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Mechanical Fasteners

JOINING PROCESSES

Riveted Joints Synthetic Adhesives

Welded Structures

Basics of Welding
Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material (with or without of a similar composition and melting point as the base metal) to form a pool of molten material (the weld puddle) that cools to become a strong joint. Pressure may sometimes be applied in conjunction with the heat, or by itself to produce the weld. Welding can be done using different energy sources, from a gas flame or electric arc to a laser or ultrasound. Welding cannot be done with all types of metals, as some materials, such as stainless steel, are prone to cracking and distortion when overheated.

Offshore oil platform

Shipyard

Welded joints

Refineries

Basics of Welding
Autogenous: Same Base metal without Filler Homogenous: Same Base Metal with Base Filler metal Heterogeneous: Dissimilar Materials with filler material which has
melting point temperature less than parant material

Joint Types

Weldability :
It is the property of the metal which indicates the ease with which it can be welded by any welding method.

Factors affecting weldability

Composition Brittleness and strength at elevated temp. Thermal properties Weldling Techniques Heat treatment before and after the welding

Weldability of metals in decreasing order:Iron, Carbon Steel, Cast Iron, Low Alloy Steel,Stainless Steel

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Joint Design

Welding Positions
INCREASING DIFFICULTY

BUTT JOINT FILLET JOINT STRAP JOINT

FLAT HORIZONTAL

OVERHEAD

VERTICAL
LAP JOINT CORNER JOINT

TYPES
Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding
The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and forced together by external pressure (Ex) Resistance welding

Classification of welding processes:

(i). Arc welding Carbon arc Metal arc Metal inert gas Tungsten inert gas Plasma arc Submerged arc Electro-slag (ii). Gas Welding
Oxy-acetylene Air-acetylene Oxy-hydrogen (iv)Thermit Welding (v)Solid State Welding

Friction Ultrasonic Diffusion Explosive

(vi)Newer Welding Electron-beam Laser (vii)Related Process Oxy-acetylene cutting Arc cutting Hard facing Brazing Soldering

Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding

The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify (Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding

(iii). Resistance Welding Butt Spot Seam Projection Percussion

Arc Welding
Electrons liberated from the cathode move towards the anode and are accelerated in their movement. When they strike the anode at high velocity, large amount of heat is generated. The electrons are moving through the air gap between the electrodes, also called the arc column, they collide with the ions in the ionized gas column between the electrodes. The positively charged ions, moving from the anode and would be impinging on the cathode, thus liberating heat. A temperature of the order of 6000 C is generated at the anode.

Arc welding
Equipment for arc welding includes the power source, cables (leads), electrode holder, electrodes, cleaning accessories, tools to handle hot metals, and protective clothing. Power Sources Arc welding equipment are available in a large range of sizes and power ratings (rated according to their current output). Welding machines in the school shop/lab range from 100 to 250 amperes. Power supply is either direct current (dc) or alternating current (ac). Direct current is electric current that flows only in one direction. Alternating current is electricity that reverses its direction of flow in regular intervals. .

ELECTRODE COATING CORE WIRE WELDING ATMOSPHERE ARC STREAM ARC POOL SOLIDIFIED SLAG PENETRATION DEPTH WELD BASE METAL

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Types of Arc Welding

Depending On the Types of Electrode A. Un-Shielded Arc Welding:- Use of Bare Electrodes B. Shielded Arc Welding:- Use of Coated Electrodes Depending on the Power Source A. AC Arc Welding:
Receives supply at 220 to 440 Volts and transforms it to less than 100 Volts with Step Down transformer in order to strike arc and to maintain it.

Welding Electrodes
Types of electrodes
1. 2.
a. b. c.

Bare or non coated electrodes Coated electrodes

Lightly coated Medium Coated Heavy Coated

B.

DC Arc Welding:

Light and medium coated may have thickness from 10 to 50 percent of total diameter and heavily coated may have above 50 percent. The standard diameter of the electrode varies from 1.6 mm to 9 mm and length from 250 to 450 mm

The voltage required is 60-80 Volts for striking the arc and 15-25 to maintain the arc. 1. Straight Polarity:-Job to Positive Terminal and Electrode to Negative Terminal. 6075% heat is produced at the positive terminal. 2. Reversed Polarity: Job to Negative terminal and Electrode to Positive terminal.

Contents and Functions.

Gives off an inert or protective gas eg. Wood floor Form the slag , which helps to remove oxides and other impurities eg Silicate, manganese oxide etc. Stabilizes the arc eg titanium oxide, sodium oxide etc Add alloying element to improve the strenth of welded joint e.g. vanadium, cobalt, molybdenum etc Form the deoxidising constituents eg. Graphite, alluminium, etc. Binding materials eg. Sodium silicate, asbestos etc.

Cables (Leads) Arc welding cables are heavy-duty, flexible, rubber-coated copper or aluminum cables designed to take the rough handling they receive in a welding shop. Two cables or leads carry the current through a complete circuit. An electrode holder is attached to one cable. The second cable is fitted to the ground clamp. The clamp is mounted to the work or to the welding table Electrode Holder The electrode holder provides a means of gripping the electrode firmly and good electrical contact. Ground Clamp A ground clamp provides the means to make a solid, electrically-sound ground connection with the work or welding table.

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) GMAW, is similar to GTAW in that the weld area is also protected from atmospheric contamination by a stream of inert gas. In GMAW the electrode melts and contributes filler metal to the joint. GMAW is also called metal inert gas or MIG welding .

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Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FGAW) FGAW is a gas shielded welding process similar to GMAW. FGAW melts and joins metals by heating them with an arc between a continuous, consumable electrode wire and the work. The main difference is that the FGAW electrode is hollow, rather than solid. Shielding is obtained from a flux contained within the electrode core. A shielding gas may or may not also be used. SAW is an arc welding technique that does not produce smoke arc rays, radiant heat, or spatter. The consumable, bare metal electrode is shielded by a blanket of flux covering the weld area. To weld, the operator fills the flux hopper and points the gun into the joint and then allows a pile of flux to accumulate before striking an arc under the flux. Once the arc is struck, the electrode automatically feeds into the arc as the gun is moved over the joint.

Resistance Welding Resistance welding refers to a group of welding techniques using pressure, an electric current, electrical resistance of the work, and the resulting heat to join metal sections. An electric circuit is produced by the welding device and the work. Resistance spot welding (RSW) is the best known of the resistance welding techniques.

Resistance Welding

Resistance Spot welding

Essentially consists of two electrodes, out of which one is fixed. The other electrode is fixed to a rocker arm (to provide mechanical advantage) for transmitting the mechanical force from a pneumatic cylinder. This is the simplest type of arrangement. The other possibility is that of a pneumatic or hydraulic cylinder being directly connected to the electrode without any rocker arm

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PROJECTION WELDING
Projection welding is very similar to spot welding except that in it, embossments or projections of the parts themselves localize the current flow from one piece to the other. The projected metal is heated sufficiently to soften and fuse it to the mating part. No fluxes or filler material is required. Projection welds are not limited to sheet material. Forgings, castings, machined parts, etc. can be welded this way; the only requirement is a pre-formed projection or embossment on one of the workpieces. Projection welding is considerably faster than spot welding because multiple welds can be made simultaneously. Typical uses Office furniture (file cabinets, desks, bookcases, etc.), appliance housings (refrigerator cabinets, stoves, toasters, freezers, etc.), automobile components (chassis, body panels, doors, etc.), aircraft assemblies and farm assemblies

BUTT WELDING
In flash welding, the parts are brought together with only a slight pressure against one another or are kept slightly apart. Electrodes are clamped to each part and heavy current is made to pass through them. Arcing takes place where the parts come together and the whole area of the ends is raised to a high temperature. Heavy pressure is then applied to the two parts forcing them together where they fuse when the current is stopped. A thin fin around the joint is formed and this normally contains any metal oxides, leaving only sound metal in the weld. No fluxes or filler material is required. Typical uses Widely used throughout the industry for joining sections and bars and for attaching fittings to rods and sections. Used for automobile transmission gear and wheel rims, aircraft engine rings, window frames and steel rails.
Upset Butt Welding

SEAM WELDING
In seam welding, circular wheel-like electrodes press the overlapping sheets to be welded together and while rolling conduct a series of high current-low voltage pulses to the work. These produce overlapping spot welds which become a continuous seam. No fluxes or filler material is required. The electrodes are made of low resistance copper alloy and are watercooled. Typical uses Applications where fluid-carrying ability and pressure tightness is required; for example, fuel tanks for vehicles, refrigerator evaporator coils, ductwork, drums, cans, aircraft and aero engine parts, automobile components and domestic equipment.

Seam welding