Project Report On

MODULATION
Submitted To

MAEERS

MIT SCHOOL OF TELECOM MANAGEMENT

By

PRANIL ANIL INGOLE PNR No: 101033 Batch No: 2010-2012 IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN MANAGEMENT PGDM (Telecom) OCTOBER-2010
Course Name INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IIT)

MAEERS

MIT SCHOOL OF TELECOM MANAGEMENT (MITSOT), PUNE

DE L

I, Mr. PRANIL ANIL INGOLE , PR No: 101033 hereby decl re that thi Integrated Project Report On MODULATION i the record of authentic work carried out by me during the period from SEP-2010 to OC -2010 and has not submitted earlier to any University or Institute for the award of any degree/diploma etc.

PR NIL ANIL INGOLE PRN No: 101033 PGDM elecom)-SYSTEMS Batch: 2010-2012 Date: 19/10/2010

CONTENT

CHAPTER NUMBER CH: 1

SUB TITLE NUMBER

NAME OF THE CHAPTER

PAGE NUMBER 4-9

SB: 1.1 SB: 1.2 SB: 1.3 SB: 1.4

CH: 2

INTRODUCTION TO MODULATION Introduction

5 7 8 9
10-21

Types of Modulation Aim of Modulation Need for Modulation

ANALOG MODULATION TECHNIQUES Amplitude Modulation (AM)

SB: 2.1 SB: 2.2 SB: 2.3

CH: 3

11 15 20
22-35

Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase Modulation(PM)

DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

SB: 3.1 SB: 3.2 SB: 3.3 SB: 3.4

23 26 28 33
36-37

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) RE ERENCES

Introduction
Definition: Modulation refers to the structure of audio and video signal, the standard protocol for sound production, mixture and transmission. It is the signalling level of a reproduction and recording system. Amplitude Modulation and Frequency Modulation are common categories of modulation.

Modulation is the process of arying some characteristic of a periodic wa e with an external signal. Modulation is utilized to send an information bearing signal o er long distances. Radio communication superimposes this information bearing signal onto a carrier signal. These high frequency carrier signals can be transmitted o er the air easily and are capable of tra elling long distances. The characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the carrier signal are aried in accordance with the information bearing signal. In the field of communication engineering, the information bearing signal is also known as the modulating signal. The modulating signal is a slowly arying signal - as opposed to the rapidly arying carrier frequency. In electronics, modulation is the process of arying one or more properties of a high frequency periodic wa eform, called the carrier signal, with respect to a modulating signal . This is done in a similar fashion as a musician may modulate a tone (a periodic wa eform) from a musical instrument by arying its olume, timing and pitch. The three key parameters of a periodic wa eform are its amplitude (" olume"), its phase ("timing") and its frequency ("pitch"), all of which can be modified in accordance with a low frequency signal to obtain the modulated signal. Typically a highfrequency sinusoid wa eform is used as carrier signal, but a square wa e pulse train may also occur. In telecommunications, modulation is the process of con eying a message signal, for example a digital bit stream or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation of a sine wa eform is used to transform a baseband message signal to a passband signal, for example a radiofrequency signal (RF signal). In radio communications, cable TV systems or the public switched telephone network for instance, electrical signals can only be transferred o er a limited passband frequency spectrum, with specific (non-zero)
5

lower and upper cut-off frequencies. Modulating a sine wa e carrier makes it possible to keep the frequency content of the transferred signal as close as possible to the centre frequency (typically the carrier frequency) of the passband. When coupled with demodulation, this technique can be used to, among other things, transmit a signal through a channel which may be opaque to the baseband frequency range (for instance, when sending a telephone signal through a fibreoptic strand). In music synthesizers, modulation may be used to synthesise wa eforms with a desired o ertone spectrum. In this case the carrier frequency is typically in the same order or much lower than the modulating wa eform. See for example frequency modulation synthesis or ring modulation. A de ice that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a de ice that performs the in erse operation of modulation is known as a demodulator (sometimes detector or demod). A de ice that can do both operations is a modem (short for "Modulator-Demodulator").

Types of Modulation
There are basically two types of modulation processes they are, Analog modulation and Digital modulation. Analog modulation can again done on arious basis like by arying amplitude, phase & frequency i.e. amplitude modulation, phase modulation, frequency modulation & space modulation respecti ely. Similarly digital modulation can be achie ed by arious methods like FSK, ASK, MFSK, PSK, MSK, PPM, TCM, OFDM etc.

Analog modulation
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Frequency modulation (FM) Phase modulation (PM)

Digital modulation
FSK

ASK

PSK

QAM
6

 Anal latin : The altering of a carrier by an analog signal either by varying its amplitude, phase or frequency. Di ital latin: In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a digital bit stream. The changes in the carrier signal are chosen from a finite  number of M alternative symbols (the modulation al
abet ).

Aim of Modul ion

Modulation is defined as the characteristics of the carrier wave, which is varied in accordance with that of the instantaneous value of the message signal. The reason why carrier signal is modulated with that of the original message signal is that, the addition of carrier signal will help us in conveying the information to the receiver side. We can impose the information on the carrier, so that we are able to alter the frequency and vary the signal strength, by adjusting the carrier signal. So the variation of the carrier wave in accordance with the message signal is called as modulation. The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog passband channel , for example over the public switched telephone network (where a band-pass filter limits the frequency range to between 300 and 3400 Hz), or over a limited radio frequency band. The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband (or lowpass) signal, for example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog passband channel , for example a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network channel. Analog and digital modulation facilitate frequency division multiplexing (FDM), where several low pass information signals are transferred simultaneously over the same shared physical medium, using separate passband channels. The aim of digital baseband modulation methods, also known as line coding, is to transfer a digital bit stream over a baseband channel, typically a non-filtered copper wi re such as a serial bus or a wired local area network. The aim of pulse modulation methods is to transfer a narrowband analog signal, for example a phone call over a wideband baseband channel or, in some of the schemes, as a bit stream over another digital transmission system.

Need for Modul ion:

 Radiation becomes very easy in the case of modulation, because we use higher frequency here to transmit the signals and therefore the use of these higher frequencies will make our job very easy as the design of the amplifier circuit and antenna system wil l be very easier.  The use of modulation will limit the number of hardware used.  Here there is no need of repeaters or antenna at regular intervals, because we transmit the si gnals at a higher frequency.  Signal to noise ratio is optimized here which results in less no ise, thanks to the modulation.  The rate of interference is also reduced to a considerab le amount due to modulation.  Modulation is used of multiplexing and frequency assignment.  The main reason for modulation is to make sure that effective radio transmission takes place.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Introduction Amplitude Modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high frequency carrier signal in proportion with the instantaneous value of modulating signal (information).

In analog modulation, the modulation is applied continuously in response to the analog information signal. A low-frequency message signal (top) may be carried by an AM or FM radio wave. Amplitude Modulation is a process where the amplitude of a carrier signal is altered according to information in a message signal. The frequency of the carrier signal is usually much greater than the highest frequency of the input message signal. It is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent. For example, changes in the signal strength can be used to specify the sounds to be reproduced by a loudspeaker, or the light intensity of television pixels. (Contrast this with frequency modulation, also commonly used for sound transmissions, in which the frequency is varied; and phase modulation, often used in remote controls, in which the phase is varied). In the mid 1870s, a form of amplitude modulation initially called "undulatory currents" was the first method to successfully produce quality audio over telephone lines. Beginning with Reginald Fessenden's audio demonstrations in 1906, it was also the origina l method used for audio radio transmissions, and remains in use today by many forms of communication. AM is often used to refer to the medium wave broadcast band.

Form of AM

As originally developed for the electric telephone, amplitude modulation was used to add audio information to the low-powered direct current flowing from a telephone transmitter to a recei ver. As a simplified explanation, at the transmitting end, a telephone microphone was used to vary the strength of the transmitted current, according to the frequency and loudness of the sounds received. Then, at the receiving end of the telephone line, th e transmitted electrical current affected an electromagnet, which strengthened and weakened in response to the strength of the current. In turn, the electromagnet produced vibrations in the receiver diaphragm, thus closely reproducing the frequency and loudness of the sounds originally heard at the transmitter.
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In contrast to the telephone, in radio communication what is modulated is a continuous wa e radio signal (carrier wa e) produced by a radio transmitter. In its basic form, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and in two adjacent sidebands. This process is known as heterodyning. Each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating signal and is a mirror image of the other. Amplitude modulation that results in two sidebands and a carrier is often called double sideband amplitude modulation (DSB-AM). Amplitude modulation is inefficient in terms of power usage and much of it is wasted. At least two-thirds of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal, which carries no useful information (beyond the fact that a signal is present); the remaining power is split between two identical sidebands, though only one of these is needed since they contain identical information. To increase transmitter efficiency, the carrier can be remo ed (suppressed) from the AM signal. This produces a reduced-carrier transmission or double-sideband suppressed-carrier (DSBSC) signal. A suppressed-carrier amplitude modulation scheme is three times more power-efficient than traditional DSB-AM. If the carrier is only partially suppressed, a double-sideband reduced-carrier (DSBRC) signal results. DSBSC and DSBRC signals need their carrier to be regenerated (by a beat frequency oscillator, for instance) to be demodulated using con entional techniques. E en greater efficiency is achie ed at the expense of increased transmitter and recei er complexity by completely suppressing both the carrier and one of the sidebands. This is single-sideband modulation, widely used in amateur radio due to its efficient use of both power and bandwidth. A simple form of AM often used for digital communications is on-off keying, a type of amplitude-shift keying by which binary data is represented as the presence or absence of a carrier wa e. This is commonly used at radio frequencies to transmit Morse code, referred to as continuous wa e (CW) operation.

ITU Designations

11

Mathe atical Representation

AM Signal:
s(t)= Ac [1+ k* (t)] coswct
5

-5 0 1 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Modulating signal: m(t)

-1 0 1 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Carrier Signal: c(t)= Ac coswc t

-1 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Modulation Index It can be defined as the measure of extent of amplitude ariation about an unmodulated maximum carrier. As with other modulation indices, in AM, this quantity, also called modulation depth , indicates by how much the modulated ariable aries around its 'original' le el. For AM, it relates to the ariations in the carrier amplitude and is defined as: where and were introduced abo e.

So if h = 0.5, the carrier amplitude aries by 50% abo e and below its unmodulated le el, and for h = 1.0 it aries by 100%. To a oid distortion in the A3E transmission mode, modulation depth greater than 100% must be a oided. Practical transmitter systems will usually incorporate some kind of limiter circuit, such as a VOGAD, to ensure this. Howe er, AM demodulators can be designed to detect the in ersion (or 180 degree phase re ersal) that occurs when modulation exceeds 100% and automatically correct for this effect.

12

FREQUENCY MODULATION
Introduction
Frequency Modulation: It is the process of varying the frequency of a constantamplitude carrier directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal.

Frequency modulation by a sine wa e is gi en as: v(t) = Ac cos {2 fct -m sin (2 fmt)} where, AC = unmodulated peak carrier amnplitude fC = carrier frequency fm = modulation frequency m = modulation index (degree of modulation) FM signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation.
y

Direct FM modulation can be achie ed by directly feeding the message into the input of a VCO. For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase modulated signal. This is used to modulate a crystal controlled oscillator, and the result is passed through a frequency multiplier to gi e an FM signal.

Basically frequency modulation and phase modulation both are the forms of angle modulation. Angle modulation results whene er the phase angle of a sinusoidal wa e is aried with respect to time. In frequency modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier wa e is aried as a function of the instantaneous oltage of the modulating signal. This is illustrated in figure. The amount of frequency shift off the centre frequency is called the frequency de iation. A peak de iation of 5kHz (such as used in amateur radio systems) means that the carrier frequency is shifted in one direction a maximum of 5kHz by the positi e going peaks of the modulating signal and shifted in the opposite direction a maximum of 5kHz by the negati e going peaks of the modulating signal. Total frequency swing is thus 10kHz. Modulation index is defined as the ratio of frequency de iation to modulating frequency producing the de iation. If a 1kHz modulating signal produces 5kHz of de iation. the modulation index is equal to 5. Considering a maximum speech frequency of 2.5kHz, the modulation index equals 2 if the
13

carrier frequency is dri en to a maximum de iation of 5kHz by that particular speech frequency component. The FM recei er is designed to be insensiti e to amplitude ariation in the RF signal it recei es. As random incoming noise is recei ed essentially as a oltage of fluctuating amplitude, the recei er on FM has a signal to noise ratio ad antage o er an AM recei er, gi en recei ed signals of equal carrier amplitude. The degree of that ad antage is dependent on the modulation index which is used and this is illustrated in figure 8 showing noise reduction factor in dB as a function of the index. The diagram shows that to gain ad antage, the modulation index must be greater than 0.6, and the higher the alue of the index, the greater is the noise reduction factor. In comparing the FM and AM systems, equal recei er audio bandwidth is assumed. All this is fine except that the FM signal has sidebands much more complicated than the AM signal, and which theoretically extend infinitely either side of the carrier frequency. In practice, we need only to consider the sideband frequencies which are of significant le el. The bandwidth of the significant sidebands increases both as the modulation index is increased and as the modulating frequency is increased. The second cur e in figure 8 plots the bandwidth of the significant sidebands as a function of modulation index for a modulating frequency of 2.5kHz, chosen as the maximum speech frequency. Using both cur es, we see that to get a 10dB signal to noise ratio ad antage we need a modulation index equal to 2. Howe er, to achie e this, we take up a bandwidth of around 22kHz. So here is the answer to why FM is restricted essentially to the VHF and UHF bands. FM gi es us a signal to noise ratio ad antage o er AM, but it takes up more bandwidth and much more than we are able to accommodate in the restricted band space of our HF bands. More band space is a ailable on the VHF and UHF bands, allowing us to use FM as a popular mode of transmission. On two metres, for example, we use 25kHz channel spacing to accommodate the wide bandwidth FM signals.

14

Modulation Index As with other modulation indices, this quantity indicates by how much the modulated ariable aries around its unmodulated le el. It relates to the ariations in the frequency of the carrier signal:

where is the highest frequency component present in the modulating signal xm(t), and is the Peak frequency-de iation, i.e. the maximum de iation of the instantaneous frequency from the carrier frequency. If , the modulation is called narrowband FM , and its bandwidth is approximately . If , the modulation is called wideband FM and its bandwidth is approximately . While wideband FM uses more bandwidth, it can impro e signal-to-noise ratio significantly. With a tone-modulated FM wa e, if the modulation frequency is held constant and the modulation index is increased, the (non-negligible) bandwidth of the FM signal increases, but the spacing between spectra stays the same; some spectral components decrease in strength as others increase. If the frequency de iation is held constant and the modulation frequency increased, the spacing between spectra increases.

Applications Broadcasting FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (see FM broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. A narrow band form is used for oice communications in commercial and amateur radio settings. The type of FM used in broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM. In two-way radio, narrowband narrow-fm (N-FM) is used to conser e bandwidth. In addition, it is used to send signals into space.

15

PHASE MODULATION
INTRODUCTION
It is the process of varying the phase of a constant amplitude carrier directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal.

Phase modulation (PM) is a form of modulation that represents information as ariations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier wa e. Unlike its more popular counterpart, frequency modulation (FM), PM is not ery widely used for radio transmissions. This is because it tends to require more complex recei ing hardware and there can be ambiguity problems in determining whether, for example, the signal has changed phase by +180 or -180. PM is used, howe er, in digital music synthesizers such as the Yamaha DX7, e en though these instruments are usually referred to as "FM" synthesizers (both modulation types sound ery similar, but PM is usually easier to implement in this area). The top diagram shows the modulating signal superimposed on the carrier wa e. The bottom diagram shows the resulting phase-modulated signal. PM changes the phase angle of the complex en elope in direct proportion to the message signal. Suppose that the signal to be sent (called the modulating or message signal) is m(t) and the carrier onto which the signal is to be modulated is, Annotated: carrier(time) = (carrier amplitude)*sin(carrier frequency*time + phase shift) This makes the modulated signal

16

This shows how m(t) modulates the phase - the greater m(t) is at a point in time, the greater the phase shift of the modulated signal at that point. It can also be iewed as a change of the frequency of the carrier signal, and phase modulation can thus be considered a special case of FM in which the carrier frequency modulation is gi en by the time deri ati e of the phase modulation. The spectral beha iour of phase modulation is difficult to deri e, but the mathematics re eals that there are two regions of particular interest:
y

For small amplitude signals, PM is similar to amplitude modulation (AM) and exhibits its unfortunate doubling of baseband bandwidth and poor efficiency. For a single large sinusoidal signal, PM is similar to FM, and its bandwidth is approximately , Where fM = m / 2 and h is the modulation index defined below. This is also known as Carson's Rule for PM.

Modulation index As with other modulation indices, this quantity indicates by how much the modulated ariable aries around its unmodulated le el. It relates to the ariations in the phase of the carrier signal: , where is the peak phase de iation.

17

18

AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING(ASK)

INTRODUCTION Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is a form of modulation that represents digital data as ariations in the amplitude of a carrier wa e. The amplitude of an analog carrier signal aries in accordance with the bit stream (modulating signal), keeping frequency and phase constant. The le el of amplitude can be used to represent binary logic 0s and 1s. We can think of a carrier signal as an ON or OFF switch. In the modulated signal, logic 0 is represented by the absence of a carrier, thus gi ing OFF/ON keying operation and hence the name gi en. Like AM, ASK is also linear and sensiti e to atmospheric noise, distortions, propagation conditions on different routes in PSTN, etc. Both ASK modulation and demodulation processes are relati ely inexpensi e. The ASK technique is also commonly used to transmit digital data o er optical fiber. For LED transmitters, binary 1 is represented by a short pulse of light and binary 0 by the absence of light. Laser transmitters normally ha e a fixed "bias" current that causes the de ice to emit a low light le el. This low le el represents binary 0, while a higher-amplitude light wa e represents binary 1. Amplitude shift keying (ASK) in the context of digital communications is a modulation process, which imparts to a sinusoid two or more discrete amplitude le els. These are related to the number of le els adopted by the digital message. For a binary message sequence there are two le els, one of which is typically zero. Thus the modulated wa eform consists of bursts of a sinusoid. Figure below illustrates a binary ASK signal (lower), together with the binary sequence which initiated it (upper). Neither signal has been band-limited. There are sharp discontinuities shown at the transition points. These result in the signal ha ing an unnecessarily wide bandwidth. Band-limiting is generally introduced before transmission, in which case these discontinuities would be rounded off. The bandlimiting may be applied to the digital message, or the modulated signal itself. The data rate is often made a sub-multiple of the carrier frequency. This has been done in the of figure wa eform abo e. One of the disad antages of ASK, compared with FSK and
19

PSK, for example, is that it has not got a constant en elope. This makes its processing (eg, power amplification) more difficult, since linearity becomes an important factor. Howe er, it does make for ease of demodulation with an en elope detector. Encoding The simplest and most common form of ASK operates as a switch, using the presence of a carrier wa e to indicate a binary one and its absence to indicate a binary zero. This type of modulation is called on-off keying, and is used at radio frequencies to transmit Morse code (referred to as continuous wa e operation). More sophisticated encoding schemes ha e been de eloped which represent data in groups using additional amplitude le els. For instance, a four-le el encoding scheme can represent two bits with each shift in amplitude; an eight-le el scheme can represent three bits; and so on. These forms of amplitude-shift keying require a high signal-to-noise ratio for their reco ery, as by their nature much of the signal is transmitted at reduced power. Here is a diagram showing the ideal model for a transmission system using an ASK modulation:

It can be di ided into three blocks. The first one represents the transmitter, the second one is a linear model of the effects of the channel, the third one shows the structure of the recei er. The following notation is used:
y y y y y y

ht(t) is the carrier signal for the transmission hc(t) is the impulse response of the channel n(t) is the noise introduced by the channel hr(t) is the filter at the recei er L is the number of le els that are used for transmission Ts is the time between the generation of two symbols

Different symbols are represented with different oltages. If the maximum allowed alue for the oltage is A, then all the possible alues are in the range [A, A] and they are gi en by:
20

the difference between one oltage and the other is:

There are two types ASK, Binary A plitude-Shift Keying (BASK) A binary amplitude-shift keying (BASK) signal can be defined by s(t) = A m(t) cos 2fct, 0 < t< T where A is a constant, m(t) = 1 or 0, fc is the carrier frequency, and T is the bit duration. It has a power P = A2/2, so that A = 2P . Thus abo e equation can be written as s(t) = 2 cos 2fct, 0 < t < T

M-ary A plitude-Shift Keying ( M-ASK) An M-ary amplitude-shift keying (M-ASK) signal can be defined by s(t) =Ai cos2fct 0 tT =0 elsewhere where Ai = A[2i - (M - 1)] for i = 0, 1, ..., M - 1 and M > 4. Here, A is a constant, fc is the carrier frequency, and T is the symbol duration. The signal has a power Pi = Ai2/2, so that Ai = 2 i. Thus equation can be written as s(t) = (2 i) cos 2 fct, 0<t<T

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FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING(FSK)

INTRODUCTION Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wa e. The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK). BFSK literally implies using a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information. With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space frequency. The time domain of an FSK modulated carrier is illustrated in the figures gi en below. In Frequency Shift Keying, the modulating signals shift the output frequency between predetermined le els. Technically FSK has two classifications, the non-coherent and coherent FSK. In non-coherent FSK, the instantaneous frequency is shifted between two discrete alues named mark and space frequency, respecti ely. On the other hand, in coherent Frequency Shift Keying or binary FSK, there is no phase discontinuity in the output signal. FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) is also known as frequency shift modulation and frequency shift signalling. Frequency Shift Keying is a data signal con erted into a specific frequency or tone in order to transmit it o er wire, cable, optical fibre or wireless media to a destination point. The history of FSK dates back to the early 1900s, when this technique was disco ered and then used to work alongside teleprinters to transmit messages by radio (RTTY). But FSK, with some modifications, is still effecti e in many instances including the digital world where it is commonly used in conjunction with computers and low speed modems. In fact, the contributions of FSK are much more far reaching. For example, the principle of FSK has laid the path to the de elopment of other similar techniques such as the Audio Frequency Shift Keying (AFSK) and Multiple Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK) just to name a few.

22

The most basic (binary) form of FSK in ol es the process of arying the frequency of a carrier wa e by choosing one of two frequencies (binary FSK) in correspondence to a sequence of digital pulses that constitute the information signal. Two binary digits are represented by two frequencies around the carrier frequency. Amplitude remains fixed. In frequency-shift keying, the signals transmitted for marks (binary ones) and spaces (binary zeros) are, s1(t)= A cos( 1t+c) for 0<tT s2(t)= A cos( 2t+c) for 0<tT respecti ely. This is called a discontinuous phase FSK system, because the phase of the signal is discontinuous at the switching times.

1
Digital information Carrier 1 (frequency #1) Carrier 1 (frequency #1) FSK modulated signal

As its name suggests, a frequency shift keyed transmitter has its frequency shifted by the message. Although there could be more than two frequencies in ol ed in an FSK signal, in this experiment the message will be a binary bit stream, and so only two frequencies will be in ol ed. The word keyed suggests that the message is of the on-off (mark-space) ariety, such as one (historically) generated by a Morse key, or more likely in the present context, a binary sequence. The output from such a generator is illustrated in figure abo e. Conceptually, and in fact, the transmitter could consist of two oscillators (on frequencies f1 and f2), with only one being connected to the output at any one time.

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PHASE SHIFT KE ING

INTRODUCTION

Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing, or modulating, the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave). Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to represent digital data. PSK uses a finite number of phases; each assigned a unique pattern of binary digits. Usually, each phase encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is represented by the particular phase. The demodulator, which is designed specifically for the symbol -set used by the modulator, determines the phase of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol it represents, thus recovering the original data. This requires the receiver to be able to compare the pha se of the received signal to a reference signal such a system is termed coherent . Alternatively, instead of using the bit patterns to set the phase of the wave, it can instead be used to change it by a specified amount. The demodulator then determines the changes in the phase of the received signal rather than the phase itself. Since this scheme depends on the difference between successive phases, it is termed differential phase-shift keying (DPSK). DPSK can be significantly simpler to implement than ordinary PSK since there is no need for the demodulator to have a copy of the reference signal to determine the exact phase of the received signal (it is a non -coherent scheme). In exchange, it produces more erroneous demodulations. The exact requirements of the particular scenario under consideration determine which scheme is used. All convey data by changing some aspect of a base signal, the carrier wave (usually a sinusoid), in response to a data signal. In the case of PSK, the phase is changed to represent the data signal. There are two fundamental ways of utilizing the phase of a signal in this way:
y

By viewing the phase itself as conveying the information, in which case the demodulator must have a reference signal to c ompare the received signal's phase against; or By viewing the change in the phase as conveying information differential schemes, some of which do not need a reference carrier (to a certain extent).

A convenient way to represent PSK schemes is on a constellation diagram. This shows the points in the Argand plane where, in this context, the real and imaginary axes are termed the in-phase and quadrature axes respectively due to their 90 separation. Such a representation on perpendicular axes lends itself to
24

straightforward implementation. The amplitude of each point along the in-phase axis is used to modulate a cosine (or sine) wa e and the amplitude al ong the quadrature axis to modulate a sine (or cosine) wa e. In PSK, the constellation points chosen are usually positioned with uniform angular spacing around a circle. This gi es maximum phase-separation between adjacent points and thus the best immunity to corruption. They are positioned on a circle so that they can all be transmitted with the same energy. In this way, the moduli of the complex numbers they represent will be the same and thus so will the amplitudes needed for the cosine and sine wa es. Two common examples are "binary phase-shift keying" (BPSK) which uses two phases, and "quadrature phase-shift keying" (QPSK) which uses four phases, although any number of phases may be used. Since the data to be con eyed are usually binary, the PSK scheme is usually designed with the number of constellation points being a power of 2. 1. Binary Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK) BPSK (also sometimes called PRK, Phase Re ersal Keying, or 2PSK) is the simplest form of phase shift keying (PSK). It uses two phases which are separated by 180 and so can also be termed 2-PSK. It does not particularly matter exactly where the constellation points are positioned, and in this figure they are shown on the real axis, at 0 and 180. This modulation is the most robust of all the PSKs since it takes the highest le el of noise or distortion to make the demodulator reach an incorrect decision. It is, howe er, only able to modulate at 1 bit/symbol (as seen in the figure) and so is unsuitable for high datarate applications when bandwidth is limited. In the presence of an arbitrary phase-shift introduced by the communications channel, the demodulator is unable to tell which constellation point is which. As a result, the data is often differentially encoded prior to modulation. The general form for BPSK follows the equation:

Fig1: Constellation diagra exa ple for BPSK.

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2. Quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK) Sometimes this is known as quaternary PSK, quadriphase PSK, 4-PSK, or 4QAM. (Although the root concepts of QPSK and 4-QAM are different, the resulting modulated radio wa es are the exactly same.) QPSK uses four points on the constellation diagram, equispaced around a circle. With four phases, QPSK can encode two bits per symbol, shown in the diagram with gray coding to minimize the bit error rate (BER) sometimes mispercei ed as twice the BER of BPSK. The implementation of QPSK is more general than that of BPSK and also indicates the implementation of higher-order PSK. Writing the symbols in the constellation diagram in terms of the sine and cosine wa es used to transmit them:

This yields the four phases /4, 3/4, 5/4 and 7/4 as needed. This results in a two-dimensional signal space with unit basis functions

The first basis function is used as the in-phase component of the signal and the second as the quadrature component of the signal. Hence, the signal constellation consists of the signal-space 4 points

3. Differential phase-shift keying (DPSK) Differential phase shift keying (DPSK) is a common form of phase modulation that con eys data by changing the phase of the carrier wa e. As mentioned for BPSK and QPSK there is an ambiguity of phase if the constellation is rotated by some effect in the communications channel through which the signal passes. This problem can be o ercome by using the data to change rather than set the phase. For example, in differentially-encoded BPSK a binary '1' may be transmitted by adding 180 to the current phase and a binary '0' by adding 0 to the current
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phase. Another variant of DPSK is Symmetric Differential Phase Shift keying, SDPSK, where encoding would be +90 for a '1' a nd -90 for a '0'. In differentially-encoded QPSK (DQPSK), the phase -shifts are 0, 90, 180, 90 corresponding to data '00', '01', '11', '10'. This kind of encoding may be demodulated in the same way as for non-differential PSK but the phase ambiguities can be ignored. Thus, each received symbol is demodulated to one of the M points in the constellation and a comparator then computes the difference in phase between this received signal and the preceding one. The difference encodes the data as described above. Symmetric Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (SDQPSK) is like DQPSK, but encoding is symmetric, using phase shift values of -135, -45, +45 and +135. Using DPSK avoids the need for possibly complex carrier-recovery schemes to provide an accurate phase estimate and can be an attractive alternative to ordinary PSK.

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QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

INTRODUCTION Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is both an analog and a digital modulation scheme. It con eys two analog message signals, or two digital bit streams, by changing (modulating) the amplitudes of two carrier wa es, using the amplitude-shift keying (ASK) digital modulation scheme or amplitude modulation (AM) analog modulation scheme. These two wa es, usually sinusoids, are out of phase with each other by 90 and are thus called quadrature carriers or quadrature components hence the name of the scheme. The modulated wa es are summed, and the resulting wa eform is a combination of both phaseshift keying (PSK) and amplitude-shift keying (ASK), or in the analog case of phase modulation (PM) and amplitude modulation. In the digital QAM case, a finite number of at least two phases, and at least two amplitudes are used. PSK modulators are often designed using the QAM principle, but are not considered as QAM since the amplitude of the modulated carrier signal is constant. QAM is used extensi ely as a modulation scheme for digital telecommunication systems. 1.Digital QAM Like all modulation schemes, QAM con eys data by changing some aspect of a carrier signal, or the carrier wa e, (usually a sinusoid) in response to a data signal. In the case of QAM, the amplitude of two wa es, 90 degrees out-of-phase with each other (in quadrature) are changed (modulated or keyed) to represent the data signal. Amplitude modulating two carriers in quadrature can be equi alently iewed as both amplitude modulating and phase modulating a single carrier. Phase modulation (analog PM) and phase-shift keying (digital PSK) can be regarded as a special case of QAM, where the magnitude of the modulating signal is a constant, with only the phase arying. This can also be extended to frequency modulation (FM) and frequency-shift keying (FSK), for these can be regarded as a special case of phase modulation. 2.Analog QAM When using QAM modulation, the transmitted signal will be of the form: , through trigonometric identities we find that

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, where I(t) and Q(t) are the modulating signals and f0 is the carrier frequency. Analog QAM is used in NTSC and PAL tele ision systems, where the I- and Qsignals carry the components of chroma (colour) information. "Compatible QAM" or C-QUAM is used in AM stereo radio to carry the stereo difference information. 3.Rectangular QAM Rectangular QAM constellations are, in general, sub-optimal in the sense that they do not maximally space the constellation points for a gi en energy. Howe er, they ha e the considerable ad antage that they may be easily transmitted as two pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) signals on quadrature carriers, and can be easily demodulated. The non-square constellations, dealt with below, achie e marginally better bit-error rate (BER) but are harder to modulate and demodulate. The first rectangular QAM constellation usually encountered is 16-QAM, the constellation diagram for which is shown here. A Gray coded bit-assignment is also gi en. The reason that 16-QAM is usually the first is Constellation diagra for rectangular 16-QAM. that a brief consideration re eals that 2-QAM and 4-QAM are in fact binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) and quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), respecti ely. Also, the error-rate performance of 8-QAM is close to that of 16-QAM (only about 0.5 dB better), but its data rate is only three-quarters that of 16-QAM. 4.Non-Rectangular QAM It is the nature of QAM that most orders of constellations can be constructed in many different ways and it is neither possible nor instructi e to co er them all here. The diagram of circular QAM constellation is shown, for 16-QAM. The circular 8-QAM constellation is known to be the optimal 8-QAM constellation in the sense of requiring the least mean power for a gi en minimum Euclidean distance. The 16-QAM constellation is suboptimal although the optimal one may be
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constructed along the same lines as the 8-QAM constellation. The circular constellation highlights the relationship between QAM and PSK. Other orders of constellation may be constructed along similar (or ery different) lines. It is consequently hard to establish expressions for the error rates of nonrectangular QAM since it necessarily depends on the constellation. Ne ertheless, an ob ious upper bound to the rate is related to the minimum Euclidean distance of the constellation (the shortest straight-line distance between two points):

Constellation diagra for circular 16-QAM.

. Again, the bit-error rate will depend on the assignment of bits to symbols. Although, in general, there is a non-rectangular constellation that is optimal for a particular M, they are not often used since the rectangular QAMs are much easier to modulate and demodulate. Interference and noise In mo ing to a higher order QAM constellation (higher data rate and mode) in hostile RF/microwa e QAM application en ironments, such as in broadcasting or telecommunications, interference ( ia multipath) typically increases. Reduced noise immunity due to constellation separation makes it difficult to achie e theoretical performance thresholds. There are se eral test parameter measurements which help determine an optimal QAM mode for a specific operating en ironment. The following three are most significant:
y y y

Carrier/interference ratio Carrier-to-noise ratio Threshold-to-noise ratio

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References
     


www.google.com Electronics For You magazine Principals of Telecommunication www.analogmodulationwikipedia.com www.digitalmodulationwikipedia.com Fundamentals of C ommunication www.modulationencylopedia.com

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