay n hi sn. Tht kh kim sot ht cc yu t. Nhn chung, con ngi c th c kh nng xc nh cch nhn v tng lng a dng sinh vt cao hn v v th h s khng mong i s sn sng chi tr cho vic du hnh tham quan thm. Nhiu li ch ca a dng sinh vt khng p dng gi tr s dng nhng tng lai s dng v v vy c tnh chi ph du hnh s sn lng chi tr cho vic s dng s thp dn. Cu hi 2: iu g xy ra vi ITCM khi a danh gii tr khng ph bin ( cng su vng xa, cc sn phm gii tr xa l? Gii p: bin ph thuc c th khng bin thin m hnh hi qui khng th gii thch tt cc bin ph thuc. ITCM thng l la chn hp l cho cc a danh t nhin v cc cng vin ta lc gn khu vc dn c (tn s tham quan ca mt c nhn l cao v thay i). Cu hi 3: Bn c th ngh cch gii quyt cho vn tham quan a mc ch khng? Gii p C 2 cch: (1) hi nhng ngi tham quan s a danh h tham quan v k hoch tham quan trong chuyn i ny v sau phn b gi tr cho a danh nghin cu theo t l ca n; (2) da trn s ngy h lp k hoch chi tiu cho cc a danh ca h. Sau s dng t l.
37 Bi tp: Bi tp 1: Ph vo cng Rng quc gia Cc Phng l 10 la/ngi cho mt ngy tham quan. Nu hng ngy ng cu gii tr ti cng vin cho trc l Q = 40 1/2P, th thng d tiu dng ca khch tham quan n cng vin s l 1225 la /ngy. ng hay sai? Gii thch cu tr li. Bi gii: ng. Bng cch tnh ng cu o ngc (P = 80 - 2Q) v ly din tch vng tam gic di ng cu v trn ng P =10, bn c th xc nhn rng thng d ngi tiu dng qu tht l 1225 la/ngy. Nu bn v ng mt bc tranh nhng trnh by cch tnh ton sai, bn mt i 6 im. Lu rng ng cung khng thch hp cho mc ch tnh thng d tiu dng ngi tiu dng trong trng hp ny ch n gin i mt vi gi c chnh ph n nh, c th hay khng th phn nh chi ph cung ng cc dch v cng vin. Bi tp 2: Cho bn s liu kho st sau y v nhng ngi i b ng di trn ng mn Bruce (Bruce Trail) on ng Chi ph Dn s (n v S ngy T l Chi ph i (km) du hnh ($) 1000) chy b tham quan du hnh 0-50 25.000 500 20.000 51-100 50.000 2500 75.000 101-150 75.000 5000 100.000 151-200 100.000 3000 30.000 (a) V th ng cu chy b trn Bruce Trail (b) Vit v v phng trnh ng thng t d liu bn c. (c) Tnh tng li ch t chuyn i Bruce Trail bng thng tin c dn ca cc vng bo co. (d) Gi thit ngi xa Bruce Trail c thm ng chy thay th gn . iu ny lm sai lch tng li ch c tnh ca Bruce Trail nh th no? Bi gii: Tnh tng li ch ca ng Bruce i vi c dn cc vng on ng i Giao im gia Chi ph du hnh Thng d tiu dng (km) ng cu v ($) (CS/1000) ($) trc tung 0-50 125 25.000 2.000 51-100 125 50.000 1.125 101-150 125 75.000 500 151-200 125 100.000 125 125,000 0 Total CS = Tng CS ($) 1.000.000 2.812.500 2.500.000 375.000 0 6.687.500
38 Nu ngi s dng on ng c thm ng thay th, lng cu ca h mc gi cao s thp hn lng cu mc gi thp. Giao im gia ng cu v trc tung s b c lng thp hn mc thc t. Li ch ca c dn gn s b c lng thp hn mc thc t. CH 5: Phng php gi c hng th Cu hi 1: Mt cng nhn tiu biu cho mi kha cnh, lm vic vi tin lng 40.000$ mt nm trong cho mt ch lm hon ton an ton. Mt cng nhn in hnh khc lm mt cng vic i hi cng nhng k nng tng t, nhng mt ch lm y ri ro c th dn n ci cht xc sut 1 trong 1000 ngi hng nm, v nhn mc lng 44.000$ mt nm. Gi tr ca i ngi ca cc cng nhn vi nhng c im ny l bao nhiu nn dng phn tch chi ph -li ch. Gii p : Cc cng nhn i hi 4.000$ chp nhn ri ro t vong vi xc sut 0.001. Gi tr i ngi p ch bng con s 4.000$/0,001 = 4.000.000$. Bi tp 1: Chi ph ting n. Gi s mi ngi s hu cc cn h ging nhau gn sn bay. Nu mt tuyn ng bng mi c xy dng, cc cn h trong vng A s hng gi tr li ch v h cm thy yn tnh hn. Nhng cc cn h vng B, nm di ng bay mi, mt i gi tr v h cm thy n o hn. Bng s liu di y cung cp s cn h v nhng thay i trong gi tr mi vng. Hon tt cc ct bng tay tnh ton nhng thay i trong gi tr vng. Cc cn h S cn h Thay i (gi Gi tr 1000 la tr tin $) Trc Sau A Yn tnh hn 250 280 10.000 ? B n o hn 250 210 5.000 ? a. Li ch, chi ph v li ch rng t nhng thay i l bao nhiu ? b. n gin, gi thit nhng thay i trong ting n l ngun li ch hay chi ph duy nht. ng bng mi v ci thin Pareto thc t theo nhng iu kin no? Mt ci thin Pareto tim nng ? S h Thay i $m Gi tr $000 Trc Sau A Yn tnh hn 250 280 10.000 +300 B n o hn 250 210 5.000 200 a. Li ch, chi ph v li ch rng ln lt l $300m, $200m, v $100m. b. ng bng mi l s ci thin Pareto thc t nu ngi hng li (A) b p cho ngi tn tht (B). l ci thin Pareto tim nng nu ngi hng li khng n b cho ngi tn tht.
Gii p : Cc cn h
39 Bi tp 2: Li ch ca ng dn nc. Li ch lp t mt ng dn nc mi n nng tri s nm trong gi c thm vo m ngi mua s tr cho nng tri c ng ng dn nc. Mt s nng tri huyn c sn ng dn nc v mt s nng tri th khng c. Mt cuc kho st v phn tch nhng nng tri ny cho kt qu mt m hnh hng th sau y lin quan n gi c tr cho nhng c im ca cc nng tri. Gi tr khu t = 500 + 200 SCHEME 0.2 AREA + 1.8 RAIN Trong : kch thc trung bnh ti sn (AREA) huyn l 1.000 ha v lng nc trung bnh (RAIN) l 150 mm, v gi tr khu t l la /ha. SCHEME c nh ngha l 1 nu c chng trnh ng dn nc, v 0 = khng c ng dn nc. Tnh li ch ca chng trnh vi gi c hng th, bng qui trnh sau y. a. a gi tr trung bnh ca AREA v RAIN vo phng trnh, v din t li n nh sau: Gi tr khu t = Hng s + 200 SCHEME b. Tnh ton gi tr khu t trn 1 ha khi c v khng c chng trnh. Gi tr tng ln ca mi ha l bao nhiu, vi chng trnh ng dn nc? c. Tnh s gia tng trong gi tr mi ti sn, vi chng trnh ng dn nc. Gii p: Li ch tnh nh sau: a. M hnh: Gi tr khu t = 500 + 200 SCHEME -0,2(1000) + 1,8(150) = 500 + 200 SCHEME 200 + 270 = 570 + 200 SCHEME b. Khng c chng trnh: gi tr khu t trn mt ha = 570 + 200*0 = $570 C chng trnh: gi tr khu t trn mt ha = 570 + 200*1 = $770 Tng gi tr cho mi ha c chng trnh l $200 c. Tng gi tr ti sn = tng gi tr cho mi ha t x 1000 = 200 x 1000 = $200.000 CH 6: Phng php nh gi Ngu nhin (CVM) Cau 1. Gia s ta can c lng ng cau t bang cau hoi CVM c minh hoa chng nay. Hay ch ra bang o th va giai thch cac ng cau nay dung e o lng WTP cho viec cai thien chat lng khong kh nh the nao oi vi moi kch ban. Tra li: oi vi chnh sach 1, nghien cu vien ghi nhan so lng ngi tra li cau hoi cho moi mc gia. V du vi c mau la 1500, gia s ta chia cac cau tra li nh sau. WTP ($) So ngi tra li Tong so ngi san long tra 0 200 1500
40 5 10 20 30 50 >50 500 300 200 150 100 50 1300 800 500 300 150 50
Cot cuoi cung minh hoa tong so ngi trong t khao sat san long tra mc gia cot ben trai. Gia tr c lng ma tong so ngi san long tra mot mc gia Vancouver c tnh bang cach nhan moi so cot 3 vi dan so va chia cho so ngi tra li trong t khao sat. c lng ng cau c xay dng bang cach ve WTP (gia) theo tong so ngi Vancouver san long tra mc gia o. oi vi chnh sach 2, em so ngi tra li co va khong cho moi mc gia. So cau tra li co chia cho tong so ngi c hoi oi vi mot mc gia nhat nh cho gia tr c lng ty le ngi san long tra mc gia nay. Nhan ty le nay vi dan so Vancouver e co tong so ngi san long tra mc gia nay (gia tr c lng oi vi mot iem tren ng cau). Lap lai tng t cho tat ca cac mc gia. Sau o co the ve ng cau t cac so lieu nay. Cau hoi 2. Hay nhan xet v du anh gia ngau nhien trong chng nay. Cac loai c lng chech ma ngi phan tch co the gap phai la g? Co phai kch ban qua gia nh khong? Lieu nhng ngi tra li co ong c g e the hien sai lech s thch cua mnh hay khong? Tra li: Kch ban a ra cac thong tin ve s tac hai cua khoi mac du khong e cap g en li ch cua khoi. Nh the co the co ly le cho rang kch ban c dng len e a ngi ta en viec tra tien e gay o nhiem. Mat khac, phat bieu rang cac nha khoa hoc khong biet lng khoi toi thieu an toan cho moi ngi la bao nhieu co the lam giam tam quan trong cua van e phat thai khoi xe oto. Co the a them thong tin so trng hp chet yeu moi nam. Ngoai ra, kch ban cung khong e cap en s nong len cua trai at va v the noi chung kch ban a khong trnh bay het moi kha canh cua van e nen co the lam cho ngi ta a ra WTP thap hn so vi trng hp neu thong tin c cung cap ay u. Ngi nghien cu thng da vao quan iem ao c rang ngi s dung nen tra tien cho viec gay o nhiem. Ngi tra li trong t khao sat co le ngh rang trong tng lai se thc hien thu ph hay thue xe co. Ho cung co the ngh en trng hp nhom ngi nao se chu gan nh toan bo tien thue. Trong trng hp thu ph, ngi s dung cau hang ngay co ong c e suy ra gia san long tra cua mnh, trong khi o nhng ngi khong s dung cau co the se noi qua mc gia san long tra. Vi thue xe co, nhng ngi
41 co xe o to hang nang co ong c noi thap gia san long tra so vi nhng ngi khong co xe hoac co xe o to hang nhe. Ca hai chnh sach co the a en ket qua la gia at cao hn ni gan trung tam thanh pho (va nhng vung nh Burnaby, ni co the i bo hang ngay khong can qua cau) nen ngi s hu tai san trung tam thanh pho co the co li ch. Khao sat co the yeu cau ngi ta ien thong tin ve ni c ngu va ni lam viec (chnh sach 2) va tnh trang s hu xe (chnh sach 1). Tuy nhien, ngi ta co the ngh nhng thong tin dang nay nham e kiem tra cau tra li co trung thc hay khong va do o co the tra li khong ung. Mot cach gian tiep hn la hoi thu nhap cua ho (cach nay co the gian tiep cho thong tin ve tnh trang s hu xe). Chung ta co le cung muon biet thong tin lieu ho co ngh van e moi trng nghiem trong hay khong. Mot so ngi tham gia giao thong co the khong s dung cau va do o chung ta phai tm cach nhan ra nhng oi tng nay. Nhieu ngi co the khong biet trong lng cua mot chiec xe hoac mot chiec xe the thao ac thu (xe SUV). a them thong tin ve trong lng tieu bieu cua mot xe oto hay xe SUV co the co ch, neu khong co the ngi ta khong biet da vao au e tra li. Cuoi cung, thc hien khao sat lau hn co the ngan can ngi ta lam thien lech mau khao sat hng ve nhng ngi quan tam nhieu en van e moi trng. Cau hoi 3. Xay dng ap nc e cung cap ien co the gay thiet hai cho hai dong suoi: mot hien c s dung cho hoat ong cau ca giai tr va mot khong ho tr g cho hoat ong cau ca ca nhng la mot phan cua vung at hoang da. a) Gia s s dung phng phap anh gia ngau nhien e c lng chi ph xa hoi cua thiet hai moi dong suoi. Ban co tin hai gia tr c lng la nh nhau khong? b) Xem xet hai cach at cac cau hoi anh gia ngau nhien ve gia tr cua cac dong suoi. Cach th nhat muon suy ra gia ngi ta muon c en bu e t bo viec s dung dong suoi. Cach th hai muon suy ra gia ngi ta san long tra e tiep tuc s dung dong suoi. Theo ban nen s dung cach nao? Tra li: a. Cac nghien cu CV cho hang hoa s dung (used goods) noi chung dng nh phu hp vi phng phap da vao hanh vi quan sat c. Ngi ta cha the kiem chng gia tr cua mot nghien cu CV cho hang hoa khong s dung (non-used goods) bang cach so sanh vi phng phap da vao hanh vi bi v cac phng phap da vao hanh vi khong ap dung c oi vi cac hang hoa khong s dung. Hn na, chung ac biet de dan en nhieu loai c lng chech trong phng phap anh gia ngau nhien. Cuoi cung, ngi nghien cu co the t tin hn ve cac anh gia gia tr s dung hn gia tr khong s dung. Trong tnh huong nay, ngi nghien cu co the tin
42 tng gia tr c lng bang CV oi vi hoat ong cau ca giai tr cua dong suoi th nhat hn la gia tr c lng bang CV oi vi gia tr ton tai cua ca hai dong suoi. b. Neu co the c lng WTA hoac WTP bang cac phng phap CV vi cung mc o tin cay, th cach th nhat co the thch hp nhat bi v no hoan toan tng ng vi d an ang xem xet. Tuy nhien, hau het cac chuyen gia tin rang cac gia tr c lng WTP ang tin cay hn cac gia tr c lng WTA nen ngi ta luon luon s dung WTP, tham ch trong trng hp tng t nay du dung WTA co ve thch hp hn.
BI 7: PHN TCH LI CH CHI PH: CNG C QUN L TI NGUYN/MI TRNG

Cu hi 1. Sut chit khu thp th tt hay xu cho mi trng? Ti sao?. Tr li: Cc sut chit khu thp t trng s nhiu hn cho tng lai, v th cc chi ph hin ti c trng s t hn. iu ny c th ph hp vi vn vic bo v mi trng. V d, mt khon u t hm nay chi ra hng triu la cho mt n lc ngn nga thm ha nm 2050 c th c mt gi tr cao hn vi sut chit khu thp hn. V th s dng sutt chit khu thp hn c ngha l cc d n u t vi c im c cc khon chi tiu vn hin ti ln s c hin gi cao hn vi sut chit khu thp hn. Tuy nhin, nu nhng loi d n nh th ny cng c cc tc ng bt li ng k cho mi trng (nh cc p ln); gim sut chit khu c th gp phn lm cho mc suy thoi mi trng cao hn. y l qui m v thi gian ca cc chi ph v mi quan h gia d n v cht lng mi trng. La chn sut chit khu l mt vn rt phc tp, xem xt trng s tng i cc th h hin ti v tng lai, t sut u tin thi gian, chnh sch chnh ph, cc bin dng trong nn kinh t, v cn nhiu vn na. Vn chnh yu y l phi bit rng cc mc chit khu thp bn thn n khng nht thit tt cho mi trng. Cu hi 2. Gi s chnh quyn thnh ph ang c gng tm cch gii quyt vn nhim do thuc tr su i vi ngun cung cp nc cho thnh ph. Chnh quyn thnh ph mun tin hnh mt phn tch li ch chi ph vi hai phng n kim sot thuc tr su khc nhau: Nng cp nh my x l nc thi th loi b thuc tr su, hoc Cm s dng thuc tr su trong phm vi thnh ph.
Gi s cch no cng gim thuc tr su n mt mc khng nh hng bt li sc khe con ngi. Chi ph ca cc phng n kim sot ny nh sau:
43 Nng cp nh my x l nc thi th: Chi ph vn = $20 triu. Nh my mi c xy dng trong nm th nht v bt u hot ng vo cui nm (th nht) ny. Khi nh my bt u hot ng, chi ph hot ng l $1 triu mt nm. Thi gian hot ng ca nh my ko di 5 nm, v sau phi c thay bng mt nh my mi. Cm dng thuc tr su: Chi ph hot ng hng nm do thay th cc phng php khng c hi kim sot su bnh l $3.5 triu mi nm.
Cho sut chit khu l 5%, v thi gian thc hin k hoch ca thnh ph l 10 nm. Gi s NPV ca li ch ca d n l $40 triu. Chnh quyn thnh ph nn chn phng n no? By gi gi s mi phng n x l c cc li ch khc nhau. C th, hin gi vn l $40 triu i vi phng n cm dng thuc tr su, nhng c th c cc li ch tng thm di dng t thit hi hn i vi h sinh thi so vi phng n nng cp nh my x l nc thi. Mc chnh lch cc li ch tng thm ny phi l bao nhiu mi nm chnh quyn thnh ph bng quan gia phng n nng cp nh my x l nc thi v phng n cm dng thuc tr su? Tr li: Tt c cc con s tnh theo triu la. Hin gi (PV) c tnh bng cch chia gi tr hin hnh (CV) cho (1 + r) t, y t l thi gian v r l li sut. Chi ph nng cp nh my x l cht thi th: 0 CV chi ph hot ng PV chi ph hot ng CV chi ph vn PV chi ph vn
20 20
1
1 0.95
2
1 0.91
3
1 0.86
4
1 0.82
5
1 0.78 20 15.7
6
1 0.75
7
1 0.71
8
1 0.68
9
1 0.65
Tng chi ph
9 7.11 40 35.67
PV (chi ph hot ng) = 1 triu (1-1/(1 + r)9)/r=7.11 PV (li ch rng) = PV (li ch) PV (chi ph) = 40 42.78 = -2.78 (triu) Chi ph cm dng thuc tr su 0 CV chi ph hot ng PV chi ph hot 3.5 3.5 1 3.5 3.3 2 3.5 3.2 3 3.5 3.0 4 3.5 2.9 5 3.5 2.7 6 3.5 2.6 7 3.5 2.5 8 3.5 2.4 9 3.5 2.3 Tng chi ph 35.0 28.4
44 ng PV (chi ph hot ng) = 3.5 triu (1-1/(1 + r)10)(1 + r)/r PV (li ch rng) = 40 28.38 = 11.62 (triu) Cm dng thuc tr su c hin gi cao hn. Nu nng cp nh my x l nc thi th cho hin gi li ch cao hn trong khi cm dng thuc tr su vn cho hin gi li ch l $40 (triu), bng quan gia cc d n, th PV ca li ch rng phi bng nhau gia cc d n. Hin gi ca li ch rng i vi phng n nng cp nh my x l nc thi th phi l $54.40 (triu). Cu hi 3. B giao thng (MOT) ang xem xt liu c nn u t vo mt ng hm mi qua ni ( y hin c mt con ng qua ni) hay khng. MOT chi $3 triu (theo gi nm 2000) cho vic nghin cu kh thi v nhn thy rng ng hm mi c th gim thi gian lu thng cho gn 200,000 ngi. Mt phn tch gn y ch ra rng ng hm c th tit kim khong 33 gi i li hng nm cho mt ngi. Mt nghin cu tin hnh nm 1992 cho thy nhng ngi i li hng ngy nh gi gi tr thi gian ca h khong $11 mt gi (theo gi nm 1990). Bn c th gi s gi tr thc ca thi gian i li khng i. ng hm c th tn chi ph xy dng $1 t (theo gi nm 2000) v mt 6 nm mi hon thnh. Mt khi d n hon thnh, chi ph vn hnh v bo tr ng hm l $25 triu mt nm (theo gi nm 2000). Chi ph thc c tin rng s khng i theo thi gian. MOT ng ti tr chi ph xy dng ban u, nhng chi ph vn hnh v bo tr phi c hon tr bng tin thu ph. 1. i vi mi quan im, nhn dng mi mc trong bng s c tnh l li ch (B), chi ph (C) hay khng (NC) trong vic xc nh li ch rng ca d n. MOT Ngi s dng ng hm X hi Nghin cu kh thi NC NC NC Tit kim thi gian NC B B Chi ph xy dng C NC C Chi ph vn hnh v bo tr C NC C Tr cp B NC or C* NC Tin thu ph B C NC * Bn c th lp lun rng ngi s dng ng hm c th s tr khon tr cp thng qua thu cao hn. 2. Mt s n gin ha trong phn tch gii hn chnh xc ca vic nh gi l g? + Gi tr thc ca thi gian i li c th tng hoc gim theo thi gian. + S lng ngi s dng ng hm c th tng hoc gim theo thi gian. + Chi ph thc ca vic vn hnh v bo tr c th tng hoc gim theo thi gian. 3. Cc li ch v chi ph c th c khc m chng ta nn xem xt trong nh gi li ch rng l g? + M ng hm c th thu ht nhiu ngi i li bng ng hm thay v i bng cc phng tin giao thng khc lm gim kt xe trn cc ng cao tc, gim nhim khng kh, + Chi ph hiu qu do tng thu tr cp xy ng hm mi.
45 + Chi ph thi gian i vi nhng ngi i li hng ngy do tr hon trong sut thi gian xy ng hm. 4. Theo quan im x hi, hin gi ca chi ph ca d n theo gi nm 2000 l bao nhiu nu vng i d n l 30 nm v sut chit khu hng nm l 3%? S dng tha s chit khu dng tin u tnh ton cu tr li ca bn v gi s cc khon thanh ton c tnh u mi giai on. PV ca chi ph vn hnh v bo tr u nm 7/cui nm 6 tnh bng triu la theo gi nm 2000: c tha s chit khu dng tin u ca khon tr trc cho 24 nm, chng ta s dng gi tr ca tha s chit khu dng tiu u cho khon tin cho 23 nm vi sut chit khu 3%, 16.4436, v cng 1:
PV ( 25 )(17.4436 ) 436.09 = E
436.09 365 1.036
1 (1+ r ) r
1n
+ 1
PV ca chi ph vn hnh v bo tr u nm 1 (triu la theo gi nm 2000):

PV
PV ca chi ph xy dng u nm 1 (theo gi nm 2000): $1 t Tng chi ph theo gi nm 2000: $1.365 t 5. Theo quan im x hi, hin gi ca li ch ca d n theo gi nm 2000 l bao nhiu nu vng i d n l 30 nm v sut chit khu l 3%? (Lu : S dng CPI trong phn ghi ch bi ging). Li s dng tha s chit khu dng tin u tnh ton cu tr li ca bn nhng n gin, gi nh rng cc li ch pht sinh tnh cui nm. Gi tr thi gian mt ngi theo gi nm 2000:
2000 172.8 V2000 = V1990 CPI CPI1990 = 11 130.7 14.54
Li ch hng nm nh tit kim thi gian theo gi nm 2000:
( $14.54
hour
)( 33 hours commuter ) ( 200,000 commuters year ) $95.96million
PV ca li ch tit kim thi gian tnh bng triu la theo gi nm 2000 u nm 7/cui nm 6: V chng ta gi nh cc li ch pht sinh tnh vo thi im cui giai on, nn chng ta s dng gi tr ca tha s chit khu dng tin u cho 24 nm vi sut chit khu l 3%, 16.9355 . PV 95.96 16.9355 1, 625.2 = E
1 (1+ r ) r
n
46 PV ca li ch tit kim thi gian tnh theo triu la theo gi nm 2000 thi im bt u nm 1: PV 1, 625.2 1,361 1.036
Tng li ch tnh theo gi nm 2000: $1.361 billion 6. Hin gi ca li ch rng theo gi nm 2000 l bao nhiu? Li ch rng = PV li ch PV chi ph = $1.361 t - $1.365 t = - $4 triu
BI 8: KINH T TI NGUYN THIN NHIN CH 1: Gii thiu v li ch ca ti nguyn thin nhin, quyn ti sn, t, v
gi tr ca t Cu hi 1: Gi s anh/ch d nh mua mt m vng. Chi ph hng nm xy dng m l 1 triu trong ba nm, c th khai thc vng vo nm th 4. Mi nm hot ng thu nhp rng (tng doanh thu tr tng chi ph) l 800.000 la. Anh/ch s tr gi bao nhiu cho m vng nu: a) Mc chit khu l 10% v vng c th khai thc trong vng 10 nm? b) Mc chit khu l 5% v c th khai thc vng trong vng 6 nm? Gii p:
a) 3 - $1.000.000 13 $800.000 NPV = ------------------ + -------------= $1.206.351 i=1 (1+0,10)i i=4 (1+0,10)i b) 3 - $1.000.000 9 $800.000 NPV = ------------------ + -------------- = $784.411 i=1 (1+0,05)i i=4 (1+0,05)i
Cu hi 2: C phi ti nguyn thin nhin khng ti to c ngy cng c thay th bi cc u vo sn xut khc? Nhng n v s dng cc ti nguyn c hiu qu l g? Co gin thay th gia ti nguyn khng ti to c v cc u vo khc s a) cao hn hay b) thp hn? Gii p:
47
a ra kt lun n gin v phn u ca cu hi ny l rt kh. Pht trin cng ngh c th lm tng kh nng thay th gia cc ti nguyn cho nhau; hn th na tin b cng ngh dn n mt s ti nguyn thin nhin khng th ti to c c th c thay th bi cc u vo sn xut khc. V d, tnh ton v cc dch v s l thng tin tr nn rt chi li trong vic s dng u vo vt cht v nng lng. Hiu qu k thut tng thm lm gim u vo nhin liu cn thit cho mt lng nht nh u ra dng nng lng hu ch hoc nhit lng. Tuy nhin, theo lut nhit ng hc th c nhng gii hn; qu trnh sn xut v tiu dng nht thit phi da vo vt cht.
Nu kh nng thay th ti nguyn vi cc u vo khc tng ln, iu ny dng nh to kh nng tng thm li ch rng x hi. Kh nng thay th cng cao, th mc thay i gi dn n phn phi li ti nguyn cng nh. V vy qu trnh iu chnh s thng sut hn, v t c kh nng dn n nhng thay i ln v gi c, nhng thay i ny kh c th t c khi tnh linh hot ca gi c v tin cng l khng hon ho
Cu hi 3. Gi s mt th gii ch c hai thi k/giai on. K hiu c nhn thi k 1 l th h 1 v c nhn giai on 2 l th h hai. Gi s ch c hai hng ho, hp bia v hp tr. Gi s c nhn th h mt sn lng i hai hp bia c mt hp tr, v c nhn th h 2 sn lng i mt hp bia c mt hp tr. Hin thi mi th h c 10 hp bia v 10 hp tr. Phn phi bia v tr lin th h nh vy c hiu qu khng? Hy gii thch. (Gi s rng bia v tr c th phn chia c c ngha th h 1 c th i mt hp bia c na hp tr v th h 2 c th i na hp bia c na hp tr) Gii p:
Khng, phn phi l khng hiu qu bi v c th thay i phn phi bia v tr gia hai th h v lm cho mt th h t phc li cao hn m khng lm gim phc li ca th h kia. V d, nu th h 2 i cho th h mt hp tr c mt hp bia, mc phc li ca th h 2 vn nh c. Tuy nhin, th h mt s t phc li cao hn. Lm th no chng ta bit c iu ny? Vi t l trao i tr cho bia ca th h mt, nu chu mt i mt hp bia, th h mt ch yu cu bi thng na hp tr duy tr mc phc li nh c. Nhng trong trao i mt ly mt vi th h 2, th h 1 nhn c mt hp tr v vy th h 1 c c phc li cao hn nh vic trao i ny. Nu th h 1 i 1 hp tr c mt hp bia th phc li ca c hai th h u tng ln.
Cu hi 4. Theo anh/ch iu g s xy ra vi gi c nc sch v thc phm kh b h thi vng b thin tai? Th trng s phn ng nh th no? Thay i gi c s h tr hay gy tr ngi cho nhng m lc cu tr v phc hi? Gii p:
Khi xy ra thin tai, nhng mt hng thit yu nh nc sch v thc phm kh b h thi tr nn khan him hn, thng thng bi v cc ngun cung cp b ph hu hoc t
48 lit. Kt qu l, gi c tng ln. Gi c tng ln to c hi thu ht thm nh cung cp hng ho ny. Trong khi gi c cao hn lm cho cuc sng ca nhng ngi b nn kh khn thm, cn nhn thy rng gi c tng thc hin mt chc nng quan trng khuyn khch ngi ta tit kim nc v thc phm. Mt thc t rng gi c tng cao l kh khn cho nhng ngi b sa thi hoc ngi tht nghip v thin tai trong khi h chnh l nhng ngi ng gp tin cu tr. Gi c cng cao th cng khuyn khch cung cp nhiu hng ha hn. Tin ng gp t nguyn ca ngi dn gip cc t chc cu tr c kh nng thanh ton tin mua thc phm v nc cho nhng ngi sng st sau thm ho.
Cu hi 5: Hy tho lun quan im cho rng xem rng t nhin l ti nguyn khng ti to c ch khng phi l ti nguyn ti to c l ph hp hn (Ngun: Perman, Ma,
McGilvray, v Common, 2003).
Gii p: im quan trng y l s khng th thay i c. Rng t nhin (nguyn sinh hoc nguyn thu) tn ti lu i c h sinh thi a dng cao, thc hin nhiu chc nng khc nhau. Mi khi khai thc, th a dng sinh hc phong ph v nhng chc nng ny b mt i mi mi. Nu rng c trng li, thi h sinh thi s km a dng hn; v nu rng ti sinh t nhin, mt rt nhiu th h rng c th t c mc a dng trc y, hoc c l khng bao gi t c. Theo ngha ny, rng t nhin v mt quan nim tng t nh ti nguyn thin nhin khng th ti to c, nu b suy gim th suy gim mi mi. Cu 6: Anh ch suy nh g v mc chit khu theo thi gian v s thay th qua thi gian? V d, ti c 1000 la, nu ti gi tin vo ngn hng v c hng li sut 5% nm. Nu ti s dng tin mua hng, ti s phi tiu dng hng ho . Ti nn lm g? Quyt nh ph thuc vo nhng yu t no? Gii p: y l cu hi v mc chit khu c nhn. nh i gia vic dng tin mua hng hm nay vi vic u t tin c c nhiu tin hn trong trng lai v c th mua hng sau ny. Nu ti l ngi ngho cn tt c s tin cho n , khi ti c mc chit khu cao v khng u t bt c ng tin no. Nu ti c tt c nhng hng ho ti cn hm nay, khi ti s u t phn ln s tin . Ti s bng quan nu gi tr ca vic mua hng ho hm nay bng gi tr hin thi ca tin u t trong mi giai on tip theo. Dng cu hi ny lm cho sinh vin suy ngh v gii php dng nguyn tc Hotelling.
CH 2 : Ti nguyn khng th ti to
Cu 1: Nu sut chit khu bng khng, gi tr ca t ti nguyn trong thi gian khai thc m l g?
49
Gii p:
Pt 1 c P c = t t . Khi mc t 1 (1 + r ) (1 + r ) chit khu r = 0, t ti nguyn l nh nhau cho tt c cc thi k.

Nguyn tc Hotelling cho t thi k c khi qut nh sau:
Cu hi 2: ng, Sai, Khng chc chn. Hy gii thch tr li ca anh ch: Phn phi tr lng ti nguyn t hiu qu kinh t qua thi gian l phn phi m khai thc mi nm l nh nhau tng li ch rng ca ti nguyn c ti a ho. Gii p:
Sai: Ti a ho li ch t ti nguyn thng khng i hi phi khai thc mt lng ti nguyn bng nhau qua thi gian. Vi tr lng c nh, hm cu khng thay i, v chi ph khai thc mi n v l khng i, khi lng khai thc s gim theo thi gian. Hoc, din t theo gi, gi th trng phi tng theo thi gian duy tr t khng i. Xem xt cu hi ny vi s chun hai giai thi k t thuyt phc mnh v iu ny.
Cu 3. Hy k tn ba bin php khc phc tnh trng khan him du, v s dng th (tp hp cc th) c ng chi ph cn bin v li ch cn bin (bao gm c chi ph s dng, nh trnh by lp) minh ho cc yu t ny nh hng nh th no tnh hnh tiu th du hin thi. Gii p:
(1) Khm ph: gim chi ph s dng cn bin (v c l chi ph khai thc cn bin) ca vic khai thc du; (2)Thay th: gim li ch cn bin v chi ph s dng cn bin ca khai thc du; (3) i mi cng ngh: nh hng tu thuc vo bn cht ca i mi cng ngh. V d, phng php khai thc mi c th lm gim chi ph khai thc cn bin v chi ph s dng cn bin.
Cu hi 4. Hy gii thch ti sao c xu hng t nhin l gi c ca nhng ti nguyn khng th ti to c ngy cng tng ln. Gii p:
Gi tr hin thi ca li ch rng cn bin phi bng nhau trong phn phi ti nguyn hiu qu ng thi. S dng v d hai thi k (thi k 0 v thi k 1), chng ta c th vit PV(MNB0) = PV (MNB1). Bi v gi tr hin thi bng nhau, iu ny c ngha MNB trong tng lai (cha chit khu) ln hn MNB ca thi im hin ti, c ngha MNB1>MNB0. Bi v MNB = MWTP MC, nu MC hin ti v tng lai l nh nhau, iu ny c MWTP1>MWTP0. Gi th trng phi bng li ch cn bin v nu gi nh hn, cu s vt cung, c ngha P1=MWTP1 v P0=MWTP0. Nh vy, chng ta c kt lun rng P1>P0. Phn phi hiu qu ng thi thng dn n tiu dng gim theo thi gian, khan him tng ln v gi c s phn ng li khan him tng ln. Cui cng, cch th ba xem xt vn t gic ca ngi sn xut. Tr khi gi c tng ln qua
50
thi gian, ngi sn xut s c ng c khai thc ton b tr lng ngay tc khc v gi tin vo ngn hng. Bi v chng ta khng thy nhng g xy ra, chng ta c th kt lun ngi sn xut s hy vng gi c tng ln.
Bi tp:
Nm 2002, Cng ty Unocal khm ph ra mt m kh t nhin vi tr lng c tnh khong 71 t tn vng bin ty nam Vit Nam. Hin ti Unocal ang chun b k hoch kh thi khai thc m kh trong hai thi k. Chi ph khai thc, bao gm chi ph lp t gin khoan, h thng ng ng, v chi ph hot ng, c tnh khong 200 USD mi tn. Chi ph khai thc cn bin gi s l khng i. ng cu sn phm kh trong hai thi k l P = 1200 23Q , vi n v o lng ca P l USD/triu tn v Q l triu tn. Sut chit khu l 10% /thi k. a) Tnh tc khai thc ti u cho mi thi k. b) Gi s nh nc quyt nh nh thu ti nguyn. Thu sut l 50 USD/tn. Hy tnh li kt qu ca cu hi a. c) Gi nh khi ph duyt d n Unocal, chnh ph thc hin mt iu tra khc nh gi tr lng mt ln na v khm ph ra rng tr lng kh t nhin by gi l 82 t tn. Vi thu sut 50 USD/tn, tnh ton tc khai thc ti u cho mi thi k.
Gii p bi tp 1:
a) S dng nguyn tc Hotelling cho m hnh hai giai on: P c P0 c = 1 1+ r P0 c = 1200 23Q0 200 = 1000 23Q0
P1 c 1200 23Q1 200 1000 23Q1 = = = 909 20.9Q1 1+ r 1 + 10% 1. 1 Rng buc: Q0 + Q1 = 71 , hoc: Q1 = 71 Q0 P1 c 1000 23Q0 = 909 20.9Q1 1+ r 1000 23Q0 = 909 20.9(71 Q0 ) P0 c =
1000 23Q0 = 909 1483.9 + 20.9Q0 1000 909 + 1483.9 = 23Q0 + 20.9Q0 1574.9 = 43.9Q0
Q0 = 35.87 ; Q1 = 35.13
b) P0 c = 1200 23Q0 250 = 950 23Q0 P1 c 1200 23Q1 200 950 23Q1 = = = 863.6 20.9Q1 1+ r 1 + 10% 1.1 Rng buc: Q0 + Q1 = 71 , hoc: Q1 = 71 Q0
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P1 c 950 23Q0 = 863.6 20.9Q1 1+ r 950 23Q0 = 863.6 20.9(71 Q0 ) P0 c =
950 23Q0 = 863.6 1483.9 + 20.9Q0 950 863.6 + 1483.9 = 23Q0 + 20.9Q0 1570.3 = 43.9Q0
Q0 = 35.77 ; Q1 = 35.23
c) Q1 = 82 Q0
950 23Q0 = 863.6 20.9(82 Q0 ) 950 23Q0 = 863.6 1713.8 + 20.9Q0 950 863.6 + 1713.8 = 23Q0 + 20.9Q0 1800.2 = 43.9Q0
Q0 = 41.02 ; Q1 = 40.98
CH 3: Ti nguyn c th ti sinh: Thy sn v lm nghip Cu 1. S tng trng sinh hc ca cc loi ti nguyn trn nh hng n cch thc khai thc chng nh th no? p n:
Tng trng sinh hc ca cc loi ti nguyn ng vai tr to nn iu kin cn bng cn bin v t quyt nh quy tc khai thc. V d, mc khai thc thy sn hiu qu l im MR = MC, nhng MR l mt hm ca ng tng trng sinh hc. Tng trng sinh hc ng vai tr l mt rng buc v phi a vo k hach qun l v khai thc. Nu b qua yu t sinh hc, chng ta s khng th t c mc khai thc hiu qu, m ng thi cn c th khai thc qu mc dn n tuyt chng.
Cu 2. Ti sao trong qun l thy sn cn phi xem xt nn khai thc bao nhiu, v trong qun l rng phi xem xt khi no th khai thc, mc d nhng ti nguyn ny l ti nguyn c th ti sinh? p n:
Vic qun l thy sn phi xem xt nn khai thc bao nhiu v mc tng trng ph thuc vo tr lng. Nu khai thc qu nhiu th mc tng trng trong tng lai s thp. Trong khai thc thy sn, tui ca thy sn khng quan trng bng tr lng. Vic qun l rng i hi phi cn nhc khi no th khai thc v loi ti nguyn ny c mc tng trng rt chm. Tm ra thi im khai thc ti u s gip em li gi tr cao nht cho loi ti nguyn ny. Cn lu rng nu rng c cc thuc tnh ca hng ha cng, th vic khai thc bao nhiu c th l mt vn quan trng.
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Cu 3. Hy tho lun s lng n lc b ra khai thc thy sn nh hng nh th no n hiu qu ca vic khai thc. p n:
Hiu qu ca vic khai thc tng ln nu n lc tng t 0 n mc EESY. C ngha l, li nhun bin tng dn. Tuy nhin, vt qu im ny th n lc tng thm s lm gim tr lng n mc chi ph khai thc tng nhanh hn doanh thu. im then cht l vic s dng mt mc n lc cao c th khng lm tng sn lng v c th lm tng chi ph mt cch khng cn thit do tr lng thy sn gim.
Cu 4. Xem xt ng n lc/doanh thu cho trng hp khai thc thy sn. Gi s loi thy sn ny ang trong tnh trng t do tip cn im TR=TC. a. Gi n (shadow price) bng khng ti im ny c ngha g? Ti sao iu ny l khng ng mong mun? p n:
Tr lng thy sn cn li trong i dng khng c gi tr g i vi mi ngi nh bt bi v khng c g bo m l h c th khai thc tr lng ny. C th ngi khc s bt c. Vn then cht l nu khng c quyn s hu i vi thy sn, tr lng thy sn khng c gi tr g (gi n) i vi cc c nhn. Trong bi cnh ng, iu ny c ngha l i vi h, thy sn hon ton khng c gi tr tng lai v do vy h s c ng c bt cng nhiu cng tt khi m TR TC trong giai on hin ti do h khng c quyn s hu i vi lng thy sn m h cha bt c. iu ny l khng ng mong mun v n xem thy sn nh th khng c gi tr g, v iu ny dn n tnh trng khng qun l c ngun thy sn. Nu thy sn b coi l khng c gi tr g, n s b khai thc qu mc, dn n mc khai thc khng hiu qu.
b. im ny c bn vng khng? Hy gii thch.
p n:
N bn vng v nm trn ng n lc/doanh thu [khi m khng c yu t no lm cho n dch chuyn]. V d, nu c mt loi thin ch n v n phn ln tr lng thy sn, khi im khai thc s dch chuyn v loi thy sn ny c th tuyt chng nu mc khai thc khng thay i. y l mt vn phc tp hn, nhng li quan trng gii thch r hn ng khai thc bn vng. N ch c hiu lc khi khng c s thay i no khc]. ng ny ch ra tp hp cc im tng trng/khai thc v n lc bn vng. Ti im ny ngi nh bt s c th khai thc lng tng trng trong mi giai on. y l mt trng hp in hnh ca vic tnh bn vng v hiu qu khng tng ng, nh trnh by phn pht trin bn vng.
c. Nu ba l do ti sao mc n lc MSY c th ng mong mun hn so vi tnh trng t do tip cn.
p n:
53
1) Mc n lc MSY t tn km hn; 2) c th bt nhiu thy sn hn trn c s bn vng; 3) tr lng thy sn cao hn, gip cho n t c kh nng tuyt chng hn; 4) li nhun bin cao hn, v 5) cc ngun lc d tha c th c dng cho nhng lnh vc sn xut khc.
d. Ti sao ESY c th c a thch hn MSY?
p n:
Bi v ESY l hiu qu hn do tr lng cao hn lm gim chi ph khai thc. ng thi cng lm gim kh nng tuyt chng ngoi d kin v tnh trng cn bng bn vng s vn c duy tr nu tr lng tng hay gim mt cht. Ti MSY mt bin thin ngu nhin lm gim tr lng c th dn n tuyt chng nu mc khai thc vn c gi mc tng ng vi tr lng MSY. C th minh hc iu ny vi mc khai thc MSY, cao hn MSY v thp hn MSY v hai im cn bng di mc MSY (im cn bng bn phi MSY l n nh, im cn bng bn tri MSY l khng n nh).
Cu 5. Trong tnh hung no, v theo tiu ch no, th vic chuyn t rng nhit i thnh t nng nghip l hp l? p n:
C th c ch nu xem xt vn ny theo cch tip cn phn tch li ch chi ph. Theo cch tip cn ny, cn phi xc nh hm phc li x hi ca mt s cng ng lin quan, sau xem xt, trong nhng tnh hung c th no , liu hm phc li l cao hn nu gi li rng nhit i hay pht trin thnh t nng nghip. Lu rng nhng tnh hung c th l quan trng trong vic a ra quyt nh ng. V d, trong mt t nc rt ngho vi rt nhiu rng nhng li khng c kh nng thu c li ch t ngun ti nguyn ny, v vi trin vng t c nhng li ch ng k t vic m rng hot ng nng nghip, th vic chuyn i mc ch s dng t l hp l. Cui cng, ngi ta c th mong mun cn nhc yu t bn vng. Phn tch li ch chi ph t n khng quan tm n vn bn vng. Chng ta c th a vo phn tch li ch chi ph mt s rng buc m bo tnh bn vng ( cc phng n pht trin ch c thc hin nu n c hin gi rng dng v tha mn cc iu kin bn vng).
Cu 6. Chng minh rng mt mc thu nh vo mi n v g c khai thc s lm tng chu k khai thc ti u (tc l tui m cy c khai thc) trong mt m hnh khai thc rng vi thi gian v hn. Nhu cu k cng i vi g tng s c nhng tc ng g n chu k khai thc ti u? p n:
Nu mt mc thu c nh trn mi n v g khai thc, iu ny s tng ng (theo quan im ca nh trng rng thng mi) vi mt s gia tng trong chi ph khai thc (C), hay mt s st gim trong mc gi rng sau thu (P). Ni cch khc, mc gi rng
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hay thng d p gim. Tng t, nu nhu cu k vng tng, gi th trng s tng, v iu ny tng t nh mt s gia tng trong gi rng p. Do cu hi y tht ra yu cu chng ta xc nh cc tc ng i vi chu k khai thc ti u ca mt s thay i trong gi rng ca ti nguyn.
tr li cu hi loi nytrong phn tch so snh tnhc th dng hai cch tip cn. Mt l c th m phng m hnh ang xem xt, so snh s khc bit gia tnh trng hin ti v tnh trng khi c thay i thy c tc ng ca s thay i trong tham s ang xem xt. Hai l c th dn dt vn tr thnh bi ton ti u trong m hnh. Theo cch tip cn th haicu tr li l nh sau:
Bt u vi iu kin hiu qu Hotelling cho bi ton ti u trong mt m hnh vi thi gian v hn, ta c iu kin ti u l: (phng trnh 1) dS P dT i _____ = I + -------pST pST
Sp xp li phng trnh ny ta c: (phng trnh 2) dS ----dT _____ ST
I = I + ------- . ------ST p
Sau , tm raiu g x ra cho /p khi P thay i. Lu rng ph thuc vo p. p dng ng thc ny cho v chia cho p, ta c: (phng trnh 3) pST e-iT - k STe-iT k ---- = -------------------- = --------------- _ ---------p p (1 e iT) (1 e-iT) p(1-e-iT)
T phng trnh ny, chng ta c th thy rng, vi cc yu t khc khng i, /p gim khi p gim. Hy xem phng trnh 2, vi cc yu t khc khng i, nu p gim (v do /p gim), biu thc v tri s phi gim bo m gi tr ca phng trnh. Nhng theo gi nh ca chng ta v mi quan h tui-sn lng ca rng, iu ny i hi chu k khai thc di hn, cho vo thi im khai thc, t l tng trng tng ng ca rng s gim xung mt mc thp hn. Do vy, kt lun l: thu s ko di chu k khai thc ti u (v s gia tng trong nhu cu g s rt ngn n). Lu rng kt qu ny l bn vng vi bt k st chit khu dng
55
no, v vi bt k gi tr ca p=P - c. iu duy nht m chng ta cn lu l kt qu ca chng ta ph thuc vo mi quan h tui-sn lng, m mi quan h ny phi bo m rng trong min ln cn ca chu k khai thc ti u, mc tng trng tng ng s gim khi di chu k tng ln. y l mt gi nh nhn chung l hp l.
Q7. Chu k khai thc ti u s thay i nh th no nu a) Chi ph trng rng tng b) Chi ph khai thc tng c) Gi g tng d) Sut chit khu tng e) Nng sut t nng nghip tng p n:
a) b) c) d) e) Chi ph trng rng k tng s lm gim /p v do lm tng T. Chi ph khai thc tng lm gim gi rng p, lm gim /p v do tng T. Gi gp tng lm tng gi rng p, tng /p, v do gim T. Sut chit khu tng lm gim T. S gia tng trong nng sut t nng nghip lm tng t l li nhun c th thu c t phng n s dng t thay th. Do n lm tng sut chit khu c dng tnh hin gi PV. Nh trong cu (d), sut chit khu cao hn lm gim T.
Cu hi tho lun: Nu mt s nguyn nhn ca nn ph rng Vit Nam, ti sao c tnh trng ny, v c th lm g gii quyt? p n: ngh hc vin lit k cc yu t m h cho l nguyn nhn dn n ph rng, sau phn thnh tng nhm: (1) hnh vi ca cc c nhn v doanh nghip, (2) cc yu t kinh t, (3) chnh sch ca chnh ph.
Nhng nguyn nhn kh d: 1. Vi phm cc quy nh qun l rng ti a ha li nhun (hnh vi) 2. Ranh gii bo v khng r rng (chnh sch) 3. Chuyn t rng sang cc mc ch s dng khc tng trng dn s (yu t kinh t) 4. Quy hoch s dng t v quyn s hu khng r rng (chnh sch) 5. S dng khng hp l rng c giao (free riders, qun l yu km) (hnh vi + chnh sch) 6. Chnh ph khng la chn cn thn khi giao rng (chnh sch) 7. Vi phm quyn s hu cng ng v cc gi tr vn ha ca rng (hnh vi + chnh sch) 8. Ngho i (yu t kinh t) 9. Lun canh, khai hoang canh tc, c t rng khai thc cc sp ngoi g NTFP (than ci) (yu t kinh t) 10. Tham nhng (hnh vi + chnh sch)
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11. C s h tng (xy dng ng s), tng trng kinh t v dn s, th ha (yu t kinh t) 12. Chnh sch ci cch t ai, cc nng sn thng mi dng cho sinh hot, xut khu (bao gm cc tri nui tm v ph rng ngp mn) (chnh sch + yu t kinh t). 13. Khai thc than ci do gi nhin liu tng (yu t kinh t) 14. Cm n cy rng(chnh sch). C th lm g? Ni th d, v d: ci cch chnh sch, n b mt s tn tht do duy tr rng), nhng lm th kh. ngh hc vin suy ngh v nhng thch thc trong thay i chnh sch ca chnh ph, iu kin kinh t v hnh vi.

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B sung cho ti liu hng dn ging dy dnh cho

Thng 8, 2005 Chng trnh Kinh t v Mi trng ng Nam

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

BI 3: NGUYN NHN CA CC VN MI TRNG CH : Nguyn nhn ch yu ca cc vn mi trng trn th gii l g?

BI 4: TM LC CC KHI NIM C BN TRONG KINH T HC PHC LI

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

SMC = 20 +0.5Y MC =10 +0.5 Y

MB= 30-0.5Y EMC =10

16 MC = 10 + 0.5 Y MR = 30 0.5 Y MC = MR ti a ha li nhun: 10 + 0.5Y = 30 - 0.5Yta c Y* = 20.

BI 5: KINH T NHIM MI TRNG CH 1: Mc nhim ti u

CH 3: Tiu chun mi trng

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

Lng thi carbon monoxide (kg/thng)

TDR = (250+300) x 10/2 = $2750 (gim)

TDU = + (400 + 500) x 10/2 = +$4500 (tng)

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

c a b 40 Pht thi (tn mi nm)

CH 5: Giy php thi c th chuyn nhng

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

$/tn MAC (trc ci tin)

MAC (sau ci tin) Pht thi (tn)

CH 6: nh gi cng c chnh sch mi trng

MAC thc t (trc ci tin ) a g b h ES e d c f E1t lng thi thu

MAC thc t (sau ci tin)

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

BI 7: PHN TCH LI CH CHI PH: CNG C QUN L TI NGUYN/MI TRNG

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

PV ca chi ph vn hnh v bo tr u nm 1 (triu la theo gi nm 2000):

Li ch hng nm nh tit kim thi gian theo gi nm 2000:

)( 33 hours commuter ) ( 200,000 commuters year ) $95.96million

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

Pt 1 c P c = t t . Khi mc t 1 (1 + r ) (1 + r ) chit khu r = 0, t ti nguyn l nh nhau cho tt c cc thi k.

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

b. im ny c bn vng khng? Hy gii thch.

c. Nu ba l do ti sao mc n lc MSY c th ng mong mun hn so vi tnh trng t do tip cn.

d. Ti sao ESY c th c a thch hn MSY?

Sp xp li phng trnh ny ta c: (phng trnh 2) dS ----dT _____ ST

Environmental Economics Teachers Manual 2005

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