MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THEIR IMPACT Kelly DeVries Robert D. S it!

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Copyright 200 by ABC!CLIO, In"# All right$ re$erved# %o part of thi$ p&bli"ation 'ay be reprod&"ed, $tored in a retrieval $y$te', or tran$'itted, in any for' or by any 'ean$, ele"troni", 'e"hani"al, photo"opying, re"ording, or other(i$e, ex"ept for the in"l&$ion of brief )&otation$ in a revie(, (itho&t prior per'i$$ion in (riting fro' the p&bli$her$# Library of Congre$$ Cataloging!in!*&bli"ation Data De+rie$, ,elly, -./01 2edieval (eapon$ 3 an ill&$trated hi$tory of their i'pa"t 4 ,elly De+rie$ and 5obert D# S'ith# p# "'# ! 67eapon$ and (arfare $erie$8 In"l&de$ bibliographi"al referen"e$ and index# ISB%!-03 -!9/-0.!/20!9 6hard "opy 3 al:# paper8 ISB%!-03 -!9/-0.!/;-!< 6eboo:8 ISB%!-;3 . 9!-!9/-0.!/20!- 6hard "opy 3 al:# paper8 ISB%!-;3 . 9!-!9/-0.!/;-!/ 6eboo:8 -# 2ilitary (eapon$ ! E&rope ! =i$tory ! >o -/00# 2# 2ilitary art and $"ien"e ! E&rope ! =i$tory ! 2edieval, /00!-/00# I# S'ith, 5obert D# 65obert Do&gla$8, -./<1 II# >itle# ?9-0#D<9 200 02;#<0.<@0.02 ! d"22 2000-02-02 -- -0 0. 09 0 -0 . 9 0 / < ; 2 *rod&"tion Editor3 +i":i 2oran Editorial A$$i$tant3 Sara Springer *rod&"tion 2anager3 Don S"h'idt 2edia Editor3 A# 5# 7ither$ 2edia 5e$o&r"e$ Coordinator3 Ellen Brenna Do&gherty 2edia 5e$o&r"e$ 2anager3 Caroline *ri"e Bile 2anage'ent Coordinator3 *a&la Cerard >hi$ boo: i$ al$o available on the 7orld 7ide 7eb a$ an eBoo:# +i$it ab"!"lio#"o' for detail$# ABC!CLIO, In"# -;0 Cre'ona Drive, *#O# Box -.-Santa Barbara, California .;--01-.->hi$ boo: i$ printed on a"id!free paper# () 2an&fa"t&red in the ?nited State$ of A'eri"a

CONTENTS
Introduction to Weapons and Warfare Series, Spen"er C# >&":er vii Introduction to Medieval Weapons ix Acknowledgments xiii C=A*>E5 O%E >he Early 2iddle Age$, ; 01 /0 -

>he Carolingian Era, /01-0/0 <. C=A*>E5 >=5EE >he Cr&$ade$, -0/01-;00 9. C=A*>E5 BO?5 >he Late 2iddle Age$, -;001-//0 -<; CO%CL?SIO%S 2-ILL?S>5A>IO%S 2CLOSSA5D 2.BIBLIOC5A*=D ;0; I%DEE ;-; ABO?> >=E A?>=O5S ;;/
C=A*>E5 >7O

INTRODUCTION TO WEAPONS AND WARFARE SERIES

7EA*O%S BO>= BASCI%A>E A%D 5E*EL# >hey are &$ed to :ill and 'ai' individ&al$ and to de$troy $tate$ and $o"ietie$, and o""a$ionally (hole "iviliFation$, and (ith the$e the greate$t of 'anG$ "&lt&ral and arti$ti" a""o'pli$h'ent$# >hro&gho&t hi$tory tool$ of (ar have been the in$tr&'ent$ of "on)&e$t, inva$ion, and en$lave'ent, b&t they have al$o been &$ed to "he": evil and to 'aintain pea"e# 7eapon$ have evolved over ti'e to be"o'e both 'ore lethal and 'ore "o'plex# Bor the greater part of h&'an exi$ten"e, "o'bat (a$ fo&ght at the length of an ar' or at $&"h $hort range a$ to repre$ent no real differen"eH battle (a$ fo&ght (ithin line of $ight and $eldo' la$ted 'ore than the ho&r$ of daylight of a $ingle day# >h&$ individ&al (eapon$ that began (ith the ro": and the "l&b pro"eeded thro&gh the $ling and boo'erang, bo( and arro(, $(ord and axe, to g&npo(der (eapon$ of the rifle and 'a"hine g&n of the late nineteenth "ent&ry# St&dy of the evol&tion of the$e (eapon$ tell$ &$ '&"h abo&t h&'an ingen&ity, the te"hnology of the ti'e, and the $o"ietie$ that prod&"ed the'# >he greater part of te"hnologi"al develop'ent of (eaponry ha$ ta:en part in the la$t t(o "ent&rie$, e$pe"ially the t(entieth "ent&ry# In thi$ pro"e$$, plo($hare$ have been beaten into $(ord$H the tan:, for exa'ple, evolved fro' the agri"&lt&ral "aterpillar tra"tor# O""a$ionally, the pro"e$$ i$ rever$ed and 'ilitary te"hnology ha$ i'pa"ted $o"iety in a po$itive (ay# >h&$ 'odern "ivilian 'edi"ine ha$ greatly benefited fro' advan"e$ to $ave $oldier$G live$, and (eapon$ te"hnology ha$ i'pa"ted $&"h area$ a$ "ivilian tran$portation or ato'i" po(er# 7eapon$ "an have a profo&nd i'pa"t on $o"iety# C&npo(der (eapon$, for exa'ple, (ere an i'portant fa"tor in ending the era of the ar'ed :night and the Be&dal Age# >hey in$talled a :ind of ro&gh de'o"ra"y on the battlefield, 'a:ing Iall 'en ali:e tall#J 7e "an only (onder (hat effe"t (eapon$ of 'a$$ de$tr&"tion 672D8 'ight have on o&r o(n ti'e and "iviliFation# >hi$ $erie$ (ill tra"e the evol&tion of a variety of :ey (eapon$ $y$te'$, de$"ribe the 'aKor "hange$ that o""&rred in ea"h, and ill&$trate and identify the :ey type$# Ea"h vol&'e begin$ (ith a de$"ription of the parti"&lar (eapon$ $y$te' and tra"e$ it$ evol&tion, (hile di$"&$$ing it$ hi$tori"al, $o"ial, and politi"al "ontext$# >hi$ i$ follo(ed by a heavily ill&$trated $e"tion that i$ arranged 'ore or le$$ along "hronologi"al line$ that provide$ 'ore pre"i$e infor'ation on at lea$t eighty :ey variant$ of that parti"&lar (eapon$ $y$te'# Ea"h vol&'e "ontain$ a glo$$ary of ter'$, a bibliography of leading boo:$ on that parti"&lar $&bKe"t, and an index# Individ&al vol&'e$ in the $erie$, ea"h (ritten by a $pe"iali$t in that parti"&lar area of experti$e, are a$ follo($3 Air"raft Carrier$ 2edieval 7eapon$ An"ient 7eapon$ 2ilitary Air"raft, Origin$ to -.-9 Artillery 2ilitary Air"raft, -.-.1-.</ Balli$ti" 2i$$ile$ 2ilitary Air"raft in the Aet Age Battle$hip$ *i$tol$ Cr&i$er$ and Battle Cr&i$er$ 5ifle$ De$troyer$ S&b'arine$ =eli"opter$ >an:$ 2a"hine C&n$ 7e hope that thi$ $erie$ (ill be of (ide intere$t to $pe"iali$t$, re$ear"her$, and even general reader$#

Spencer C. Tucker Serie$ Editor

INTRODUCTION TO MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

7=A>E+E5 O%EGS *OLI>ICAL O5 *E5SO%AL BEELI%CS, it i$ &ndeniable that (arfare i$ ende'i" in the "&lt&re$ of the (orld ! people have al(ay$ fo&ght one another for po(er, pre$tige, property, and4or infl&en"e# Into the pa$t, one "an tra"e the develop'ent of (arfare fro' individ&al "o'bat, (arrior to (arrior, to "onfli"t$ fo&ght at greater and greater di$tan"e$# Blint arro(head$ and :nive$ be"a'e bronFe $pearhead$ and axe$, (hi"h be"a'e iron $(ord$ and "ro$$bo( bolt$, (hi"h be"a'e pi:e$ and g&n$, (hi"h be"a'e todayG$ advan"ed (eapon $y$te'$ de$igned to hit target$ at long di$tan"e ! atta":ing fro' ten$ of 'ile$ a(ay or, (ith inter"ontinental 'i$$ile$, fro' a"ro$$ the globe# >hi$ boo: (ill o&tline the (eapon$ &$ed fro' the fall of the 5o'an E'pire to the 5enai$$an"e ! fro' the $pear and $(ord to the handg&n and fro' the 'ail $hirt to the f&lly ar'ored :night# It i$ $o'eti'e$ $aid that (arfare i$ the for"e that drive$ te"hnology a$ 'anG$ de$ire to "on$tantly i'prove (eapon$ and prote"tion fro' atta": i$ the pri'ary i'pet&$ for "hange# 7hile thi$ need to "on$tantly find better for'$ of atta":ing oneG$ ene'y and prote"ting one$elf ha$ been a 'aKor $p&r to "hange, it (o&ld be (rong to believe there i$ a dire"t and deter'ini$ti" lin:# Advan"e$ in te"hnology (ere, of "o&r$e, exploited by the 'ilitary and &$ed (herever po$$ible, b&t it i$ in"orre"t to believe the t(o (ere inextri"ably lin:ed# Only o""a$ionally, for exa'ple the develop'ent of "a$t!iron "annon in England in the -/<0$, are there expli"it exa'ple$ of the de$ire to develop te"hnologie$ for (arli:e p&rpo$e$, and here it i$ do&btf&l (hether the "hange (a$ an Ii'prove'entJ or (a$ driven by e"ono'i" and 'onetary end$# It i$ tr&e, ho(ever, to $ay that (eapon$ and te"hnology did, and $till do, have 'any lin:$ and "onne"tion$, (hi"h 'a:e a $t&dy of the t(o i'portant# Cave painting$, the earlie$t ill&$tration$ of 'anG$ behavior, $ho( early 'an ar'ed (ith a variety of (eapon$# 7hile it i$ tr&e that 'o$t of the$e are h&nting $"ene$, $ho(ing 'an again$t bea$t, $o'e depi"t 'en fighting 'en $&gge$ting that (arfare ha$ been ende'i" $in"e the da(n of ti'e# In the$e ill&$tration$ the $oldier$, to &$e the ter' that (o&ld later be applied to their o""&pation, are ar'ed (ith $pear$, "l&b$, and r&di'entary bo($, a 'ean$ of fighting (ar$ that (o&ld re'ain &n"hanged &ntil the large!$"ale adoption of g&npo(der (eapon$ after -/00# >he (eapon$ the'$elve$ i'proved and diver$ified, and $o'e $oldier$ (o&ld be"o'e $pe"iali$t$, in"l&ding tho$e (ho fo&ght on 'o&nt$ ! hor$e$, "a'el$, and elephant$ ! b&t e$$entially the "ategorie$ of (eapon$ re'ained the $a'e3 handheld (eapon$ and "lo$e!range and long!range 'i$$ile (eapon$# A$ (arfare be"a'e 'ore and 'ore "o''on, the$e earlie$t h&'an$, (ho $ee', li:e their de$"endant$, to have been e$pe"ially partial to hand!to!hand "o'bat, the de$ire for in"rea$ed defen$e developed# *rote"tion of the v&lnerable tor$o and head en"o&raged the develop'ent of ar'or# Altho&gh not often depi"ted, a fe( "ave painting$ $ho( $oldier$ (ho are o&tfitted (ith thi":er arti"le$ of "lothing and head(ear than other$, (hi"h $o'e have de$"ribed a$ (i":er or bar: ar'or# A nat&ral progre$$ion to portable defen$e$, or $hield$, $ee'$ to have follo(ed $hortly# E'erging fro' the an"ient (orld (a$ the large$t politi"al entity before the 'odern era, the 5o'an E'pire# 5o'e extended it$ bo&ndarie$ beyond Italy thro&gho&t the 2editerranean, the 2iddle Ea$t, and 7e$tern E&rope &$ing ar'ie$ of &nparalleled $iFe and $trength to over(hel' previo&$ inhabitant$, and &$ing (eapon$ and ar'or hardly "hanged in p&rpo$e fro' tho$e $een in the "ave painting$# B&t the$e ar'$ and ar'or, tied into a $y$te' of e"ono'i" &nity and pro$perity and "o'bined (ith a $trong "entraliFed politi"al and 'ilitary "ontrol, good leader$hip, and di$"ipline, enabled the 5o'an$ to "reate 'ilitary for"e$, both reg&lar and irreg&lar ar'ie$, that (ere able to "on)&er their opponent$, even tho$e &$ing $i'ilar (eapon$# 7hen brea:do(n did o""&r, the IfallJ of the 5o'an E'pire (a$ $i'ilarly not tied to the $&perior &$e of 'ilitary te"hnology by tho$e (ho defeated 5o'e, b&t to a "ollap$e of that "entral 5o'an "ontrol and 'ilitary &nity, di$"ipline, and leader$hip# Bro' the re'nant$ of the 7e$tern 5o'an E'pire ! the Ea$tern be"a'e the ByFantine E'pire ! gre( 7e$tern E&ropeG$ 'edieval :ingdo'$# >he$e fir$t appeared a$ tribal $tate$ na'ed after their barbarian "on)&eror$ ! O$trogothi" Italy, +i$igothi" Spain, Bran:i$h Ca&l ! and later, after the divi$ion of Charle'agneG$ &nited :ingdo' by hi$ grand$on$, into the =oly 5o'an E'pire 6Cer'any8, Bran"e, the Italian State$, and the Lo( Co&ntrie$, (ith bordering land$ ! England, Spain, and S"andinavia ! 'ilitarily, diplo'ati"ally, and e"ono'i"ally tied to the'# 7hat the fall of the 5o'an E'pire doe$ 'ar: i$ a tran$ition in the pop&lation of E&rope# Bor the next fe(

"ent&rie$ intera"tion$ bet(een 'igrating people$ too: the for' of (arfare, initially (ith the inva$ion$ of large barbarian for"e$ and their fa'ilie$ fro' over the 5hine and Dan&be 5iver$ and a"ro$$ the %orth Sea, and then (ith the $ettle'ent raid$ of +i:ing$, =&ngarian$, and 2&$li'$# By the t&rn of the fir$t 'illenni&', the border$ of E&rope had been redra(n, and the earlier 'igrating people$ had be"o'e IE&ropean$#J Confident in their "iviliFation and religion, the$e E&ropean$ "onvin"ed the'$elve$ to "o'bine their 'ilitarie$ in p&rpo$e and leader$hip to atte'pt to reta:e the =oly Land and Spain fro' the 2&$li'$ (ho had o""&pied the' for "lo$e to /00 year$# In Spain, the "r&$ade$ event&ally re'oved 2&$li'$ fro' "ontrol, altho&gh not before -<.2# B&t in the 2iddle Ea$t they (ere doo'ed to fail&re a$ lo"al Kealo&$ie$ and national $elf!intere$t$ too: their toll# >here follo(ed a period of inten$e internal $trife and inter!E&ropean $tate "onfli"t that 'ar:$ the traditional divi$ion bet(een the 2iddle Age$ and the Early 2odern period, even tho&gh it did not end in -/00 and, indeed, "ontin&ed into the t(entieth "ent&ry#

ACKNOWLED"MENTS
>=IS BOO, CO?LD %O> =A+E BEE% (ritten (itho&t the help and a$$i$tan"e of 'any "olleag&e$ and friend$ (ho, over the year$, have been in$tr&'ental in the develop'ent of the :no(ledge of the a&thor$ and to all (e o(e a debt of gratit&de and friend$hip# Si'ilarly, (e '&$t than: the 'any librarie$ and '&$e&'$ that have enabled &$ to broaden and $harpen o&r :no(ledge# *arti"&lar than:$ are d&e to 5&th 5hyna$ Bro(n (ho $erved a$ both the pi"t&re re$ear"her a$ (ell a$ the provider of the $&pport net(or: that enabled the a&thor$ to (or: together# >he 2idgely fa'ily of 2en$ton, 7e$t Dor:$hire, on"e again opened their ho'e and their heart$# And, finally, to Barbara 2iddleton (ho ha$ al(ay$ ind&lged the fre)&ent over$ea$ trip$ of her h&$band, ,elly, a $pe"ial than:$ i$ o(ed# %o do&bt $he ha$ al$o enKoyed the $olit&de and )&ietL

CHAPTER ONE

T!e E#rly Mi$$le A%es& '()*(+,

=IS>O5D
>he relation$hip bet(een tho$e living (ithin the border$ of the 5o'an E'pire and tho$e living (itho&t (a$ never pea"ef&l# Even (hen 5o'an politi"al and 'ilitary leader$ did not $end ar'ie$ into the$e neighboring land$ (ith the intent to extend the E'pire, it$ border$ (ere never entirely $e"&re# >he (ealth of the 5o'an E'pire (a$ "oveted by tho$e &nable to ta:e dire"t advantage of it# >hi$ led to fre)&ent border raid$, for"ing the 5o'an$ to b&ild an exten$ive $erie$ of fortifi"ation$ along '&"h of their border$ and $tation a large 'ilitary pre$en"e along the'# Even (hen nat&ral hindran"e$ to 'ilitary a"tivity (ere pre$ent, $&"h a$ the 5hine and Dan&be river$, the Saharan and A$ia 2inor de$ert$, and the %orth Sea, fortifi"ation$ (ere b&ilt and garri$oned# At the be$t of ti'e$, a fragile pea"e (a$ 'aintained# So'eti'e$ barbarian people$ (ere even allo(ed in$ide the border$ of the 5o'an E'pire, to $ettle in le$$ pop&lated area$ or on le$$ habitable terrain and to $erve in the 'ilitary a$ 'er"enarie$# >hey (ere :no(n a$ foederati or "onfederate$, b&t it $ee'$ that their pre$en"e (a$ never entirely (el"o'ed, and they (ere al'o$t al(ay$ treated (ith $&$pi"ion by the 5o'an$ the'$elve$# A$ early a$ the fir$t "ent&ry, the re$pe"ted (riter >a"it&$ reported on tho$e (ho lived a"ro$$ the 5hine and Dan&be# Cer'an$, a$ he "alled the' in hi$ (or: !erma"nia (ere hard!(or:ing, fa'ily!oriented people (ho$e la": of "iviliFation (a$ 'ore than 'ade &p for by their loyalty and 'ilitary "apabilitie$# >hey (ere to be feared, he (arned in an al'o$t propheti" voi"e, be"a&$e they (o&ld be a for'idable foe $ho&ld 5o'e "ontin&e to de"line# >a"it&$ did not identify the$e Cer'an$ by the na'e$ they (o&ld event&ally be"o'e :no(n to the 5o'an$# %or did he :no( of the exi$ten"e of the non!Cer'an people$ (ho invaded their land$, p&$hing the Cer'an$ in a do'ino!li:e fa$hion, farther (e$t and $o&th# By the third "ent&ry, ho(ever, 'o$t 5o'an$ :ne( abo&t the' a$ their raid$ be"a'e ever 'ore fre)&ent, and fro' 2;/ to 209 AD they penetrated deeper into on"e! $e"&re 5o'an territory than ever before# 7ith the death of E'peror Alexander Sever&$ in 2;/ AD, $table govern'ent (a$ repla"ed by 'ilitary anar"hy and ad'ini$trative "hao$# E'peror$ did not la$t long, 'eeting nat&ral or &nnat&ral death$ in )&i": $&""e$$ion# Bre)&ently, one ar'y and it$ "andidate for e'peror (o&ld 'ar"h to Italy only to be oppo$ed by another ar'y (ith it$ "ontender "andidate for e'peror# >he previo&$ly al'o$t i'pervio&$ defen$e$ of the E'pire (ere (ea:ened and left open to raiding ar'ie$ of barbarian$

deter'ined to pl&nder the ri"he$ of the E'pire# In 2<., the Coth$, a Cer'ani" tribe fro' a"ro$$ the Dan&be, bro:e over the river and invaded the Bal:an$# In 2/0, the Bran:$, (ho lived a"ro$$ the 5hine, "ro$$ed it to atta": Ca&l, (hile at the $a'e ti'e the Saxon$, al$o fro' the Cer'ani" 5hineland, "ro$$ed the Engli$h Channel and raided the $hore$ of Britain# >he border$ of the E'pire (ere being "hallenged every(here# In 2/0, the Borani, a tribe living in $o&thern 5&$$ia, raided the ea$tern "oa$t of the Bla": Sea, and in that $a'e year the Sa$$anid *er$ian$ fro' 2e$opota'ia overran Ar'enia and Syria and in 200 even "apt&red and i'pri$oned the inept E'peror +alerian# So'eti'e$ the 5o'an$ (ere able to rep&l$e the$e inva$ion$, b&t their vi"torie$ (ere too fe( to :eep o&t the flood of barbarian tribe$# By 202, the Coth$ had "o'pletely ta:en over northern Cree"e a$ far $o&th a$ Athen$, altho&gh they (ere not a"t&ally able to enter the to(n and (ere event&ally driven ba":# In 209, another Cer'ani" tribe, the =er&li, repeated the feat of the Coth$, only thi$ ti'e "apt&ring and $a":ing Athen$# ?lti'ately, $&"h raid$ and inva$ion$ re$&lted in an exa'ination of the E'pireG$ defen$e$ and 'ilitary prioritie$# >he provin"e of Da"ia 6'odern 5o'ania8, &nprote"ted by nat&ral bo&ndarie$, (a$ abandoned# Bortifi"ation$ along the border$ (ere reb&ilt and $trengthened, and ne( (all$ (ere "on$tr&"ted to prote"t the larger, pop&lated area$ of the 5o'an E'pire# >hi$ in"l&ded b&ilding a fortified (all aro&nd 5o'e it$elfH the A&relian (all, na'ed after the e'peror &nder (ho$e initiative it (a$ "on$tr&"ted, (a$ -2 'ile$ in "ir"&'feren"e 620 :ilo'eter$8, -2 feet thi": 6< 'eter$8, and 20 feet high 60#/ 'eter$8# De$igned not to (ith$tand a lengthy $iege, b&t to hold ba": a raid of barbarian$, it in"l&ded ;- fortified gate$ and to(er$, all e)&ipped (ith artillery# B&t the inexorable de'i$e of 5o'e had beg&n# De$pite (hat $ee'ed li:e a $en$ible 'ilitary reorganiFation and divi$ion of politi"al po(er by E'peror Dio"letian, the di$agree'ent$ of hi$ "oe'per!or$ and $&""e$$or$ led to year$ of "ivil (ar, (hi"h re$&lted in the re'oval of 'o$t 5o'an frontier troop$# In ;;0, Con$tantine, the event&al (inner of the$e "onfli"t$, tried to bol$ter an E'pire, that he in large part (a$ to bla'e for (ea:ening, by 'oving hi$ "apital a(ay fro' Italy to the ea$t, and reb&ilding a $'all A$ia 2inor to(n, ByFanti&', later to be "alled Con$tantinople# Did he believe the poorer, 'ore v&lnerable, (e$tern part of the 5o'an E'pire "o&ld be allo(ed to fall to invader$ (hile the ri"her, 'ore defen$ible ea$tern part $ho&ld be prote"tedM At Con$tantineG$ death in ;; the E'pire $till held together, tho&gh only ten&o&$ly# Borty year$ later, &nder E'peror +alen$, the fir$t gro&p of barbarian tribe$, the +i$igoth$, de$"endant$ of the third!"ent&ry Coth$ (ho had invaded the E'pire, $&""e$$f&lly brea"hed the I'perial defen$e$ and re'ained, never to ret&rn or be for"ed ba": a"ro$$ the Dan&be 5iver to their old land$# =o(ever, thi$ brea"h (a$ in$tigated in large part be"a&$e of for"e$ beyond the +i$igoth$ or 5o'an$# At $o'e ti'e d&ring the 'iddle of the fo&rth "ent&ry, a ne( ene'y of both e'erged, the =&n$# It i$ not :no(n fro' (here the =&n$ originated or (hy they "ho$e to atta": their neighbor$ at thi$ ti'e# It i$ &$&ally tho&ght that they originated in the $teppe region$ of Central A$ia, and that they too (ere po$$ibly being p&$hed o&t of their land$ by the for"e$ that (o&ld later be "alled the 2ongol$# >he =&n$ not only atta":ed the Cer'ani" tribe$ to their (e$t and, event&ally the 5o'an E'pire, b&t they al$o (ent ea$t and $o&th, atta":ing China at abo&t the $a'e ti'e# In the (e$t, the atta":$ of the =&n$ p&$hed one tribe into another, event&ally for"ing the +i$igoth$ into the 5o'an E'pire# In ; 0, the +i$igoth$ fo&nd they had no(here to go b&t into 5o'an land$# B&t they did not (i$h to do $o by inva$ion# In$tead, they petitioned E'peror +alen$ to allo( the' to "ro$$ over the Dan&be 5iver and "&ltivate the (a$teland$ of >hra"e, and to be"o'e foederati. >hi$ re)&e$t (a$ not (itho&t pre"edent, nor "o&ld +alen$ ea$ily t&rn it do(n, a$ ref&$al 'eant inva$ion rather than pea"ef&l $ettle'ent# =e agreed, b&t (a$ &nprepared for the large n&'ber (ho 'oved a"ro$$ the Dan&be a$ an e$ti'ated 200,000 +i$igoth$ "ro$$ed into the 5o'an E'pire# *erhap$ a$ 'any a$ /0,000 $ettler$ "o&ld have been fed fro' the I'perial $tore$, at lea$t &ntil their o(n "rop$ "a'e in, b&t 200,000 "o&ld not# 7ithin t(o year$ the +i$igoth$ (ere $tarving, be"o'ing a 'ilitary threat# In re$pon$e, +alen$ "olle"ted hi$ ar'y fro' the ea$t and 'ar"hed again$t the' (itho&t (aiting for reinfor"e'ent$ fro' the (e$t# At Adrianople 6=adri!anople8, on . A&g&$t ; 9, the t(o ar'ie$ "la$hed# >he 5o'an$ (ere "o'pletely defeated, and +alen$ hi'$elf (a$ :illed# >he +i$igoth$ (ere free to $ettle (herever they (i$hed# 7ithin t(enty year$ other tribe$, notably the Alan$, S&evi, +andal$, and O$trogoth$, follo(ed the lead of the +i$igoth$ and "ro$$ed into the E'pire# Other$, $&"h a$ the B&rg&ndian$, Ale'anni, Bran:$, Angle$, and Saxon$, follo(ed the'# In <-0, the O$trogoth$, led by Alari", invaded and $a":ed 5o'e after a de"ade!long $iege# Alari" $et &p hi$ o(n 5o'an e'peror, b&t in < 0, after a $erie$ of (ea: and inept Ip&ppet e'peror$J had )&i":ly ri$en and K&$t a$ )&i":ly fallen, 5o'&l&$ A&g&$t&l&$, the la$t 7e$tern 5o'an e'peror, (a$ depo$ed by Odoa"ar the O$trogoth# Be"a&$e the =&n$ (ere Inot (ell $&ited to infantry battle$, b&t # # # nearly al(ay$ on hor$eba":,J a""ording to

the fo&rth!"ent&ry (riter A''ian&$ 2ar"ellin&$, it i$ often a$$&'ed that thi$ (a$ tr&e of the other barbarian tribe$, too# In addition, the infa'y of the =&n$, $o often te$tified to by "onte'porary a&thor$, ha$ di$torted the i'age of all barbarian tribe$# =o(ever, altho&gh the =&n$ fo&ght pri'arily on hor$eba":, the Cer'ani" tribe$ (ho overran the 5hine and Dan&be border$ of the E'pire fro' the fo&rth "ent&ry on fo&ght 'ainly on foot and had only $'all "avalry for"e$# In the 5o'an ar'y the "avalry (a$ filled 'o$tly by non!5o'an$ (ho $erved a$ a&xiliarie$, (hile the infantry, filled 'o$tly by 5o'an "itiFen$, &ndertoo: the pri'ary battlefield fighting# In "ontra$t, the 'o&nted troop$ of barbarian ar'ie$ perfor'ed the prin"ipal 'ane&ver$ on the battlefield# It i$ evident that hor$e$ provided barbarian troop$ not only (ith their pri'ary 'ean$ of fighting, b&t they (ere al$o a 'ar: of $o"ial di$tin"tion and "la$$# Bor 'o$t barbarian tribe$, tho$e (ho "o&ld afford hor$e$ and (ere trained in &$ing the' provided the 'ilitary and politi"al leader$hip# In t(o of the earlie$t of their battle$ (ith the 5o'an$, +i$igothi" "avalry, altho&gh fe( in n&'ber 6=o( "o&ld the ar'y have a")&ired a large n&'ber of hor$e$ (hen $tarvation (a$ for"ing the 'ilitary "onfli"tM8 'ay even have been in$tr&'ental in de"iding the o&t"o'e# In ; 9 at Dibalt&', a "avalry for"e delivered the de"i$ive blo( on a for"e of 5o'an$ (ho before then had been $&""e$$f&l at (ith$tanding infantry a$$a&lt$# Even 'ore i'pre$$ive, in the 'id$t of the battle of Adrianople, the +i$igothi" "avalry $tr&": the rear of a (ea:ened 5o'an left flan:, "r&$hing it and folding it onto the re$t of the line, thereby greatly fa"ilitating their vi"tory# =o(ever, before the end of the fifth "ent&ry, the n&'ber of infantry in relation to "avalry had in"rea$ed# >hree theorie$ for thi$ are $&gge$ted# Bir$t, of "o&r$e, "avalry re)&ired hor$e$, and $o'eti'e$ 'ore than a $ingle 'o&nt per $oldier# >he$e hor$e$ needed lot$ of pa$t&re$ for graFing, land$ that (ere readily available on the plain$ of the $teppe$, b&t not in 7e$tern E&rope# Se"ond, (hen not fighting again$t ea"h other or again$t the 5o'an$, barbarian $oldier$ often gained e'ploy'ent a$ 'er"enarie$, in ar'ie$ that (ere infantry!do'inant, in"l&ding tho$e of the E'pire# =o(ever, to 'a:e the'$elve$ 'ore e'ployable, they, too, had to learn to fight on foot# A final, perhap$ 'ore $i'ple explanation of the tran$for'ation fro' "avalry to infantry 'ay be that (hile the barbarian$ event&ally "on)&ered the E'pire, it (a$ a very lengthy "a'paign, (ith only a fe( 'ilitary vi"torie$ $pa"ed o&t over 'ore than t(o "ent&rie$ of al'o$t "on$tant (arfare# In tr&th, the 5o'an$ (on 'ore individ&al "onfli"t$ than they lo$t ! altho&gh they lo$t the 7e$tern E'pire, they held onto the E'pire in the Ea$t ! and the$e vi"torie$, (hi"h (ere bro&ght abo&t by infantry ta"ti"$, probably infl&en"ed barbarian 'ilitary organiFation# All three of the$e explanation$ are probably "orre"t in part, and all had the effe"t of de"rea$ing the n&'ber of "avalry and in"rea$ing the n&'ber of infantry in early 'edieval barbarian ar'ie$# >here i$ al$o no do&bt that 5o'an ar'ie$ (ere infl&en"ed by tho$e of the barbarian$, and vi"e ver$a# >hi$ "an be $een no(here 'ore "learly than in the general$hip of the 5o'an ar'y by Stili"ho, hi'$elf a +andal, or Aeti&$, (ho had $pent hi$ yo&th a'ong the O$trogoth$ and =&n$# Both "learly priFed their 5o'an 'ilitary po$i!tion$ ! and both al$o vied for politi"al po(er in the E'pire ! b&t they al$o re"ogniFed the i'portan"e and, often, the $&periority of barbarian $trategy and ta"ti"$# >he vi"tory Aeti&$ (on over the =&n$ at the battle of Chalon$ in </- i$ a good exa'ple# 5ealiFing the need to $top the penetration of the =&n$, led by Attila, f&rther into 7e$tern E&rope ! they had 'o$t re"ently been be$ieging OrlNan$ ! Aeti&$ &$ed a per$onal bond of friend$hip and the fear of f&rther in"&r$ion$ by the =&n$ in the (e$t to 'a:e pea"e (ith the +i$igoth$ in $o&thea$tern Bran"e and northern Spain# =e then enti"ed the' to Koin hi$ ar'y, an ar'y "o'po$ed of Alan$, O$trogoth$, +i$igoth$, +andal$, and even $o'e =&n$, altho&gh apparently fe( 5o'an$# >hey (ere, ho(ever, $&pplied (ith 5o'an ar'$ and ar'or# Aeti&$ e$tabli$hed a $trong defen$ive po$ition on terrain &nfavorable to "avalry (arfare and provo:ed hi$ overly "onfident ene'y to atta": hi'# It be"a'e an infantry!on!infantry battle, '&"h to the di$advantage of the "avalry!do'inant =&n$, (ho neverthele$$ fo&ght (ith their "&$to'ary $pirit# In the end, the 5o'an$ and +i$igoth$ prevailed, and AttilaG$ "on)&e$t of 7e$tern E&rope (a$ halted# =ad Aeti&$ not &$ed hi$ o(n barbarian!filled for"e$, 'ade an allian"e (ith other barbarian$, or :no(n of hi$ ene'y barbarian$G ta"ti"$, the battle of Chalon$ 'ight have gone AttilaG$ (ay, and the hi$tory of E&rope (o&ld have been va$tly "hanged# 7hat thi$ 'ean$ i$ that it i$ diffi"&lt to :no( exa"tly (hen the 'ilitary of 7e$tern E&rope "ea$ed being I5o'anJ and be"a'e Ibarbarian#J Certainly by the ti'e of Chalon$, the 5o'an ar'y "o&ld no longer be "alled 5o'an, at lea$t in ethni" 'a:e&p# On the other hand, a$ already noted, the barbarian ar'ie$ adopted $o'e 5o'an (ay$ of fighting, a$ $een in their "hange to infantry!do'inant ta"ti"$ a$ &$ed at Chalon$ and el$e(here# Over ti'e, the n&'ber of barbarian inva$ion$ and 'igration$ de"rea$ed, leading to f&rther "hange$ in $trategy# By the end of the fifth "ent&ry, the O$trogoth$ had $ettled in ItalyH the +i$igoth$ had $ettled in Spain and $o&thea$tern Ca&lH the +andal$ "ontrolled Egypt, northern Afri"a, and the i$land$ of the "entral and (e$tern 2editerraneanH the Ale'anni and B&r!g&ndian$ had e$tabli$hed the'$elve$ in ea$tern

and Alpine Ca&l and (hat (o&ld be"o'e S(itFerlandH the Bran:$ had $ettled in Ca&l, ex"ept for the part "ontrolled by the +i$igoth$, Ale'anni, and B&rg&n!dian$H and the Angle$ and Saxon$ had $ettled in Britain# A$ barbarian people$ $ettled in ne( area$, they needed fe(er hor$e$ for day!to!day life, and thi$ had a "on$e)&ent effe"t on the n&'ber$ of their "avalry troop$# >he $a'e )&e$tion of the tran$for'ation fro' 5o'an to barbarian affe"t$ the politi"al and e"ono'i" hi$tory of the early 2iddle Age$ a$ (ell# =i$torian$ often d(ell on the (ea:ne$$e$ of 5o'an 'ilitary po(er in the 7e$tern E'pire, (hen in fa"t it 'ay have been the ero$ion of politi"al and e"ono'i" po(er that (a$ 'ore de"i$ive in the &lti'ate fall of 5o'e# A$ the Cer'ani" inva$ion$ in"rea$ed in inten$ity d&ring the late fo&rth "ent&ry and early fifth "ent&ry, 5o'an politi"ian$ (ere &nable to p&t their petty politi"al $)&abble$ behind the'# >hi$ politi"al infighting al$o affe"ted 'ilitary leader$ and general$, (ho (ere fre)&ently $een a$ a threat to their politi"al 'a$ter$# It (a$ not &n"o''on for the' to have to ret&rn to 5o'e or Con$tantinople, often at the 'o$t inopport&ne ti'e, to prote"t their po$ition$# Even Aeti&$, fre$h fro' hi$ defeat of the =&n$, did not e$"ape E'peror +alentinian IIIG$ Kealo&$ (rath or dagger# Of "o&r$e, politi"al in$tability had o""&rred in the earlier hi$tory of the E'pire, altho&gh (itho&t the $a'e dire "on$e)&en"e$ a$ later, d&e in large part to the $trength of the 5o'an I'perial e"ono'y# It $ee'$ that a$ long a$ the (ealth of the E'pire and it$ "itiFen$ (a$ pre$erved, it did not 'atter (hat the $'all 'inority of politi"al leader$ and offi"ial$ did# Altho&gh inva$ion$ and raid$ nat&rally di$r&pted the e"ono'y, thro&gho&t the 'ilitary proble'$ of the third "ent&ry, it re'ained $trong# >he E'pire (a$ even able to pay for the in"rea$ed n&'ber of fortifi"ation$ and troop$ e'ployed at the end of the "ent&ry# >hi$ e"ono'i" $trength and $tability "hanged in the (a:e of the "on$tant inva$ion$ of the barbarian$ over the next t(o "ent&rie$# >he $a": of 5o'e in <-0 prod&"ed an enor'o&$ )&antity of booty, atte$ting to the (ealth of the "ityG$ inhabitant$# =o(ever, by the ti'e the +andal$ $a":ed 5o'e in <//, the "hroni"le$ report that only a $ilver bo(l and a large 'enorah (ere ta:en# El$e(here, inva$ion$ (ere al$o di$r&pting agri"&lt&re, ind&$try, and trade# Ar'ie$ tra'pled and b&rned far'$ and field$H pirate$ de$troyed and robbed $hip$H 'iner$ abandoned 'ine$H and 'er"hant$ fo&nd it too ri$:y to i'port good$, leaving $hop:eeper$ (ith nothing to $ell# Of all the di$r&ption$ bro&ght abo&t by the barbarian inva$ion$, e"ono'i" "ollap$e "learly had the greate$t i'pa"t on pop&lation$ that had earlier been able to 'aintain the'$elve$ ea$ily# Barbarian o""&pation bro&ght fe( i''ediate "hange$ to 5o'an life, and 'o$t 5o'an$ $ee' to have $i'ply a""epted the ne( govern'ent$ that (ere e$tabli$hed# *art of thi$ (a$ &ndo&btedly be"a&$e of the length of ti'e it too: for the barbarian :ingdo'$ to ta:e po(er fro' the fallen E'pire# B&t part '&$t al$o be attrib&ted to the fa"t that fe( of the for'er inhabitant$ of the E'pire had a"t&ally ta:en any role in it$ governan"e# >here al$o $ee'$ to have been no great lo$$ of pop&lation in either the r&ral or &rban area$ of 7e$tern E&rope, (ith the ex"eption of 5o'e it$elf, (hi"h $a( a 'ar:ed de"line# =o(ever, the barbarian$ bro&ght t(o "hange$ to 5o'an $o"iety that, (hile they did not initially alter the live$ of the people they "on)&ered, event&ally "hanged the (ay they for'ed govern'ent$, re"r&ited $oldier$, and fo&ght (ar$# Both (ere probably traditional to the$e Cer'ani" tribe$ before they invaded the E'pire, altho&gh there i$ no (ay of "onfir'ing thi$, and both differed "on$iderably fro' (hat had been pra"ti"ed in the 5o'an $phere of infl&en"e# >he fir$t (a$ ho( leader$hip and property (ere pa$$ed do(n fro' father to $on# In the 5o'an E'pire the "&$to' (a$ pri'ogenit&re inheritan"e, (ith all property and title$ pa$$ing fro' father to the elde$t legiti'ate $on, and, if no legiti'ate $on (a$ available, to an illegiti'ate or adopted $on "ho$en by the father to $&""eed hi'# In "ontra$t, the barbarian tradition (a$ partible inheritan"e, (hi"h held that all property and leader$hip $ho&ld be divided e)&ally a'ong all legiti'ate $on$ and, $ho&ld the father "hoo$e, illegiti'ate $on$ a$ (ell# 7hile $ee'ingly 'ore de'o"rati" and fair, thi$ inheritan"e pra"ti"e bro&ght (ith it 'any proble'$# %o 'atter ho( father$ tried to arrange the tran$fer of land$ and title$ ! and the 'ap$ of $o'e of the$e inheritan"e$ $ho( $o'e gen&ine atte'pt$ at e)&aliFing (ealth ! it $ee'$ $o'e $on$ al(ay$ felt "heated by their brother or brother$# >hi$ often led to a volatile tran$fer of po(er, and $o'eti'e$ o&tright "ivil (ar, and fre)&ently to the a$$a$$ination of one brother by another# >he $e"ond "hange introd&"ed by the Cer'ani" tribe$ (ho e$tabli$hed the barbarian :ingdo'$ of the early 2iddle Age$ (a$ in the re"r&it'ent and advan"e'ent of $oldier$# %o one in Cer'ani" $o"iety (a$ 'ore re$pe"ted than a (arrior, nor (a$ anyone dee'ed (orth 'ore in their legal "ode$# Cenerally, it (a$ not diffi"&lt to find $o'eone to $erve in the 'ilitary# B&t loyalty (a$ a different 'atter# On"e a $oldier had di$ting&i$hed hi'$elf in "o'bat, the "o'peten"e of hi$ 'ilitary abilitie$ fre)&ently bro&ght offer$ fro' "o'peting "hief$# =o( 'ight a leader en"o&rage that (arrior to $tay loyal to hi'M >he an$(er lay in b&ying hi$ $ervi"e$ by re(arding hi' (ith land, title$, and a(ard$, and th&$ "reating an obligation to $erve# In thi$ (ay, a leader "o&ld en$&re that a di$ting&i$hed (arrior and hi$ per$onal retin&e (o&ld be available to $erve in hi$ ar'y (henever he (a$ needed# Sho&ld that $ervi"e not be provided, tho$e land$ and title$, all of (hi"h

had originated fro' the leaderG$ o(n holding$, (o&ld be forfeited ba": to hi'# In addition, be"a&$e the$e land$ "a'e (ith laborer$ and pea$ant$ to (or: the', it (a$ re"ogniFed that the landholder 6or lord8 (o&ld not be for"ed to do 'ore than prepare for hi$ re)&ired 'ilitary $ervi"e, in parti"&lar training hi'$elf and hi$ retin&e in the &$e of ar'$ and in other 'ilitary $:ill$# Before the eighth "ent&ry, variation$ of thi$ tradition of 'ilitary obligation "o&ld be fo&nd thro&gho&t the barbarian :ingdo'$ of the 7e$tern 5o'an E'pire, and, event&ally, the fa'ilie$ (ho held the land$ and title$ gained "ontrol of the', (hi"h led to the develop'ent of the 'edieval nobility# D&ring the inva$ion and o""&pation of the 7e$tern 5o'an E'pire, the Ea$tern part, (hi"h later be"a'e :no(n a$ the ByFantine E'pire, re'ained 'ilitarily ina"tive# >hi$ "a'e to an end, ho(ever, d&ring the reign of E'peror A&$tinian, (ho r&led in Con$tantinople fro' /2 to /0/# In /;;, after $e"&ring hi$ ri$e to and "ontrol of the ByFantine e'peror$hip, A&$tinian de"ided to try to rea")&ire the land$ of the 7e$tern 5o'an E'pire# =i$ fir$t target (a$ +andal!"ontrolled Egypt and %orth Afri"a# =e $ent an ar'y of -0,000 infantry and /,000 "avalry, 'o$tly 'er"enarie$, &nder the very "apable general$hip of Beli$ari&$, and by 2ar"h /;< +andal po(er in %orth Afri"a had been de$troyed, and the for'er provin"e$ of Egypt and Afri"a had been re$tored to the E'pire# >he follo(ing year A&$tinian $ent hi$ ar'y, again &nder Beli$ari&$, into Italy again$t the O$trogoth$# >hi$ re"on)&e$t too: longer than it had in northern Afri"aH the O$trogoth$ (ere then 'ore &nited and (ere $&pported by the people# 5o'e held o&t again$t a ByFantine $iege for 'ore than a year before it fell in /;9, and the O$trogothi" "apital of 5avenna did not $&rrender &ntil /<0# A "o&nteratta": by the O$trogoth$ regained 5o'e in /<0, (hen A&$tinian (a$ for"ed to p&ll o&t $o'e of hi$ ar'y to re$pond to the *er$ian$G atta": and $a": of Antio"h in that year# B&t (hen they ret&rned to Italy in //<, the :ingdo' (a$ )&i":ly re$tored to the ByFantine$ &ntil A&$tinianG$ death in /0/# >hi$ (ar de$troyed O$trogothi" 'ilitary and politi"al po(er for good# =o(ever, A&$tinianG$ $&""e$$or$ did not "on$ider the o""&pation of Italy or of %orth Afri"a and Egypt to be i'portant, and before long, ByFantine 'ilitary n&'ber$ in tho$e area$ de"rea$ed a$ they be"a'e needed el$e(here# Italy fell to the Lo'bard$ and northern Afri"an and Egypt to the Arab$# >he Bran:$, one of the 'o$t northern of all the Cer'ani" tribe$, invaded the &pper'o$t part of the 7e$tern 5o'an E'pire in the fifth "ent&ry# By that ti'e the 5o'an$ had virt&ally abandoned that regionH "on$e)&ently, there (a$ little re$i$tan"e to their "ro$$ing of the 5hine 5iver# In fa"t, thi$ 'ay have not been an inva$ion at all, at lea$t not "o'pared (ith the exa'ple$ $et by the Coth$, +andal$, and =&n$ (ho had $tor'ed a"ro$$ the Dan&be# In$tead, the Bran:$ $ee' to have lived $ide by $ide (ith the 5o'an$ in northern Ca&l, fighting in their ar'ie$, living and (or:ing (ith the' in their to(n$, and &lti'ately 'ixing (ith the' in 'arriage and $o"iety# 7ithin a very $hort ti'e, they had "oloniFed both $ide$ of the 'iddle 5hine 5iver and (ere (ell on their (ay to a")&iring the re$t of Ca&l# Det, altho&gh initially pea"ef&l in their "ro$$ing of the 5hine, they a")&ired Ca&l by (ar and "on)&e$t# >he$e (ar$ (ere fo&ght prin"ipally by t(o of the 'o$t po(erf&l Bran:i$h 'ilitary leader$# Childeri" fo&ght (ith the 5o'an$ again$t the +i$igoth$ at OrlNan$ in <0; and again$t the Saxon$ at Anger$ in <0.# At the $a'e ti'e, he 'anaged to "arve o&t a fairly $iFable territory, lo"ated aro&nd >o&rnai in (hat i$ no( $o&thern Belgi&'# >he other (a$ Childeri"G$ $on, Clovi$, (ho in <90 "on)&ered the Seine 5iver valley by defeating hi$ fatherG$ for'er allie$, the 5o'an$, at Soi$$on$# In <.- he $&bK&gated the 5ip&arian Bran:$, in <.0 he defeated the Ale'anni at >olbia" 6'odern OPlpi"h8, and in /0 he "r&$hed the +i$igoth$ at +o&lon# By then Clovi$ had "on)&ered all of the land$ of the old 5o'an provin"e of Ca&l and e$tabli$hed the fir$t 2erovingian :ingdo' of the Bran:$# *erhap$ even 'ore i'portantly, in <.0 he a""epted bapti$' into 5o'an Chri$tianity, be"o'ing the fir$t 'ilitarily po(erf&l defender of Catholi"i$' a'ong the barbarian$# 7hen Clovi$ died fo&r year$ later, the 2erovingian :ingdo' (a$ the 'o$t po(erf&l real' in 7e$tern E&rope# B&t he had fo&r $on$, and, a$ barbarian tradition held, they divided their fatherG$ land a'ong the'# I''ediately they began to fight ea"h other, and th&$ a 2erovingian tradition (a$ born3 the inheritan"e "ivil (ar# >hey fo&ght one another for "ontrol of the (hole :ingdo' ! a "o''on o""&rren"e thro&gho&t the (hole 2erovingian period# 2erovingian :ing$, and there (ere often 'any of the' at the $a'e ti'e, (ere po(erf&l and $e"&re only (hen their ar'y (a$ $trong and loyal# 7hen it (a$ not, an all!too!fre)&ent $it&ation, they did not la$t long, 'eeting &nti'ely death$ a$ their land$ (ere ravaged by (arfare# =ad the 2erovingian Bran:$ had any $ignifi"ant o&t$ide ene'ie$ to fa"e, their :ingdo'$ 'ay have fallen# In fa"t, the 'ilitary $e"&rity of the 2erovingian$ (a$ probably 'aintained by the nonroyal 'ilitary lord$, the 'aKordo'o$ 6or 'ayor of the pala"e8, (ho held $&bordinate po$ition$ to the :ing# >he 'en (ho held the$e po$ition$ fre)&ently (ielded 'ore po(er than did the :ing$# >hree 'ayor$ (ere parti"&larly i'portant, tho$e of A&$tra$ia, %e&$tria, and B&rg&ndy, and the$e po$ition$ (ere &$&ally filled by three of the 'o$t pro'inent

and po(erf&l 'en of the :ingdo'# Of the$e the 'o$t i'portant (a$ the 'ayor of the pala"e of A&$tra$ia, and in the $e"ond )&arter of the $eventh "ent&ry thi$ po$ition (a$ held by *ippin I# So po(erf&l (a$ he that at hi$ death, in 0<0, he (a$ ea$ily able to pa$$ hi$ 'ayor$hip to hi$ $on, Cri'oald, altho&gh there (a$ no pre"edent for thi$# In 0/0 Cri'oald, (ith e)&al ea$e, pa$$ed it on to hi$ nephe(, *ippin II# *ippin II (a$ able to "on$olidate hi$ po(er over the other t(o i'portant 'ayoral po$ition$ by defeating the' at the battle of >ertry in 09 before pa$$ing on all three 'ayor$hip$ to hi$ illegiti'ate $on, Charle$ 2artel, in -<# Charle$ 2artelG$ bigge$t "hallenge "a'e not fro' the 2erovingian :ing$, (ho$e po(er had been "&rtailed by their o(n rivalrie$ and by *ippin IG$ &nion of the three 'o$t pro'inent 'ayoral po$ition$, b&t fro' 2&$li' for"e$ that had penetrated the *yrenee$ fro' Spain and invaded $o&th(e$tern Ca&l# >he$e ar'ie$ $&""eeded in rea"hing a$ far north a$ *oitier$ before they (ere $o&ndly defeated in ;2 by Charle$ 2artel, (ho event&ally drove the' ba": into Spain# =i$torian$ al$o "redit Charle$ 2artel (ith the I'oderniFationJ of the Bran:i$h ar'y# =e not only reorganiFed hi$ troop$ and en$&red that they (ere better ar'ed, b&t he al$o for'ed a Bran:i$h heavy "avalry# By the ti'e of Charle$ 2artelG$ death in <-, the 2erovingian throne had been va"ant for fo&r year$# =e had never $een fit to ta:e over the e'pty throneH ho(ever, hi$ $on, *ippin III, did not hold $&"h 'i$giving$ and in /- a$$&'ed the throne, e$tabli$hing a ne( dyna$ty, the Carolingian$# *ippin III 6:no(n hi$tori"ally a$ *ippin the Short, fro' "o'pari$on (ith hi$ $on, Charle'agne, (ho (a$ $aid to have been 'ore than 0 feet tall, a height "onfir'ed by the 'odern 'ea$&re'ent of hi$ bone$8 "ontin&ed to $trengthen the ar'y and hi$ :ingdo' &ntil hi$ death in 09, (hen hi$ throne (a$ inherited by one of the greate$t 'ilitary and politi"al leader$ of all ti'e, Charle'agne# D&ring the early 2iddle Age$, Britain (a$ a$ di$&nited politi"ally and a$ fre)&ently fo&ght over a$ 2erovingian Ca&l, altho&gh thi$ (a$ not "a&$ed by the pra"ti"e of partible inheritan"e# 5o'an 'ilitary o""&pation, already de"lining thro&gho&t the fo&rth "ent&ry, "ea$ed entirely in the beginning of the fifth "ent&ry, and the troop$ there (ere (ithdra(n to fight threat$ el$e(here in the 7e$tern E'pire# Bor nearly a "ent&ry after thi$, the Celti" inhabitant$ of (hat had been the provin"e of Britannia (ere left to fend for the'$elve$# >here i$ little infor'ation abo&t ho( (ell they fared, altho&gh inva$ion$ fro' north of =adrianG$ 7all and a"ro$$ the %orth Sea are tho&ght to have been fre)&ent# >he inva$ion$ of the Angle$, Saxon$, and A&te$ (ere event&ally $&""e$$f&l, b&t not entirely and not i''ediately# Indeed, the tena"io&$ defen$e by the people of Britain again$t the$e ar'ie$ (o&ld later develop into the legend$ of ,ing Arth&r and hi$ ,night$ of the 5o&nd >able# >he rea$on Britain (a$ a target of raid$ fro' Saxony and the A&tland penin$&la i$ not :no(n# So'e have $&gge$ted that Angle and Saxon foederati on their o(n had been left behind to g&ard the provin"e d&ring the 5o'an (ithdra(al, and that they then t&rned on the people they (ere $&ppo$ed to be prote"ting# Other$ follo( 'ore "lo$ely the $tory re"o&nted by the $eventh!"ent&ry hi$torian Bede of the Saxon brother$, =engi$t and =or$a# Invited by one of the Briti$h leader$, +ortigern ! de$"ribed by Bede a$ a t#rannus or tyrant ! to $&pport hi$ atte'pt$ at in"rea$ing hi$ po(er, =engi$t and =or$a landed (ith their for"e$ in <<.# 7ithin $ix year$ they had t&rned again$t their ho$t and defeated hi' ! altho&gh =or$a (a$ hi'$elf $lain in the "onfli"t# =engi$t then t&rned again$t the other Briti$h "hief$ (ho, &nable to &nite, (ere defeated one by one by the Saxon$# By <99, (hen =engi$tG$ $on, Q$", a$$&'ed the throne of ,ent, it had be"o'e apparent that the Saxon$ (ere in Britain to $tay, and (ere follo(ed by the Angle$ and A&te$# =o(ever, (arfare did not end (ith the arrival of the barbarian$ in England# ?ntil the inva$ion of S(ein Bor:beard in -0-<, hi$ third inva$ion of England, the Anglo!Saxon$ (ere never &nited# =o(ever, it '&$t be ad'itted, the pa&"ity of $o&r"e$ 'ean$ that 'any detail$ of the$e (ar$ are lo$t, in"l&ding $o'eti'e$ the 'o$t ba$i" fa"t$, $&"h a$ (ho fo&ght (ho', (here, a$ (ell a$ the re$&lt# >he +i:ing raid$, beginning at the end of the eighth "ent&ry, (ere no do&bt the (or$t of the$e (ar$, b&t even before the$e o""&rred, raid$ fro' the S"ot$ and the 7el$h (ere fre)&ent and br&tal, and "onfli"t bet(een the vario&$ Briti$h :ingdo'$ (a$ no le$$ r&thle$$ and "r&el# Be"a&$e of the la": of $o&r"e$ for the period ! one i$ for"ed to rely 'o$tly on narrative hi$torie$ and hagiographie$ (ritten by "h&r"h'en ! it i$ not :no(n ho( ar'ie$ in the for'er 5o'an E'pire "hanged and be"a'e I'edieval#J One theory i$ that thi$ tran$for'ation (a$ $lo( and develop'ental, (ith barbarian 'ilitary leader$ and $oldier$ either $erving in or infl&en"ed by 5o'an ar'ie$ and $lo(ly adopting their organiFation, $trategy and ta"ti"$, and ar'$ and ar'or# Event&ally, a$ they had thro&gho&t their long hi$tory, 5o'an ar'ie$ "hanged, ta:ing on (hat hi$torian$ (o&ld later $ee a$ an early 'edieval "hara"ter# =o(ever, a$ (ith all ar'ie$ thro&gho&t hi$tory, no a$pe"t of the$e early 'edieval ar'ie$ $tayed $tati"3 their organiFation, $trategy and ta"ti"$, and ar'$ and ar'or all "hanged to fa"e ne( threat$ and fit ne( fa$hion$# %or did any of the$e "hange$ bring $tandardiFation to early 'edieval ar'ie$H $&"h a "on"ept (a$ virt&ally

&n:no(n in preind&$trial $o"ietie$, altho&gh both the 5o'an and Carolingian e'pire$ $et reg&lation$ a$ to ho( &nit$ '&$t be organiFedH ho( "a'paign$, battle$, and $iege$ '&$t be "arried o&tH and (hat '&$t be (orn and "arried#

2ILI>A5D O5CA%IOA>IO%
It ha$ been &$&al to $&gge$t that the 'ilitary for"e$ that 'ade &p barbarian ar'ie$ (ere very different fro' tho$e of I'perial 5o'e# >he latter depended on the exi$ten"e of large, $tanding, profe$$ional ar'ie$, 'aintained by $tate finan"e$, and led by offi"er$, 'any of (ho' had ri$en to tho$e ran:$ thro&gh lengthy $ervi"e, b&t (ho (ere the'$elve$ re$pon$ible to a "entral 'ilitary and politi"al b&rea&"ra"y# Barbarian :ingdo'$, it i$ arg&ed, did not have $tanding ar'ie$# Altho&gh ar'ie$ (ere fre)&ently rai$ed, they tended to be $'aller and organiFed in $'aller &nit$ than their 5o'an "o&nterpart$# >hey (ere al$o not paid o&t of $tate "offer$, b&t by per$onal arrange'ent (ith or obligation to their leader$# >he $y$te' of obligation bet(een leader and $oldier i$ a di$p&ted one# >he $o"iologi"al paradig' :no(n a$ fe&dali$' ha$ lo$t favor a'ong 'odern hi$torian$, largely be"a&$e it (a$ a general de$"ription for all of 'edieval $o"ietyG$ obligation$, 'ilitary and non'ilitary, bet(een all level$ of the nobility and va$$al$ of every ran:# >he K&$tifiable reKe"tion of thi$ paradig' for early 'edieval $o"iety at large ha$ re$&lted in it$ di$'i$$al a$ an explanation for ho( ar'ie$ at the ti'e (ere rai$ed and organiFed# 7hile fe&dali$' i$ probably not the "orre"t definition for the re"r&it'ent "o''it'ent$ of early 'edieval $oldier$, nonethele$$ there doe$ $ee' to have been an obligation to $erve bet(een $oldier$ and their leader$, (hether ba$ed on land holding$ ! (hi"h be"a'e the nor' ! or $o'e other $o"ioe"ono'i" 'edi&'# >hi$ (a$ a ti'e, after all, (hen the (arrior (a$ dee'ed to be legally the top of the $o"ietal hierar"hy, expre$$ed in hi$ extre'ely high (ergild, literally 'an!pri"e, 'eaning that it (o&ld "o$t the a$$ailant of $&"h a 'an an extre'ely large a'o&nt of 'oney if he :illed hi'# Being a (arrior, or $triving to be"o'e one, nat&rally drove a "ertain $eg'ent of the 'ale pop&lation to 'ilitary $ervi"e# 7hen thi$ failed to provide eno&gh $oldier$, other$ (ere "alled &pon to fill the ran:$# 2any $&rviving legal "ode$ indi"ate a general obligation of all IfreeJ able!bodied 'en to be prepared for 'ilitary $ervi"e to their :ing, $ho&ld he $&''on the', to provide their o(n ar'$ and ar'or, and to $erve hi' thro&gho&t the entirety of an expedition or "a'paign# Ignoring $&"h $ervi"e in"&rred $evere p&ni$h'ent$, and, in fa"t, it appear$ that 'o$t 'ilitary leader$ had no proble' finding 'en to $erve in ti'e of "onfli"t# Sho&ld a leader experien"e $&"h diffi"&lty, he (a$ generally not a leader for long# In reality it (a$ rare, if ever, that the lo(er "la$$e$ or pea$ant$ (ere ever "alled &pon to $erve# >hey (ere, after all, needed to 'aintain agri"&lt&re and the e"ono'y on (hi"h it (a$ ba$ed# A$ they had little "han"e to train, they did not 'a:e good (arrior$# So, 'o$t often they $erved a$ the 'ilitia, (ho$e $ervi"e (a$ re$tri"ted to defending their ho'e$ and the land$ of their lord$# >he re$&lt of thi$ (a$ that, in e$$en"e, by the $eventh "ent&ry, the profe$$ional 'edieval $oldier had "o'e into exi$ten"e ! finan"ially able to p&r"ha$e ar'$ and ar'or, if not al$o hor$e$, and to have the ti'e to train# A 'ilitary hierar"hy or nobility developed that (a$ different fro' that of the 5o'an$ or even fro' that of the earlier barbarian$# At lea$t initially, ethni" de$ignation$ $till held $(ay, (ith $oldier$ fighting in the "o'pany of other tribal 'e'ber$, b&t a$ lang&age, "&$to'$, and loyaltie$ be"a'e 'ore &nified, even thi$ di$tin"tion di$appeared# Soon a (ealthy elite "la$$, trained to fight (ar$ for their $o"ial better$, provided the b&l: of the ar'ie$# 7ith the' "a'e their retin&e$, 'en "onne"ted to the' by $i'ilar obligation$# 2ore Iprofe$$ional,J to &$e a 'odern ter', they (o&ld "a'paign (henever their leader$ re)&ired, and (hen they (ere not involved in offen$ive 'ilitary operation$ they (o&ld defend their o(n and their leader$G land$# Altho&gh not :night$ by later 'edieval "hivalri" definition$ ! tho$e re)&ired a "ere'onial Id&bbing,J heraldry, and other tradition$ ! their $:ill in ar'$ and ar'or and their profe$$ionali$' in ta"ti"$ and $trategy $et the' on a path to(ard that 'edieval hi$tori"al reality# >he ri$e of a 'ilitary nobility )&i":ly led to the develop'ent of fortifi"ation$, e$pe"ially along the oft! di$p&ted and fre)&ently "hanging border$ and frontier$# Bortifi"ation$ b&ilt in $tone (ere far in the f&t&re, b&t an earth!and!(ood castrum or castellum $till provided prote"tion to tho$e (ho (ere or "o&ld get in$ide a$ (ell a$ an offen$ive i'pedi'ent to any invading for"e not able to "on)&er it# Siege 'a"hine$ (ere available, altho&gh there i$ a )&e$tion a$ to (hether they (ere the $a'e a$ tho$e &$ed by the 5o'an$# 2ore often, be$ieger$ had to rely on for"ing the inhabitant$ of $&"h fortifi"ation$ to $&rrender by $tarvation or trea"hery# Both re)&ired ti'e, $o'eti'e$ longer than a year, and often an invading ar'y (o&ld de"ide that $&"h an expendit&re of ti'e (a$ not (orth the effort# Anglo!Saxon England in thi$, a$ in $o 'any early 'edieval 'ilitary 'atter$, (a$ different# Obligation$ to

$erve in the 'ilitary differed fro' tho$e of "ontinental E&rope, a$ did the n&'ber, experien"e, and pro(e$$ of profe$$ional 'ilitary $oldier$# %o do&bt part of the rea$on for thi$ lie$ in the develop'ent of a different politi"al and e"ono'i" $tr&"t&re in Anglo!Saxon $o"iety# So'e have al$o $&gge$ted that the pea"ef&l "ondition$ prevalent in England after the "on)&e$t by the Anglo!Saxon$ did not fo$ter the ri$e of a 'ilitary elite or the develop'ent of a "la$$ of $o"iety (ho had obligation$ to $erve# *erhap$ thi$, 'ore than anything, explain$ (hy the na'e$a:e hero of $eowulf the greate$t Old Engli$h poeti" epi", i$ a Ceat, fro' $o&thern S(eden, and not fro' Anglo!Saxon England# =o(ever, the idea that England (a$ pea"ef&l at that ti'e 'ay $i'ply be attrib&table to o&r la": of "onte'porary $o&r"e$# Of "o&r$e, there (ere 'ilitary "onfli"t$ in Anglo!Saxon England# Before the +i:ing inva$ion$ at the very end of the eighth "ent&ry and the atta":$ on it$ $ea"oa$t$ and riverban:$, raid$ by 7el$h and S"otti$h (arrior$ $ee' to have been the bigge$t threat to England# B&t the$e (ere fre)&ently $'all affair$, for the theft of "attle and other good$ rather than any 'ilitary expedition# >ho$e (ho "ontin&ed to live in the path of $&"h raider$, $i'ilar to tho$e (ho (o&ld later on fa"e the +i:ing$, &$&ally had to defend their land$ (itho&t o&t$ide $&pportH altho&gh, (hen $&"h $&pport (a$ offered, it (a$ gratef&lly re"eived# Again the $i'ilarity to $eowulf $ho&ld be noted3 Beo(&lf and hi$ ar'y helped =ygela" and hi$ people again$t their $ee'ingly per$i$tent, overpo(ering ene'ie$# 7hat for'ed (a$ a 'ilitia, an ar'y '&$tered $olely for defen$ive (arfare, one that had only a fe( o&tdated ar'$ and ar'or, if any, and fe( experien"ed $oldier$ or leader$, if any# Soon tho$e frontier area$ that had been $o (ell g&arded by 5o'an $oldier$ and, in the "a$e of the Anglo!S"otti$h border, by =adrianG$ 7all, (ere den&ded of pop&lation, inevitably for"ing the raid$ that (ere it$ "a&$e to extend farther and farther into the "enter and $o&thern portion$ of the i$land# >here (ere al$o (ar$ bet(een the vario&$ Anglo!Saxon :ingdo'$, altho&gh their fre)&en"y 'ay have been exaggerated in later narrative$ that (i$hed to e'pha$iFe the Chri$tianiFation of England# >he$e "onfli"t$ involved 'ore $:illed and profe$$ional troop$, in"l&ding 'er"enarie$ fro' E&rope and, e$pe"ially, S"andinavia# B&t one gain$ the i'pre$$ion fro' (ritten and ar"haeologi"al $o&r"e$ that $oldier$ (ere never a large part of the pop&lation# >he early 2iddle Age$ (a$ a period of ende'i" (arfare, and no region and fe( people e$"aped the violen"e of ar'ed "onfli"t or the "on$tant re"r&iting, '&$tering, and 'oving of large for"e$ thro&gho&t E&rope# >he effe"t of thi$ on traditional agri"&lt&ral $o"ietie$ and e"ono'ie$ (a$, a$ expe"ted, )&ite deva$tating# Indeed, (arfare defined all a$pe"t$ of life for all "la$$e$ of people# 2any e""le$ia$ti"$ (o&ld even begin to find a K&$tifi"ation of $&"h "onfli"t$ (ithin a Chri$tianity that follo(ed a leader (ho had prea"hed pea"e# 7arfare al$o "ontin&ed to define the Ihero,J a definition that had "hanged little $in"e the 'o$t an"ient of ti'e$, and $torie$ ! epi"$, $aga$, and narrative$ ! all heralded the 'an (ho &$ed hi$ pro(e$$ and "&nning to defeat hi$ ene'y on the battlefield and in individ&al 'artial "onte$t$# S>5A>ECD A%D >AC>ICS Strategy and ta"ti"$ in (arfare after the barbarian inva$ion$ and &p to the Carolingian age are diffi"&lt, if not i'po$$ible, to deter'ine (ith any a""&ra"y# >he O$trogoth$ in Italy and the +i$igoth$ in $o&thern Bran"e and Spain have the rep&tation that they (ere (ea: 'ilitary po(er$ in the "ent&rie$ follo(ing their initial (ar$ again$t the 5o'an$ and the =&n$# Conte'porarie$ have left the i'pre$$ion that the n&'ber$ of profe$$ional $oldier$ (ere $'all ! only a fe( leader$ and their 'o&nted retin&e$ ! altho&gh the$e "o&ld be $&pple'ented by levie$ ta:en fro' the general pop&la"e in ti'e$ of $tr&ggle# =o(ever, the$e $oldier$ (ere rarely "alled &p, $ee'ingly both be"a&$e of the la": of ene'y threat$ and perhap$ o&t of fear of ar'ing and training individ&al$ (ho 'ight potentially t&rn tho$e (eapon$ and training again$t their leader$# Of "o&r$e, thi$ 'eant that, (hen there (a$ a ne"e$$ity for 'ilitary a"tion, the ar'y that re$ponded to the levy (a$ generally di$organiFed, di$orderly, and &ndi$"iplined and had little de$ire to fight for people they did not :no( and "a&$e$ they often $a( no val&e in# >hi$ no do&bt ha$tened the arrival of the profe$$ional 'edieval $oldier, b&t by that ti'e both the O$trogoth$ and the +i$igoth$ had been de$troyed, the for'er by the ByFantine$ and the latter by Arab 2&$li'$# >he Lo'bard$ ran into little oppo$ition (hile filling the va"&&' of politi"al and 'ilitary r&le in Italy left (hen the ByFantine$ ret&rned to the ea$tern 2editerranean in the $ixth "ent&ry# Still, they $ee' to have been effe"tive (arrior$, altho&gh $o'e 'odern "o''entator$ $&gge$t that thi$ effe"tivene$$ ha$ been exaggerated by their &$e of violen"e and terror to pa"ify tho$e (ho' they $o&ght to "ontrol# Before o""&pying Italy, Lo'bardi" "avalry had $erved (ith 5o'an and ByFantine ar'ie$# And their "onte'porary hi$torian, a fan, *a&l the Dea"on, re"ord$ that the Lo'bard$ re'ained largely a "avalry!do'inant for"e thro&gho&t their "on)&e$t of Italy and later# =o(ever, it i$ "lear that the Lo'bardi" "avalry (a$ $&pported by an e)&ally large, or po$$ibly larger, for"e of infantry, b&t the$e n&'ber$ $ee' not to have i'pre$$ed "onte'porary narrative or hagiographi"al (riter$# At ti'e$, the "avalry al$o di$'o&nted, b&t only (hen there (a$ no other

'ilitary alternative for their $&rvival# >he Lo'bard$ al$o had a provi$ion for the general levy of troop$, b&t, li:e their Cothi" prede"e$$or$, they rarely &$ed it# *a&l the Dea"on al$o portray$ the Lo'bard$ a$ having (hat one 'ight de$"ribe a$ a per'anent or $tanding ar'y, better led, better e)&ipped, and better trained than other early 'edieval for"e$# >hi$ (o&ld point to their being 'ore &nified and $&re of their 'ilitary goal$# If thi$ (a$ the "a$e, then it (a$ the fir$t $&"h ar'y in 'edieval E&rope a$ the Bran:$ did not a")&ire a $tanding ar'y &ntil the reign of *ippin III in the 'id! eighth "ent&ry# On the other hand, later Lo'bard$ $&ffered fro' politi"al in$&rre"tion$, 'o$t often be"a&$e of di$p&ted politi"al inheritan"e, a $it&ation that Charle'agne (o&ld &$e to hi$ advantage (hen he advan"ed into Italy, atta":ed, and defeated the' in <# >he O$trogoth$, +i$igoth$, and Lo'bard$ (ere all, event&ally, overr&n by other 'ilitary po(er$, and they left no la$ting E&ropean real'# =o(ever, the Bran:$ $&""eeded (here their other barbarian "o&nterpart$ failed, for'ing a 'edieval politi"al entity o&t of (hi"h 'edieval 6and even 'odern8 E&rope (a$ "reated# Initially, the Bran:$ fo&ght $olely a$ infantry, b&t by the beginning of the $ixth "ent&ry, they too had "avalry, altho&gh the "avalry (a$ &$ed al'o$t (holly in $&pport of their infantry# Bor exa'ple, 'o$t of the fighting done by Clovi$G$ troop$ (a$ on foot, again$t infantry ene'ie$# >he Bran:i$h "avalry traveled to the battlefield on hor$e$ and then di$'o&nted to fight (ith the infantry# B&t it i$ al$o "lear fro' the eviden"e that the early 2erovingian "avalry "o&ld 'a:e "harge$ on hor$eba":# Cregory of >o&r$, the "hief hi$torian of the early Bran:$, tell$ the $tory of t(o $oldier$, Dragolen and C&ntra', (ho fo&ght again$t ea"h other on hor$eba":3 RDragolenS $tr&": $p&r$ to hi$ hor$e and "harged C&ntr&' at f&ll $peed# B&t hi$ blo( failed, for hi$ $pear bro:e, and hi$ $(ord fell to the gro&nd# C&ntra' # # # then, rai$ing hi$ lan"e $tr&": Dragolen in the throat and &n$eated hi'# And a$ Dragolen (a$ hanging fro' hi$ hor$e, one of C&ntra'G$ friend$ thr&$t a lan"e into hi$ $ide and gave hi' the fini$hing blo( 6Cregory of >o&r$, T%e &istor# of t%e 'ranks tran$# Le(i$ >horpe R=ar'ond$(orth, England3 *eng&in Boo:$, -. <S, 2.08# >he 'o$t fa'o&$ battle d&ring thi$ period (a$ &ndo&btedly that fo&ght $o'e(here bet(een >o&r$ and *oitier$ 6and "alled by both na'e$8 in ;2# >he Bran:$ fa"ed a deter'ined and, before thi$ date, a rarely defeated 2&$li' ar'y, &nder the leader$hip of Abd ar 5ah'an al!Chafi)i, that had "ro$$ed over the *yrenee$ 2o&ntain$ fro' the Iberian penin$&la# Be( original $o&r"e$ exi$t for thi$ battleH tho$e that do ! fro' both the 2&$li' and Bran:i$h $ide$ ! $&gge$t that the 2&$li' ar'y, "ontaining Spani$h, Berber, 2oro""an, and Arab $oldier$, fo&ght on hor$eba": and on foot a$ they (ere a""&$to'ed to, (hile the 2erovingian$, led by Charle$ 2artel, fo&ght $olely on foot# Charle$G$ Bran:i$h $oldier$ (ere )&ite experien"ed, and thi$ 'ay have been the rea$on behind hi$ vi"tory# It appear$ that the 2&$li'$ "harged repeatedly, both on hor$e and on foot, b&t the tightly pa":ed Bran:i$h line$ re'ained $olid# Event&ally, the 2&$li' atta":$ petered o&t, po$$ibly be"a&$e of fatig&e or the terrain, and the Bran:$ (ere able to atta": and defeat the 2&$li'$# Abd ar 5ah'an al!Chafi)i (a$ :illed and, a$ night fell, hi$ ar'y left the field, altho&gh a b&rial party i$ $aid to have ret&rned later to b&ry their leader (here he fell# >he ta"ti" of $tanding $olidly in an infantry line (hile being atta":ed re)&ired an enor'o&$ a'o&nt of bravery, di$"ipline, and leader$hip, and fe( ar'ie$ po$$e$$ed $&"h )&alitie$, altho&gh on thi$ o""a$ion it i$ "lear that the Bran:$ did# Charle$ 2ar!telG$ leader$hip at >o&r$ (a$ a "ontrib&ting fa"tor in the a$$&'ption of the 2erovingian throne by hi$ $on, *ippin, (ho then de"lared the beginning of a ne( dyna$ty, the Carolingian, fittingly na'ed after the 'an (ho had ended the 2&$li' threat again$t the Bran:$# LA>E 5O2A% A52S A%D A52O5 Spear$ and Aavelin$ In di$"&$$ing the ar'$ and ar'or of the early 2iddle Age$, it i$ e$$ential to loo: fir$t at tho$e of the 5o'an $oldier# >hro&gho&t 'o$t of the hi$tory of the E'pire, 5o'an infantry $oldier$ (ere "hara"teriFed by the &$e of a $ingle (eapon, the pilum. >he pilum (a$ a heavy $pear, &$ed for thr&$ting or thro(ing# (ila had a leaf! $haped iron head, 21; feet 6001.0 "enti'eter$8 long, e'bedded in or $o":eted onto a (ooden $haft (ith a $hort iron $pi:e at the rear# So'eti'e$, e$pe"ially in the later 5o'an period, one or t(o (eight$ (o&ld be atta"hed to pila. >he$e tended to in"rea$e their po(er b&t de"rea$e their range, indi"ating perhap$ a $oldierG$ preferen"e at tho$e ti'e$ for a thr&$ting rather than a thro(ing (eapon# >he length of pila $ee'$ to have been aro&nd / feet < in"he$ 6-0; "enti'eter$8, altho&gh exa'ple$ a$ long a$ . feet 62 < "enti'eter$8 (ere fo&nd in the ex"avation of a bog $ite in Iller&p, Den'ar:# 5o'an ar'ie$ (ere the only one$ (ho &$ed the pilum (hi"h 'ay 'ean there (ere $tri"t reg&lation$ on it$ 'an&fa"t&re and trade, altho&gh there i$ no (ritten eviden"e $&pporting thi$ a$$&'ption# D&ring the $e"ond "ent&ry AD there (a$ a de"line in the &$e of the pilum b&t in the third and fo&rth "ent&rie$ it regained it$

pop&larity and (a$ &$ed again$t the early barbarian invader$# Only (ith the de"line of 5o'an 'ilitary po(er and the ri$e of the barbarian$ did the pilum finally die o&t# Aavelin$, $horter 6approxi'ately <0 in"he$ or -0; "enti'eter$8 and lighter than the pila and (ith a $'aller iron head, (ere al$o &$ed by reg&lar 5o'an $oldier$ d&ring the late E'pire, "hiefly, it $ee'$, by lightly ar'ored $:ir'i$hing troop$# %o "onte'porary re"ord$ do"&'ent the range of the$e (eapon$, b&t 'odern experi'ent$ indi"ate a range of abo&t ;; yard$ 6;0 'eter$8 for pila altho&gh they are only able to penetrate a (ooden $hield at / -42 yard$ 6/ 'eter$8, and 22 yard$ 620 'eter$8 for Kavelin$, (hi"h had a penetrating "apability &p to -- yard$ 6-0 'eter$8# Aavelin$ and pila "o&ld be &$ed on hor$eba":, b&t late 5o'an "avalry preferred lan"e$# >he$e (ere longer than pila and did not have long iron head$# Ex"avated lan"e head$ $ho( a variety of $hape$, length$, and (eight$# >he total length$ of lan"e$ ! head and $haft ! "an only be g&e$$ed at# S(ord$ 5o'an $oldier$ al$o al'o$t al(ay$ "arried an edged (eapon to &$e a$ a $e"ondary (eapon to their pila. 2o$t often the$e (ere (orn on their right $ide and (ere dra(n by and &$ed in the right hand 6to the 5o'an a left! handed per$on (a$ sinister the Latin (ord for left8# Bro' very early the$e (ere relatively $hort ! no longer than -; in"he$ 6;/ "enti'eter$8, and 'o$t )&ite a bit $horter ! and '&$t be "on$idered dagger$# >hey had leaf!$haped blade$ and (ere $heathed in iron or leather $"abbard$ (ith bronFe edge$, $&pport$, and tip$ or "hape$# Obvio&$ly, the dagger al$o had non'ilitary &$e$# By at lea$t the fir$t "ent&ry BC 5o'an $oldier$ had adopted the gladius. >hi$ (a$ a $hort $(ord 'ade (ith an iron blade to (hi"h a bronFe!"overed (ood, bone, or ivory "ro$$ g&ard, po''el, and grip (o&ld be atta"hed# >hey varied in length, and ar"haeologi"al exa'ple$ range bet(een 22 and ;0 in"he$ 6/0 and 0 "enti'eter$8 overall (ith blade$ bet(een -; and 2/ in"he$ 6;<#/ and 0< "enti'eter$8# A gladius in the "olle"tion$ of the 5oyal Ar'o&rie$ in Leed$, England 6IE#//9;A8 i$ 2< in"he$ 60; "enti'eter$8 overall, (ith a blade length of -. in"he$ 6<. "enti'eter$8, a (idth of -# in"he$ 6<#; "enti'eter$8, and a (eight of - po&nd 6<<< gra'$8, 'ea$&re'ent$ not often re"orded for $i'ilar ex"avated (eapon$# !ladius $"abbard$ (ere 'ade of t(o thin pie"e$ of (ood, $o'eti'e$ "overed (ith a thin bronFe $heet or leather, reinfor"ed by bronFe band$ (here the $"abbard atta"hed to the belt and at the "hapeH at ti'e$ a third band (a$ al$o atta"hed f&rther do(n the $"abbard# Altho&gh o$ten$ibly for adding $trength to the $"abbard, the$e bronFe band$ (ere al$o fre)&ently tinned and de"orated# On the bronFe band$ of the $"abbard ! the only pie"e$ that re'ain ! that "arried the 5oyal Ar'o&rie$ gladius the &pper band i$ engraved (ith a (arrior 'oving to hi$ right and (earing a "re$ted hel'et and a '&$"led "&ira$$H he "arrie$ a $pear and a $hield# >he lo(er band i$ engraved (ith a partially "lothed (inged vi"tory fig&re (riting on a $hield hanging fro' a pal' tree# >he "hape i$ engraved (ith another (inged vi"tory fig&re holding a pal' leaf# >he $y'boli$' here $&gge$t$ that the $oldier "arrying thi$ (eapon (a$ (illing to fight, b&t hoped for pea"e thro&gh vi"tory# Several other de"orated gladius $"abbard$ have been fo&nd# 2ore "o'plete $"abbard$ $ho( the tip of the "hape to have been a "a$t bronFe b&tton# >he blade$ of $o'e extant gladii "arry the na'e$ of o(ner$ or po$$ibly 'an&fa"t&rer$H the 5oyal Ar'o&rie$ gladius bear$ three apparently $eparate na'e$3 C# +aleri&$ *ri'&$, C# +aleri&$, and C# 5ani&$# >he gladius "ontin&ed to be &$ed thro&gho&t the late E'pire, altho&gh it $teadily de"lined in pop&larity# >he gladius "o&ld only be &$ed for thr&$ting and th&$ had li'ited effe"t (hen (ielded fro' hor$eba":# Bor thi$, it appear$ a longer $(ord (a$ "arried, "alled a spat%a. >he spat%a appear$ at lea$t by the end of the $e"ond "ent&ry AD, pri'arily a$ a "avalry (eapon, b&t it )&i":ly fo&nd pop&larity a'ong the infantry a$ (ell# ?nli:e the glad"ius the spat%a (a$ &$&ally (orn on the left $ide and "arried in a $"abbard that (a$ atta"hed to a leather belt or baldri" that (a$ (orn over the right $ho&lder a"ro$$ the body# >he length of the baldri" "o&ld be adK&$ted by a $erie$ of b&tton$# >hat the spat%a (a$ "arried on the oppo$ite hip fro' the gladius and fro' a baldri" (a$ probably be"a&$e of the $(ordG$ relative length ! extant exa'ple$ are bet(een 291;0 in"he$ 6 -1.2 "enti'eter$8 long overall, (ith a blade length of 2;12 #/ in"he$ 6/.1 0 "enti'eter$8 and a (idth of -#/12#< in"he$ 6<10 "enti'eter$8# Spat%ae had $i'ilarly "on$tr&"ted (ood, bone, or ivory "ro$$ g&ard$, po''el$, and grip$ a$ the gladii and $i'ilarly de"orated panel$, altho&gh bronFe (a$ in"rea$ingly repla"ed by iron or $o'eti'e$ $ilver# In the fo&rth and fifth "ent&rie$ the spat%a be"a'e 'ore pop&lar than the gladius for all 5o'an $oldier$ and 'ay denote an in"rea$ed de$ire to &$e the $(ord a$ a $la$hing rather than a thr&$ting (eapon# A""ording to the fo&rth!"ent&ry A''ian&$ 2ar"ellin&$ and $eventh!"ent&ry Aohn of Antio"h, the re$&lt$ of a spat%a $la$h "o&ld be )&ite deva$tating, the for'er "lai'ing one "o&ld $plit a h&'an $:&ll in t(o and the latter reporting a "ollarbone and tor$o penetrated by a spat%a. In the late 5o'an E'pire, dagger$ and $(ord$ (o&ld often be "arried together# Bo($ and Sling$

Bo($ and $ling$ (ere al$o &$ed by 5o'an $:ir'i$hing troop$# ?nfort&nately, there are no ar"haeologi"al re'ain$ of the$e (eapon$, a$ they (ere 'ade of (ood and "loth, re$pe"tively, b&t they are often portrayed in art and are fre)&ently 'entioned in hi$tori"al $o&r"e$# Blavi&$ +egeti&$ 5enat&$, perhap$ the 'o$t fa'o&$ late 5o'an 'ilitary (riter, 'ention$ $elf!bo($, tho&ght to be plain (ooden bo($, a$ training (eapon$ and re"o''end$ an exaggerated pra"ti"e range of ;00 yard$ 62 < 'eter$8# 2odern te$t$ have $ho(n the effe"tive range of the$e bo($ to be //1-0/ yard$ 6/01-/0 'eter$8, (ith a 'axi'&' range of -9012/0 yard$ 6-0/12;0 'eter$8# %at&rally, a$ (ith all 'i$$ile (eapon$, effe"tivene$$ (a$ deter'ined a$ '&"h by the $:ill of the ar"her$ a$ by the te"hnology of the bo(# +egeti&$ doe$ not de$"ribe the (ar bo(# 2any $"holar$ believe the$e (ere not $elf!bo($ b&t "o'po$ite bo($, "on$tr&"ted fro' (ood, $ine(, and horn# >hey arrive at thi$ "on"l&$ion ba$ed on the later &$e of "o'po$ite bo($, for (hi"h there i$ no :no(n origin, and be"a&$e of the ar"haeologi"al find$ of ear! and grip!lath$ that are tho&ght to be fro' "o'po$ite bo($# Several arti$ti" portrayal$ al$o $ee' to depi"t "o'po$ite bo($, ba$ed on the (ay they are bent (hen $tr&ng# >he$e de'on$trate that the bo($tring "o&ld be dra(n both by the finger$ ! the $o!"alled 2editerranean relea$e ! or the th&'b ! the 2ongolian relea$e# Bra"er$ on the left (ri$t and $tall$ or ring$ for the finger$ or th&'b are al$o depi"ted, a$ are )&iver$# Binally, d&ring the period of barbarian inva$ion$, the 5o'an$ &$ed hor$e ar"her$ (ho "o&ld fire at f&ll gallop (hen $:ir'i$hing again$t an opponent, b&t (ho "o&ld al$o &$e a $(ord or $pear (hen dire"tly atta":ing an opponentG$ troop$# >(o type$ of arro(head$ have been identified fro' ar"haeologi"al ex"avation$# >he long, thin bod:in arro(head i$ tho&ght to have been &$ed a$ an ar'or pier"er, (ith the $&gge$tion that the triple! or )&adr&ple! vaned trilobate arro(head (a$ 'ore effe"tive again$t &nar'ored target$# Both "o&ld be tanged or $o":eted and, a$ $&"h, either bo&nd or gl&ed to a reed or "ane $haft, (hi"h (a$ :ept fro' $plitting on i'pa"t by the addition of a $olid (ooden pie"e in the 'iddle# 5are ar"haeologi"al exa'ple$ of the$e arro($ fo&nd at D&ra E&ropo$ in Syria have al$o $ho(n that part of the $&rfa"e of the 5o'an arro( (a$ ro&ghened and the flet"hing (a$ atta"hed by gl&e# Sling$, long a (eapon &$ed in an"ient (arfare, "ontin&ed to be &$ed into the late 5o'an period# In fa"t, +egeti&$ dee'ed the' to be 'ore effe"tive than the bo(# >he ex"avation of one po$$ible $ling po&"h $ho($ the' to have been 'ade of thi": and ro&gh "attle hide de"orated (ith geo'etri" pattern$# Both $tone and lead $ling$hot$ have al$o been ex"avated, b&t none "an be "on"l&$ively dated# Arti$ti" depi"tion$ $ho( that the $ling (a$ $(&ng over the head or at the $ide of the body, and a$ (ith the bo($tring grip, there $ee'$ to have been no $tandard 'ethod for 5o'an $oldier$# 2odern experi'ent$ have deter'ined that the $ling had a range bet(een -0/1<<0 yard$ 6-/0 and <00 'eter$8#

LA>E 5O2A% A52O5

Soldier$ (ho a""o'panied A&li&$ Cae$arG$ 'ar"h into Ca&l in the fir$t "ent&ry BC (ere the 'o$t $&perb fighting 'en of their ti'e# Bro' narrative de$"ription$ and arti$ti" rendering$ it "an be $een that they (ere prote"ted by a bo(l!$haped hel'et, (hi"h al$o prote"ted the ne":H a large oblong $hield, 'ea$&ring approxi'ately /- by 2/ -42 in"he$ 6-;0 by 0/ "enti'eter$8 6the $"&t&'8H and a $olid bronFe brea$tplate 6the lori"a8# >he (or:'an$hip of the vario&$ ar'or pie"e$ (a$ often extre'ely $:illed# >he hel'et and brea$tplate (ere 'ade of bronFe beaten to $hape, (hile the $hield (a$ "on$tr&"ted fro' layer$ of (ood, &$&ally three, gl&ed together# Ea"h layer (a$ 'ade of $trip$ 2#<1< in"he$ 601-0 "enti'eter$8 (ideH the o&ter pie"e$ (ere laid horiFontally, the inner pie"e (a$ laid verti"ally, and the (hole (a$ "overed in "anva$ and "alf hide# A long (ooden bo$$ ran the entire length of the $hield# Altho&gh no 'etal (a$ &$ed in the "on$tr&"tion of the 5o'an $hield, it (a$ heavy, (eighing an e$ti'ated 22 po&nd$ 6-0 :ilogra'$8# =o(ever, be"a&$e of it$ $hape and $iFe, the $oldier did not ne"e$$arily have to (ear greave$, and thi$ gave hi' greater freedo' of 'ove'ent and, generally, a fairly )&i": $peed# =el'et$ >he bronFe hel'et of earlier 5o'an $oldier$ al$o "hanged d&ring the $e"ond and third "ent&rie$H it (a$ repla"ed by a 'ore "aref&lly de$igned hel'et, 'ade fro' an iron or bronFe $:&ll!plate or "ap (ith either bronFe or iron reinfor"ing bar$ "ri$$"ro$$ed or ribbed over it# >hi$ $:&ll!plate or "ap "ontin&ed do(n over the ba": of the ne":, ending in a ne":!g&ard that angled o&t $everal in"he$ over the $oldierG$ ba":# >he front of the $:&ll "ap ended in a pea: for'ed by t&rning o&t the 'etal of the $:&ll "ap or adding a $eparate bronFe or iron bar to the front of the hel'et# >he $ide$ of the fa"e (ere "overed by ear! and "hee:!pie"e$ 'ade of $ingle bronFe plate$ and atta"hed to the hel'et by a hinge at their &pper edge and fa$tened together at the "hin# Crave$tone "arving$ and other ill&$tration$ $ho( that thi$ (a$ a parti"&larly favored hel'et $tyle thro&gho&t the third and fo&rth "ent&rie$, altho&gh fro' the $a'e $o&r"e$ it appear$ that older 'odel$ did

"ontin&e to be (orn# So'e hel'et$ (ere al$o fitted (ith a 'ail aventail to f&rther prote"t the ne":, and 'ail "oif$ (ere :no(n, altho&gh eviden"e of both i$ rare# 5o'an $oldier$ (o&ld al$o have (orn a padded or )&ilted Iar'ing "apJ 'ade of leather or (ool &nder their hel'et$# Shield$ Altho&gh $o'e late 5o'an $hield$ (ere $till the $a'e length and (idth a$ previo&$ one$, they (ere no( 'ore re"tang&lar and "&rved to fit the body# A 'id!third!"ent&ry re"tang&lar $hield ex"avated at D&ra E&ropo$ 'ea$&re$ <0 by ;; in"he$ 6-02 by 9; "enti'eter$8# >hey "ontin&ed to be 'ade of (ood gl&ed together in layer$ ! the D&ra E&ropo$ $hield (a$ 'ade of $trip$ 'ea$&ring -#21;#- in"he$ 6;19 "enti'eter$8 (ide and 0#010#9 in"he$ 6-#/12 "enti'eter$8 thi": ! and "overed in leather# =o(ever, they no( had applied gilded or $ilvered de"oration, a large 'etal do'ed bo$$, and ri'$ of (ro&ght iron or bronFe aro&nd the edge$# Oval $hield$ al$o appeared at thi$ ti'e# An exa'ple fro' D&ra E&ropo$ 'ea$&re$ <21<0#/ by ;01;9 in"he$ 6-0 1--9 by .21. "enti'eter$8 and i$ "on$tr&"ted of -21-/ poplar (ooden plan:$ 0#;10#/ in"he$ 60#91-#2 "enti'eter$8 thi": gl&ed together# A horiFontal bar, riveted only on ea"h $ide, reinfor"ed the in$ide of the $hield and provided a (ooden grip that (a$ an"hored on the front by a large do'ed bo$$ 'ea$&ring #;19#/ in"he$ 6-9#/122 "enti'eter$8# >he $hield (a$ "overed in leather or fabri", li:e earlier exa'ple$# Ar'or D&ring the $e"ond and third "ent&rie$ AD, 5o'an ar'or "hanged, and the hard, $olid, and i''obile brea$tplate (a$ repla"ed by a 'ore flexible "&ira$$ 6a lori"a $eg'entata8# Six or $even thi": horiFontal bronFe $trip$ (ere atta"hed by hoo:$ and b&":le$ onto a leather &ndergar'ent to "over the lo(er "he$t and $to'a"h area to belo( the (ai$t# >he $ho&lder$ (ere "overed (ith $everal "&rved $trip$ of bronFe $e"&red to a pair of front and ba": 'etal plate$ that (ere atta"hed to t(o $et$ of horiFontal $trip$ that prote"ted the lo(er part of the body# >hi$ allo(ed the (earer '&"h 'ore freedo' of 'ove'ent than did the $olid lori"a (orn by Cae$arG$ legionnaire$, and it "o&ld al$o be ta:en apart ea$ily for tran$portation and repair# >he lori"a $eg'entata (a$ $till in fa$hion at the ti'e the Ar"h of Sever&$ (a$ b&ilt in 5o'eH the ar"h depi"t$ $oldier$ (earing it in 20; and it $ee'$ to have been &$ed at lea$t thro&gh the 'iddle of the third "ent&ry# >here i$ little eviden"e, ho(ever, that it (a$ (orn by $oldier$ d&ring the barbarian inva$ion$ of the fo&rth and fifth "ent&rie$, perhap$ be"a&$e of it$ te"hnologi"al "o'plexity and the "o$t of it$ 'an&fa"t&re# >he Ar"h of Sever&$ portray$ not only $oldier$ (earing te"hnologi"ally "o'plex, expen$ive lori"a $eg'entata "&ira$$e$ b&t al$o the 'ore ea$ily "on$tr&"ted and "heaper lori"a $)&a'ata and lori"a ha'ata ar'orH eviden"e al$o $&gge$t$ that the$e had "o'pletely repla"ed the earlier ar'or by the end of the third and the beginning of the fo&rth "ent&rie$# >he lori"a $)&a'ata (a$ 'ade of a large n&'ber of 'etalli" $"ale$ atta"hed to ea"h other by leather la"e$ and affixed to a linen &ndergar'ent by linen thread# 7hile not a$ fre)&ently depi"ted in arti$ti" rendering$ a$ the other 5o'an ar'or$, $everal find$ of thi$ ar'or have e$tabli$hed that the $"ale$ (ere 'ade either of bronFe or, 'ore fre)&ently, iron# >he$e 'ea$&re abo&t 0#0 in"he$ 6-#/ "enti'eter$8 long and 0#/ in"he$ 6-#; "enti'eter$8 (ide and are pier"ed by $ix hole$, t(o in the "enter top and t(o ea"h on the right and left edge$# It i$ not :no(n ho( a $oldier p&t on thi$ $"ale ar'or, and it i$ not believed that $leeve$ (ere atta"hed to the tor$o!"overing "&ira$$# >he lori"a ha'ata (a$ "on$tr&"ted of 'etal ring$# Arti$ti" depi"tion$ and ar"haeologi"al ex"avation$ of thi$ 'ail ar'or indi"ate that it (a$ 'ade of alternating ro($ of ring$ ! 'ea$&ring 0#; in"he$ 60# "enti'eter$8 in dia'eter and 0#0< in"he$ 60#- "enti'eter8 thi": ! p&n"hed o&t of $heet 'etal or 'ade of (ire, (ith a "onne"ting ro( of 'etal (ire ring$ in bet(een# >he lori"a ha'ata had the ring end$ of ea"h ro( riveted together or a ro( of riveted ring$ alternating (ith a ro( of (elded ring$# Ea"h of the ring$ (a$ interlo":ed (ith fo&r other$, t(o in the ro( above and t(o in the ro( belo(H ;/,000 to <0,000 ring$ (ere needed to 'a:e an entire ar'or, in"l&ding elbo(!length $leeve$ that (ere al(ay$ atta"hed to the $hirt# >he lori"a ha'ata (a$ extre'ely flexible and d&rable, and it (a$ p&lled on over the head# Both the $"ale ar'or 6lori"a $)&a'ata8 and 'ail ar'or 6lori"a ha'ata8 "overed the tor$o fro' the $ho&lder to at lea$t the 'iddle of the thigh, and $o'e $ee' to have $tret"hed a$ far do(n a$ the :nee# >hey (ere (orn by the infantry and "avalry# And (hile they (ere lighter than the earlier lori"a $eg'entata ar'or, they (ere al$o le$$ prote"tive, $a"rifi"ing defen$e for expen$e and "o'fort# Creave$ $ee' to have been reg&larly (orn (ith both type$ of ar'or$# ?nderneath all late 5o'an ar'or$ a gar'ent :no(n a$ a t%oraco"mac%us in Cree:, or su)armalis in Latin, (a$ (orn# An anony'o&$ late!fo&rth! or early!fifth!"ent&ry 'ilitary 'an&al, the *e +e)us $el"licis identifie$ the t%oracomac%us a$ a thi": "loth gar'ent that added prote"tion to the ar'or, b&t at the $a'e ti'e al$o helped $pread the (eight, "&t do(n fri"tion and r&bbing, and red&"e the heat of (earing it# >here are no arti$ti" depi"tion$ of thi$ gar'ent, and, not $&rpri$ingly, none have $&rvived, b&t it i$ tho&ght that they (ere

'ade of (ool, felt, or linen and (ere padded or )&ilted# In (et (eather a leather gar'ent ! 'ade of Libyan hide, $ay$ the a&thor of the *e +e)us $ellicis ! or, later, a hooded felt "loa: (a$ (orn over the ar'or# B&t ho( prote"tive (ere the t(o later 5o'an ar'or$ ! the lori"a ha'ata and the lori"a $)&a'ata ! and (hat did the $oldier$ thin: of (earing the'M D&ring the fo&rth "ent&ry, A''ian&$ 2ar"ellin&$ (rite$ that he had $een 5o'an Iinfantry'en (ith $hield$ and "re$t$ glea'ing (ith glittering ray$, "lad in $hining 'ail,J b&t in the early fifth "ent&ry, +egeti&$ i$ le$$ po$itive abo&t the 5o'an $oldier$G attit&de to(ard their ar'or3 B&t (hen, be"a&$e of negligen"e and laFine$$, parade gro&nd drill$ (ere abandoned, the "&$to'ary ar'or began to $ee' heavy $in"e the $oldier$ rarely ever (ore it# >herefore, they fir$t a$:ed the e'peror to $et a$ide the brea$tplate$ and 'ail and then the hel'et$# So o&r $oldier$ fo&ght the Coth$ (itho&t any prote"tion for "he$t and head and (ere often beaten by ar"her$# Altho&gh there (ere 'any di$a$ter$, (hi"h led to the lo$$ of great "itie$, no one tried to re$tore brea$tplate$ and hel'et$ to the infantry# >h&$ it happen$ that troop$ in battle, expo$ed to (o&nd$ be"a&$e they have no ar'or, thin: abo&t r&nning and not abo&t fighting 6a$ )&oted in Arther Berrill, T%e 'all of t%e +oman ,mpire- T%e Militar# ,.planation RLondon3 >ha'e$ and =&d$on, -.90S, -291-2.8# B&t did thi$ 'atter in fa"ing the barbarian$M >he 5o'an$ $ee' to have been very "aref&l in ad'itting the +i$igoth$ to the E'pire a$ foederati forbidding the' fro' bringing their (eapon$ and "onfi$"ating any that (ere fo&nd# Of "o&r$e, $o'e +i$igoth$ no do&bt $'&ggled in their (eapon$ or bribed 5o'an g&ard$ to allo( the' to :eep the'# Still, the$e "annot have been very n&'ero&$, and in fa"t there $ee' to have been $everal atte'pt$ by the +i$igoth$ to obtain 5o'an ar'$ d&ring their ; 01; 9 (ar again$t the E'pire# Certainly, $&"h de$peration doe$ not ne"e$$arily 'ean that 5o'an (eapon$ (ere $een a$ $&perior to tho$e nor'ally "arried by the barbarian$ ! altho&gh previo&$ atte'pt$ to a")&ire (eapon$ fro' 5o'an ar$enal$ by barbarian raider$ 'ight $&gge$t a$ '&"h#

BA5BA5IA% A52S A%D A52O5

So at lea$t initially, the 5o'an troop$ (ho (ere defeated by barbarian ar'ie$ did $o again$t (arrior$ ar'ed (ith $i'ilar (eapon$ to tho$e they &$ed# >he O$trogoth$ and +andal$ fa"ed the 5o'an$ &$ing (eapon$ they had either a")&ired or "opied fro' the'# =o(ever, (hile +i$igothi" ar'ie$ (ere largely infantry, (ith fe( "avalry and even fe(er ar"her$, both O$trogothi" and +andal 'ilitary for"e$ had 'ore "avalry and ar"her$ than the 5o'an$# In fa"t, the +andal$, altho&gh they (ere the 'o$t no'adi" of any of the early invading tribe$, )&i":ly be"a'e a "avalry!do'inant for"e, altho&gh the rea$on for thi$ ha$ never been "o'pletely &nder$tood# >heir intere$t in a")&iring or i'itating 5o'an ar'$ and ar'or (a$ deter'ined by their o(n 'ilitary need$# Barbarian heavy infantry dre$$ed li:e 5o'an heavy infantry, barbarian heavy "avalry dre$$ed li:e 5o'an heavy "avalry, and lighter barbarian troop$ and $:ir'i$her$ dre$$ed li:e the $a'e lighter 5o'an $oldier$# >o be "ertain, the barbarian$ $ee'ed to prefer $o'e 5o'an (eapon$ over other$, (ith spat%ae preferred over gladii and lan"e$ and Kavelin$ preferred over pila. Sling$ never $ee' to have "a&ght on, b&t ar"hery, both on foot and on hor$e, flo&ri$hed# >hi$ 'ay be an indi"ation of (hat (a$ al$o happening in the 5o'an ar'ie$ of the ti'e# It $ho&ld be noted that $tandardiFation of (eapon$ and ar'or (a$ never an i$$&eH indeed, both 'ail and $"ale ar'or $ee' to have been &$ed e)&ally by $oldier$ fighting $ide by $ide in the $a'e ar'ie$# It (a$ not long, ho(ever, before the vario&$ barbarian tribe$ began to develop and 'a:e their o(n (eapon$, perhap$ be"a&$e of the fall in the n&'ber of ar'$ prod&"ed by 5o'an $'ith$ a$ the e"ono'y of the E'pire de"lined# So'e hi$torian$ $&gge$t that thi$ 'eant a de"rea$e in overall )&ality of (eapon$ and ar'or, b&t thi$ ha$ not been "onfir'ed by ar"haeologi"al find$ fro' the period# In fa"t, the oppo$ite 'ay be tr&e3 barbarian ar'$ and ar'or of the fifth "ent&ry 'ay have been $&perior to 5o'an ar'$ and ar'or in $everal (ay$# Infantry $oldier$ "ontin&ed to &$e $pear$ 6altho&gh not pila8 a$ their "hief (eapon, b&t the$e (ere fitted (ith $tronger iron head$# Ar"her$ began to fire iron!tipped arro($# And the "avalry and infantry both began to &$e longer t(o!edged $(ord$# In the Ea$tern 5o'an E'pire $i'ilar "hange$ to (eapon$ o""&rred, b&t (ho infl&en"ed (ho in thi$ "a$e "annot be deter'ined# >he 5o'an$, e$pe"ially in the 7e$tern E'pire, (ere &nable to adapt, and $&"h a ta"ti"al fail&re 'ay have added to their &lti'ate Ifall#J A$ in 'any other area$, the Bran:$ (ere very different fro' other barbarian $o"ietie$ in their "hoi"e of (eapon$# Being &$ed $o often to $&pple'ent 5o'an troop$ along the 5hine 5iver in the fo&rth and early fifth "ent&rie$ 'eant that the Bran:$ &$ed 5o'an ar'$ and ar'or# Det before long $o'e, e$pe"ially 'ilitary and politi"al leader$, appeared to have given &p &$ing heavy ar'or, "hoo$ing in$tead to "arry 'ore (eapon$# >hi$ $&rpri$ed 'any (ho "a'e in "onta"t (ith the' and (ho other(i$e expe"ted 'ore traditional defen$ive attire fro' $&"h a 'ilitarily $&""e$$f&l tribe# Bor exa'ple, in < 0 Sidoni&$ Apollinari$ re"all$ hi$ fir$t 'eeting (ith Bran:i$h $oldier$3

>heir $(ord$ h&ng fro' their $ho&lder$ on baldri"$, and ro&nd their (ai$t$ they (ore a belt of f&r adorned (ith bo$$e$ # # # In their right hand$ they held barbed lan"e$ and thro(ing!axe$, and in their left $hield$, on (hi"h the light $hone, (hite on the "ir"&it and red on the bo$$, di$playing both op&len"e and "raft$'an$hip 6a$ )&oted in 5#=#C# Davi$, A &istor# of Medieval ,urope from Constantine to Saint /ouis RLondon3 Long'an, -. 0S, -091-0.8# And Agathia$, (riting a "ent&ry later, re"ord$ a $i'ilar i'pre$$ion of the Bran:$3 >he 'ilitary e)&ip'ent of thi$ people i$ very $i'ple # # # >hey do not :no( the &$e of the "oat of 'ail or greave$ and the head the 'aKority leave &n"overed, only a fe( (ear the hel'et# >hey have their "he$t$ bare and ba":$ na:ed to the loin$H they "over their thigh$ (ith either leather or linen# # # # Bighting on foot i$ both habit&al and a national "&$to' and they are profi"ient in thi$# At the hip they (ear a $(ord and on the left $ide their $hield i$ atta"hed# >hey have neither bo($ nor $ling$, no 'i$$ile (eapon$ ex"ept the do&ble edged axe and the angon (hi"h they &$e 'o$t often 6a$ )&oted in Bernard S# Ba"hra"h, I*ro"opi&$, Agathia$ and the Bran:i$h 2ilitary,J Speculum </ 6-. 083 <;08# Spear$ >he &$e of the barbarian $pear pre"ede$ the barbarian inva$ion$ of the 5o'an E'pire and 'ay be the $ingle (eapon lea$t affe"ted by $i'ilar 5o'an (eapon$# >hey e$pe"ially intere$ted >a"it&$, (riting abo&t the Cer'an$ in the fir$t "ent&ry AD3 Only a fe( of the' &$e $(ord$ or large lan"e$3 they "arry $pear$ "alled frameae in their lang&age ! (ith $hort and narro( blade$, b&t $o $harp and ea$y to handle that they "an be &$ed, a$ re)&ired, either at "lo$e )&arter$ or in long!range fighting# >heir hor$e'en are "ontent (ith a $hield and $pearH b&t the foot!$oldier$ al$o rain Kavelin$ on their foe$3 ea"h of the' "arrie$ $everal, and they h&rl the' to i''en$e di$tan"e$ 6>a"it&$, T%e Agricola and t%e !ermania tran$# =# 2attingly R=ar'ond$(orth, England3 *eng&in Boo:$, -. 0S, -0/1-008# Already it $ee'$ that the$e barbarian$ &nder$tood the three &$e$ of the $pear even before they invaded the E'pire ! a$ a lan"e, a$ a thr&$ting (eapon, and a$ a Kavelin ! an a$$e$$'ent that (a$ "onfir'ed by later (itne$$e$# =o(ever, (hat ha$ not been "onfir'ed, by ar"haeologi"al find$, arti$ti" rendering$, or other literary $o&r"e$, i$ >a"it&$G de$"ription of the barbarian $pear$# >here i$ little do&bt that the $pear (a$ i'portant, a$ he $&gge$t$, b&t, a$ (ith other (eapon$ &$ed by both barbarian$ and 5o'an$ at the ti'e, it $ee'$ there (a$ not the $tandardiFation in the$e (eapon$ that >a"it&$ i'plie$, even a'ong, let alone bet(een, the barbarian tribe$# A$ 'any a$ t(elve different type$ of $pearhead$ have been fo&nd in Anglo!Saxon ar"haeologi"al ex"avation$, and the$e have been f&rther gro&ped into fo&r 'ain "ategorie$3 derivative for'$ of Cer'ani" $pear!type$ before the Anglo!Saxon $ettle'ent in England, leaf!$haped blade$, ang&lar blade$, and "orr&gated blade$# It i$ li:ely that "hronologi"al and regional differen"e$ '&$t a""o&nt for $o'e of the variation$ in $pearhead type$# =o(ever, on the (hole it '&$t be "on"l&ded that the Anglo!Saxon$ $a( no need for $tandardiFation or even "on$i$ten"y# Ar"haeologi"al ex"avation$ of $pearhead$ fro' "ontinental E&rope $ho( a $i'ilar diver$ity# >he$e $pearhead$ are larger and thi":er "o'pared (ith 5o'an exa'ple$# Of $pe"ial and $pe"ifi" intere$t i$ the Bran:i$h $pear :no(n a$ the angon. Agathia$ de$"ribe$ the (eapon3 >he angons are $pear$ (hi"h are neither $hort nor longH they "an be &$ed, if ne"e$$ary for thro(ing li:e a Kavelin, and al$o, in hand to hand "o'bat# >he greater part of the angon i$ "overed (ith iron and very little (ood i$ expo$ed# Above, at the top of the $pear, on ea"h $ide fro' the $o":et it$elf (here the $taff i$ fixed, $o'e point$ are t&rned ba":, bent li:e hoo:$, and t&rned to(ard the handle# In battle, the Bran: thro($ the angon and if it hit$ an ene'y the $pear i$ "a&ght in the 'an and neither the (o&nded 'an nor anyone el$e "an dra( it o&t# >he barb$ hold in$ide the fle$h "a&$ing great pain and in thi$ (ay a 'an (ho$e (o&nd 'ay not be in a vital $pot $till die$# If the angon $tri:e$ a $hield, it i$ fixed there, hanging do(n (ith the b&tt on the gro&nd# >he angon "annot be p&lled o&t be"a&$e the barb$ have penetrated the $hield, nor "an it be "&t off (ith a $(ord be"a&$e the (ood of the $haft i$ "overed (ith iron# 7hen the Bran: $ee$ the $it&ation, he )&i":ly p&t$ hi$ foot on the b&tt of the $pear, p&lling do(n and the 'an holding it fall$, the head and "he$t are left &nprote"ted# >he &nprote"ted (arrior i$ then :illed either by a $tro:e of the axe or a thr&$t (ith another $pear 6a$ )&oted in Bernard S# Ba"hra"h, I*ro"opi&$, Agathia$ and the Bran:i$h 2ilitary,J Speculum </ 6-. 083 <;08# Altho&gh thi$ de$"ription i$ probably fan"if&l, 'o$t hi$torian$ a""ept it a$ a""&rate# A $i'ilar $pear i$ de$"ribed in a tenth!"ent&ry poe', Walt%eri b&t the anony'o&$ poet "lai'$ that thi$ $pear ha$ three "ord$ atta"hed to it$ end $o that, (hen $t&": into an ene'y $oldierG$ $hield, three Bran:i$h (arrior$ 'ight be able to p&ll on the$e and for"e hi' to drop it ! tho&gh (hy an ene'y $oldier (o&ld allo( three Bran:i$h (arrior$

to p&ll on the$e "ord$ i$ not $tated# Bro' the$e de$"ription$, $o'e believe the angon (a$ a de$"endant of the 5o'an pilum0 ho(ever, $&"h a lin: i$ not $&pported by (ritten, arti$ti", or ar"haeologi"al eviden"e# S(ord$ >he $pear 'ay have been the 'o$t (idely &$ed (eapon of the early 2iddle Age$, b&t the $(ord (a$ "ertainly the 'o$t "elebrated and (a$ the (eapon of "hoi"e for the elite of barbarian $o"iety# Bro' very early, the $(ord be"a'e a part of every "avalry'anG$ ar$enal, it$ o(ner$hip generally pre"eding even that of a (arhor$e# B&t they (ere al$o &$ed by large n&'ber$ of infantryH the +i$igothi" Code of Ervig 6090109 8 even 'ade o(ner$hip of a $(ord 'andatory for all 'en Koining the ar'y, +i$igoth or 5o'an, infantry or "avalry# Of "o&r$e, altho&gh the $(ord (a$ &$&ally p&r"ha$ed, it 'ight al$o be given to a parti"&larly valiant a"olyte by hi$ 'a$ter or a")&ired by ta:ing it fro' a fallen or "apt&red opponent, and it i$ )&ite early in the 2iddle Age$ that $&"h a")&i$ition$ be"o'e part of al'o$t all heroi" literat&re# Altho&gh it ha$ been proven that barbarian $oldier$ &$ed $hort $(ord$, (ith ar"haeologi"al exa'ple$ averaging -/ ;4< in"he$ 6<0 "enti'eter$8 in length ! no do&bt 5o'an gladii or a (eapon ba$ed on the' ! the$e (arrior$ preferred the longer spat%a!type (eapon# =eavy, &ndo&btedly 'eant to be &$ed (ith t(o hand$, and t(o!edged, (ith a "enter of gravity near to the point, ar"haeologi"al eviden"e ha$ $ho(n the$e to be )&ite long, 2. -421;. in"he$ 6 /1-00 "enti'eter$8# =o(ever, the blade$ of the$e $(ord$ are al$o narro(, 2#< in"he$ 60 "enti'eter$8 (ide on average, (hi"h ha$ given ri$e to the $"holarly opinion that they (ere not very $trong or (ell 'ade# =i$torian$ point to >a"it&$G deri$ion of the fir$t!"ent&ry Cer'ani" $(ord$ that he had $een, $tating that they (ere not "o''on be"a&$e barbarian iron Ii$ not plentif&l#J 7hile thi$ 'ay have been the $it&ation (hen >a"it&$ (a$ (riting, it 'ay $i'ply have been the )&ality and ab&ndan"e of the $(ord$ of the tribe he (a$ $t&dying, and by the fo&rth and fifth "ent&rie$ thi$ (a$ "learly no longer the "a$e# S(ord$ (ere both n&'ero&$ ! "onte'porary "hroni"ler$ report that al'o$t all barbarian $oldier$ bear one ! and (ell 'ade ! (ith blade$ 'ade of finely forged iron of a )&ality e)&al or $&perior to "onte'porary 5o'an $(ord$# S(ord$'ith$ (ere highly paid arti$an$ (ho$e "raft$'an$hip (a$ beginning to "o'e into it$ o(n ! altho&gh their Carolingian and +i:ing de$"endent$ o&t$hone their a"hieve'ent$# Another 'yth that $ho&ld be di$pelled i$ that $(ord$, e$pe"ially long $(ord$, (ere only o(ned by the tribal elite or "hieftain$ and a$ $&"h (ere $y'bol$ of their (ealth and po(er# =i$torian$ have $&gge$ted that b&rial$ of thi$ type of $(ord (ith their o(ner$, a$ in the grave ex"avated at S&tton =oo, and th&$ not pa$$ed do(n to other$ indi"ate that the$e (ere 'ore than 'ere (eapon$# >hi$ ha$ ari$en largely fro' a 'i$reading of the$e b&rial $ite$H not all (ere of (ealthy or po(erf&l individ&al$# In fa"t, the large n&'ber of grave$ fo&nd 'ay indi"ate that $&"h a b&rial (a$ a tradition for honoring $oldier$ of any "la$$, and 'ay al$o indi"ate an ab&ndan"e of the$e (eapon$ rather than a $"ar"ity# =o(ever, the fa"t that there are ex"avated in$tan"e$ of $(ord$ that have been Irit&ally :illed,J bent, or other(i$e da'aged before being pla"ed in a (arriorG$ grave $o that they "o&ld not be re&$ed, 'ay in fa"t $&gge$t the rarity of the$e blade$# A type of $(ord $pe"ifi" to thi$ ti'e (a$ :no(n a$ a $eax or $"ra'a$ax ! a $ingle!edged (eapon that "o&ld be &p to ;; -42 in"he$ 69/ "enti'eter$8 long and bet(een -#0 and 2#0 in"he$ 6< and 0#/ "enti'eter$8 (ide# B&t &nli:e the long $(ord$ of the period, the lo(er range of (ho$e length they e)&aled, the$e (ere lighter in (eight and "o&ld be &$ed (ith only one hand# S'all ver$ion$, 'ea$&ring aro&nd #9 in"he$ 620 "enti'eter$8 long, have al$o been fo&nd# All barbarian $(ord$ had large po''el$ and "ro$$ g&ard$ of vario&$ $iFe$ and $hape$ and 'ade of the $a'e 'etal a$ the blade# So'e po''el$ (ere al$o "overed in a thin $heet of bronFe or $ilver# Crip$ (ere "overed in (ood and leather and $o'eti'e$ had 'etal ele'ent$# S"abbard$ differed little in "on$tr&"tion fro' their 5o'an prede"e$$or$ ! (ood "overed (ith leather and de"orative and reinfor"ing 'etal ele'ent$# Blade$, hilt$, and $"abbard$ (ere fre)&ently de"oratedH e$pe"ially pop&lar (a$ the inlaying of gold, $ilver, and bronFe, and de"orative effe"t$ $&"h a$ gold "loi$onnN and the atta"h'ent of Ke(el$# >he 'o$t (ealthy of barbarian leader$ o(ned extre'ely de"orated $(ord$H that of Childeri", the fifth!"ent&ry 2erovingian "hief (ho$e extre'ely ri"h to'b (a$ ex"avated at >o&rnai in -0/;, had both gold inlay and "loi$onnN de"oration on both the hilt$ and $"abbard$ of t(o $(ord$ fo&nd in hi$ grave ! a spat%a and a $"ra'a$ax ! the only part$ of the (eapon$ re'aining# Dagger$ (ere al$o &$ed by 'any barbarian $oldier$, (ith arti$ti" and ar"haeologi"al re'ain$ "onfir'ing their $tyli$ti" and te"hnologi"al "onne"tion to earlier 5o'an one$# Axe$ %o eviden"e $&gge$t$ that 5o'an $oldier$ &$ed axe$ a$ (eapon$, altho&gh they "ertainly &$ed the' a$ tool$# Barbarian$ &$ed the' both a$ tool$ and (eapon$# >he latter $ee'ed to have been )&ite novel in the late 5o'an period, a$ they (ere parti"&larly "o''ented on by "onte'porary "hroni"ler$# >he$e (riter$ report

that barbarian (arrior$ &$ed axe$ both in "lo$e infantry fighting and a$ 'i$$ile (eapon$, and that they (ere ea$ily able to de$troy any ar'or or hel'et$ and penetrate $hield$# 7hen &$ed a$ infantry (eapon$, axe$ (ere $(&ng (ith one or both hand$, and (hen &$ed a$ 'i$$ile (eapon$ they (ere thro(n# One ta"ti", &$ed e$pe"ially by Bran:i$h $oldier$ ! (ho$e ter' for $&"h an axe, francisca ha$ been adopted by hi$torian$ a$ a na'e for all of the' ! (a$ to thro( their axe$ in &ni$on at approa"hing troop$, th&$ di$r&pting their "harge# *ro"opi&$, (riting in ByFanti&' d&ring the $ixth "ent&ry, de$"ribe$ thi$ &$e of the (eapon3 Ea"h 'an "arried a $(ord and $hield and an axe# %o( the iron head of thi$ (eapon (a$ thi": and ex"eedingly $harp on both $ide$ (hile the (ooden handle (a$ very $hort# And they are a""&$to'ed al(ay$ to thro( the$e axe$ at one $ignal in the fir$t "harge and $hatter the $hield$ of the ene'y and :ill the 'en 6a$ )&oted in Bernard S# Ba"hra"h, I*ro"opi&$, Agathia$ and the Bran:i$h 2ilitary,J Speculum </ 6-. 083 <;01 <; 8# Altho&gh not 'entioned by the ter' francisca &ntil I$idore of Seville in hi$ fa'o&$ and infl&ential early $eventh!"ent&ry en"y"lopedia, it ha$ been $&gge$ted that it i$ fro' thi$ that the Bran:$ derived their tribal na'e# =o(ever, re"ent hi$torian$ have $&gge$ted the oppo$ite, that the francisca (a$ $o na'ed be"a&$e of it$ &$e by Bran:i$h $oldier$# >he fa"t that the$e (eapon$ (ere thro(n $&gge$t$ that franciscae (ere relatively $'all, a fa"t "onfir'ed by arti$ti" rendering$ and ar"haeologi"al find$# A large n&'ber of axe$ have been fo&nd in (arrior$G grave$, and their average (eight (a$ abo&t 2#0 po&nd$# 6-#2 :ilogra'$8, (ith the head (eighing bet(een -0 o&n"e$12#2 po&nd$ 6;001-000 gra'$8# >he$e axe head$ 'ea$&re 1 #9 in"he$ 6-9120 "enti'eter$8 high, and it i$ e$ti'ated that their handle$ 'ea$&red in the region of -/# in"he$ 6<0 "enti'eter$8 long# Bor exa'ple, the francisca head fo&nd in Childeri"G$ to'b 'ea$&re$ #9 in"he$ 620 "enti'eter$8 and (eigh$ K&$t over t(o po&nd$ 6.;/ gra'$8# 2odern experi'ent$ have $ho(n that (hen an axe li:e thi$ i$ thro(n it rotate$ abo&t it$ o(n axi$H the head (ill be &pper'o$t, and therefore do the 'o$t da'age to an ene'y, at abo&t fo&r yard$ (ith a $ingle rotation, eight yard$ (ith a do&ble rotation, and t(elve yard$ (ith a triple rotation# Soldier$ had to be $:illed eno&gh to K&dge the $peed and di$tan"e of a "harging ene'y to ta:e "o'plete advantage of the $'all "&tting edge (hen thro(ing their axe$# Borged fro' a $ingle pie"e of iron, barbarian axe$, franciscae had a fairly di$tin"t $hape3 the &pper head had an S!$haped "&rvat&re, the lo(er edge of the blade had a $i'ple elbo(, the lo(er part of the head $(&ng $trongly to the handle, and the &pper edge of the blade for'ed into a point or ro&nded# >he thro(ing axe re'ained i'portant to barbarian $oldier$ &ntil the beginning of the $eventh "ent&ry, (hen it began to de"line in &$e, po$$ibly be"a&$e of a drop in the n&'ber of $:illed thro(er$, b&t 'ore probably be"a&$e of an in"rea$e in the &$e of ar"her$ by the Bran:$# By the end of the $eventh "ent&ry it had effe"tively di$appeared# >he handheld axe, ho(ever, "ontin&ed to be favored a$ an infantry (eapon thro&gho&t the re$t of the 2iddle Age$, altho&gh it tended to have a longer handle and larger head and (a$ &$&ally (ielded (ith t(o hand$# Bo($ At the ti'e of the barbarian inva$ion$ of the 5o'an E'pire, it i$ &n"lear K&$t (hi"h tribe$ (ere ar'ed (ith the bo( or the extent to (hi"h it (a$ &$ed# =o(ever, late 5o'an a&thor$ "o''ent on the profi"ien"y of the +i$igothi" ar"her$ and indi"ate that they (ere of great effe"t in their vi"tory at the battle of Adrianople in ; 9 a$ (ell a$ in other "on)&e$t$# Certainly, K&dging fro' the large n&'ber of arro(head$ fo&nd in +i$igothi" grave $ite$ in Spain, the bo( (a$ an extre'ely (idely &$ed (eapon# It appear$ that the +i$igoth$ $hot a $hort arro( (ith an iron head, of varying $hape$, fro' a bo( of only aro&nd / feet 6-/0 "enti'eter$8 long# It (a$ of "o'po$ite "on$tr&"tion, 'eaning that the $tave (a$ a "o'bination of (ood, horn, and $ine(# Strip$ of $ine( (ere $oftened in boiling (ater $o that they "o&ld be 'olded into the re)&ired $hapeH the $trip$ (ere gl&ed onto the o&t$ide of a (ooden pie"e "&t to the de$ired length of the bo( to (hi"h $trip$ of horn (ere then gl&ed to the in$ide# >he "o'bination of 'aterial$, the $ine( $trong in ten$ion and the horn $trong in "o'pre$$ion, prod&"ed a highly effe"tive $pringli:e $tave# %o":$, "&t (ith a groove into (hi"h the bo($tring fitted, (ere gl&ed to the tip$ of the ar'$# >hey (ere b&ilt $o that the ar'$, in the relaxed $tate, bent for(ard and the bo($tring, 'ade of linen 6flax8 or he'p, p&lled the' ba": to the firing po$ition, fro' (hi"h they $o'eti'e$ get the na'e Ire"&rved bo(#J 5e"&rved bo($ "o&ld be $hot fro' the $tanding po$ition by an infantry $oldier or fro' hor$eba":# A +i$igothi" ar'y &$&ally "ontained both type$ of troop$, a$ did the +andal$, altho&gh foot bo('en (ere 'ore n&'ero&$# In the ar'ie$ of their fear$o'e ene'ie$, the =&n$, the oppo$ite (a$ tr&e ! their prevalen"e for 'o&nted ar"her$ (a$ noted thro&gho&t the late 5o'an (orld a$ di$"&$$ed later# >he O$trogoth$, Bran:$, Angle$, and Saxon$, altho&gh they &$ed the bo(, did not do $o a$ often a$ the

+i$igoth$ or +andal$, let alone the =&n$# >he Bran:$ (ere $aid to have preferred the thro(ing axe a$ a 'i$$ile (eapon, altho&gh the large n&'ber of arro(head$ fo&nd in Bran:i$h grave $ite$ 'ay "a&$e a rea$$e$$'ent of that vie(# >he O$trogoth$ $ee'ed to have held the bo( in $&"h lo( e$tee' that >otila, the :ing of the O$trogoth$ d&ring the $ixth!"ent&ry ByFantine inva$ion of Italy, ref&$ed to allo( hi$ ar'y to &$e bo($ again$t the event&ally vi"torio&$ invader$ ! ho(ever, thi$ "annot be $aid to have "a&$ed their defeat# Crave $ite$ in England have $ho(n that the Angle$ and Saxon$ al$o &$ed the bo(H yet the very $'all n&'ber of arro(head$ fo&nd in the$e grave$ ! abo&t - per"ent of Anglo!Saxon (arrior$G grave$ "ontain arro(head$ ! $&gge$t$ that the (eapon (a$ not val&ed a$ '&"h a$ other (eapon$# An Old Engli$h riddle on the bo( indi"ate$ that the Anglo!Saxon$ :ne( and &$ed the$e (eapon$H ho(ever, the fir$t (ord of the riddle, (hen read ba":(ard$, give$ an earlier for' of the Anglo!Saxon (ord for bo(, )oga ! the only riddle to give $&"h an internal "l&e ! (hi"h 'ay indi"ate that it (a$ not a$ pop&lar a$ $o'e other (eapon$3 Agob is m# name one must work it out0 I am a fair creature fas%ioned for )attle. W%en I )end and s%oot a deadl# s%aft from m# stomac% I desire onl# to send t%at poison as far awa# as possi)le. W%en m# lord w%o devised t%is torment for me releases m# lim)s I )ecome longer and )ent upon slaug%ter spit out t%at deadl# poison I swallowed )efore. 1o man2s parted easil# from t%e o)3ect I descri)e0 if %e is struck )# w%at flies from m# stomac% %e pa#s for its poison wit% %is strengt% " speed# atonement for %is life. I will serve no master w%en unstrung onl# w%en I am cunningl# notc%ed. 1ow guess m# name 6in ,evin Cro$$ley!=olland, ed# and tran$#, T%e ,.eter $ook +iddles R=ar'ond$(orth, England3 *eng&in Boo:$, -. .S, %o# 2;8# Of "o&r$e, a $i'pler an$(er 'ay be that the bo( (a$ $een 'ore a$ a lo(er!"la$$ (eapon than tho$e that appear 'ore fre)&ently in (hat are li:ely to be grave$ of (ealthier $oldier$# Cavalry Ar'$ In an"ient 'ilitary $trategy and ta"ti"$, "avalry played a $e"ondary role to infantryH on the battlefield, it$ role (a$ to $:ir'i$h (ith ene'y "avalry, to "ha$e off their 'i$$ile troop$, or to provide 'obile 'i$$ile fire to hara$$ their infantry# At $iege$, "avalry be"a'e re$pon$ible pri'arily for re"onnai$$an"e and foraging# >herefore, "avalry $oldier$ needed to be (ell trained a$ hor$e'en, b&t not parti"&larly a$ fighter$H their hor$e$ needed to be fa$t, b&t not parti"&larly (ell trained or even (ell bred# >he 5o'an$ &$ed fe( "avalry, preferring to fight on foot# Before the end of the third "ent&ry, they (ere rarely &$ed a$ a frontline for"e, $erving pri'arily a$ a 'ean$ of tran$portation and hara$$'ent# E'peror Dio"letian, (ho r&led the E'pire fro' 29< to ;0/, (a$ a for'er 5o'an general deter'ined to refor' 5o'eG$ 'ilitary &nit$, a'ong other thing$ 'a:ing the' 'ore 'obile $o they "o&ld re$pond 'ore )&i":ly to foreign threat$# =i$ "hange$ in"l&ded :eeping "entraliFed garri$on$ of troop$ a$ rapid re$pon$e &nit$ in fort$ a fe( 'ile$ fro' the borderH thi$ ne"e$$itated a "hange in "avalry $trategy, altho&gh not in ta"ti"$, and re$&lted in an in"rea$e in the n&'ber and $tat&$ of 'o&nted troop$# >hi$ $trategi" "hange (a$ realiFed by the ti'e of the "a'paign$ again$t the barbarian invader$ of the fo&rth and fifth "ent&rie$, altho&gh the 5o'an$ rarely $&""eeded again$t $i'ilar "avalry for"e$ of the +i$igoth$, +andal$, and =&n$# Early Bran:$, Angle$, and Saxon$ $ee'ed to have preferred to &$e "avalry $i'ply a$ a royal or "hieftain bodyg&ard, (itho&t involving the' dire"tly in "o'bat# Det, a$ "an be $een by the $tory of the t(o 2erovingian d&eler$, Dragolen and C&ntra', the Bran:$ "o&ld fight on hor$eba": if $o de$iredH on the other hand, the Anglo!Saxon$ $ee' never to have adopted the (ide &$e of "avalry# By the end of the fifth "ent&ry +i$igothi" and +andal "avalry had be"o'e far better ar'ed and ar'ored,

e$$entially (hat hi$torian$ 'ight de$"ribe a$ Iheavy "avalry#J >hey &$ed lan"e$ ! to thr&$t ! and long $(ord$ ! to $la$h do(n at ene'y $oldier$# Before the invention and proliferation of the $tirr&p, they (ere $&pported only by their $addle$# Be"a&$e 'odern hor$e'en have fo&nd it diffi"&lt and &n$table to "arry o&t $&"h a"tion$ (itho&t $tirr&p$, 'odern hi$torian$ (ere led to believe early heavy "avalry $i'ply "o&ld not have (ielded their (eapon$ very effe"tively# Det the +i$igoth$ and +andal$ 'anaged to fight a$ heavy "avalry and the =&n$ fo&ght $&""e$$f&lly a$ 'o&nted ar"her$, $o it '&$t be "on"l&ded that $oldier$ (ho fo&ght on hor$eba": before the proliferation of $tirr&p$ in E&rope must have been able to (ield their (eapon$ effe"tively, pre$&'ably &$ing their :nee$ and leg$ to an"hor their bodie$ to the hor$e# >heir $addle$, too, obvio&$ly helped the barbarian$ fight fro' hor$eba":# By the ti'e of the barbarian inva$ion$, the 5o'an$ had adopted a type fro' the Sa$$anian *er$ian$ :no(n today a$ the Ifo&r!horned $addle#J 2ade fro' (ood, it enabled the 5o'an "avalry $oldier to $tay on hi$ 'o&nt for the longer "a'paign$ Dio"letian had anti"ipated in hi$ 'ilitary refor'$# B&t it (a$ not a parti"&larly good $addle on (hi"h to "ond&"t battlefield (arfare# By the ti'e of Con$tantine the Creat, (ithin a generation of Dio"letian, it had already beg&n to "hange ! he had after all fo&ght $everal $ignifi"ant battle$, in"l&ding that at 2ilvian Bridge in ;-2 (here he had (on "ontrol of the E'pire, and th&$ he K&dged that he had a fairly good idea of (hat a 'o&nted (arrior re)&ired# In <29, the e'peror >heo!do$i&$ II atte'pted, in a legal "ode, to $tandardiFe the (eight$ of the$e ne( $addle$# =e failed, b&t by hi$ ti'e the &$e of the Ifo&r!horned $addleJ had "o'e to an end# Barbarian (arrior$ do not appear to have favored any one type of $addleH they &$ed 'any different for'$, in"l&ding the 5o'an one, tho&gh the =&n$ $ee' to have favored a parti"&lar type de$igned e$pe"ially for 'o&nted ar"hery# Cavalry (eapon$ d&ring the early 2iddle Age$ differed little fro' $i'ilar one$ &$ed by infantryH lan"e$ and $(ord$ (ere probably
THE EARLY MIDDLE A"ES& '()*(+, '(

longer and bo($ $horter, b&t the te"hnology of the$e (eapon$ re'ained the $a'e# 7hat $ee'$ to have been different (a$ the hor$e# Dio"letianG$ 'ilitary refor'$ re)&ired an i'prove'ent in the $to": of 5o'an (arhor$e$, and it ha$ been tho&ght that the +i$igoth$ and +andal$ rode into battle on the $a'e type of hor$e$# >hi$ (a$ one of the 5o'an ind&$trie$ that "ontin&ed (ith very little di$r&ption into the 2iddle Age$# Of "o&r$e, thi$ i$ only an a$$&'ption ba$ed on the ab$en"e of eviden"e indi"ating other(i$e# A"t&ally, little i$ :no(n abo&t the hor$e$ ridden by barbarian $oldier$ (ho fo&ght in early 'edieval (ar$, altho&gh be"a&$e they (ere re)&ired to "arry hor$e'en (earing )&ite heavy ar'or, it i$ believed that the hor$e$ (ere $trong and that $peed (a$ po$$ibly $a"rifi"ed for $trength# It i$ al$o a$$&'ed that the$e hor$e$ (ere $'aller than 'ore 'odern "avalry 'o&nt$ a$ ill&$tration$ $ho( the leg$ of 'edieval $oldier$ dangling (ell belo( the belly of their hor$e, b&t arti$ti" rendering$ before the advent of per$pe"tive are diffi"&lt to interpret# Ar'or >he "o'plaint$ of +egeti&$ a$ to the poor attit&de$ of 5o'an $oldier$ to(ard (earing their ar'or 'ay not have 'attered, at lea$t initially, a$ the ene'ie$ they fa"ed then 'ay not have been (ell prote"ted by ar'or either# In the fir$t "ent&ry, >a"it&$ reported that 'o$t Cer'ani" (arrior$ o(ned neither brea$tplate nor hel'et, and their $hield$ (ere not $trengthened (ith 'etal or leather# >hey reg&larly (ent into battle na:ed to the (ai$t or (ith only a $hort "loa:, prote"ted by only a light (ooden or (i":er $hield# >herefore, >a"it&$ per"eived Cer'ani" $oldier$ to be generally inferior to their 5o'an e)&ivalent$ (ho$e ar'or, at the ti'e of hi$ (riting, (a$ $&b$tantially better# Altho&gh "ontrover$ial, thi$ per"eption ha$ been generally a""epted# =o(ever, it ha$ not been deter'ined (hy the Cer'an$ did not (ear ar'or or hel'et$ or, in 'any "a$e$, "arry a $hield# 7a$ thi$ be"a&$e of the Cer'an$G $"ar"ity of 'etal, a$ >a"it&$ "ontendedM 7a$ it be"a&$e the barbarian$ &$ed ta"ti"$ that $i'ply did not ne"e$$itate the $a'e ar'or a$ the 5o'an$M Or did they $i'ply fa"e ene'ie$ (ho al$o fo&ght (itho&t ar'orM >he la": of ar'or $ee'ed to have "arried on into the very earlie$t inva$ion of the 5o'an E'pire, by the +i$igoth$, (ho, a$ noted already, (ere for"ed to $&rrender their ar'$ and ar'or to the 5o'an$ on entering the E'pire# >he +i$igoth$, therefore, initially fo&ght (itho&t hel'et, $hield, or body prote"tion# Event&ally they did o&tfit
'MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

the'$elve$ better by raiding ar$enal$, a")&iring ar'$ fro' defeated $oldier$, and enli$ting in 'er"enary $ervi"e in 5o'an ar'ie$, b&t before the end of the fo&rth "ent&ry the n&'ber of ar'ored +i$ig!othi" (arrior$ re'ained $'all and (a$ 'o$t often "onfined to the elite or "hieftain$# A""ording to "onte'porary $o&r"e$, the only ar'or that $ee'$ to have been plentif&l (a$ $hield$, and it i$ apparent that the$e had i'proved $in"e >a"it&$G ti'e (ith the addition of a pointed iron bo$$ in the "entre# Still, it i$ reported that the$e $hield$ (ere relatively thin and ea$ily $'a$hed by 5o'an $(ord$ and $pear$#

After the fo&rth "ent&ry, all type$ of ar'or began to be 'ore available to all barbarian $oldier$# D&ring thi$ period the &$e of ar'or definitely in"rea$ed, and the barbarian$ began to e$tabli$h and develop ar'$ ind&$trie$# So'e of the ar'or prod&"ed (a$ )&ite l&x&rio&$ and elaborate ! for exa'ple, >otila, a $ixth! "ent&ry O$trogothi" :ing of Italy, i$ $aid to have (orn golden ar'or ! b&t thi$ (a$ obvio&$ly 'ade 'ore for $tat&$ than 'ilitary &$e# Ba$i" ar'or (a$ far 'ore "o''on, e$pe"ially 'ail "&ira$$e$, fa$hioned after the 5o'an lori"a ha'ata, and $"ale ar'or, li:e the 5o'an lori"a $)&a'ata# ?nfort&nately, none of the$e have $&rvived, altho&gh they are fre)&ently portrayed in vario&$ arti$ti" 'edia# >h&$, the a"t&al te"hnology of early 'edieval ar'or$ '&$t re'ain $pe"&lative, (ith 'o$t hi$torian$ relying on a "onne"tion that lin:$ the' to $i'ilar 5o'an ar'or$# It i$ al$o a$$&'ed that early 'edieval $oldier$ (ore a gar'ent, li:e the 5o'an t%oracomac%us &nder their ar'or# Bran:i$h and Anglo!Saxon ar'or did not differ '&"h fro' that (orn by the barbarian$ in the $o&th of E&rope# In fa"t, the Bran:$ probably initially had 'ore ar'or than the +i$igoth$, O$trogoth$, and +andal$, be"a&$e of the large n&'ber$ (ho $erved in 5o'an ar'ie$ along the 5hineH ho(ever, there i$ al$o little fir' eviden"e to $&pport $&"h "lai'$# Event&ally, the Bran:$ adopted 'ail ar'or, altho&gh that doe$ not $ee' to have o""&rred before the ri$e of the Carolingian$# On the "ontrary, Anglo!Saxon ar'or (a$ not plentif&l, and it (a$ $aid to have been al'o$t ex"l&$ively (orn by elite $oldier$ and "hief$, altho&gh that 'ay only be be"a&$e they are the one$ (ho are (ritten abo&t or portrayed in art# 7hat the$e fe( early Engli$h $oldier$ (ore (a$ a $hort!$leeved 'ail $hirt, rea"hing to the 'id!thigh or to the :nee# In the Exeter riddle$ it i$ "alled an Iex"ellent gar'entJH to Beo(&lf it (a$ a Itangled (ar!netJH and Aldhel', another a&thor of riddle$, de$"ribe$ it a$ not fearing Iarro($ dra(n fro' a long )&iver#J Binally, in the Anglo!Saxon poe', I>he Battle of 2aldon,J a 'ail $hirt i$ $o val&able that Byrhtnoth, the 'ilitary
THE EARLY MIDDLE A"ES& '()*(+, '.

leader defeated in the poe', (a$ $tripped of it by a "on)&ering ene'y, (ho then pre$&'ably re&$ed it hi'$elf or gave it to another $oldier# It (o&ld appear that 'ail ar'or (a$ ab$ol&tely e$$ential for the prote"tion of a noble (arrior# In all early 'edieval $o"ietie$ the &$e of ar'or in"rea$ed 'ar:edly by the end of the $ixth "ent&ry# Eviden"e for thi$ "o'e$ not only in the in"rea$ed portrayal of it in literat&re and art b&t al$o in it$ greater o""&rren"e in ex"avated grave$ of $oldier$# It "an al$o be $een in the atte'pt$ to reg&late ar'or beginning in the late $eventh "ent&ry# >he fir$t to do $o (a$ Ervig, a +i$igothi" :ing, (ho $o'e ti'e bet(een 090 and 09 i$$&ed a legal "ode de'anding a'ong other thing$ that I$o'eJ of hi$ $oldier$ I$hall (ear ar'or#J >he$e la($ (ere follo(ed in /0 by a $i'ilar edi"t ordered by Ai$t&lf, a :ing of the Lo'bard$, (hi"h re)&ired the ri"he$t and 'o$t po(erf&l of hi$ (arrior$ to be o&tfitted (ith ar'or, a$ (ell a$ a $hield and (eapon$# =el'et$ After the fir$t barbarian inva$ion$, hel'et$ be"a'e '&"h 'ore plentif&l# >ho$e bro&ght into the E'pire by the barbarian$ (ere often only $i'ple iron $:&ll "ap$ or 'etal fra'e(or:$ "overed (ith leather or another fabri"# Of "o&r$e, "o'pared (ith tho$e &$ed by the 5o'an$, the$e provided negligible prote"tion, $o very )&i":ly barbarian $oldier$ di$"arded the$e and &$ed or i'itated 5o'an type$ of hel'et$# =o(ever, even 5o'an hel'et$ (ere event&ally reKe"ted for a ne( type of hel'et, the $o!"alled $pangenhel'# *erhap$ the 'o$t original of all barbarian ar'a'ent$, ex"avated exa'ple$ fro' England and "ontinental E&rope generally "on$i$t of fo&r part$3 the "ap, t(o hinged "hee:!pie"e$, and a $e"tion of 'ail prote"ting the ba": and $ide$ of the ne":# >he "ap (a$ 'ade of a (ide 'etal band en"ir"ling the head, (ith a narro(er $e"ond 'etal band atta"hed to the fir$t by rivet$ and r&nning fro' ba": to front# >hi$ $e"ond band (a$ f&rther lin:ed to the (ide "ir"&lar band by t(o $hort band$ r&nning do(n to(ard the ear$# >he $pa"e$ left open by thi$ fra'e(or: (ere filled by plate$ of 'etal or horn atta"hed to the band$ by rivet$# In $o'e, $e'i"ir"&lar hole$ (ere "&t into the front of the hel'et for the eye$, and a long, thin pie"e of iron de$"ended bet(een the' to $erve a$ a no$e g&ard# In other$, 'o$t notably the +endel!$tyle hel'et$, the
/, MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

eye$ and &pper no$e (ere prote"ted by a 'etal $heet, (ith a $'aller no$e g&ard de$"ending do(n fro' it, or, a$ in the S&tton =oo hel'et, the eye$, no$e, and '&"h of the "hin are "overed by a larger 'etal $heet# >he 'etal "hee:!pie"e$, hinged onto the (ide bro(!band, "overed both the ear$ and "hee:$ and (ere atta"hed together &nder the "hin by a leather or "loth $trap# A 'ail ne": g&ard, 'ade in a 'anner $i'ilar to ar'or, (a$ atta"hed to the ba": of the bro(!band# >hey (ere fre)&ently de"orated by inlaying, engraving, or overlaying, the latter in"l&ding "opper!alloy eyebro($ added above the eyehole$, or by other 'ean$, $&"h a$ adding the fig&re of a boar on the "ro(n# Altho&gh it &$ed to be believed that early 'edieval hel'et$ (ere rare and only fo&nd in the grave$ of

"hieftain$ and other elite $oldier$, $o 'any of the$e hel'et$ have been ex"avated that $&"h a belief '&$t no( be )&e$tioned# B&rther eviden"e fro' arti$ti" $o&r"e$ $&pport$ thi$ vie(, and it appear$ that 'o$t $oldier$ in the early 2iddle Age$ '&$t have o(ned and &$ed a hel'et# Shield$ >he only pie"e of ar'or &$ed by al'o$t all barbarian $oldier$ (a$ the $hield# Indeed, in arti$ti" and (ritten 'edia the early 'edieval $hield, :no(n typi"ally a$ a b&":ler, be"a'e a $y'bol of 'ilitary o""&pation# >he 'o$t "o''on barbarian b&":ler (a$ ro&nd, or ellipti"al, "onvex, and 'ade fro' $trip$ of (ood $e"&red together and "overed by leather# >hey 'ea$&red on average ;-1;0 in"he$ 6901.0 "enti'eter$8 in dia'eter and (ere 0#;10#/ in"he$ 60#9 to -#2 "enti'eter$8 thi":# An iron bo$$ 'ea$&ring $o'e 010# in"he$ 6-/1"enti'eter$8 in dia'eter, (ith an average height of 2#<1< in"he$ 601-0 "enti'eter$8 ! altho&gh $o'eti'e$ it "o&ld be )&ite a bit larger ! (a$ pla"ed in the "enter of the o&t$ide of the $hield and an"hored a grip 'ade of (ood, hide, or fabri" on the in$ide# 2any $hield bo$$e$ fo&nd in grave $ite$ are al$o de"orated (ith applied 'etal de"oration# In fa"t, the iron bo$$ i$ often the only eviden"e that a $hield (a$ b&ried (ith it$ (arrior# >he poe' I>he Battle of 2aldonJ $tate$ that the $hield of one of the Anglo!Saxon (arrior$, Atheri"h, had a 'etal ri', (hi"h b&r$t &nder the blo( of hi$ ene'yG$ $(ord# Shield$ are al$o noted in Anglo!Saxon riddle$, (ritten in both Latin and Old Engli$h, (here they are fre)&ently de$"ribed a$ $"arred b&t not bro:en by the blo($ of ene'y (eapon$#
THE EARLY MIDDLE A"ES& '()*(+, /0

SIECE 7EA*O%S
2o$t 'edieval 'ilitary engage'ent$ of any period (ere not fo&ght on the battlefield b&t again$t fortified $ite$# 7itho&t "apt&ring the$e fortifi"ation$, the "on)&e$t of foreign land$ (a$ i'po$$ible# In an"ient ti'e$, for"ed $tarvation of the be$ieged $ite (a$ a fre)&ently &$ed ta"ti", often (ith $&""e$$, altho&gh it depended on the ab&ndan"e of food $&pplie$ in the fortre$$ or to(n and on the availability of relief troop$# B&t driving a to(n or "a$tle into $tarvation "o&ld be protra"tedH it often re)&ired 'ore than a year and $o'eti'e$ longer to gain vi"tory# A $e"ond 'ean$ of ending a $iege vi"torio&$ly (a$ thro&gh trea"hery, gaining the fortifi"ationG$ $&rrender by "onvin"ing $o'eone in$ide to open a gate or gate$# Again, thi$ "o&ld ta:e )&ite a long ti'e# >he ten!year $iege of >roy (a$ not "reated by =o'er $i'ply a$ a literary 'etaphorH it al$o refle"ted an"ient reality# Even after ten year$ it re)&ired a tri":, the >roKan hor$e, to ta:e the heavily fortified "ity and end the "onfrontation# A $i'ilar, altho&gh le$$ dra'ati", $iege of 5o'e ended after ten year$ (hen one of the (ealthy fa'ilie$ re$pon$ible for g&arding the "ity de"ided to open a gate to the O$trogothi" be$ieger$ in a vain hope to prote"t their ri"he$# Other an"ient 'ethod$ of "on)&ering fortified $ite$ (ere al$o ti'e "on$&'ing# Chief a'ong the$e (a$ 'ining, in (hi"h the atta":ing for"e (o&ld atte'pt to t&nnel &nder the (all$ and then "ollap$e the t&nnel$ to bring do(n a $e"tion of the (all$ above# %or did the dire"t a$$a&lt of a fortifi"ation &$ing $"aling ladder$ and battering ra'$ often bring $&""e$$, a$ the$e atta":$ "o&ld be ea$ily "o&ntered by defender$ in$ide the fortifi"ation# So'e (ere b&ilt on terrain that "o&ld not be ea$ily $&r'o&nted, $&"h a$ the A&dean fortre$$ at 2a$ada that, in the fir$t "ent&ry AD, held o&t for nearly three year$ before the 5o'an$ "o&ld "on$tr&"t an earthen ra'p to rea"h it$ (all$# A$ early a$ the fo&rth "ent&ry BC, Cree: 'ilitary engineer$ re"ogniFed the need to "on$tr&"t heavy (eapon$, artillery pie"e$, (ith eno&gh po(er to brea"h the gate$ and (all$ of a fortifi"ation# Event&ally the tor$ion "atap&lt (a$ developed# Bro' the$e a 'i$$ile, typi"ally a large $tone or bolt, "o&ld be la&n"hed (ith eno&gh for"e to "a&$e a brea"h in the (all or to (ea:en it $o that "ontin&al i'pa"t (o&ld &lti'ately "a&$e a brea"h# Of "o&r$e, it (a$ hoped that thi$ (o&ld not be re)&ired, and that the 'ere di$play of $&"h for"e (o&ld ind&"e tho$e be$ieged to yield to their atta":er$# And thi$ often happened# >he 5o'an$ adopted Cree: tor$ion "atap&lt$ ! the larger (eapon$ :no(n a$ balli$tae, and the $'aller, and 'ore portable (eapon$, c%eiro)allistae ! (hi"h had, by then, been $ignifi"antly
/1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

i'proved by the fa'ed 2a"edonian 'ilitary leader$, *hilip II and Alexander the Creat# >he$e "atap&lt$ had ar'$ fa$tened to t(o tightly t(i$ted $:ein$ 'ade of $ine( $et on a heavy $to": fitted (ith a $lider pla"ed in a dovetailed groove and able to $lide freely ba": and forth# On ea"h $ide of the $to": (a$ a $traight rat"het (ith t(o pa(l$ fitted into the' and atta"hed to a "la(li:e trigger 'e"hani$'# A 'i$$ile (o&ld be pla"ed again$t a thi": bo($tring $tr&ng bet(een the t(o ar'$ and, after having been dra(n ba": by the rat"het$, (o&ld be $hot by relea$ing the trigger# >o the$e "atap&lt$ the 5o'an$ added onagers (hi"h &$ed only a $ingle horiFontal $pring and one ar' $(inging &p(ard$# At the end of the $ingle ar' (a$ a $ling in (hi"h a 'i$$ile, &$&ally a $tone ball, (a$

pla"ed for la&n"hing# >he trigger (a$ a pie"e of rope &$ed to an"hor the ar' ready for loading, (hi"h (a$ 'o&nted on t(o large and heavy horiFontal bea'$ held apart by a n&'ber of "ro$$bea'$# >e"hnologi"ally $i'pler than the balli$tae or c%eiro)allistae onagers 'ay have been 'ore po(erf&lH apparently, they al$o appeared only d&ring the barbarian inva$ion$ and are 'entioned by only one "onte'porary a&thor, A''ian&$ 2ar"ellin&$# At thi$ ti'e, the 5o'an$ $ee' to have had a large a'o&nt of artillery# Indeed, they 'ight have had "atap&lt$ defending nearly every one of their fortifi"ation$, and it i$ reported that $everal ar'$ fa"torie$ "ontin&ed to $&pply artillery for &$e d&ring the early inva$ion$# It i$ $i'ilarly re"orded that in $o'e 'ilitary engage'ent$ the$e "atap&lt$ th(arted barbarian atta":$ again$t 5o'an fortifi"ation$# Bor exa'ple, A''ian&$ explain$ ho( one Cothi" atta": (a$ halted (hen a $ingle large $tone fired fro' an onager, de$pite hitting no one, "a&$ed $&"h 'a$$ "onf&$ion that it event&ally ro&ted the atta":er$# >hi$ artillery, (ho$e adoption (a$ not &lti'ately $&""e$$f&l in defeating the barbarian$, "a&$ed $&"h heavy death and de$tr&"tion a'ong the' that it po$tponed the final o&t"o'e# *ro"opi&$, (riting abo&t the defen$e of 5o'e in /; 1/;9, provide$ $&"h a (itne$$3 RASat the Salerian Cate a Coth of goodly $tat&re and a "apable (arrior, (earing ar'or and having a hel'et on hi$ head, a 'an (ho (a$ of no 'ean $tation in the Cothi" nation # # # (a$ hit by a 'i$$ile fro' a "atap&lt (hi"h (a$ on a to(er at hi$ left# *a$$ing thro&gh the ar'or and the body of the 'an, the 'i$$ile $an: 'ore than half it$ length into a tree, and pinning hi' to the $pot (here it entered the tree, it $&$pended hi' there a$ a "orp$e 6Barton C# =a":er, ICree: Catap&lt$ and Catap&lt >e"hnology3 S"ien"e, >e"hnology, and 7ar in the An"ient 7orld,J Tec%nolog# and Culture . 6-.0983 </1<08#
THE EARLY MIDDLE A"ES& '()*(+, /'

=o(ever, on"e the barbarian tribe$ had overr&n the E'pire, they $ee' not to have adopted thi$ te"hnology fro' their "on)&ered foe$# So'e hi$torian$ have "ontended that the barbarian$ (ere $i'ply &nable to &$e or to "ontin&e to b&ild 5o'an!$tyle "atap&lt$# >hey arg&e that there i$ $o'e eviden"e of early barbarian &$e of artillery, for exa'ple at the $iege of >he$$aloni:i by the Coth$ in 20. and at >o&r$ by the Ale'anni or Bran:$ a "ent&ry later# =o(ever, both of the$e engage'ent$ (ere early in the inva$ion$ of the 5o'an E'pire, and their artillery failed to prove effe"tive a$ the defender$ (ere able in both "a$e$ to b&rn the "atap&lt$ by h&rling blaFing 'i$$ile$ at the'# After the fifth "ent&ry there i$ no f&rther 'ention of the' in hi$tori"al $o&r"e$, and they $ee' to have pa$$ed into ob$"&rity# Other hi$torian$ arg&e that the rea$on for the barbarian$G reKe"tion of 5o'an "atap&lt te"hnology i$ that they a""epted an alternative artillery, the tra"tion treb&"het# =ere a rotating bea' (a$ pla"ed on a f&l"r&' $&pported by a (ooden to(er and ba$e# On one end of the bea' (a$ atta"hed a $ling for the proKe"tile and on the other a n&'ber of rope$ that, (hen p&lled in &ni$on, t&rned the bea' and fired a $tone $hot (ith "on$iderable a""&ra"y and for"e# A$ eviden"e, they point to an eye(itne$$ a""o&nt of the $iege of >he$$aloni:i by the Avaro!Slav$ in /. , (ritten by Aohn, the Ar"hbi$hop of >he$$a!loni:i# In thi$ a""o&nt, Aohn de$"ribe$ $iege 'a"hine$ of the Avaro!Slav$, :no(n to hi' a$ petro)oles or Iro": thro(er$,J po$$ibly indi"ating that they (ere tra"tion treb&"het$3 >he$e petro)oles (ere tetragonal and re$ted on broader ba$e$, tapering to narro( extre'itie$# Atta"hed to the' (ere thi": "ylinder$ (ell "lad in iron at the end$, and there (ere nailed to the' ti'ber$ li:e bea'$ fro' a large ho&$e# >he$e ti'ber$ had the $ling$ fro' the ba": and fro' the front $trong rope$, by (hi"h, p&lling do(n and relea$ing the $ling, they propel the $tone$ &p high and (ith a lo&d noi$e# And on being fired they $ent &p 'any great $tone$ $o that neither earth nor h&'an "on$tr&"tion$ "o&ld bear the i'pa"t$# >hey al$o "overed tho$e tetragonal petro)oles (ith board$ on three $ide$ only, $o that tho$e in$ide firing the' 'ight not be (o&nded (ith arro($ by tho$e on the (all$# And $in"e one of the$e, (ith it$ board$, had been b&rned to a "har by a fla'ing arro(, they ret&rned, "arrying a(ay the 'a"hine$# On the follo(ing day they again bro&ght the$e petro)oles "overed (ith fre$hly $:inned hide$ and (ith the board$, and pla"ing the' "lo$er to the (all$, $hooting, they h&rled 'o&ntain$ and hill$ again$t &$# Bor (hat el$e 'ight one ter' the$e extre'ely large $tone$M 6A$ )&oted in Spero$ +yroni$, Ar#, I>he Evol&tion of Slavi" So"iety and
// MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

the Slavi" Inva$ion$ in Cree"e3 >he Bir$t 2aKor Atta": on >he$$a!loni:i, AD /. ,J &esperia /0 6-.9-83 ;9<8# It i$ f&rther $&gge$ted that the te"hnology for the$e $iege (eapon$ (a$ tran$ferred to the Avaro!Slav$ by a "apt&red ByFantine $oldier na'ed Bo&$a$ a de"ade before the $iege of >he$$aloni:i# 7hether the$e (ere a"t&ally tra"tion treb&"het$ or not, they do not $ee' to have i'pre$$ed anyone eno&gh to 'a:e the' anything other than the rare$t of early 'edieval (eapon$#

>=E E%E2D3 >=E =?%S

>he =&n$ fir$t appeared at the end of the fo&rth "ent&ry (hen they atta":ed barbarian tribe$ living to the north and (e$t of the Dan&be# >he$e barbarian$ then "ro$$ed the river and atta":ed the 5o'an E'pire# >hey bro&ght (ith the' a $tyle of (arfare not entirely &n:no(n to either the barbarian$ or the 5o'an$, altho&gh neither had $een it on $&"h a large $"ale# >hi$ de$"ription of the =&n$, al$o fro' the pen of A''ian&$ 2ar"ellin&$, $o'e(hat di$tort$ the hi$tory of the =&n$, b&t it doe$ $ho( the "&rio$ity of the 5o'an people to(ard the$e $oldier$3 >hey are ill!fitted to fight on foot, and re'ain gl&ed to their hor$e$, hardy b&t &gly bea$t$, on (hi"h they $it li:e (o'en to perfor' their everyday b&$ine$$# B&ying or $elling, eating or drin:ing, are all done by day and night on hor$eba": and they even bo( for(ard over their bea$t$G narro( ne":$ to enKoy a deep and drea'y $leep# 7hen they need to debate $o'e i'portant 'atter they "ond&"t their "onferen"e in the $a'e po$t&re # # # >hey $o'eti'e$ fight by "hallenging their foe$ to $ingle "o'bat, b&t (hen they Koin battle they advan"e in pa":$, &ttering their vario&$ (ar!"rie$# Being lightly e)&ipped and very $&dden in their 'ove'ent$ "an deliberately $"atter and gallop abo&t at rando', infli"ting tre'endo&$ $la&ghter 6A''ian&$ 2ar!"ellin&$, T%e /ater +oman ,mpire (A.*. 4567489) tran$# 7alter =a'ilton R=ar'ond$(orth, England3 *eng&in Boo:$, -.90S, <--1<-28# Initially, the 5o'an$ hired the =&n$ to help the' fight the other barbarian tribe$ (ho had atta":ed their border$# A$ the =&n$ be"a'e a 'ore per'anent pre$en"e in the E'pire, the 5o'an$, (ho
THE EARLY MIDDLE A"ES& '()*(+, /+

had been &nable to handle the $peed of the barbarian inva$ion$ before thi$, $till held the balan"e of po(er on the frontier, altho&gh thi$ balan"e (a$ $hifting a(ay fro' the'# >hi$, in t&rn, "reated a previo&$ly &n$een &nity a'ong the +i$igoth$, O$trogoth$, +andal$, and other barbarian$ to $&rvive again$t the$e t(o ene'ie$, the 5o'an$ and the =&n$# Content at fir$t to re'ain on the frontier$ of the old E'pire, the barbarian$ penetrated farther and farther into 5o'an territory &ntil they o""&pied $o&thern Ca&l, Spain, and %orth Afri"a# =o(ever, even before tho$e final 'igration$ "a'e abo&t, in abo&t <0/ a large gro&p of =&n$, perhap$ the 'aKority of the', had t&rned their ba":$ on the 5o'an$ and began to fight again$t both the Ea$tern and the 7e$tern E'pire# So very early on in the hi$tory of the Early 2iddle Age$ both the barbarian$ and the 5o'an$ felt the f&ll for"e of the =&n$G 'ethod of fighting (ar$, for they fo&ght very differently than either the barbarian$ or the 5o'an$# Obvio&$ly, $o'e of thi$ differen"e (a$ in their attit&de, a$ the =&n$ are reported to have fo&ght (ith a "onfiden"e and a fero"ity that had rarely been $een in $oldier$ before thi$ ti'e ! "ertainly, if +egeti&$ i$ "orre"t, 5o'an $oldier$ la":ed thi$# So'e of the differen"e (a$ al$o attrib&table to the =&n$G training and di$"ipline3 they (ere able to perfor' 'ilitary 'ane&ver$ on the battlefield (ith a $peed and dexterity that "o&ld only have "o'e fro' year$ of being on hor$eba":, a "hara"teri$ti" that A''ian&$ give$ the' in hi$ de$"ription above# Det a 'aKor rea$on for the differen"e bet(een the =&nni" art of (ar and that of the barbarian$ or 5o'an$ (a$ their &$e of the 'o&nted ar"her a$ the pri'ary "o'ponent of their $trategy and ta"ti"$# >he =&n$ &$ed light "avalry, all of (ho' "arried "o'po$ite bo($, and $o'e al$o "arried $pear$ and $(ord$# >hi$ "avalry al'o$t al(ay$ operated a$ 'o&nted ar"her$# >hey (o&ld not ride dire"tly into an oppo$ing for"e a$ in a "harge, b&t (o&ld ride aro&nd the', firing a$ they pa$$ed# >he "onte'porary (riter, Cla&dian, de$"ribe$ the ta"ti"3 I>heir do&ble nat&re fitted not better the t(i!for'ed Centa&r$ to the hor$e$ that (ere part$ of the'# Di$orderly, b&t of in"redible $(iftne$$, they often ret&rn to the fight (hen little expe"tedJ 6IAgain$t 5&fin&$,J in Claudian tran$# 2a&ri"e *latna&er RCa'bridge, 2A3 =arvard ?niver$ity *re$$, -.22S, I3/-8# >he$e $oldier$ (ere e$pe"ially $:illf&l, "apable of $hooting their bo($ (ith great a""&ra"y fro' either $ide of their hor$e$ at f&ll gallop# >hey "o&ld al$o fire a"ro$$ the rear of their hor$e$ to prote"t the'$elve$ and their "o'panion$ a$ they (ithdre( fro' an atta": or in "a$e of retreat# >heir bo($ (ere not overly po(erf&l, "ertainly not "o'pared (ith
/) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

the bo($ "arried by ByFantine foot $oldier$ or by later, 'o&nted ar"her$# >hey appear to have been &nable to $hoot an arro( "apable of penetrating the ar'or (orn by their opponent$, altho&gh again$t &nar'ored ene'ie$ or &nprote"ted part$ of ar'ored $oldier$ their barbed arro($ "o&ld be deva$tating# >he =&n$ only &$ed infantry a$ a&xiliarie$# De$pite "onte'porary and 'odern pop&lar opinion that the 'o&nted ar"her$ of the =&n$ (ore no ar'or, it i$ "&rrently believed they did indeed (ear it d&ring battlefield "onfrontation$# =o(ever, the =&n$ favored $"ale or la'ellar ar'or and not the 'ail that (a$ be"o'ing 'ore prevalent thro&gho&t the fo&rth and fifth "ent&rie$# >hi$ preferen"e i$ re'ar:ed on by $everal late 5o'an (riter$ (ho $ee' $&rpri$ed by it, perhap$ giving an indi"ation that $"ale ar'or (a$ not "on$idered to be a$ prote"tive a$ 'ail at the ti'e, or perhap$ they believed the =&n$ $ho&ld have been able to afford the 'ore expen$ive 'ail "oat$# A $i'pler an$(er "o&ld be that 'ail (a$ 'ore fa$hionable a'ong 5o'an$ than $"ale, b&t the oppo$ite (a$ tr&e (ith the =&n$# One late 5o'an a&thor, (riting in the fifth "ent&ry, al$o de$"ribe$ a =&n (ho (ore no $leeve$ on hi$ $"ale

ar'or, provo:ing $o'e $&rpri$e# >hi$ 'ight indi"ate a general trend, e$pe"ially a'ong the$e 'o&nted ar"her$ (ho 'ay have tho&ght the (eight and b&l:ine$$ of $&"h ar'or i'peded their ability to fire their bo($ a""&rately# %o do&bt both $"ale ar'or (ith or (itho&t $leeve$ (a$ &$ed by =&n$H again, there (a$ no $tandardiFation# A&dging fro' hi$ earlier "o''ent$, A''ian&$ 2ar"ellin&$ had a lo( opinion of the bea&ty of =&nni" hor$e$ ! being Iill!$hapedJ ! altho&gh he $ee'$ to have held their abilitie$ in higher e$tee' ! "alling the' Ihardy#J It i$ "ertainly "lear fro' hi$ $tate'ent that their o(ner$ greatly val&ed their hor$e$, better :no(n a$ I$teppe ponie$#J 7hile little i$ :no(n abo&t the hor$e$ that (ere ridden by other barbarian tribe$ (ho fo&ght in the$e early 'edieval (ar$, '&"h 'ore i$ :no(n abo&t =&nni" hor$e$, e$pe"ially that they (ere light, $hort, and fa$t# >hey "o&ld al$o go for long di$tan"e$ (itho&t tiring, altho&gh A''ian&$ re'ar:$ el$e(here in hi$ narrative that 'o$t =&n "avalry $oldier$ traveled (ith $everal hor$e$ d&ring ti'e$ of (ar, "hanging 'o&nt$ fre)&ently to pre$erve their hor$e$G $trength# 2oreover, the =&n$G hor$e$ (ere 'o$t often 'are$, a$ their 'il: "o&ld $&$tain the life of the (arrior on "a'paign if needed# 2are$ are al$o ea$ier to "ontrol than $tallion$# >he$e 'ay in fa"t have been the an"e$tor$ of the 'odern 2ongolian hor$e, the 'are$ $tanding an average of /0 in"he$ 6-2 "enti'eter$8 high and
THE EARLY MIDDLE A"ES& '()*(+, /(

being able to be 'il:ed fo&r to five ti'e$ a day, providing 0#-- po&nd$ 6/0 gra'$8 of 'il: ea"h ti'e# After hi$ defeat at the battle of Chalon$ in </-, AttilaG$ $tar began to fall rapidly# >hi$ 'o$t feared of all barbarian 'ilitary leader$ had been for"ed to t&rn ba": fro' an inva$ion of foreign land$, virt&ally the fir$t ti'e that $&"h had happened to a =&n ar'y $in"e <0/# At!tila tried to regro&p in =&ngary, b&t even after he had done $o, (hen he t&rned hi$ ar'y $o&th into Italy, he "o&ld not regain hi$ for'er 'ilitary $tat&$# =i$ ar'y, ha'pered 'ore by di$ea$e than by ene'y for"e$, (a$ for"ed to t&rn ba": on"e again# Attila did not live '&"h longer# =e died in </;, after a night of drin:ing and "aro&$ing, report$ a "onte'porary "riti", Aordane$# Attila (a$ a 'an (ho$e ex"e$$e$ in life, 'ore than any 'ilitary a"tivity, bro&ght abo&t hi$ pre'at&re death# A =&nni" "ivil (ar follo(ed AttilaG$ de'i$e, fo&ght bet(een hi$ t(o $on$ over leader$hip of the tribe# *eople$ previo&$ly $&bKe"ted to the =&n$, both barbarian$ and 5o'an$, too: advantage of thi$ t&r'oil and the no( extre'ely (ea:ened =&n ar'y "o&ld do nothing in re$pon$e# By the end of the next de"ade, the =&n$ had beg&n retreating fro' E&rope ba": to(ard the $teppe$# So'e re'ained in (hat (a$ later to be "alled =&ngary, b&t tho$e (ho did (ere for"ed to appeal to their for'er ene'ie$ for prote"tion again$t invader$ of their land$# It "ertainly (a$ a "o'e&ppan"e#

CHAPTER TWO

T!e C#roli2%i#2 Er#& (+,*0,+,

=IS>O5D Charle'agne *ippin III na'ed the Bran:i$h royal dyna$ty he fo&nded after hi$ father, Charle$ 2artel, b&t it (o&ld be hi$ $on, al$o na'ed Charle$, (ho (o&ld give the dyna$ty it$ do'inant 'ilitary "hara"ter# Charle!'agne ! Carol&$ 2agn&$, Charle$ the Creat, ,arl der Cro$$e, ,arel de Crote, Carlo'agno, Carlo 2agno ! r&led the Carolingian Bran:!i$h :ingdo' fro' 09 to 9-<# In all b&t one of tho$e year$, .-, he '&$tered hi$ 'ilitary for"e$ and too: the' on "a'paign ! that thi$ ab$en"e of 'ilitary a"tivity (a$ re'ar:able "an be $een by the fa"t that it (a$ $pe"ifi"ally noted in the offi"ial narrative re"ord of the :ingdo', the Annales +egni 'rancorum for that year# Charle'agne fo&ght again$t A)&itanian$, Avar$, Saxon$, Andal&$ian 2&$li'$, and Lo'bard$, and in all the$e a"tion$ he (a$ $&""e$$f&l# Indeed, on only one o""a$ion (a$ even a $'all part of hi$ ar'y defeated, (hen the booty!laden rearg&ard, led by 5oland, (a$ a'b&$hed leaving Spain at 5on"e$valle$ in 9, an event that (ithin t(o "ent&rie$ $pa(ned a great literary 'yth# By the ti'e of hi$ death, Charle'agne had 'ore than do&bled the $iFe of the :ingdo' he had inherited forty! t(o year$ before, en"o'pa$$ing 'odern Bran"e, Belgi&', =olland, S(itFerland, A&$tria, 'o$t of Cer'any, 'ore than half of Italy 6do(n to 5o'e8, and northern Spain# B&rther'ore, a$ ea"h of hi$ vi"torio&$ 'ilitary
/.
+, MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

"a'paign$ (a$ again$t a non!Catholi" ene'y, all of hi$ (ar$ (ere (aged for the benefit and (ith the ble$$ing of the "h&r"h# In 900, thi$ $ervi"e (a$ for'ally re"ogniFed on Chri$t'a$ Day, (hen *ope Leo III "ro(ned hi' a$ the fir$t =oly 5o'an E'peror# %o $ooner had Charle'agne a$"ended the Bran:i$h throne than he began hi$ 'ilitary "areer# Bollo(ing barbarian tradition, at hi$ death *ippin III had divided hi$ :ingdo' bet(een Charle$ and hi$ yo&nger brother,

Carlo'an, a $it&ation that $&ited neither of the'# Det before they "o&ld $ettle their differen"e$ 'ilitarily, a rebellion aro$e in A)&itaine, in the land$ inherited by Charle$# >he people there, only re"ently $&bK&gated by *ippin, "learly $a( in hi$ death an opport&nity for $elf!r&le, e$pe"ially a$ Charle'agneG$ yo&thf&l rep&tation (a$ not one of a (arrior# B&t (itho&t the a$$i$tan"e of hi$ brother, (ho had pro'i$ed $&pport b&t "learly regarded the rebellion a$ Charle$G$ b&$ine$$ alone, the ne( :ing re$ponded (ith a 'ilitary a"&ity that (o&ld "hara"teriFe hi$ entire reign# Einhard, hi$ biographer, de$"ribe$ Charle'agneG$ leader$hip in thi$ a"tion3 ICharle'agne pre$$ed on energeti"ally (ith the expedition (hi"h he had p&t into the field, ref&$ing to (ithdra( fro' a "a'paign already $tarted or to abandon the ta$: on"e &nderta:en# In the end, (ith no $'all per$everan"e and "ontin&ed effort, he bro&ght to "o'plete fr&ition (hat he (a$ $triving to a"hieveJ 6Einhard, ILife of Charle'agne,J in Two /ives of C%arlemagne ed# and tran$# Le(i$ >horpe R=ar'ond$(orth, ?,3 *eng&in, -.0.S, /.8# Charle'agne then p&r$&ed the rebel leader$ &ntil they (ere "a&ght and exe"&ted, di$playing the r&thle$$ne$$ to(ard defeated ene'ie$ that al$o "hara"teriFed hi$ reign# =aving p&t do(n the A)&itanian rebellion (ith $&"h ea$e, Charle'agne i''ediately t&rned to other 'ilitary a"tivity# Carlo'anG$ death in -, follo(ing (hi"h hi$ (ife and $on$ fled to Italy, left Charle'agne in "o'plete "ontrol of hi$ fatherG$ entire :ingdo' and obviated the need for (ar again$t hi$ brother# B&t there (ere plenty of ene'ie$ to be fo&nd o&t$ide hi$ real'# >he fir$t of the$e, the Saxon$, (ho lived on the northea$t border$ of the Carolingian :ingdo', al$o proved to be the 'o$t tro&ble$o'e# Charle'agneG$ ar'ie$ $ee'ed never to have '&"h diffi"&lty in defeating Saxon for"e$, fir$t in 0, nor to "onvert the' to Catholi"i$' ! hi$ K&$tifi"ation for the$e and other "on)&e$t$# Det on"e he had re'oved hi$ 'ain ar'y fro' their land$, the Saxon$ al(ay$ ro$e &p again$t the $&b$tantially fe(er for"e$ he left behind and ret&rned to their for'er religio&$ pra"ti"e$# >h&$, Charle'agne (a$ for"ed to ret&rn $everal ti'e$ to Saxony, in 921 9/, .;, . , and 90<# In ea"h of the$e "a'paign$,
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, +0

he be"a'e in"rea$ingly r&thle$$ a$ he felt the need to an$(er their "ontin&ed revolt$ (ith an in"rea$ed $trength# In 2 Charle'agne (a$ $ati$fied to K&$t defeat the' in battle, for"ing the' to a""ept Chri$tian bapti$'$, ta:ing a fe( ho$tage$, and de$troying the religio&$ly $ignifi"ant Donar Oa: at Cei$'ar# In 921 9/, after defeating the' yet again, he for"ed their leader, 7id&:ind, to be baptiFed (ith hi'$elf $tanding a$ godfather, and he 'a$$a"red <,/00 rebel pri$oner$ of (ar# In .; and . , Charle'agne added deportation to the p&ni$h'ent of for"ed bapti$'$ and exe"&tion$ of rebel leader$, relo"ating tho&$and$ of Saxon$ thro&gho&t the re$t of hi$ real'# Binally, in 90<, Charle'agne offered the $i'ple "hoi"e to all Saxon$3 be baptiFed and pea"ef&l, or be exe"&ted# 7hen not fighting the Saxon$, Charle'agne &ndertoo: "a'paign$ again$t other$ along hi$ border$# In 9, thi$ (a$ again$t the 2&$li'$ in Spain# Altho&gh there i$ $o'e )&e$tion a$ to (hat Charle'agneG$ ai'$ (ere in "arrying o&t $&"h an expedition ! (a$ hi$ intention to o""&py all of Spain or (a$ he 'erely trying to "&t do(n on the n&'ber of raid$ into $o&thern Bran"ia by 2&$li' for"e$ ! it proved to be $&""e$$f&l eno&gh to en$&re a "ontin&ed 'ilitary intere$t in the region# Over the next fe( year$ Charle'agne fre)&ently $ent ar'ie$ into northern Spain# So'eti'e$ the$e "a'paign$ re$&lted in i'pre$$ive vi"torie$ ! for exa'ple in 9 (hen he "apt&red Bar"elona and raFed *a'plona, and in 90- (hen he re"apt&red Bar"elona ! (hile other$ led to relatively fe( gain$, &$&ally only in booty# In Spain in 9, Charle'agne al$o $&ffered hi$ $ingle $ignifi"ant lo$$ (hen hi$ baggage train, follo(ing the 'ain ar'y thro&gh 5on"e$valle$ *a$$ o&t of the *yrenee$, (a$ atta":ed and looted by Ba$)&e$ a$ revenge for the de$tr&"tion of *a'plona# S&"h an event 'ight have fallen into the hi$tori"al aby$$ had not a later, anony'o&$ poet &$ed it a$ the "entral feat&re of hi$ "r&$ader propaganda epi", T%e Song of +oland a literary 'a$terpie"e na'ed after the leader of the baggage g&ard# 2a:ing the vi"tor$ of 5on"e$valle$ 2&$li'$ in$tead of Ba$)&e$, in"rea$ing their n&'ber$ to 'ore than -00,000, introd&"ing an evil Carolingian traitor, Canelon, and inventing a de"i$ive vengef&l "o&nteratta": by a 200!year!old Charle'agne 'ay have de$troyed the fa"t$ of the battle, b&t it en$&red it$ lega"y# In .01 .2, Charle'agne "a'paigned again$t the Avar$, (ho$e land$ $tret"hed fro' =&ngary to the Bavarian border$ of the Car!olingian :ingdo', and (ho$e allian"e (ith the rebellio&$ D&:e of Bavaria, >a$$ilo, added a 'ilitary K&$tifi"ation to that of Catholi" "onver$ion al(ay$ &$ed by Charle'agne# *erhap$ having learned
+1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

the le$$on$ of "on)&e$t and pa"ifi"ation fro' hi$ dealing$ (ith the Saxon$, Charle'agne dealt fier"ely and de"i$ively (ith the Avar$# %oting that thi$ "a'paign (a$ "arried o&t I(ith 'ore vigo&r than any of the other$ and (ith '&"h greater preparation,J Einhard (rite$3 A&$t ho( 'any battle$ (ere fo&ght and ho( '&"h blood (a$ $hed i$ $ho(n by the fa"t that *annonia i$ no(

"o'pletely &ninhabited and that the $ite of the ,hanG$ pala"e i$ no( $o de$erted that no eviden"e re'ain$ that anyone ever lived there# All the =&n nobility died in thi$ (ar, all their glory departed 6Einhard, p# 0 8# So great (a$ the booty ta:en by Charle'agne fro' the (ealthy Avar$ that it f&nded the b&ilding of hi$ o(n pala"e "o'plex at Aa"hen, in"l&ding the "on$tr&"tion of the %otre Da'e Cathedral there# B&t it (a$ probably the "on)&e$t of the Lo'bard$ that Charle'agne hi'$elf (a$ 'o$t pro&d of, for he adopted the title ,ing of the Lo'bard$ after it$ $&""e$$f&l "o'pletion# Charle'agneG$ "a'paign, (hi"h &lti'ately added Italy, fro' the Alp$ to 5o'e, to the Carolingian :ingdo', (a$ initiated in ; by *ope =adrian I, (ho be$ee"hed the relatively ne(ly "ro(ned :ing for a$$i$tan"e again$t the Lo'bard$# It (a$ not that the Lo'bard$, (ho had held 5o'e $in"e the ti'e of the ByFantine$, had beg&n to 'i$treat their Italian $&bKe"t$ 'ore or to even treat the pope (ith le$$ re$pe"t than previo&$ly# =adrianG$ plea (a$ pro'pted in$tead by the fa"t that the Lo'bard$ (ere Arian Chri$tian and not Catholi"# A$ $&"h the pontiff dee'ed the' to be hereti"$# S&rely, he felt, they $ho&ld not have politi"al $&Ferainty over the head)&arter$ of the Catholi"$# Of "o&r$e, Charle'agne, (ho tr&ly believed hi$ re$pon$ibility a$ the leader of a po(erf&l 'ilitary extended to the "onver$ion of non!Catholi"$, by for"e if need be, "o&ld not ref&$e a $&''on$ fro' hi$ e""le$ia$ti" overlord# =e re$ponded )&i":ly, '&$tered hi$ ar'y and 'ar"hed the' thro&gh the Alp$# =i$ $iege of the Lo'bard "apital, *avia, began in late $pring ; and la$ted for nine 'onth$, d&ring (hi"h ti'e the Carolingian $oldier$ $&ffered 'ore fro' di$ea$e than fro' their opponent$, e$pe"ially a$ the (eather of northern Italy (or$ened (ith the approa"h of (inter# ?lti'ately, the $iege (a$ $&""e$$f&l, and Charle'agne a""epted the $&rrender of the Lo'bard$ fro' their :ing, Didier# Charle'agne (ent on to 5o'e, (here he (a$ a""lai'ed it$ liberator, "ha'pion, and ! altho&gh he left '&"h of the lo"al politi"al "ontrol to the pope ! governor#
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, +'

>hi$ (a$ not to be the la$t ti'e Charle'agne (o&ld 'ar"h into Italy at the head of an ar'y, ho(ever# In 900, =adrianG$ $&""e$$or, *ope Leo III, re)&e$ted 'ilitary a$$i$tan"e again$t lo"al 5o'an for"e$, e""le$ia$ti"al a$ (ell a$ politi"al, oppo$ed to hi' and hi$ pro!Carolingian poli"ie$# In traveling to 5o'e thi$ ti'e he 'et no ar'ed oppo$ition a$ LeoG$ ene'ie$ "ho$e to $&b'it to the Carolingian :ing rather than fa"e hi'# In re"ognition of thi$ deed and hi$ leader$hip of virt&ally the (hole of 7e$tern and Central E&rope, Leo III "ro(ned Charle'agne a$ the fir$t =oly 5o'an E'peror# Altho&gh there i$ $o'e di$p&te over (hether Charle'agne (i$hed for or initially (el"o'ed thi$ "ro(ning, a$ it e$$entially 'eant that the *ope held $o'e po(er over the $e"&lar and the e""le$ia$ti"al (orld, there i$ no do&bt that he li:ed the honor and bore the title for the re$t of hi$ reign# In 90; he even 'ade hi$ noble$ and 'ilitary leader$ ta:e oath$ of fidelity to hi' a$ =oly 5o'an E'peror, 'any of (ho' had previo&$ly ta:en $i'ilar oath$ to hi' a$ :ing#

CA5OLI%CIA% 2ILI>A5D O5CA%IOA>IO% A%D OBLICA>IO%

Charle'agne a""o'pli$hed the$e 'ilitary feat$ be"a&$e he, li:e hi$ father and grandfather, &nder$tood the po(er of diver$e, (ell!trained, (ell!e)&ipped, and (ell!led profe$$ional for"e$# =e al$o "ontin&ally $o&ght to i'prove hi$ ar'y de$pite hi$ 'any vi"torie$, (hi"h 'ight have $&gge$ted that he "o&ld have adopted a 'ore e"ono'i"ally "on$ervative poli"y and 'aintained the $tat&$ )&o# A$ n&'ero&$ la($ 6"apit&larie$8 fro' Charle'agneG$ reign atte$t, he (a$ "on$tantly $ee:ing to i'prove and $tandardiFe hi$ ar'y, e$pe"ially in their per$onnel, "o''and $tr&"t&re, training, provi$ioning, and ar'$ and ar'or# >he n&'ber$ of $oldier$ Charle'agne e'ployed at any ti'e d&ring hi$ reign "ertainly "alled for thi$# Exa"tly ho( large thi$ Carolingian for"e (a$, ho(ever, i$ debated by 'odern hi$torian$# So'e believe Charle'agneG$ $tanding for"e of profe$$ional, reg&lar $oldier$ n&'bered in the ten$ of tho&$and$ and that (hen the 'ilitia$, 'er"enarie$, and other irreg&lar troop$ (ere added for any of hi$ n&'ero&$ "a'paign$, the total for"e operating thro&gho&t the entire real', in offen$ive and defen$ive $trategie$, garri$oning, poli"ing, training, engineering, and )&arter'a$tering d&tie$, a$ (ell a$ in a"t&al fighting, n&'bered 'ore than -00,000# Other$ "ontend that the e"ono'y of the Carolingian :ingdo' and later e'pire "o&ld not
+/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

$&pport $&"h a for"e, altho&gh thi$ "ontention, even they ad'it, i$ ba$ed on $o"ioe"ono'i" $o&r"e$ and data that are far fro' definite and re)&ire a "ertain a'o&nt of $o"iologi"al paradig'ati" 'anip&lation to IproveJ Charle'agneG$ inability to dra( on $&"h a large 'ilitary for"e# 7itho&t the :ind of de'ographi" re"ord$ and '&$ter roll$ that (e have for other period$, the $iFe of the Carolingian ar'y (ill have to re'ain in di$p&te, tho&gh all do agree that it (a$ large, the greate$t organiFed 'ilitary for"e in 7e$tern E&rope $in"e the fall of the 5o'an E'pire# =o( Charle'agne rai$ed $&"h a for"e i$ al$o an i$$&e not "o'pletely deter'inable by the extant $o&r"e$#

Altho&gh in the pa$t he ha$ often been portrayed a$ the father of Ife&dali$',J that ter' ha$ fo&nd '&"h 'odern "riti"i$' ! at it$ be$t it i$ 'ore of an ideali$ti" theory to de$"ribe the $o"ial and e"ono'i" $tr&"t&re of Carolingian $o"iety ! $&"h a title be$to(ed on thi$ very i'portant r&ler ha$ little val&e today# =o(ever, it "an be $een fro' a n&'ber of Charle'agneG$ "apit&larie$ that he relied on $o'e for' of 'ilitary obligation to fill hi$ ran:$ a$ (ell a$ to relieve the royal trea$&ry fro' the re$pon$ibility of paying for the ar'$, ar'or, and provi$ion$ of tho$e in the :ingdo' (ealthy eno&gh ! and thereby "on"erned eno&gh (ith the pre$ervation of their e"ono'i" (ell!being to feel not only 'ilitarily b&t e"ono'i"ally obligated to defend their land$ ! to $&pply the$e the'$elve$# Charle'agne al$o re)&ired all property!holder$ of the real' to parti"ipate in 'ilitary $ervi"e ! either they the'$elve$ had to $erve in the ar'y or they had to ar' and pay for a $&itable repla"e'ent# An exa'ple of one of the$e "apit&larie$ i$ dated 9093 Every free 'an (ho ha$ fo&r mansi 6a 'ea$&re'ent of land8 of hi$ o(n property, or a$ a benefi"e fro' anyone, $hall e)&ip hi'$elf and go to the ar'y, either (ith hi$ lord, if the lord goe$, or (ith hi$ "o&nt# =e (ho ha$ three mansi $hall be Koined to a 'an (ho ha$ one man"sus and $hall aid hi' $o that he 'ay $erve for both# =e (ho ha$ only t(o mansi of hi$ o(n property $hall be Koined to another (ho li:e(i$e ha$ t(o mansi and one of the', (ith the aid of the other, $hall go to the ar'y# =e (ho ha$ only one mansus of hi$ o(n $hall be Koined to one of three (ho have the $a'e and $hall aid hi', the latter $hall go aloneH the three (ho have aided hi' $hall $tay ho'e 6Ste(art Ea$ton and =elene 7ier&$Fo($:i, T%e ,ra of C%arlemagne R*rin"eton, %A3 D# +an %o$trand and Co'pany, -.0-S, -<-8# Lando(ner$ ! landlord$ or, 'ore $i'ply, lord$ ! (ith 'ore than five mansi of land (ere al$o re)&ired to provide additional 'en,
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, ++

retin&e$, to $erve a$ "avalry or infantry $oldier$# Even $&bKe"t people$ (ere re)&ired to fill the ran:$ of Charle'agneG$ ar'y, tho&gh they (ere al(ay$ "o''anded by Bran:i$h leader$# Allie$ and 'er"enarie$ (ere, of "o&r$e, al(ay$ (el"o'e to fill o&t the n&'ber$ of Carolingian $oldier$# A$ $&gge$ted, Charle$ 2artel '&$t be "redited (ith in"rea$ing the role and i'portan"e of "avalry in 7e$tern E&ropean ar'ie$# B&t it (a$ hi$ grand$on, Charle'agne, (ho '&$t be re"ogniFed a$ the leader (ho 'ade the "avalry a do'inant ar' of hi$ 'ilitary organiFation# In fa"t, hi$torian$ have generally agreed that Charle'agneG$ (a$ the fir$t 7e$tern 'edieval ar'y that &$ed "avalry a$ it$ do'inant for"e in battle# =o(ever, it i$ (orth noting that the Carolingian "avalry never o&tn&'bered the infantry and, in fa"t, 'ay never have ex"eeded -0 to 20 per"ent of the total n&'ber of $oldier$ in any ar'y, even on the battlefield, let alone at $iege$ or in garri$on$# Still, very early in hi$ reign, Charle'agne re"ogniFed that the defen$ive re)&ire'ent$ of hi$ large e'pire and hi$ de$ire to "on)&er land$ beyond it$ border$ re)&ired a large and do'inant profe$$ional "avalry# It i$ "lear that the Carolingian "avalry (ere e$pe"ially favored $oldier$, an elite profe$$ional for"e# >hey had to f&n"tion in a di$"iplined (ay, e$pe"ially ta"ti"ally, (here battlefield 'ane&ver$ "o&ld be $o ea$ily di$r&pted by a $oldier (ho (a$ &nable to follo( the 'ove'ent$ of hi$ &nit# >hey al$o had to be &nifor'ly (ell ar'ed and ar'ored# >he fir$t extant la( to $tate thi$ poli"y (a$ the Capitu"lare Missorum of .24;, (hi"h de'anded that all benefi"e and offi"e holder$, titled Inoble$J in the Carolingian real', po$$e$$ a f&ll "oat of ar'or and $hield a$ (ell a$ a hor$e and offen$ive (eapon$# >hi$ (a$ follo(ed in 9024; by a "apit&lary again "harging the$e hor$e'en to have their o(n hel'et$, $hield$, and ar'or "oat$, :no(n to the Carolingian$ a$ byrnie$# Binally, in 90/, the la( (a$ 'ade even 'ore $pe"ifi"# In thi$ "apit&lary, Charle'agne re)&ired anyone of hi$ e'pire (ho held t(elve mansi of land to have hi$ o(n ar'or and to $erve a$ a hor$e'an in hi$ ar'yH if he failed in thi$ d&ty, both hi$ land and hi$ ar'or (o&ld be ta:en fro' hi'# Infantry $oldier$ (ere not $o (ell prote"ted, altho&gh the Capit&lary of Aa"hen, pro"lai'ed in 902190;, did re)&ire the' all to "arry a $hield# >he (eapon$ "arried by Carolingian $oldier$, e$pe"ially the "avalry, (ere al$o reg&lated and $tandardiFed# Li:e their Bran:i$h an"e$tor$, their prin"ipal (eapon (a$ the $pear# >he Capitulare Misso"rum for exa'ple, $tip&lated that all hor$e'en '&$t "arry one, and $i'ilar "o''and$ (ere repeated in "apit&larie$ of 90< and 9--# In addition, the "avalry (ere to have their o(n $(ord$# So pro'inent
+) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

(ere the$e $(ord$ that in 'any Carolingian narrative and literary $o&r"e$ they are portrayed before the lan"e a$ the "avalry $oldierG$ pri'ary (eapon# Cavalry (ere al$o re)&ired to "arry a dagger# Binally, there i$ al$o eviden"e that $o'e Carolingian "avalry (ere ar'ed (ith bo($ and arro($# Carolingian >a"ti"$ and Strategy Charle'agneG$ "avalry (a$ the do'inant part of hi$ ar'y be"a&$e it played the 'o$t pro'inent role on the

battlefield# At lea$t, that i$ ho( 'o$t hi$torian$ have portrayed Carolingian 'ilitary ta"ti"$# In battle, altho&gh the Carolingian "avalry "o&ld and did di$'o&nt to fight a$ infantry, their pri'ary ta"ti" $ee'$ to have been the "harge, altho&gh one not yet delivered &$ing "o&"hed lan"e$# 7hat little eviden"e there i$ $&gge$t$ that the $pear 'ay have been &$ed a$ a thro(ing (eapon (hen &$ed by "avalry ! altho&gh it "o&ld al$o have been &$ed for thr&$ting do(n at an ene'y# A li:ely $"enario 'ay have been that, (hen fighting infantry, the Carolingian "avalry "harged and after fir$t thro(ing their $pear$, at $&itably "lo$e range, "ontin&ed the atta": &$ing their $(ord$# Alternatively it i$ po$$ible that they "o&ld have thro(n their $pear$ and then t&rned ba": for another to repeat the "harge# 7hen fighting again$t "avalry opponent$, $i'ilar ta"ti"$ (ere probably &$ed, tho&gh at an e)&al level# =o(ever, the point of the "harge, here and later in the 2iddle Age$, 'ay have been le$$ to "o'e into "onta"t (ith the ene'y than to "a&$e the' to flee in di$order fro' the battlefield# Inti'idation of poorer, le$$ (ell!ar'ored infantry and "avalry by (ealthy, expen$ively "lad "avalry (a$ the :ey here# Sho&ld even part of the ene'y line flee at the pro$pe"t of fa"ing the$e heavy hor$e'en, the (hole of the for"e (o&ld be $everely (ea:ened# >he "avalry (o&ld then be able to ride thro&gh the gap$ left in their opponentG$ line, 'eeting little effe"tive oppo$ition# S&b$e)&ent "harge$ (o&ld event&ally "a&$e the (hole of the ene'y ar'y to flee, and vi"tory (o&ld be (on (ith very fe( "a$&altie$ $&ffered# At the ti'e, no "avalry (a$ 'ore inti'idating in 7e$tern E&rope than Charle'agneG$# 7hen not fighting battle$, the "avalry "o&ld be &$ed for $ear"h!and!de$troy 'i$$ion$, $:ir'i$hing, $"o&ting, $"avenging, and other d&tie$ that re)&ired $peed and 'obility# D&ring $iege$, "avalry (a$ red&"ed to a $&pporting role, $"o&ting and $:ir'i$hing (here and (hen ne"e$$ary#
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, +(

Even if it (a$ not the 'o$t do'inant part of the Carolingian ar'y, the infantry (ere enor'o&$ly i'portant in all 'ilitary a"tivitie$# >hey (ere pre$ent in all battle$, in far greater n&'ber$ than the "avalry, and $erved a$ $&pport troop$ to tho$e delivering the pri'ary atta":$ on the ene'y# >hro&gho&t the 2iddle Age$, (hen the "avalry faltered ! ad'ittedly not often d&ring Charle'agneG$ reign ! the infantry provided a defen$ive for'ation behind (hi"h the "avalry "o&ld regro&p if needed# >h&$, there (a$ an obvio&$ need for di$"ipline and training a'ong Carolingian infantry $oldier$# Sho&ld they flee fro' the battlefield, (hether the "avalry had or not, the battle (a$ li:ely lo$t# Sho&ld they $tand $olidly in their for'ation, again (hether the "avalry had fled or not, the battle (a$ a$ li:ely (on# Carolingian infantry al$o $erved in patrol$ and a$ garri$on troop$, be$ieger$, and "on$tr&"tion "re($ for fortifi"ation$ and other defen$e$ or p&bli" b&ilding$# Bollo(ing hi$ father, *ippin III, Charle'agne traditionally '&$tered hi$ ar'y yearly at the 2ar"hfield, $o de$ignated not be"a&$e of the ti'e of year it (a$ $&''oned b&t be"a&$e of it$ belli"o$e p&rpo$e# >hi$ a$$e'bly (a$ "alled every year, even (hen Charle'agne &ndertoo: no "a'paign$# At that 'eeting, Charle'agne (o&ld in$tr&"t hi$ lord$ and other general$ of hi$ 'ilitary p&rpo$e$# So'eti'e$ he :ept the ar'y together in a $ingle for"e, (hile at other ti'e$ it (a$ bro:en do(n into t(o or three $eparate for"e$# On tho$e o""a$ion$, one ar'y 'ight "a'paign in Saxony (hile another "a'paigned in SpainH a third ar'y 'ight have defen$ive or "on$tr&"tion re$pon$ibilitie$# ?ntil later in hi$ life, a$ hi$ health (ea:ened, Charle'agne pla"ed hi'$elf at the lead of one of the$e ar'ie$# =i$ $on$ often "o''anded the other$# Ca'paign$ &$&ally ended (ithin the year, 'o$t often before the fall harve$t, altho&gh if needed, $&"h a$ d&ring the $iege of *avia, $oldier$ re'ained in the field &ntil their goal$ (ere a"hieved# Co''&ni"ation bet(een and a'ong all of Charle'agneG$ 'ilitary &nit$ $ee'$ to have been re'ar:ably effi"ient d&ring the$e 'ilitary $ea$on$# Charle'agne &$ed $ignal fire$ and to(er$ to $end $hort 'e$$age$ (hile rider$ delivered longer di$pat"he$# 5e$pon$e$ to e'ergen"ie$ (ere )&i":ly 'ade, and it (a$ not &n&$&al to $ee the$e $eparate ar'ie$ Koin together to fa"e an i''inent threat, even if it 'eant a long 'ar"h thro&gh a large part of the :ingdo'# Servi"e in the Carolingian ar'y (a$ diffi"&lt, long, and $o'eti'e$ dangero&$, b&t $oldier$ (ere (ell treated, honored, (ell fed, and, $ee'ingly, 'ore e"ono'i"ally (ell!off over other, non'ilitary Carolingian$#
+MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

Even tho&gh it i$ the battle$ that are 'ore reno(ned at thi$ or any other ti'e in the 2iddle Age$, the 'o$t fre)&ent 'ilitary a"tivity of Carolingian $oldier$ (a$ the $iege# Even a $'all, &nfortified to(n needed to be be$ieged if the inhabitant$ de$ired to hold o&t again$t their atta":er$# Of "o&r$e, a larger, fortified $ite $tood a better "han"e of (ith$tanding be$ieger$, b&t that, too, (a$ deter'ined al'o$t $olely by the (illingne$$ of the pop&lation (ithin not to $&rrender# It $ee'$ that Carolingian :ing$, in"l&ding Charle'agne, did not po$$e$$ artillery of any $ort and th&$ (ere for"ed to rely on $tarvation or trea"hery to bring the' $&""e$$# >hi$ 'eant $iege$ "o&ld ta:e a very long ti'e, a$ (hen Charle'agne be$ieged *avia for 'ore than nine 'onth$, even if there (a$ no potential relieving for"e, a$ (a$ al$o the "a$e at *avia# Chan"e$ (ere al(ay$ good that a be$ieging ar'y 'ight be"o'e 'ore )&i":ly fatig&ed, h&ngry, or di$ea$ed than tho$e in$ide the to(n and

rai$e their $iege# >herefore, it (a$ generally (hoever had the $tronge$t deter'ination, the be$ieger$ or the be$ieged, (ho "lai'ed vi"tory at the end of a $iege# Again at *avia, thi$ proved to be Charle'agne (ho, de$pite lo$ing '&"h of hi$ ar'y to di$ea$e, ref&$ed to be driven a(ay fro' the "ity# It $ho&ld be noted, ho(ever, that 'o$t pla"e$ be$ieged by the Carolingian$ $&rrendered )&ite )&i":ly, no do&bt either apatheti" over (hoever their governor 'ight be or fearf&l of repri$al$ by :ing$ :no(n for their r&thle$$ne$$ $ho&ld they try to hold o&t and &lti'ately fail# S&""e$$or$ to Charle'agne and the Event&al Ball of the Carolingian E'pire In 900, re"ogniFing hi$ age and fearing that hi$ health (a$ deteriorating, Charle'agne 'et (ith hi$ three $&rviving $on$, Charle$, *ippin, and Lo&i$, and propo$ed a divi$ion of the :ingdo' bet(een the', follo(ing the tradition of partible inheritan"e# =i$ $on$, (ho had ta:en only a little part in governing before, altho&gh they had been leader$ of the ar'y $in"e their teenage year$, (ere anxio&$ abo&t thi$ divi$ion and the land$ that 'ight be their$# At the $a'e ti'e, a$ $ee'ingly (ith all partible inheritan"e$, a $ibling rivalry began to bre(, a$ ea"h brother (orried that the otherG$ land$ 'ight $&rpa$$ their$ in )&antity or )&ality# Charle'agne did not die in 900, ho(ever, and by 9-<, (hen he did die, only one of hi$ three $on$ $&rvived, Lo&i$, :no(n d&ring hi$ lifeti'e a$ Lo&i$ the *io&$# I>he *io&$J a$ a "ogno'en &ndo&btedly indi"ate$ a $pe"ial relation$hip that Lo&i$ had (ith the "h&r"h# =o(ever, it "o&ld al$o be
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, +.

ta:en in a 'ore in$&lting (ay, a$ $o'eone (ho pla"ed hi$ religio&$ devotion over hi$ politi"al and 'ilitary re$pon$ibilitie$# Lo&i$ (a$ not the 'an hi$ father (a$, Ithe greate$t and 'o$t di$ting&i$hed of all 'enJ 6Einhard, /28, a$ de$"ribed by Einhard, (ho &$ed hi$ biography of Charle'agne, dedi"ated to the ne( :ing, to re'ind hi' exa"tly (hat large $hoe$ he had not been filling# A$ a 'ilitary leader, Lo&i$ (a$ far fro' being hi$ father, both in ability and $trategy# Brittany and A)&itaine never $ee'ed to have a""epted hi' a$ their :ing, de$pite hi$ inheritan"e of tho$e land$ and even de$pite hi$ "arrying the I'perial title# On $everal o""a$ion$, Lo&i$ (a$ for"ed to &nderta:e "a'paign$ into tho$e provin"e$ to p&t do(n rebellion$, and the n&'ber of the$e obvio&$ly indi"ate$ their overall f&tility# On ea"h "a'paign, hi$ ar'ie$ (ere 'et by "o'plian"e and $&b'i$$ion, b&t a$ $oon a$ they had left, the rebellion$ (o&ld ret&rn# %or "o&ld Lo&i$ effe"tively garri$on the$e provin"e$ be"a&$e of the al'o$t "on$tant a'o&nt of 'ilitary a"tivity on the Carolingian E'pireG$ border$# >he 'o$t per$i$tent of tho$e atta":ing the$e border$, the +i:ing$, (ill be di$"&$$ed at length later# A$ early a$ 920 the +i:ing$ atte'pted to 'ove fro' their previo&$ly preferred target$, the Briti$h I$le$ and Ireland, to the E&ropean "ontinental 'ainland# >he 920 inva$ion into the 'o&th of the 5iver Seine (a$ rep&l$ed by Carolingian troop$, b&t it (a$ one of the fe( $&""e$$f&l defen$e$ 'ade by Lo&i$G $oldier$ again$t the', and (ithin a de"ade +i:ing raider$ "o&ld be fo&nd $ailing al'o$t &nhindered along al'o$t all of the river$ of the Carolingian real'# Other per$i$tent 'ilitary threat$ to the $e"&rity of Lo&i$G reign (ere the B&lgarian$, (ho atta":ed the $o&thea$tern Carolingian provin"e$ in 929, and the 2&$li'$, (ho "ro$$ed over the 2editerranean and atta":ed Italy in 9; and 9<0 and $o&thern Bran"e in 9;9# >he$e ene'ie$, li:e their +i:ing "o&nterpart$ in the north, $ee' to have had little notion of "on)&e$t, b&t rather $o&ght to enri"h the'$elve$ (ith pl&nder a")&ired by hit!and!r&n raid$# So it (a$ in 9;9 that 2ar$eille$ (a$ $a":ed and b&rned b&t not "on)&ered# It (a$ obvio&$ly diffi"&lt to defend the Carolingian land$ again$t $&"h rando' and r&thle$$ 'ilitary a"tivity, and 'o$t hi$torian$ find little fa&lt in the fail&re of Lo&i$ the *io&$, or hi$ $&""e$$or$ ! for raid$ by the +i:ing$, B&lgarian$, and 2&$li'$, later Koined by the =&ngarian$, "ontin&ed for the next t(o "ent&rie$ ! to defend hi$ people again$t $&"h a"tivitie$# Sho&ld he have been a"tively (aging other (ar$ $&""e$$f&lly, Lo&i$ (o&ld probably not be K&dged $o
), MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

har$hly for initiating the de"line of the Carolingian E'pire# B&t it i$ d&ring hi$ reign that the "ivil (ar$ that plag&ed the real' &ntil it$ event&al fall began# >o avoid repeating the negligen"e of hi$ father in in$tr&"ting hi' and hi$ brother$ on the art of governan"e by $haring hi$ offi"e$ and landholding$, early in hi$ reign Lo&i$ in"l&ded hi$ o(n $on$ in r&ling hi$ :ingdo'# At hi$ very a$"en$ion to the throne, he pla"ed Lothar, *ippin, and Lo&i$ Ithe Cer'anJ in governing po$ition$ and later he did the $a'e (ith Charle$ the Bald, (ho$e yo&th and "ir"&'$tan"e$ of birth ! being born to A&dith of Bavaria, Lo&i$G $e"ond (ife, rather than hi$ fir$t, Ir'engard, the 'other of the other three ! had :ept hi' fro' Koining hi$ brother$ in the early a")&i$ition of po(er# =o(ever, (hat 'ight be tho&ght of a$ a

ni"e (ay to ea$e an heir into hi$ role a$ r&ler, (hen $plit bet(een $everal $on$, $i'ply be"a'e a platfor' for in"iting Kealo&$y and rivalry# It had happened thi$ (ay (ith the 2erovingian :ing$ and (a$ to do $o al$o (ith the Carolingian one$# Of "o&r$e, the proble' (a$ partible inheritan"e, a barbarian tradition that al'o$t al(ay$ en$&red fraternal (arfare, a$ it did (ith the $on$ of Lo&i$ the *io&$# In 9;0 the Carolingian E'pire $&ffered it$ fir$t fraternal "ivil (ar (hen *ippin and Lo&i$ the Cer'an revolted again$t their brother, Lothar, and father, Lo&i$ the *io&$, be"a&$e of the latterG$ per"eived favoriti$' of the for'er# It (a$ 'ore than a year before pea"e (a$ re$tored, (hen Lo&i$ the *io&$ agreed to dire"t 'ore of hi$ favor to(ard the t(o rebellio&$ $on$# Of "o&r$e, thi$ had little "han"e of "orre"ting the proble', a$ Lo&i$ di$"overed in 9;; (hen Lothar ro$e &p again$t hi', *ippin, and Lo&i$ the Cer'an, leading to hi$ depo$ition and i'pri$on'ent for a year# %or did the death$ of *ippin or Lo&i$ in 9;9 and 9<0, re$pe"tively, p&t an end to the$e fraternal belli"o$itie$# In$tead, *ippinG$ death bro&ght Charle$ the Bald into the fray (hen he re"eived a part of the redivided Carolingian land$, (hi"h (a$ per"eived a$ a dire"t in$&lt to Lo&i$G $on$ by hi$ fir$t (ife# Lo&i$G death pro'pted $o '&"h rivalry bet(een Lothar, Lo&i$ the Cer'an, and Charle$ the Bald that it (a$ not &ntil 9<; (ith the >reaty of +erd&n that a divi$ion of the Carolingian E'pire "o&ld be agreed on, and thi$ o""&rred only after an allian"e had been 'ade bet(een Lo&i$ and Charle$ again$t Lothar# Of "o&r$e, the >reaty of +erd&n did not $top the Carolingian "ivil (ar$ either# Indeed, it (a$ le$$ than a year after the treaty had been $igned that Charle$ the Bald 'o&nted a "a'paign into A)&itaine again$t hi$ nephe(, *ippin 6:no(n a$ *ippin II8, the $on of *ippin I#
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, )0

*ippin II, (ho had $&pported Lothar again$t Lo&i$ and Charle$, had been ex"l&ded fro' the >reaty of +erd&nG$ land $ettle'ent$ b&t had neverthele$$ o""&pied and de"lared hi'$elf :ing of A)&itaine, a provin"e given to Charle$ the Bald in the +erd&n agree'ent# =en"e Charle$ invaded A)&itaine, b&t he (a$ &n$&""e$$f&l and (a$ for"ed to a""ept *ippinG$ :ing$hip there, altho&gh *ippin agreed to do ho'age to hi$ &n"le# By 9/0, fatig&ed by the "on$tant 'ilitary bi":ering bet(een hi'$elf and hi$ brother$, Lothar de"ided to retire a$ =oly 5o'an E'peror and ,ing of Italy, both of (hi"h title$ he gave to hi$ $on, Lo&i$ II, (ho had (on $o'e 'ilitary legiti'a"y for hi$ defen$e of Italy again$t 2&$li' raider$ hi$ father had been b&$y fighting (ith hi$ brother$# >hi$ &npre"edented 'ove re(arded the for'er e'peror a pea"ef&l final five year$ of life, b&t, &nfort&nately, hi$ exa'ple (a$ not follo(ed by Lo&i$ the Cer'an, Charle$ the Bald, or *ippin of A)&itaine (ho "ontin&ed to fight for the next t(o and a half de"ade$# Defeat$ of one another be"a'e fre)&ent and (ere al(ay$ follo(ed by pea"e treatie$, b&t the$e (ere never de"i$ive# Soon, Lo&i$ II and hi$ brother$, Lothar II and Charle$ of *roven"e, Koined in the fraternal "onfli"t$# >he Carolingian E'pire that Charle'agne had nearly do&bled in $iFe thro&gh hi$ 'ilitary "on)&e$t$ (a$ $hattered# 7ith ea"h o&tbrea: of "ivil (ar the Carolingian E'pire be"a'e (ea:er and (ea:er# >he +i:ing$ "ontin&ed to raid, $ee'ingly (itho&t re$i$tan"e, thro&gho&t the land$# >hey atta":ed *ari$ al'o$t at (ill, being paid off on t(o o""a$ion$ and $a":ing thi$ large$t "ity in 7e$tern E&rope on another# S'aller to(n$, village$, and 'ona$terie$ had no "han"e again$t the', e$pe"ially a$ no effe"tive defen$e of any part of the :ingdo' "o&ld be 'o&nted by the (arring grand$on$ and great!grand$on$ of Charle'agne# Even (hen $o'e $trategi" gain$ (ere 'ade, $&"h a$ (hen Charle$ the Bald de"ided to fortify $o'e bridge$ along the Seine and to appoint $o'e 'ore 'ilitarily a$t&te leader$ a$ 'ar"her lord$ to better prote"t the inland pop&lation in re$pon$e to the $a":ing of *ari$ in 900, the$e plan$ (ere rarely "o'pleted and often $hort!lived# Only t(o 6or po$$ibly three8 fortified bridge$ (ere a"t&ally "on$tr&"ted in 90-and only Bald(in I, Ithe Iron Ar',J (a$ a"t&ally planted in a 'ar"her provin"e, in Blander$, in 90;, before Charle$ (a$ ba": paying off the +i:ing$ not to atta": 2el&n in 90/# At the $a'e ti'e, Charle$ the Bald (a$ $o "on"erned abo&t the po$$ibility of rebellion$ again$t hi' that, d&ring the ti'e of the greate$t n&'ber of +i:ing raid$, he (a$ di$ar'ing the people and tearing do(n their fortifi"ation$#
)1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

5ebellion$ by the Breton$ al$o "ontin&ed d&ring thi$ period, and they (ere Koined by tho$e living in Catalonia, on the Spani$h 2ar"h, $o that neither provin"e "o&ld a"t&ally be $aid to have been Carolin!gian by the beginning of the tenth "ent&ry# By 9 the grand$on$ and 'any of the great!grand$on$ of Charle'agne had died# Lo&i$ II died in 9 /, Lo&i$ the Cer'an in 9 0, and Charle$ the Bald in 9 # In 'o$t in$tan"e$ they (ere $&""eeded by $everal of their o(n $on$, partible inheritan"e $till holding $(ay# >he$e $&""e$$or$ "ontin&ed the "ivil (ar$ that had by thi$ ti'e be"o'e $o "hara"teri$ti" of the Carolingian :ingdo' that fe( hi$torian$ (rite abo&t the period (ith

anything other than deri$ion and ridi"&le# >hi$ only refle"t$ "onte'porary attit&de$, ho(ever, a$ the "ogno'en$ given the late Carolingian :ing$ by their o(n "hroni"ler$ $ee' proof eno&gh of their in"o'peten"e and i'poten"e3 Charle$ the Bat, Lo&i$ the Sta''erer, Charle$ the Si'ple, Lo&i$ the Bat# And (hile Charle$ the Bat did re$tore Charle'agneG$ :ingdo' nearly to it$ for'er $iFe for fo&r year$ 6fro' 99< to 9998, 'ore by the fl&:e of having all hi$ "o&$in$ die at the $a'e ti'e rather than by any 'ilitary a"tivity, the E'pire (a$ no longer a threat to o&t$ider$ (hile, at the $a'e ti'e, being extre'ely v&lnerable to any 'ilitary or raiding for"e that (i$hed to enter it$ border$# By the beginning of the tenth "ent&ry 'o$t of the noble$ of the vario&$ Carolingian :ingdo'$ had be"o'e fr&$trated by tho$e r&ling the' and their in"e$$ant fraternal 'ilitary $)&abble$# Dear after year they and their retin&e$ (o&ld be '&$tered to fight again$t other Car!olingian E&ropean$ at the $a'e ti'e their o(n land$ and people$ (ere being ravaged by very fear$o'e raider$# Several tried to ref&$e to parti"ipate in the$e "ivil (ar$, b&t the threat al(ay$ exi$ted that they 'ight be $een to be rebel$ and therefore ene'ie$ to all Carolin! gian$# >he lo$$ of land$ and title$ a$ a potential p&ni$h'ent 'eant that fe( of the le$$er noble$ "o&ld ignore their lord$G $&''on$ for long# Creater noble$ had a better "han"e to avoid "ivil (ar parti"ipation be"a&$e of their $iFe and (ealth, b&t even they "o&ld not ref&$e 'ilitary $ervi"e (itho&t good rea$on# Only by &nifying their effort$ (ere the noble$ able to "ontend again$t the $elfi$h goal$ of their Carolingian overlord$, and &niting together generally 'eant that $o'e noble$ (o&ld have to a":no(ledge the "o'parative po(er of rival noble$# >h&$, it (a$ not &ntil the $e"ond de"ade of the tenth "ent&ry before a gro&p of noble$ (a$ able to de"i$ively re'ove fro' po(er one of the Carolingian :ing$# >hi$ o""&rred in .-- (hen the $&""e$$or to Arn&lf, :ing of the Ea$t Bran:$ 6Cer'any8, appropriately na'ed Lo&i$ 6or L&d(ig8 the
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, )'

Child, follo(ed hi$ father to the grave (itho&t "hildren# 7hile $o'e of the Ea$t Bran:i$h noble$ (anted to tran$fer their allegian"e to one of the other Carolingian :ing$, 'o$t did not# >hey de"ided in$tead to "hoo$e their o(n non!Carolingian :ing and, after '&"h debate, re$olved to do $o by ele"tion a'ong the'$elve$# >hi$ a"tion $et a pre"edent for "hoo$ing the :ing of Cer'any, (ho (o&ld often be na'ed =oly 5o'an E'peror a$ (ell, that (o&ld la$t &ntil %apoleon Bonaparte di$$olved the E'pire in -900# Of "o&r$e, thi$ 'eant that (hen a :ing died hi$ $&""e$$or (o&ld not ne"e$$arily be hi$ $on# In$tead, the greater noble$ of the real', $erving a$ ele"tor$, (o&ld 'eet and de"ide (ho a'ong the' (o&ld $&""eed the de"ea$ed :ing# Bro' a 'odern vie(point thi$ $y$te' 'ight $ee' 'ore de'o"rati" and therefore pre$ent 'ore of a "on$en$&$ and fe(er di$agree'ent$ than a dire"t patrilineal $&""e$$ion, and the fir$t ele"tion $ee'ed to verify thi$# Conrad I, the D&:e of Bran"onia, (a$ ea$ily ele"ted and reigned a$ :ing of Cer'any fro' .-- to .-9# Bran"onia (a$ Cer'anyG$ $e"ond 'o$t po(erf&l d&"hy, b&t a$ =enry, the D&:e of Saxony, the 'o$t po(erf&l d&"hy, (a$ )&ite old and expe"ted to die $oon, the ele"tor$ pa$$ed hi' by# A $i'ilarly ea$y $&""e$$ion (a$ had in .-9 (hen the ele"tor$ "ho$e the ne( D&:e of Saxony a$ ,ing =enry I, over the $&""e$$or to ConradG$ Bran"onian d&"hy, a "hoi"e (ith (hi"h even Conrad agreed# B&t in"onte$table ele"tion$ (ere &n&$&al# 2o$t often, if there (ere t(o 6or 'ore8 $trong "andidate$ (ho vied for the Cer'an :ing$hip, (hi"h obvio&$ly only one of the' "o&ld hold, the lo$er and hi$ $&pporter$ generally be"a'e bitter and di$$ati$fied (ith the $ele"tion, $o'eti'e$ even (aging "ivil (ar again$t the ne( :ing# 7hile thi$ did not o""&r in the early ele"tion$, it did at lea$t t(i"e later in the t(elfth "ent&ry# Another proble' that "a'e (ith the ele"tion $y$te' of na'ing a ne( Cer'an :ing (a$ that he, by tradition, (a$ an inheritor of Charle'agneG$ title, =oly 5o'an E'peror# =o(ever, thi$ happened only if he (a$ dee'ed (orthy of being na'ed =oly 5o'an E'peror by the pope at the ti'e of hi$ ele"tion# >herefore, the pope often 'ade hi$ preferen"e for a ne( e'peror :no(n, altho&gh to be hi$tori"ally a""&rate only very rarely did the (i$he$ of the papa"y 'atter to the Cer'an ele"tor$# 7hat re$&lted, $i'ply, (a$ that a n&'ber of Cer'an :ing$ (ere not al$o 'ade =oly 5o'an E'peror# %oble$ fro' 7e$t Bran"ia 6(hat had be"o'e Bran"e by thi$ ti'e8 did not na'e their fir$t non!Carolingian :ing &ntil later than their Cer'an "o&$in$, in .9 , nor did they opt for an ele"ted :ing# *erhap$ thi$ (a$ be"a&$e they "o&ld $ee the proble'$ that ele"tion$
)/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

"a&$ed or 'ight "a&$e# B&t 'ore than li:ely it (a$ be"a&$e at the death of their la$t Carolingian :ing, Lo&i$ +, there (a$ one "learly do'inant leader a'ong the', =&gh Capet, the D&:e of the Bran:$ (ho$e po(er ba$e lay in the land$ aro&nd *ari$# At the death of the "hildle$$ Lo&i$, =&gh Capet i''ediately and (itho&t oppo$ition na'ed hi'$elf :ing# 2ore i'portantly, he did thi$ (ith the a$$i$tan"e and ble$$ing of the "hief e""le$ia$ti"al prelate of the :ingdo', the ar"hbi$hop of 5ei'$, (ho agreed to thi$ ex"hange of po(er (hen "ro(ning =&gh :ing by de"laring that he re"eived the throne of Bran"e Iby divine right#J In other (ord$,

de$pite not inheriting the title at birth, Cod had deter'ined that =&gh Capet (a$ to be :ing of Bran"e# >hi$ de"laration, $ee'ingly no 'ore than an addition to the rit&al of na'ing a ne( :ing, th&$ $et a pre"edent in Bran"e that (a$ tied to the :ing$hip$ of no other E&ropean :ing$3 Cod de$ired that =&gh Capet and hi$ $&""e$$or$ be the r&ler$ of 7e$t Bran"iaH therefore, anyone in oppo$ition to the' (a$ al$o oppo$ing Cod# One (o&ld thin: that $&"h a belief $ho&ld not have affe"ted $&b$e)&ent baronial oppo$ition to a Bren"h :ing, e$pe"ially a (ea: one, and yet, de$pite $o'e of the lord$ being 'ore po(erf&l than the :ing$ they $erved &nder ! $&"h a$ the D&:e$ of %or'andy, Co&nt$ of A)&itaine, and Co&nt$ of Blander$ ! very fe( rebellion$ again$t the Capetian dyna$ty are re"orded d&ring their &ninterr&pted r&le fro' .9 to -;29# Bro' the end of the tenth to the end of the fifteenth "ent&rie$ E&ropean (arfare (a$ 'o$t often fo&ght bet(een Chri$tian $tate$ ! perhap$ $i'ply an exten$ion of the fraternal $tr&ggle$ of tho$e Car!olingian :ing$ (ho event&ally divided Charle'agneG$ real' into the land$ that be"a'e 'odern E&rope# >he other 'aKor "a&$e of 'edieval (arfare (a$ the defen$e again$t o&t$ide for"e$# 2o$t often, the$e (ere $'all in n&'ber, (ho$e (hole 'ilitary p&rpo$e (a$ to raid, and in doing $o al$o to de$troy al'o$t all they "a'e in "onta"t (ith# >here (ere no "hronologi"al li'it$ to thi$ type of (arfare, nor did the$e raider$ "o'e fro' only one geographi"al gro&p or $o"iologi"al type of people# >he +i:ing$, di$"&$$ed belo(, are the 'o$t fa'o&$ of the$e, b&t even d&ring their o(n period they (ere not the only raider$ atta":ing E&rope# In part$ of E&rope d&ring the tenth "ent&ry raid$ fro' the =&ngarian$ 6or 2agyar$8 (ere feared a$ '&"h if not 'ore than tho$e of the +i:ing$# Beginning in the late ninth and la$ting &ntil the 'iddle of the tenth "ent&rie$, raiding =&ngarian hor$e'en 'ade their pre$en"e felt, e$pe"ially in the area$ of "entral E&rope near to their =&ngarian ho'eland$# Ironi"ally, the$e raider$ 'ay fir$t have gli'p$ed
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, )+

(hat be"a'e their target$ (hen they (ere e'ployed a$ 'er"enarie$ by Arn&lf, :ing of the Ea$t Bran:$, in hi$ 9.2 "a'paign again$t the Slav$ in 2oravia# Seven year$ later, in 9.., they ret&rned to the (e$t on an expedition of their o(n# >he =&ngarian$ fir$t advan"ed $o&th to *avia, (hi"h they $a":ed, and then (intered in Lo'bardy# >he follo(ing year, .00, they raided Bavaria, and the year after Carinthia# After a five!year period of pea"e, in .00 the =&ngarian$ ret&rned to the (e$t (hen they raided SaxonyH in .0 they again raided BavariaH in .09 Saxony and >h&ringia, and in .0. S(abia# Civil (ar$ in their ho'eland$ prohibited f&rther raiding for eight year$, b&t (hen they re$&'ed, the =&ngarian$ ret&rned to the (e$t (ith r&thle$$ violen"e# Bro' .- &ntil .20 the$e rene(ed raid$ (ere in"rea$ingly de$tr&"tive, and they $tret"hed farther, into Ba$le, Al$a"e, B&rg&ndy, Lo'bardy, and *roven"e# B&t after .20, and for rea$on$ that "annot be f&lly explained by the hi$tori"al $o&r"e$, =&ngarian atta":$ be"a'e le$$ fre)&ent, altho&gh the raider$ re'ained a threat to tho$e living on Cer'an land$ (ithin "lo$e proxi'ity# Again, in ./0, =&ngarian$ began to 'o&nt raid$ into the (e$t# =o(ever, then they fa"ed a 'ore deter'ined defender in Otto the Creat, :ing of Cer'any $in"e .;0# After n&'ero&$ $'all vi"torie$, in .//, Otto de"i$ively defeated the =&ngarian$ at the battle of Le"hfeld, driving the' ba": into =&ngary# Anglo!Saxon England England (a$ the only 'aKor E&ropean land that had not been dire"tly affe"ted by Charle'agneG$ 'ilitary poli"ie$ at the ti'e of hi$ death in 9-<# >here had "ertainly been "onta"t bet(een the Carolin!gian :ingdo' and the people of England# In fa"t, in 9-, Al"&in, a religio&$ $"holar, (a$ l&red a(ay fro' hi$ $"hool in Dor: to be"o'e the head of Charle'agneG$ $"hool in Aa"hen# B&t Charle'agne never expre$$ed an intere$t in "a'paigning again$t the different :ing$ there, perhap$ be"a&$e the Anglo!Saxon people (ere already Chri$tian or, po$$ibly, and 'ore $i'ply, be"a&$e the Engli$h Channel and %orth Sea $tood in the (ay of any plan$ for "on)&e$t, at lea$t &ntil 7illia' the Con)&eror (o&ld la&n"h hi$ inva$ion in -000# Anglo!Saxon England 'ight have been )&ite ea$y for the Carolin!gian ar'ie$ to "on)&er# ?ntil the end of the tenth "ent&ry there (a$ little &nity a'ong the vario&$ :ingdo'$ there, and thi$ (a$ &ndo&btedly the pri'ary proble' fa"ed by the people there# In$tead of
)) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

(or:ing together to pro'ote, for exa'ple, the herding of $heep, and the trading of (ool, a$pe"t$ of later 'edieval Engli$h e"ono'y that (o&ld bring the pop&lation (ealth and pre$tige far ex"eeding their de'ographi" n&'ber$ and geographi"al li'itation$, the politi"al and 'ilitary di$&nity of the i$landG$ people$ 'eant a large a'o&nt of intra!:ingdo' di$p&te$ and (arfare# In a hypotheti"al year it (a$ po$$ible that the :ing of %orth&'bria 'ight fight the :ing of Strath"lyde, the :ing of 2er"ia 'ight fight the :ing of 7e$$ex, and the :ing of E$$ex 'ight fight the :ing of Ea$t Anglia# And a follo(ing hypotheti"al year, thing$ 'ight be rever$ed, for exa'ple, (ith 7e$$ex fighting E$$ex, Ea$t Anglia fighting %orth&'bria, and 2er!"ia fighting Strath"lyde# Added to thi$ di$&nity (ere the e)&ally di$&nited S"ot$ and 7el$h (ho "o&ld be "o&nted on to 'o&nt fre)&ent raid$ into :ingdo'$ that f&rther di$r&pted any pea"e or pro$perity for tho$e living along the

7el$h and S"otti$h 'ar"he$# At ti'e$, the %orth&'brian and Strath"lydian :ing$ tried to 'aintain the old 5o'an =adrianG$ 7all, (hile, in the eighth "ent&ry, ,ing Offa of 2er"ia tried to b&ild a lengthy earth!and! (ood dit"h!and!ra'part fortifi"ation, no( :no(n a$ OffaG$ Dy:e, a"ro$$ the $o&thern 7el$h 'ar"he$ to better prote"t hi$ people living there fro' 7el$h raider$# >hi$ di$&nity exa"erbated a $e"ond 'aKor proble' the Anglo!Saxon$ fa"ed (hen, at the end of the eighth "ent&ry, +i:ing$ began to land on Engli$h $hore$ al'o$t ex"l&$ively to rob and pl&nder (hatever they "o&ld before ret&rning (ith thi$ booty to S"andinavia# Initially, the$e &nexpe"ted atta":$ fro' abroad "a'e a$ )&ite a $ho": to the Anglo!Saxon people, a$ expre$$ed in the fir$t re"ord of a +i:ing raid reported in T%e Anglo" Sa.on C%ronicle for the year 9 3 And in R,ing Breohtri"G$S day$ there "a'e for the fir$t ti'e three $hip$ of %orth'en fro' =Trthaland# And then the reeve rode there, and he (anted to ta:e the' to the :ingG$ to(n, for he did not :no( (hat they (ere# And the$e 'en :illed hi'# >hat (a$ the fir$t ti'e that $hip$ of the Dane$ had $o&ght the land of the Engli$h 6Anglo"Sa.on C%ronicle vol# I, Two of t%e Sa.on C%ronicles (arallel ed$# Charle$ *l&''er and Aohn Earle ROxford3 Clarendon *re$$, -9..S, // Ra&thor$G tran$lationS8# S&"h ignoran"e of +i:ing p&rpo$e did not hold for long, ho(ever, a$ after a $e"ond raid of .; too: a(ay the &ndefended ri"he$ of the Anglo!Saxon 'ona$tery at Linde$farne, +i:ing $hip$ began appearing 'ore and 'ore fre)&ently, along all "oa$t$ and &p all navigable
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, )(

river$# Of "o&r$e, England (a$ not the only target of S"andinavian +i:ing$# %or did England offer any le$$ re$i$tan"e again$t the +i:ing$ than did any other target, at lea$t a'ong the Briti$h I$le$# B&t EnglandG$ proxi'ity to %or(ay and Den'ar:, a$ (ell a$ it$ large n&'ber of &nfortified, and virt&ally &ndefended, 'ona$terie$, village$, and to(n$, 'eant that it had 'ore than it$ fair $hare of early raid$# %o do&bt the di$&nity of the 'ilitary re$pon$e f&rther added to the +i:ing$G early ea$e of inva$ion and raiding# Bor a (hile, +i:ing raider$ (ere "ontent to fea$t on the fairly ri"h pi":ing$ of 'ona$ti" and $'all &rban area$ lo"ated near the $ea or along the 'any river$ $pread thro&gho&t the Engli$h "o&ntry$ide# >he fa"t that they (ere filled (ith &nar'ed e""le$ia$ti"$ or poorly ar'ed far'er$ added to the ea$e of the raider$G a"tion$, and they too: &ntold a'o&nt$ of pl&nder and booty ba": to S"andinavia# Event&ally, the +i:ing$ began (intering in England, e$tabli$hing ba$e "a'p$ fro' (hi"h they "o&ld raid longer and farther inland than ever before, leaving tho$e (ho (ere previo&$ly $afe be"a&$e of their lo"ation$ a(ay fro' river$ and $ea 'ore v&lnerable to atta":$# Obvio&$ly, the Engli$h did try to defend the'$elve$# 2any :ing$ and lo"al leader$ atte'pted to oppo$e the early to 'id!eighth!"ent&ry +i:ing inva$ion$# B&t they had little $&""e$$, altho&gh 'o$t hi$torian$ bla'e thi$ la": of $&""e$$ on the di$&nity and di$organiFation of the Anglo!Saxon govern'ental and 'ilitary leader$hip than on the +i:ing$G 'ilitary "apabilitie$# 2o$t often any defen$e 'o&nted (a$ that of lo"al 'ilitia$ $ee:ing to prote"t their o(n ho'e$, land$, and fa'ilie$# A&$t a$ often the$e brave defender$ 'et their o(n end$ at the hand$ of the invader$, and the$e raid$ "ontin&ed (itho&t '&"h of a deleterio&$ effe"t# Binally, one of the Engli$h :ing$, Aethelred, :ing of the 7e$t Saxon$ 67e$$ex8, p&t together an ar'y that began having $&""e$$ in oppo$ing the S"andinavian invader$# After hi$ death in April 9 -, hi$ brother Alfred, (ho $&""eeded hi' a$ :ing, defeated the +i:ing$ in battle$ fo&ght at Englefield, A$hdo(n, and, fighting the $o!"alled IDani$h Creat Ar'y,J at the battle of Edington# D&ring the next fe( year$, (ith a (ell!organiFed ar'y and "onfident leader$hip, Alfred began to p&$h +i:ing "oloni$t$ o&t of the Engli$h area$ that had been "on)&ered# By 990, he had "o'pletely re'oved the' fro' London and $&rro&nding area$ of E$$ex, pro'pting a reinfor"ing inva$ion of Dane$ &nder their :ing =ae$ten# B&t in 9./, thi$, too, (a$ t&rned ba": (hen AlfredG$ $trategy of blo":ing the 5iver Lea drove the' into a flight fro' their "a'p near London# >he follo(ing year, the +i:ing$ in England "ho$e to retreat to the north and northea$t of
)MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

England, behind an artifi"ial border that be"a'e :no(n a$ the IDanela(#J Alfred al$o re$tored ed&"ation, la($, and "o&rt$ a$ 'ain "o'ponent$ of hi$ Engli$h :ing$hip# By the ti'e of hi$ death in 9.., Alfred had earned the "ogno'en Ithe Creat#J %one of the vi"torie$ Alfred (on for"ed the +i:ing "oloni$t$ entirely fro' England# >here i$, in fa"t, $o'e )&e$tion a$ to (hether they (ere 'eant to do thi$, e$pe"ially a$ none of the pea"e treatie$ $igned bet(een Alfred and hi$ opponent$ even re)&ired it# By thi$ ti'e, a large n&'ber of the S"andinavian$ had $ettled in England and had "ea$ed being foreign raider$# 7hen the fir$t of the$e $ettle'ent$ had been fo&nded, or even (hy $o'e S"andinavian$, e$pe"ially fro' %or(ay and Den'ar:, had de"ided to leave their r&ral exi$ten"e$ in their ho'eland$ to ta:e &p e)&ally r&ral exi$ten"e$ in the Briti$h I$le$ "annot be :no(n# Bor it (a$ not

only England that gained a large n&'ber of $ettler$, b&t al$o S"otland, the Or:ney, Shetland and Baroe I$land$, 7ale$, and Ireland# Certainly by 900 (hen they had e$tabli$hed their "hief "olony (ithin the 5o'an (all$ of Ebora"&', (hi"h they rena'ed Aorvi: ! and fro' (hi"h it$ later na'e, Dor:, (a$ derived ! "olonie$ (ere n&'ero&$ thro&gho&t northea$tern and ea$tern England# Det the$e S"andinavian $ettler$ had done 'ore than $i'ply 'ove into the area# >hey had integrated the'$elve$ into the in$tit&tion$, the "&lt&re, and the $o"iety of the people already living there# In doing $o, they had be"o'e Chri$tian, and they had beg&n to (rite &$ing a Latin $"ript# B&t they, in t&rn, had their o(n infl&en"e$ on the indigeno&$ pop&lation# >hey began to affe"t the lang&age, "hanging it fro' a Cer'ano! Celti" to an Anglo!S"andinavia 'ixt&re# *la"e na'e$ be"a'e S"andinavian# And governing noble$ too: on S"andinavian title$# 2o$t i'portantly, for later hi$tory, the$e $ettle'ent$ adopted a S"andinavian legal $y$te', an adoption that to great extent gave a rationale to the na'e of thi$ S"andinavian!$ettled area, the Danela(# By the end of the ninth "ent&ry, (hen Alfred began to gain 'ilitary vi"torie$ again$t +i:ing$ in the $o&th of England, it (o&ld have been i'po$$ible for hi' to re'ove all S"andinavian$ fro' Anglo!Saxon England# In reality, by thi$ ti'e Anglo!Saxon England had be"o'e Anglo!S"andinavian England# Bor 'ore than a "ent&ry, fro' 9 9 to .90, the non!S"andinavian part$ of England (ere largely at pea"e (ith their S"andinavian neighbor$, both tho$e living a"ro$$ the $ea$ and tho$e living in the Danela(# >here (ere $o'e +i:ing raid$, b&t al'o$t all (ere 'ade into the Anglo!S"andinavian north of England by +i:ing leader$ 'o$tly (i$hing to extend their politi"al "ontrol over 'ore than their
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, ).

o(n region$ of the Briti$h I$le$# Al'o$t all failed in the$e endeavor$# In the $o&th of England, a(ay fro' 'o$t Anglo!S"andinavian infl&en"e, the royal de$"endant$ of Alfred had pro$pered# Ed(ard Ithe ElderJ 69..1.2<8 follo(ed by Aethel$tan 6.2<1.;.8, and Edgar 6./.1. /8 (ere $trong and po(erf&l r&ler$ (ho al$o 'anaged to re"eive re"ognition of the $&pre'a"y of their :ing$hip over the +i:ing leader$ of the Danela(, S"otland, and Strath"lyde# Aethel$tan even rai$ed =a:on, the $on of the %or(egian :ing, =arald Binehair, a$ hi$ o(n Ifo$ter!$onJ in hi$ Engli$h "o&rt# Even poorer :ing$, Ed'&nd 6.;.1.<08, Eadred 6.<01 .//8, and Ead(ig 6.//1./.8, de$pite having $horter reign$ and $tr&ggle$ (ithin their o(n "o&rt$, did not en"o&rage a brea:do(n in pea"ef&l relation$ (ith either the Anglo! or foreign S"andinavian$# B&t after the death of Edgar in . /, and the '&rder of hi$ $on, Ed(ard Ithe 2artyr,J in . 9 by $&pporter$ of Ed(ardG$ $tepbrother, Aethelred II, England fell into a period of politi"al &nre$t and in$tability# *erhap$ thi$ (a$ (hat pro'pted rene(ed +i:ing atta":$ fro' .90 on, altho&gh hi$torian$ generally believe the proble'$ of Engli$h r&le, (hile "ertainly inK&rio&$ to Engli$h defen$ive "apabilitie$, (ere only "oin"idental to a rene(ed drive by re"ently &nited S"andinavian prin"ipalitie$, e$pe"ially the :ingdo'$ of %or(ay and Den'ar:, to in"rea$e their non!S"andinavian land$# 5aid$ (ere 'o&nted in .90 again$t So&tha'pton, the I$le of >hanet, Che$hire, and part$ of $o&th(e$t England# >he$e (ere follo(ed by atta":$ on London and other :ey $o&thern Engli$h lo"ation$, 'any of (hi"h ended only after a ran$o', the IDanegeld,J (a$ paid# In ..-, the Battle of 2aldon (a$ fo&ght and lo$t, be"o'ing the $&bKe"t of a fa'o&$ Old Engli$h verna"&lar poe'# In ..<, the %or(egian :ing, Olaf >ryggva$on, (ho had (on at 2aldon and profited fro' Da!negeld, ret&rned to England in the "o'pany of the Dani$h :ing, Svein =arald$$on, :no(n to hi$tory a$ IBor:beardJ be"a&$e of hi$ &ni)&ely $haped beard# De$pite being driven ba": fro' London, the t(o gained '&"h booty and Danegeld fro' their 'ilitary "a'paign# In the en$&ing year$, Olaf "onverted to Chri$tianity and did not ret&rn, b&t SveinG$ appetite for the "on)&e$t of England had only been (hetted# =e ret&rned ann&ally# *ea"e in Anglo!Saxon England di$appeared, a$ t(o pa$$age$ fro' the Anglo"Sa.on C%ronicle exe'plify3 .. # =ere in thi$ year the RDani$hS ar'y traveled thro&gho&t Devon$hire into the 'o&th of the Severn, and there they raided, both in Corn(all and in %orth 7ale$ and in DevonH then they (ent &p at
(, MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

7at"het, and there (ro&ght '&"h evil by b&rning and by the $la&ghtering of 'en, and after that traveled ba": thro&gho&t *en!(ith >ail to the $o&th $ide, and traveled then into the 'o&th of the >a'ar, and then (ent &p &ntil they "a'e to Lydford, and b&rned and :illed everything that they 'et, and b&rned do(n Ord(&lfG$ 'ona$tery in >avi$to":, and bro&ght in"redible (ar!booty (ith the' to the $hip$# -00-# =ere the RDani$hS ar'y "a'e to the 'o&th of the Exe and then (ent &p to the $tronghold and (ere deter'inedly fighting there, and the 'en deter'inedly and ardently (ith$tood the', then they traveled thro&gh the "o&ntry$ide, and did (hat they (ere a""&$to'ed3 :illing and b&rning# >hen there (a$ gathered an i''en$e ar'y of Devon people and So'er$eter$, and then they "a'e together at *inhoeH and a$ $oon a$ they Koined battle the Engli$h ar'y gave (ay and 'any (ere $la&ghtered there, and then rode over the "o&ntry$ideH and ea"h follo(ing o""a$ion (a$ al(ay$ (or$e than the one beforeH and they bro&ght '&"h (ar!booty (ith the' to the $hip$, and traveled fro' there into the I$le of 7ight, and there traveled (herever they (i$hed, and nothing (ith$tood the'# %o navy on $ea or ar'y on land dared approa"h the', ho(ever far inland they (ent# In every (ay it (a$ a heavy ti'e, be"a&$e they never left off their evil 6 Anglo"

Sa.on C%ronicle vol# I, -;-, -<- Ra&thorG$ tran$lationS8# 2any $i'ilar pa$$age$ "an be fo&nd# All $&gge$t that England had be"o'e a :ingdo' "o'pletely overr&n by r&thle$$ S"andinavian $oldier$# Aethelred II (a$ "o'pletely po(erle$$ to defend hi$ people# Even (hen he did rai$e an ar'y, it fled or (a$ )&i":ly and violently defeated# %or did the paying of Danegeld prove to :eep the atta":er$ a(ay for long, and (hen the +i:ing$ ret&rned to the $a'e area the follo(ing year, a$ they nearly al(ay$ did, and fo&nd that the people had no f&rther f&nd$ to pay the', they $ee'ed to have raided (ith even greater fero"ity# ?lti'ately, the Engli$h people de"ided that they no longer (i$hed to end&re the "ontin&al violen"e# Exiling the &$ele$$ Aethelred in -0-;, they $&b'itted to Svein, hoping that, a$ :ing of England, the raid$ of hi$ "o&ntry'en 'ight "ea$e# B&t Svein died in Bebr&ary -0-<, and for t(o year$ the violen"e "ontin&ed# Binally, in -0-0, Cn&t, SveinG$ $on, too: over the :ingdo'# =e (o&ld r&le &ntil -0<2, bringing rene(ed pro$perity to England, 'o$tly be"a&$e, (ith hi$ a$"en$ion to the Engli$h throne, the +i:ing raid$ had finally ended#
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, (0

A52S A%D A52O5

It i$ rare that the $t&dy of (arfare, and by i'pli"ation of ar'$ and ar'or, intr&de$ on the (ider $t&dy of the develop'ent of E&rope $in"e the fall of 5o'e# Altho&gh (ar$ and (arfare (ere a vitally i'portant part of that hi$tory, they are often vie(ed (ith di$dain and are either ignored or p&$hed to the $ide# Only in t(o "a$e$ ha$ thi$ not been the "a$e# >he paradig' of early 'odern (arfare that goe$ by the na'e the I2ilitary 5evol&tion,J altho&gh it 'ay be di$"redited and di$'i$$ed by 'any 'ilitary hi$torian$, (a$ fo&nd to be a 'ean$ for the' to bring their arg&'ent$, $:ill$, and $&bKe"t "lo$er to the 'ore 'ain$trea' hi$tori"al debate# >he arg&'ent introd&"ed by Lynn 7hite, Ar#, that the introd&"tion of the $tirr&p in the early eighth "ent&ry led to the ri$e of the fe&dal $y$te' in 7e$tern E&rope had '&"h the $a'e effe"t# 7hite lin:ed the invention of the $tirr&p to the ri$e of a 'ilitary elite and by exten$ion to the ri$e of a $y$te', fe&dali$', that affe"ted 7e$tern E&rope for the next tho&$and year$# =i$ arg&'ent$ did not $tand for long (itho&t "riti"i$' and, on"e they had been thoro&ghly "he(ed over and $pat o&t, 'o$t 'edieval hi$torian$ (ere &n"onvin"ed of the "onne"tion bet(een the $tirr&p and fe&dali$'# =o(ever, 7hiteG$ the$i$ bro&ght the $tirr&p to "enter $tage and for"ed re$ear"her$ to ta:e a good loo: at it$ introd&"tion and &$e# 7itho&t $tirr&p$, the "ontrol of a hor$e (a$ diffi"&lt and li'ited a riderG$ ability to (ield $o'e (eapon$# It "o&ld be learned, b&t training generally had to begin at a yo&ng age and pra"ti"e "ontin&ed thro&gho&t ad&lthood# >he $tirr&p allo(ed $oldier$ ea$ily and (ith le$$ training to &$e the hor$eG$ $peed and dexterity a$ a fighting tool# So (here did the $tirr&p "o'e fro'M 7ith the ex"eption of an i$olated b&t &ndi$p&ted ill&$tration of $tirr&p$ fro' the ninth "ent&ry BC A$$yrian E'pire, there i$ no an"ient eviden"e of $tirr&p$# And even altho&gh they (ere (ell :no(n in China, India, ,orea, and Aapan d&ring the early 2iddle Age$, they $ee' not to have diff&$ed to E&rope or the 2iddle Ea$t &ntil at lea$t the late $eventh or early eighth "ent&ry# >hey fir$t appear in *er$ia fro' (here they $pread )&i":ly to ByFanti&' and then to the Bran:$# Over ti'e they, and other ar'ie$ they en"o&ntered, began to re"ogniFe the val&e of $tirr&p$ in "avalry (arfare# Altho&gh their effe"t$ 'ay never have been )&ite a$ 7hite $&gge$ted, event&ally $tirr&p$ be"a'e a very i'portant feat&re of 'o&nted (arfare# %o ar'y 'ay have &$ed the $tirr&p better than the Carolingian$# Charle'agneG$ for"e, (here heavy "avalry appeared in greater
(1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

n&'ber$ and began to play a 'ore pro'inent role than in previo&$ 'edieval ar'ie$, (a$ extre'ely (ell ar'ed and ar'ored# >he ar'or and e)&ip'ent of the Carolingian ar'ie$ i$ no(here better $&''ariFed than in the life of Charle'agne (ritten by %ot:er the Sta''erer, a 'on: of St# Call in 'odern S(itFerland# Altho&gh hi$ de$"ription i$ $o'e(hat poeti" and overblo(n, it provide$ &$ (ith a good idea of K&$t (hat a (ell!e)&ipped $oldier (o&ld have (orn and &$ed3 >hen "a'e in $ight that 'an of iron, Charle'agne, topped (ith hi$ iron hel', hi$ fi$t$ in iron glove$, hi$ iron "he$t and hi$ *latoni" $ho&lder$ "lad in an iron "&ira$$# An iron $pear rai$ed high again$t the $:y he gripped in hi$ left hand, (hile in hi$ right he held hi$ $till &n"on)&ered $(ord# Bor greater ea$e of riding other 'en :eep their thigh$ bare of ar'orH Charle'agneG$ (ere bo&nd in plate$ of iron# A$ for hi$ greave$, li:e tho$e of all hi$ ar'y, they, too, (ere 'ade of iron# =i$ $hield (a$ all of iron 6I%ot:er the Sta''erer,J in Two /ives of C%arlemagne ed# and tran$# Le(i$ >horpe R=ar'ond$(orth, ?,3 *eng&in, -.0.S, p# -<08# Ar'or %ot:er the Sta''ererG$ de$"ription of Charle'agne goe$ on to $ay that hi$ ar'y all (ore Ithe $a'e ar'or, and their gear (a$ a$ "lo$e a "opy of hi$ o(n a$ it i$ po$$ible to i'agine#J >hi$, "onfir'ed by other 'ore

"onte'porary $o&r"e$, $&gge$t$ that the ar'or (orn by $oldier$ of Charle'agneG$ ar'ie$ (a$ ho'ogeneo&$# It i$ "lear that 'o$t $oldier$ (ore a 'ail $hirt, "arried a $hield, and had a hel'et of fairly &nifor' appearan"e, b&t they (ere far fro' identi"al# >hi$ "an be $een in a Carolingian pyx, no( fo&nd in the >rea$&ry at Aa"hen, (hi"h depi"t$ eight $oldier$ on it$ ba$e# All of the$e vary K&$t a little3 $o'e (ear ar'or that de$"end$ to the elbo($ and :nee$, other$ barely off the $ho&lder$ or do(n the thigh$H $o'e "arry oval $hield$, other$ 'ore ro&nd one$H $o'e have hel'et$ (ith 'ore pro'inent bri'$ and "re$t$, other$ (ith le$$ prono&n"ed feat&re$# *erhap$ thi$ variation "a'e fro' fa$hion or "hoi"e# *erhap$ it (a$ an e"ono'i" de"i$ion# Certainly not everyone "o&ld afford all thi$ ar'or and e)&ip'ent# A 'id!eighth!"ent&ry $o&r"e li$t$ a hel'et, body ar'or, $(ord, $"abbard, leg defen$e$, lan"e, $hield, and hor$e a$ the f&ll e)&ip'ent of a hor$e'an, for a total "o$t of << $olidi, at a ti'e (hen a "o( (a$ val&ed at ; $olidiL
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, ('

>he 'ain defen$e (orn by both 'o&nted and foot $oldier$ (a$ the 'ail $hirt, the byrnie, (hi"h extended fro' the ne": to the thigh$ or :nee$# It (a$ (orn fairly loo$e (ith $hort $leeve$ rea"hing to the 'id!ar' or elbo(, and, &nli:e later exa'ple$, doe$ not appear to have had a $lit bet(een the leg$ at front and ba":# >he opening at the ne": (a$ ro&nd and )&ite (ide, rather li:e a 'odern >!$hirt, (ith no defen$e for the ne": it$elf, and it (a$ (orn over an &nder$hirt of $o'e $ort# Soldier$ do not $ee' to have (orn any for' of additional prote"tion on their lo(er leg$ and feet or on the lo(er ar'$ or hand$# O""a$ionally, $oldier$ are $ho(n (earing a $hort "loa: fa$tened at the $ho&lder and the (ai$t# 2ail ar'or (a$ 'ade and (orn for a very long ti'e# A$ $een in the previo&$ $e"tion, 'ail (a$ :no(n to the 5o'an$ and (ent on to be &$ed into the early 'odern period# >hro&gho&t the (hole period of it$ &$e, 'ail (a$ al(ay$ 'ade in the $a'e (ay, altho&gh there are $o'e $'all variation$ in a"t&al 'an&fa"t&ring detail# It (a$ ba$i"ally for'ed fro' ring$ of iron, ea"h of (hi"h (a$ lin:ed thro&gh fo&r other$ ! t(o above and t(o belo( it ! 'a:ing a pattern of ro($ of ring$, (hi"h fa"ed alternately one (ay and then the other# >he ring$ that 'a:e &p al'o$t all 'ail 'ade in the 7e$t (ere 'an&fa"t&red in one of t(o (ay$# >he fir$t, today "alled riveted, i$ (here the end$ of the ring$ (ere overlapped $lightly and flattened# A hole (a$ then p&n"hed thro&gh the overlapping end$ and a $'all rivet (a$ &$ed to "lo$e it &p# >he $e"ond type of ring (a$ 'ade I$olidJ ! that i$, it (a$ 'ade a$ a "ontin&o&$ ring# A&$t ho( $olid ring$ (ere 'ade i$ $till open to $o'e debate, b&t "ertainly later on they (ere 'ade by (rapping a thin (ire aro&nd a 'andrel t(i"e and then ha''er!(elding the (hole together to for' a $olid ring# It ha$ al$o been $&gge$ted that $olid ring$ "o&ld have been 'ade by p&n"hing and "&tting the' o&t of $olid $heet iron altho&gh there i$ little, if any, eviden"e for thi$ type of 'an&fa"t&re# 7here $olid ring$ (ere &$ed to 'a:e 'ail, they (ere alternated (ith riveted ring$ in a very "hara"teri$ti" fa$hion, one ro( of riveted ring$, the next of $olid, then one of riveted and $o on ! ba$i"ally the riveted ring$ (ere &$ed to fa$ten ro($ of $olid ring$ together# B&tted ring$, (here the end$ of the ring$ (ere not "onne"ted one to another b&t (ere $i'ply b&tted &p "lo$e and not Koined (a$ only &$ed in the Ea$t, in India, the 2iddle Ea$t, and %orth Afri"a, for exa'ple, and probably al$o on $o'e early 5o'an exa'ple$# >he (ire &$ed to 'a:e ring$ varied "on$iderably in it$ "ro$$!$e"tional $hape fro' ro&nd to flat# 5ing$ "o&ld al$o vary in $iFe, altho&gh a gar'ent (a$ nor'ally 'ade fro' ring$ of all the $a'e $iFe,
(/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

fro' K&$t a )&arter of an in"h 60 'illi'eter$8 to aro&nd half an in"h 6-2 'illi'eter$8 or $lightly 'ore, b&t 'o$t (ere in the region of a third to half an in"h 691-0 'illi'eter$8# In nineteenth!"ent&ry analy$i$ of 'edieval 'ail, referen"e$ are fo&nd to a n&'ber of $&ppo$ed different for'$ of 'ail "on$tr&"tion, for exa'ple banded 'ail, "hain 'ail, and do&ble 'ail, b&t it i$ no( "lear that there i$ only one for' ! 'ail, p&re and $i'ple# >o "reate a "o'pleted 'ail gar'ent, the ar'orer added or $&btra"ted ring$ and4or ro($ in a 'anner very "lo$e to :nitting and (a$ able to b&ild &p "o'plex $hape$ and for'$ to fit the tor$o, head, and ar'$# 2ail ar'or (a$ &$&ally (orn over $o'e for' of &nder"lothe$, either nor'al everyday gar'ent$ or $pe"ial, padded "lothe$ that (o&ld have helped to "&$hion heavy blo($ and provide additional prote"tion# A$ a defen$e again$t atta":, it (a$ al(ay$ flexible and ea$y to (ear, yet it (a$, $&rpri$ingly, )&ite heavy ! '&"h of the (eight of a 'ail $hirt (a$ borne by the $ho&lder$# Altho&gh 'ail offered good prote"tion again$t $la$hing and "&tting blo($, it (a$ $o'e(hat le$$ effe"tive again$t atta":$ fro' $harp!pointed (eapon$ $&"h a$ arro(head$# =o(ever, before the advent of plate ar'or, 'ail offered the be$t and 'o$t effe"tive prote"tion fro' the danger$ of (arfare# Altho&gh it i$ "lear that 'o$t ar'or in thi$ period (a$ 'ail, $o'e (a$ li:ely $"ale, altho&gh eviden"e for thi$ i$ li'ited and $o'e(hat "ontradi"tory, and there i$ no agree'ent a'ong 'odern hi$torian$# 7hile a n&'ber of pi"torial repre$entation$ of ar'or appear to portray $"ale ar'or, none ha$ ever been fo&nd in

ar"haeologi"al ex"avation$# =el'et$ >ogether (ith the 'ail $hirt, Carolingian $oldier$, again both 'o&nted and on foot, (ore very open hel'et$# >he$e "on$i$ted of a fairly $hallo( $:&ll that fitted "lo$ely to the head and flared o&t K&$t above the level of ear$ to for' a bri', narro( at the $ide$ b&t 'ore prono&n"ed over the ba": of the head to prote"t the ne":, and (hi"h t&rned $lightly &p(ard at the front in a very "hara"teri$ti" fa$hion# >hey (ere not fitted (ith "hee:!pie"e$ and 'o$t appear to have had a rib or "re$t r&nning fro' front to ba":, altho&gh (hether thi$ (a$ a "on$tr&"tion feat&re or K&$t de"orative i$ not "lear# >hi$ type of hel'et (a$ (orn in the ninth and tenth "ent&rie$ in Carolingian E&rope, b&t in S"andinavia and England the hel'et (a$
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, (+

very different and largely a "ontin&ation of tho$e before thi$ ti'e# A $&perb exa'ple of the type of hel'et in &$e there i$ that fo&nd in Dor: and dating fro' aro&nd /01 / AD, the $o!"alled ICopper!gate hel'et#J It "on$i$t$ of a broad iron band that en"ir"le$ the head at eye level and i$ "&t o&t for the eye$# Another broad iron band i$ $e"&red to thi$ and goe$ over the head fro' front to ba":, al$o extending do(n the front of the fa"e to for' a no$e g&ard, a na$al# A f&rther t(o band$ on either $ide "o'plete a "ro$$!$haped fra'e(or:, the triang&lar $pa"e$ of (hi"h are then filled (ith iron plate$# >o the lo(er edge of the hel'et are atta"hed t(o iron "hee:!pie"e$ by 'ean$ of $i'ple iron hinge$ that have a "opper alloy $trip aro&nd their edge$# A fringe of 'ail prote"t$ the ne": at the rear and i$ atta"hed thro&gh hole$ aro&nd the ba": of the hel'et and to the rear edge of the "hee:!pie"e$# >he 'ail i$ "o'po$ed of both $olid and riveted ring$# A de"orative "opper alloy $trip aro&nd the top$ of the eye$, rather re$e'bling eyebro($, "ontin&e$ do(n over the no$e g&ard# >(o de"orative "opper!alloy $trip$ r&n over the $:&ll, one fro' front to ba":, the other fro' $ide to $ide# >he lo(er edge of the $:&ll i$ al$o bo&nd (ith a "opper alloy $trip# In$"ription$ on thi$ very obvio&$ly high!$tat&$ hel'et $ay that it (a$ 'ade for an other(i$e &n:no(n (arrior na'ed O$here# It i$ al$o note(orthy that the Cop!pergate hel'et in"orporate$ Chri$tian in$"ription$ and de"oration in pla"e of the 'ore pagan boarG$ head of earlier hel'et$# It i$ not "lear K&$t ho( long thi$ type of hel'et (ith it$ "lo$e!fitting $:&ll, no$e!pie"e, and "hee:!pie"e$, "ontin&ed in &$e, altho&gh 'any of it$ feat&re$ "an be fo&nd on hel'et$ for the next three "ent&rie$# >he 'ethod of 'an&fa"t&re, often al$o "alled $pangenhel', (ith it$ iron fra'e(or: and triang&lar panel$ and na$al "an be fo&nd in hel'et$ fro' the eleventh "ent&ry# =or$e$, =or$e Ar'or, and Stirr&p$ Cavalry ta"ti"$ and n&'ber$ in Carolingian ar'ie$ are $till $o'e(hat &n"lear# It i$ "lear that there (a$ al(ay$ an elite gro&p of "avalry that fo&ght on hor$eba":# =o(ever, 'odern e$ti'ate$ of the $iFe and "o'po$ition of Carolingian ar'ie$ vary "on$iderably, altho&gh hi$torian$ agree that infantry al(ay$ o&tn&'bered the "avalry# Still, there i$ little do&bt that "avalry n&'ber$ had in"rea$ed $in"e earlier ti'e$ and that the$e needed to be provided (ith hor$e$# >o fill the$e need$, "onte'porary $o&r"e$ "lai' that $t&d far'$ (ere highly organiFed and (ell f&nded# It i$ "lear al$o that thi$ period $a(
() MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

"on$iderable i'prove'ent$ in hor$e $to":# Stronger and $t&rdier hor$e$ (ere bred, 'ore able to "arry ar'ored "avalry, and in ever!in"rea$ing )&antity# Carolingian (arhor$e$ did not (ear any for' of ar'or and (ere not prote"ted in any (ay# Saddle$ (ere )&ite $'all and had lo( "an!tle$ at the front# %ailed hor$e$hoe$ (ere introd&"ed in the late ninth "ent&ry, altho&gh they did not have any great effe"t on the "avalry ta"ti"$ ! they (ere probably 'o$t &$ef&l in the (etter "li'ate of northern E&rope (here they "o&ld better prote"t hor$e$G hoove$# A$ already 'entioned, thi$ period $a( the introd&"tion of the &$e of $tirr&p$# =o(ever, it i$ "lear that they (ere not adopted (idely nor )&i":ly ! it too: ti'e for the' to be a""epted ! there are )&ite late referen"e$ to the yo&ng leaping into the $addle (hile older $oldier$ &$ed a 'o&nting blo":# A$ i$ the "a$e right thro&gh to the late 'edieval period, $tirr&p$ (ere (orn very long, (ith rider$G leg$ either $traight or very $lightly bent at the :nee, &nli:e the 'odern fa$hion of (earing $hort $tirr&p$ (ith a bent :nee# Shield$ 2o$t Carolingian $oldier$, even in the lo(e$t ran:, "arried a "on"ave, "ir"&lar $hield for prote"tion# >he$e (ere, in the 'ain, )&ite large, &p to abo&t ;2 in"he$ 690 "enti'eter$8 in dia'eter, and 'ade fro' (ood probably "overed in leather# An iron bo$$ reinfor"ing the "enter of the $hield prote"ted the hand holding the

$hield (hile an additional $trap allo(ed it to be $l&ng over the $ho&lder (hen not in &$e# Be( other detail$ abo&t Carolingian $hield$ "an be deter'ined fro' the $"ar"e, $olely pi"torial eviden"e# Spear$ and Lan"e$ >he 'o$t "o''on (eapon &$ed by al'o$t all Carolingian $oldier$ (a$ the $pear# >he$e ranged fro' perhap$ eight or nine to perhap$ a$ 'any a$ thirteen feet 62 -42 or ; to < 'eter$8 long (ith a long head# >hey al$o had a $lender tapered for' (ith t(o "ro$$!(ing proKe"tion$ at the ba$e# >he$e proKe"tion$ are generally $&gge$ted to have prevented the blade fro' penetrating too deeply, b&t thi$ 'ay not be the "a$e# An alternative po$$ible explanation i$ that they enabled the &$e of the $pear a$ both a thr&$ting and a parrying (eapon, a:in to the later pollaxe 6$ee Chapter <8, a vie( $&pported al$o by the
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, ((

appearan"e on $o'e of langet$, iron exten$ion$ fro' the head r&nning $o'e (ay do(n the haft# >he$e provided reinfor"e'ent to the $haft and prote"ted it fro' $ide(ay$ blo($ fro' an atta":er# A&$t ho( the$e (eapon$, the lan"e and $pear, (ere &$ed i$ a diffi"&lt )&e$tion to an$(er for '&"h of the 'edieval period a$ the eviden"e i$ very li'ited ! 'o$tly to pi"torial repre$entation$# 7hile in $o'e of the$e it i$ "lear (hat i$ going on ! for exa'ple (here the ill&$tration $ho($ the a"t&al 'o'ent of atta": ! in 'any it i$ i'po$$ible to be $&re K&$t ho( they are being &$ed ! are the$e (eapon$ K&$t being "arried, are they abo&t to be thro(n, or are they being &$ed a$ a thr&$ting (eaponM >he an$(er i$ probably that thi$ type of (eapon (a$ &$ed in 'any different (ay$, depending on the o""a$ion, the threat, and the ene'y en"o&ntered ! and there i$ eviden"e for all the (ay$ that they "o&ld be &$ed# 7hat i$ i'po$$ible to :no( i$ (hether there (ere $pe"ifi" $trategie$ that (ere &$ed and pra"!ti"ed ! for exa'ple, (a$ there an initial "harge by 'o&nted troop$ &$ing lan"e$M >he lan"e and $pear (ere &$ed exten$ively thro&gho&t 7e$tern E&rope d&ring thi$ period (ith 'inor regional variation$ in $hape and for', altho&gh all "on$i$ted of a long do&ble!edged blade 'o&nted on a (ooden $haft# S(ord$ Al'o$t all Carolingian $oldier$ (o&ld al$o have "arried a $(ord# >he (eapon i$ e$pe"ially pro'inent in Charle'agneG$ 'any "apit&larie$ that refer to (eaponry, e$pe"ially for the "avalry# 7hen a (arhor$e (a$ o(ned $o too $ho&ld a $(ord# >h&$ it i$ not $&rpri$ing that in ill&$tration$ and ex"avation$ the n&'ber$ of the$e (eapon$ have in"rea$ed rather dra'ati"ally# %or $ho&ld it be $&rpri$ing that the $(ord began to gain a rep&tation a$ the (eapon of honor for the noble and (ealthy $oldier# In the early Carolingian period it appear$ that $(ord$ the'$elve$ (ere not $&b$tantially different than previo&$ Bran:i$h exa'ple$# Both the long$(ord and the $ax (ere "arried, a$ atte$ted to by both literary and ar"haeologi"al $o&r"e$, and both 'ea$&red and (ere 'ade the $a'e a$ the earlier (eapon$# =o(ever, by the end of the eighth "ent&ry the $eax began to di$appear and the long$(ord began to "hange both in $hape and 'an&fa"t&re# >he long$(ord blade (a$ &$&ally of $i'ple broad $hape and "o&ld be $ingle! or do&ble!edged (ith a ro&nded point 'ade for
(MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

$la$hing and "&tting rather than thr&$ting# >he hilt (a$ &$&ally o&tfitted (ith only a $i'ple $traight "ro$$ g&ard and po''el# Of parti"&lar intere$t in thi$ period (a$ the 'an&fa"t&re of (hat are :no(n today a$ pattern"welded swords. >hey (ere 'ade by b&ilding &p the blade of a (eapon fro' 'any $'aller pie"e$ of iron, either fro' the $a'e $o&r"e or el$e very $lightly different in "o'po$ition, the latter "ontaining $lightly 'ore pho$phoro&$ than the for'er, for exa'ple# >he$e pie"e$ of iron (ere then (elded together, t(i$ted and (or:ed in $&"h a (ay that the re$&ltant $&rfa"e of the blade exhibited a di$"ernible and vi$ible pattern a:in to (ave$ or ripple$ or $o'e(hat li:e (oven pattern$, e$pe"ially herringbone (or:# >o the "entral "ore of thi$ pattern!(elded 'aterial a $teel edge "o&ld be (elded on, prod&"ing a very high!)&ality $(ord# >he rea$on blade$ (ere 'ade thi$ (ay, re)&iring a$ it did a great deal of ti'e and enor'o&$ $:ill, i$ not :no(n for "ertain# It ha$ generally been tho&ght that the &$e of $eparate pie"e$ of iron t(i$ted and (elded together i'proved the blade by "o'bining their hardne$$ and to&ghne$$# Det it i$ al$o po$$ible that they (ere 'ade in thi$ 'anner be"a&$e it (a$ diffi"&lt to obtain large eno&gh bloo'$ of 'aterial to 'a:e entire blade$ for the in"rea$ed n&'ber of $(ord$ the larger ar'ie$ of that period re)&ired# 7hat i$ :no(n for "ertain i$ that $(ord$ (ere extre'ely expen$ive to 'a:e, (hether pattern!(elded or not# >hi$ i$ &ndo&btedly (hy the (eapon be"a'e a po(erf&l and vital $y'bol ! of 'anhood, of valor, of a&thority, of honor ! that fo&nd it$ (ay into the "onte'porary literat&re and "&lt&re# An exa'ple of thi$ "an be fo&nd in the Anglo!Saxon poet, Cyne(&lfG$, de$"ription of the fiery $(ord (hi"h g&arded Eden3 I>he

hard!edged blade (ith it$ (oven pattern$ )&iver$ and tre'ble$H gra$ped (ith terrible $&rene$$, it fla$he$ into "hanging h&e$J 6=ilda Elli$ David$on, T%e Sword in Anglo"Sa.on ,ngland- Its Arc%aeolog# and /iterature R7oodbridge, ?,3 >he Boy!dell *re$$, -..<S, -2;8# It (a$ "o''on for $(ord$ of thi$ period to bear an in$"ription of $o'e $ort, often on the blade it$elf, altho&gh the "ro$$ g&ard (a$ al$o $o'eti'e$ 'ar:ed# In$"ription$ on the blade (ere "o''only 'ade by "&tting a groove into the blade and inlaying it (ith $ilver# Altho&gh a very 'any re'ain inde"ipherable to &$ today, in$"ription$ "o&ld be either Chri$tian $y'bol$ or the na'e of the o(ner or 'a:er# Bor exa'ple, the in$"ription$ I%CEL5II and ?LBBE5=> are both :no(n fro' $everal $(ord$ and probably refer to the $'ith or (or:$hop (here they (ere 'ade#
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, (.

Dagger$ So'e hi$torian$ have $&gge$ted that the $eax 6$"ra'a$ax8 did not entirely di$appear at the end of the eighth "ent&ry, b&t rather be"a'e a $&pple'entary (eapon to be "arried in addition to the $pear and $(ord3 the dagger# D&ring the Carolingian period, it $ee'$ that 'any (arrior$ began to "arry dagger$# =o(ever, again the eviden"e for their &$e i$ $"ar"e and it i$ not al(ay$ "lear (hether they (ere $&b$idiary (eapon$ to the $pear and $(ord or not# Axe$ Axe$ "ontin&ed to be (idely &$ed thro&gho&t E&rope at thi$ ti'e# Indeed, in S"andinavia and England they (ere al'o$t a$ pop&lar and IhonorableJ a$ the $(ord# In the Carolingian E'pire axe$ did not have the $a'e appeal or "arry the $a'e $y'boli$', b&t they (ere $till &$ed# A$ earlier, they "o&ld be either $'all and &$ed (ith only one hand or relatively large and (ielded (ith t(o hand$# O""a$ionally in "onte'porary ill&$tration$ a do&ble!headed axe i$ al$o depi"ted, (ith a $i'ilar!$iFed head on either $ide of a "entral $o":et, altho&gh the$e are rare# Axe$ (ere &$ed pri'arily by foot $oldier$, altho&gh one!hand axe$ "o&ld al$o be effe"tive (eapon$ fro' hor$eba":# +ery high!$tat&$ axe$ (ere often de"orated (ith inlay$ of $ilver# Sling$ >he $ling (a$ $ee'ingly &$ed thro&gho&t thi$ period ! an ill&$tration fro' the ninth "ent&ry $ho($ one being &$ed in h&nting, and it (o&ld appear that they (ere &$ed in (arfare a$ (ell# ?nfort&nately, their &$e by lo(er!$tat&$ $oldier$ only ! and their $tring or "ord "on$tr&"tion ! 'ean$ they are rarely, if ever, 'entioned in the $o&r"e$ and do not $&rvive, or are rarely identified, in ar"haeologi"al "ontext$# Bo($ >he eviden"e for the &$e of bo($ in the eighth to eleventh "ent&rie$ i$ $o'e(hat $"ar"e and not al(ay$ ea$y to interpret# By the
-, MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

ti'e of Charle'agne and the e$tabli$h'ent of the Carolingian E'pire (ith it$ profe$$ional ar'y, the bo( ret&rned to favor, and (ith an i'portan"e not previo&$ly $een a'ong the Bran:$# >hi$ 'ay have been the re$&lt of Charle'agneG$ (ar$ again$t the Avar$ and Slav$, tribe$ that had "ontin&ed to &$e the bo( $in"e an"ient ti'e$# >heir profi"ien"y in the (eapon, altho&gh not de"i$ive, 'ay have in$pired the Carolingian$ to adopt it# In the 902190; Capit&lary of Aa"hen, Charle'agne ordered that the bo( $ho&ld be"o'e the ar'yG$ "hief infantry (eapon# Infantry $oldier$ (ere ordered to "arry it, a $pare $tring, and t(elve arro($, pre$&'ably the "ontent$ of one )&iver# =e follo(ed thi$ in 900 (ith a de"ree de'anding that ea"h hor$e'an $ho&ld al$o be e)&ipped (ith a bo( a$ (ell a$ $everal )&iver$ of arro($# Both de"ree$ (ere f&rther "onfir'ed in 9--# Altho&gh the earlier Bran:$ had &$ed the longbo(, perhap$ a$ long a$ 0 -42 feet 62 'eter$8, the bo($ adopted fro' the Avar$ and Slav$ (ere li:ely the re"&rved bo(# 7hether the t(o (ere &$ed $ide by $ide or (hether the re"&rved bo( $&pplanted the earlier type i$ &n"lear# An ill&$tration fro' the late ninth "ent&ry $ee'$ to $ho( a hor$e'an $hooting a re"&rved bo(, for exa'ple, b&t other $o&r"e$ "onfir'ing thi$ are very li'ited# >he arro( (a$ probably abo&t ; feet 6.0 "enti'eter$8 long and there i$ $o'e eviden"e that earlier Car! olingian arro(head$ (ere $i'ple b&t "hanged to a barbed type in the tenth "ent&ry# Bo($ (ere "learly &$ed o&t$ide the Carolingian area$ of E&rope, b&t the available eviden"e i$ too $light for &$ to be $&re K&$t (hat type the$e (ere# =o(ever, it $ee'$ "ertain that they (ere the ordinary longbo( and not the re"&rved type# Siege 7eapon$ Eviden"e for the &$e of $iege e)&ip'ent i$, li:e '&"h in thi$ period, diffi"&lt to interpret# Certainly battering ra'$ and $"aling ladder$ (ere &$ed# B&t (hether Carolingian ar'ie$ po$$e$$ed other for'$ of $iege engine$

i$ not entirely "lear# Det, it (o&ld appear that $o'e for' of large thro(ing 'a"hine (a$ &$ed in the defen$e of *ari$ again$t the +i:ing$ in 99/1990# A""ording to the poe' *e )ello (arisiaco 6>he Atta": on *ari$8, by Abbo of Saint!Cer'ain!de$!*rN$, the defending Bran:$ deployed a type of defen$ive apparat&$ :no(n a$ a 'angan&' or 'angonel, the 'e"hani"$ of (hi"h $ee' to have been $i'ilar to the tra"tion treb&"het !
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, -0

a rotating bea' engine thro(ing h&ge $tone$ again$t the oppo$ing +i:ing$3 >he Bran:$ prepared $o'e heavy pie"e$ of (ood ea"h (ith an iron tooth at the end, $o a$ to da'age the Dani$h 'a"hine$ 'ore )&i":ly# 7ith "o&pled bea'$ of the $a'e length they b&ilt (hat are "o''only "alled mangonels 'a"hine$ for thro(ing va$t $tone$, (hi"h "o&ld bla$t the lo(ly ra"e of barbarian$ often blo(ing o&t their brain$, "r&$hing "ro(d$ of the' and their $hield$# %ot one $hield that (a$ hit did not brea:H not one &nfort&nate (ho (a$ hit did not die 6David =ill, ISiege!"raft fro' the Sixth to the >enth Cent&ry,J in Aspects of t%e :*e re)us )ellicis;- (apers (resented to (rofessor ,.A. T%ompson ed# 2# 7# C# =a$$al, --;1--/ ROxford3 Briti$h Ar"haeologi"al 5eport$, -. .S8# ?nfort&nately thi$ i$ the only $o&r"e that 'ention$ any for' of thro(ing 'a"hine &ntil the t(elfth "ent&ry# Cree: Bire Bire ha$ al(ay$ been a 'aKor "o'ponent in (arfare $in"e the very earlie$t ti'e$# 7hen 'o$t thing$ (ere 'ade fro' nat&ral fla''able 'aterial$, fire (a$ a very potent (eapon ! tor"he$ 'ade fro' $ti":$ or t(ig$ or b&rning b&ndle$ of (ood, for exa'ple# =o(ever, the &$e of fire too: a leap for(ard in the early eighth "ent&ry (ith the invention of Cree: fire ! an enig'ati" 'aterial, the di$"overy of (hi"h ha$ al(ay$ been attrib&ted to a Cree: na'ed ,alini:o$# Cree: fire i$ no( $&gge$ted to have been a lo(!boiling!point di$tillate of a nat&ral depo$it $i'ilar to 'odern ga$oline, altho&gh it$ exa"t "o'po$ition i$ ob$"&re# >he ByFantine$, (ho (ere the early &$er$ of the (eapon, for"ed the fl&id &nder pre$$&re o&t of a $i'ple p&'p devi"e over an open fla'e igniting it ! rather li:e a 'odern fla'ethro(er# >ho&ght to have been &$ed on board $hip$ a$ a 'ean$ to fight other $hip$, there i$ a"t&ally little :no(n abo&t Cree: fire# So'e hi$torian$ have $&gge$ted that it (a$ :ept a$ a 'ilitary $e"ret and that thi$ (o&ld explain it$ relative rarity and ob$"&rity, b&t $&"h an arg&'ent i$ hard to $&$tain# Other rea$on$ for it$ ob$"&rity 'ay have been the diffi"&lty of prod&"tion and $"ar"ity of $&pply or the proble'$ of it$ &$e ! one (a$ a$ li:ely to "a&$e da'age to one$elf a$ to the ene'y# =o(ever, Cree: fire doe$ $ee' to have been a real $&b$tan"e and to have been &$ed in the (arfare of the period, altho&gh to a very li'ited extent#
-1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

>=E E%E2D3 >=E +I,I%CS

%o do&bt the $ingle greate$t threat to E&rope fro' /0 to -0/0, if not for the entire 2iddle Age$, (a$ the +i:ing$# Det, it i$ one of the real 'y$terie$ of hi$tory a$ to (hy +i:ing raider$ $&ddenly b&r$t o&t of S"andinavia in the late eighth "ent&ry, altho&gh the de$tr&"tion of the Bri$ian fleet by Charle'agne at abo&t the $a'e ti'e "ertainly left no effe"tive deterrent to their $ea travel and 'ay have been a fa"tor in la&n"hing their inva$ion$# Still, it i$ hard to believe thi$ alone "an explain the large n&'ber of voyage$ that (ere la&n"hed fro' S(eden, %or(ay, and Den'ar: bet(een 9. and -000 and extended along al'o$t all of the "oa$t$ of "ontinental E&rope, England, Ireland, the Balti" land$, ea$t to 5&$$ia, $o&th to Italy, %orth Afri"a, and ByFanti&', and (e$t to the Baroe and Shetland i$land$, I"eland, Creenland, and %orth A'eri"a# >he fir$t referen"e to any atta": of the +i:ing$ (a$ that 'ade in 9. on the $o&thea$tern "oa$t of England, altho&gh little $ee'$ to have been gained fro' thi$ raid# Bo&r year$ later, ho(ever, +i:ing $hip$ again appeared off the "oa$t of northea$tern England, and thi$ ti'e there (a$ no )&e$tion a$ to the profit of their violen"e# >he Anglo"Sa.on C%ronicle re"ord$ their atta": on the pre$tigio&$ and (ealthy Lindi$farne 'ona$tery3 .;# =ere, terrible portent$ (ere "o'e over the %orth&'brian land, (hi"h 'i$erably frightened the peopleH there (ere h&ge fla$he$ of lightning, and fiery dragon$ (ere $een flying in the air# 2&"h h&nger $oon follo(ed the$e $ign$, and a little after that in the $a'e year, on Aan&ary 9, the raiding of heathen 'en 'i$erably de$troyed CodG$ "h&r"h on Lindi$farne I$land by looting and the :illing of 'en 6 Anglo"Sa.on C%ronicle vol# I3//1/ Ra&thor$G tran$lationS8# I''ediately, it $ee'$, ne($ $pread thro&gho&t S"andinavia of the enor'o&$ a'o&nt$ of ri"h booty that "o&ld be a")&ired (ith relatively little effort by raiding land$ ea$ily rea"hed by $hip# Soon +i:ing$ (ere along the $hore$ of England, Ireland, and northern E&rope, "arried there in dragon!pro(ed $hip$, "ontent to fea$t on &ndefended 'ona$ti" and $'all &rban target$# >he$e fairly ri"h lo"ation$ (aited, it '&$t have $ee'ed to the$e +i:ing$, for $o'eone to raid the'# And the fa"t that they (ere filled (ith &nar'ed e""le$ia$ti"$ and far'er$ added to the all&re for the$e raider$ (ho then ret&rned to their ho'e$ (ith large

a'o&nt$ of pl&nder and booty# %o do&bt thi$ gave rea$on to their Ko&rney$ a(ay fro' fa'ilie$ and
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, -'

field$, (hile at the $a'e ti'e in$piring ne( +i:ing raiding voyage$# Event&ally, the S"andinavian$ even (intered in England, Ireland, Bran"e, and the Lo( Co&ntrie$, e$tabli$hing ba$e "a'p$ fro' (hi"h they p&$hed their raid$ f&rther and f&rther inland than ever before# Bor the fir$t fifty year$, Ireland, S"otland, and northern England provided the ri"he$t obKe"tive$# Atta":ing land$ filled (ith 'ona$terie$ and (itho&t 'any fortifi"ation$ or 'ilitia$ 'eant that there (a$ little oppo$ition to the$e violent raid$# =o(ever, by aro&nd 9;< the an"ient Iri$h "iviliFation had been virt&ally de$troyed and the "o&ntry$ide$ of S"otland, northern England, and Ireland (ere al'o$t "o'pletely devoid of 'ona$terie$ that had not been atta":ed by +i:ing$# >hey (ere for"ed to t&rn to "ontinental E&rope for their booty# Of "o&r$e, tho$e land$ (ere al'o$t "on$tantly e'broiled in fraternal "ivil (ar$, (hi"h left fe( troop$ to $top the$e atta":$# >here the +i:ing$ al$o fo&nd larger and ri"her target$# By 9<0, the +i:ing$ had raided the Lo( Co&ntrie$ to(n$ of %oir'o&tier, 5hN, D&&r$t!ede ! (hi"h (a$ event&ally $a":ed no fe(er than fo&r ti'e$ ! ?tre"ht, and Ant(erp# In 9<;, they (intered for the fir$t ti'e in Bran"ia, "apt&ring %ante$, ravaging the valley$ of the river$ Loire and Caronne, $ailing $o&th to the 2editerranean, and even, on their (ay ho'e to S"andinavia, threatening the 2&$li' "itie$ of Li$bon and CadiF# And, in 9</, a +i:ing for"e of 'ore than -20 $hip$ $ailed &p the 5iver Seine and $a":ed *ari$# >he n&'ber of river$ on the E&ropean "ontinent provided the +i:ing$ (ith the 'ean$ to rea"h a large n&'ber of inland $ite$, and d&ring the la$t half of the ninth "ent&ry, they raided &p the river$ 5hine, 2e&$e, S"heldt, So''e, Seine, 2arne, Loire, Charente, Dordogne, Lot, and Caronne# %o to(n, village, or 'ona$tery of any $iFe any(here "lo$e to a (ater(ay (a$ i''&ne fro' atta":# %or did it $ee' that there (a$ any "oa$tal E&ropean $ite too di$tant fro' S"andinavia to :eep the +i:ing$ a(ay, for a$ the "ent&ry progre$$ed they be"a'e in"rea$ingly bolder and 'ore advent&ro&$# One expedition, fro' 9/. to 902, $ailed $o far that the +i:ing$ pa$$ed thro&gh the Strait of Cibraltar (here they raided %e:&r in 2oro""o, the 2&r"ian "oa$t of Spain, the Baleari" I$land$, and 5o&$illon on the "oa$t of Bran"e# After (intering on the 5hone delta, the$e hearty (arrior$ raided &priver to +alen"e, and then t&rned to Italy, $a":ing *i$a and then L&na 6(hi"h the +i:ing$ apparently (ere led to believe (a$ 5o'e8, before $ailing ba": pa$t Cibraltar and north to their ba$e in Brittany# +i:ing r&ni" graffiti, extolling their virt&e$, attrib&te$, and pre$en"e, "an al$o be fo&nd on the $"&lpted lion$ at
-/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

St# 2ar:G$ Ba$ili"a in +eni"e and "arved into the floor of the =agia Sophia in I$tanb&l# In 900, a large for"e 'ade &p largely of Dani$h +i:ing$, (hat "onte'porarie$ "alled the ICreat Ar'y,J atta":ed England# >hey 'et little re$i$tan"e &ntil 9 (hen the :ing of the 7e$$ex, Alfred the Creat, effe"tively halted a "on)&e$t of England by driving the' o&t of Exeter# Over the next fe( year$ there follo(ed three battle$ bet(een AlfredG$ troop$ and the Creat Ar'y, at Englefield, A$hdo(n, and, finally, Edington, all of (hi"h (ere (on by the Anglo!Saxon$# Alfred the Creat al$o devi$ed a $y$te' of fortifi"ation$, earth!and!(ood ra'part$, :no(n a$ b&rh$, (hi"h $&rro&nded 'any larger and previo&$ly &nfortified to(n$ in hi$ :ingdo'# All of thi$ led to pea"e treatie$ being $igned, a (ithdra(al of the +i:ing$ to the north and ea$t ! into an area "alled the Danela( ! and AlfredG$ a$$&'ption of the :ing$hip over the (hole of England# 7hether it (a$ be"a&$e of thi$ $etba": in England or the in"rea$ed (ea:ne$$ of the Carolingian r&ler$ after the death$ of :ing$ Lo&i$ the Cer'an and Charle$ the Bald, +i:ing a"tivity in"rea$ed on the "ontinent at the end of the 9 0$# In 9 . +i:ing raider$ atta":ed ChentH in 990 Co&rtrai and $everal $ite$ in SaxonyH in 99El$loo and Aa"hen, (here they even $a":ed Charle'agneG$ pala"eH in 992 CondNH in 99; A'ien$H and in 99< Lo&vain# In 99/1990 a large +i:ing ar'y again atta":ed *ari$ (ith a for"e $aid by "onte'porary "hroni"ler$ to have n&'bered 00 $hip$ and <0,000 'en ! &ndo&btedly an exaggeration# =o(ever, the +i:ing$ did not $a": the "ity, b&t (ere bo&ght off by ,ing Charle$ the Bat (ho paid the' 00 po&nd$ of $ilver and gave the' per'i$$ion to $pend the $&''er raiding B&rg&ndy, a land over (hi"h he had no po(er# In 9.- the +i:ing$ ret&rned to the Lo( Co&ntrie$, (here they (ere defeated by Arn&lf, the :ing of the Ea$t Bran:$, at the battle of the Dyle# Another gro&p, led by 5ollo, (a$ $till po(erf&l eno&gh to e$tabli$h a di$tri"t in the lo(er 5iver Seine ba$in, (hi"h in .-- (a$ offi"ially given to the' by the :ing of Bran"e a$ the d&"hy of the %orth'en 6%or'andy8# After .--, +i:ing a"tivity appear$ to have $lo(ed# ColoniFation in the "on)&ered territorie$, $&"h a$ that (hi"h had o""&rred in Aorvi: after 900, had been ta:ing pla"e for $o'e ti'e d&ring the raid$# And by the beginning of the tenth "ent&ry, S"andinavian$ had fo&nded "o''&nitie$ in Ireland, S"otland, England, 5&$$ia, %or'andy, the Baroe I$land$, the Shetland I$land$, I"eland, and, later, in Creenland and in %orth

A'eri"a# >rading (ith the$e "o''&nitie$ and other, non!+i:ing $ettle'ent$, (a$ pra"ti"ed 'ore often than raid!
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, -+

ing, e$pe"ially (ith the di$"overy of "heap I$la'i" $ilver (hi"h (a$ e$pe"ially priFed in S"andinavia and bro&ght enor'o&$ profit$# =o(ever, at the end of the tenth "ent&ry, perhap$ be"a&$e of a de"line in the I$la'i" $ilver 'ar:et, +i:ing$ on"e again $tarted their raiding, e$pe"ially in England# Bro' ..- on a $&""e$$ion of S"andinavian leader$, 'o$tly Dane$, atta":ed England, and in -0-< one of the', Svein Bor:beard, "on)&ered it and r&led for a $hort ti'e a$ :ing, being $&""eeded at hi$ death in -0-0 by hi$ $on, Cn&t# B&t after t(o of Cn&tG$ $on$, =arold I and =artha"n&t, died )&i":ly (itho&t having prod&"ed their o(n heir$, an Anglo!Saxon :ing, Ed(ard the Confe$$or, regained the throne in -0<2# It (a$ not &ntil later inva$ion$, led by %or(egian :ing$ =arald =ardrada in -000, and Olaf III in -09/, (ere t&rned ba": in England that the +i:ing threat to E&rope finally $topped# By the ti'e their raid$ had ended, +i:ing$ had been atta":ing E&rope for al'o$t three "ent&rie$# So, (hy did the$e raid$ "o'e to an endM Bir$t, there (a$ &ndo&btedly an attrition fa"tor# >he +i:ing$ $i'ply "o&ld not "ontin&e to parti"ipate in raid$ on E&rope for '&"h longer than they did a$ the n&'ber of viable target$ $ee'$ to have d(indled "on$iderably by the later raid$# Se"ond, "oloniFation "ertainly played a role in di'ini$hing and finally ending the inva$ion$# A$ +i:ing$ began to $ettle in land$ they had previo&$ly atta":ed, the$e land$ no longer be"a'e $&itable for f&rther raid$# >hat i$ not to $ay that the S"andinavian pre$en"e in the land$ ne"e$$arily forbade f&t&re raid$# Indeed, +i:ing$ (ho parti"ipated in the$e 'ilitary a"tivitie$ never (ere a &nified politi"al or 'ilitary entity, and they $ee' to have "ared little (hether they (ere raiding land$ held by S"andinavian "oloni$t$ or by native$# =o(ever, the +i:ing$ (ho had $ettled on the$e land$ proved to be 'ore for'idable opponent$ than other inhabitant$# >hi$ i$ "learly (hy Charle$ the Si'ple $ettled +i:ing$ in %or'andy, to provide a b&ffer again$t f&rther raid$# So'eti'e$ other $trong 'ilitary leader$ (ere fo&nd to f&lfill the $a'e p&rpo$e# >hi$ appear$ to have been the $it&ation behind the na'ing of Bald(in the Iron Ar' a$ Co&nt of Blander$ and 5einer (ith the Long %e": a$ D&:e of Brabant in the ninth "ent&ry# After their a$"en$ion, neither area (a$ threatened '&"h 'ore by raider$# A third rea$on for the ending of the +i:ing raid$ (a$ that $everal for'er raider$ $ee'ed to have fo&nd it $afer and 'ore profitable to be"o'e trader$ and 'er"hant$, or to find other o""&pation$# Sailor$ of $:ill (ere al(ay$ needed, a$ (ere $oldier$, and S"andinavian$ (ere $oon (el"o'e thro&gho&t E&rope and the 2iddle Ea$t for their experti$e on the $ea and in (ar# >he ByFantine e'peror$, for
-) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

exa'ple, e'ployed a large n&'ber of +i:ing$ in their $pe"ial bodyg&ard &nit, the +arangian C&ard# Bo&rth, by the end of the ninth and beginning of the tenth "ent&rie$ 'o$t S"andinavian$ had beg&n to "onvert to Chri$tianity# 7ith the$e "onver$ion$ the de$ire to raid 'ona$terie$ and other Chri$tian $ite$ obvio&$ly le$$ened# Binally, by the eleventh "ent&ry, the loo$e "onfederation$ of +i:ing $oldier$ (ho had gone on previo&$ raid$ began to e$tabli$h $tate$ in their ho'eland$# %or(ay, S(eden, and Den'ar: all had :ing$ by thi$ ti'e, and the$e politi"al leader$ fre)&ently needed (hatever $oldier$ they "o&ld find ! in"l&ding all (ho (ent on raid$ d&ring the previo&$ t(o "ent&rie$ ! to fight in their (ar$ and again$t their rebellion$# All of the eleventh! "ent&ry inva$ion$ of England by the +i:ing$ (ere a"t&ally atte'pted "on)&e$t$ by Dani$h and %or(egian :ing$3 tho$e of Svein Bor:beard and Cn&t (ere $&""e$$f&lH tho$e of =arald =ardrada and Olaf III (ere not# >hi$ i$ ho( >horolf (a$ e)&ipped3 he had a broad, thi": $hield, a to&gh hel'et on hi$ head, and a $(ord "alled /ong abo&t hi$ (ai$t, a big, fine (eapon# >he thr&$ting!$pear he "arried had a blade t(o ell$ long (ith fo&r edge$ tapering to a point at one end, broad at the other# >he $o":et (a$ long and (ide, the $haft no taller than 'ight be gra$ped at the $o":et by the hand, b&t (onderf&lly thi":# An iron $pi:e (a$ in the $o":et and the (hole of the $haft (a$ bo&nd (ith iron# It (a$ the :ind of $pear that i$ "alled a halberd# Egil had the $a'e :ind of o&tfit# At hi$ (ai$t (a$ a $(ord "alled Adder ta:en in Co&rland, the very fine$t of (eapon$# %either of the brother$ (ore a "oat of 'ail 6,gil2s Saga tran$# =er'ann *Ul$!$on and *a&l Ed(ard$ R=ar'ond$(orth, ?,3 *eng&in Boo:$, -. 0S, -2;8# >hi$ de$"ription of t(o +i:ing (arrior!brother$ i$ ta:en fro' ,gil2s Saga and altho&gh (ritten after the +i:ing age, i$ $till a ni"e $&''ary of the ar'$ and ar'or "arried and (orn# >he Ibroad, thi": $hieldJ "arried by >horolf and Egil, a$ thro&gho&t the re$t of E&rope, (a$ 'ade of (ood, probably "overed in leather# It (o&ld al$o have had an iron bo$$ and probably an iron ri', (ith po$$ible de"oration$ on the bo$$ and $hield that depi"ted ani'al$ and fa&na# A$ it$ pri'ary po$ition in the ,gil2s

SagaG$ li$t of ar'$ and ar'or i'plie$, the $hield (a$ the 'o$t "o''on defen$e &$ed by +i:ing$, both be"a&$e of it$ relatively lo( "o$t and, (hen (ielded (ell, it$ ability to prote"t a large a'o&nt of the &$erG$ body#
THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, -(

>he 'aterial and $tyle of >horolfG$ hel'et i$ not 'entioned, only that it (a$ Ito&gh#J >hi$ 'a:e$ an intere$ting point abo&t the per"eption of +i:ing ar'$ and ar'or# 2ore i'portant to the ob$erver 6and obvio&$ly to the &$er a$ (ell8, (a$ the pie"eG$ &tility# >horolfG$ hel'et i$ Ito&gh,J 'eaning no do&bt that it (o&ld prote"t hi$ head $ho&ld any blo($ be dire"ted to(ard it# Altho&gh ar"haeologi"al eviden"e $&gge$t$ that +i:ing hel'et$ (ere 'ade of iron, there i$ no rea$on to believe that they "o&ld not al$o have been 'ade of thi": leather ! both of (hi"h (o&ld have prod&"ed a Ito&ghJ hel'et# >he "on$tr&"tion of the$e hel'et$ (ere li:ely $i'ilar to the ICoppergate hel'etJ de$"ribed above# >horolfG$ $(ord i$ na'ed /ong and EgilG$ i$ Adder. >he fa"t that they are na'ed indi"ate$ their i'portan"e to a +i:ing (arrior ! in a (ay that 5olandG$ *urendal and Arth&rG$ ,.cali)ur indi"ate their val&e# Later in the 2iddle Age$, the na'ing of $(ord$ fell o&t of pra"ti"e, b&t d&ring thi$ period it (a$ "o''on# S&"h 'ight al$o indi"ate a $(ordG$ $"ar"ity# >he$e (eapon$ (ere very expen$ive, priFed po$$e$$ion$ to tho$e (ho "arried the', (ith the be$t 'ade by $(ord!$'ith$ of great and far!rea"hing reno(n# >he origin of >horolfG$ $(ord i$ not 'entioned, b&t EgilG$ (a$ Ita:en in Co&rland,J leaving the i'pre$$ion that $(ord$ "o&ld be I(onJ and not K&$t p&r"ha$ed# %o do&bt i'proving the )&ality of oneG$ $(ord in battle or 'artial ga'e$ (a$ al$o a 'ean$ of proving $tat&$ and a&thority, e$pe"ially in a $o"iety li:e the +i:ing $o"iety, (here the $trength and valor of an individ&al (a$ 'ore i'portant for 'ilitary leader$hip than inheritan"e# S&rviving exa'ple$ $ho( no differen"e bet(een +i:ing $(ord$ and other$ &$ed a"ro$$ E&rope at the ti'e# >horolfG$ Ithr&$ting $pear,J "alled a IhalberdJ here and el$e(here in +i:ing $aga$ (a$ )&ite a $ophi$ti"ated (eapon# Strangely the a&thor of ,gil2s Saga de$"ribe$ it (ith 'ore detail than any of the ar'$ and ar'or, altho&gh (hether thi$ i$ be"a&$e of the (eaponG$ di$tin"!tivene$$ or it$ relative rarity "annot be deter'ined# >he blade i$ )&ite long, bet(een < and / feet 6-201-/2 "enti'eter$8, (ith fo&r Iedge$,J probably indi"ating a hollo( dia'ond "ro$$!$e"tion that ended, a$ i$ al$o indi"ated in the de$"ription, at a $harp tip# >he blade i$ al$o indi"ated to be $o":eted, Ilong and (ide,J into (hi"h a $haft (a$ fitted# At the $o":et (a$ a $pi:e, altho&gh ho( long it (a$ i$ not 'entioned# Al$o not 'entioned i$ it$ p&rpo$e, altho&gh it$ lo"ation on the $o":et (o&ld $&gge$t that the halberd "o&ld al$o be &$ed to $tri:e do(n on an opponent# 7hat i$ 'o$t "&rio&$ abo&t thi$ (eapon i$ it$ )&ite $'all $haft, Ino taller than 'ight be gra$ped at the $o":et by the hand#J Doe$ thi$ 'ean the vi$ible portion of the
-MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

$haft (a$ K&$t a fe( in"he$ long, and if $o that the halberdG$ $haft (a$ $i'ilar to the $(ordG$ hiltM I%either brother (ore a "oat of 'ail,J (rite$ the a&thor, a re'ar: that i$ obvio&$ly needed no do&bt be"a&$e +i:ing (arrior$ of EgilG$ and >horolfG$ $tat&$ (o&ld have nor'ally (orn $&"h in battle# >he brother$ had the 'ail, b&t on thi$ o""a$ion (ere $i'ply not (earing their$, for (hatever rea$on# A$ 'entioned above, 'ail at the ti'e (a$ a prevalent defen$e, very expen$ive and highly priFed, b&t of enor'o&$ i'portan"e if a $oldier (i$hed to pre$erve hi$ life#

CHAPTER THREE

T!e Cr3s#$es& 0,+,*0',,

=IS>O5D >he %or'an$ In .-- Charle$ the Si'ple gave the +i:ing "hieftain, 5ollo, the territory $&rro&nding the lo(er Seine ! ro&ghly the area that (o&ld be"o'e %or'andy# *erhap$ $o'e(hat $&rpri$ingly, (ithin a relatively $hort period he and hi$ people adopted the $a'e religion, the $a'e lang&age, and the $a'e $o"ioe"ono'i" $y$te' a$ the Bren"h inhabitant$ of their prin"ipality, inter'arrying (ith the lo"al pea$antry and nobility# Soon the ne( D&:e$ of %or'andy, a$ 5ollo and hi$ de$"endant$ be"a'e :no(n, (ere doing ho'age to the Bren"h :ing and fighting for hi' in hi$ battle$, obligated by the $a'e "ode a$ the :ingG$ other baron$# B&t one thing that $ee'$ not to have "hanged (a$ their pro(e$$ for fighting and their de$ire for 'ilitary gain# In the "ent&ry follo(ing the "reation of their d&"hy, %or'an$ (ere priFed a$ 'er"enarie$ and feared a$ pirate$# =o(ever, at thi$ early period they (ere never &nited eno&gh to threaten their neighbor$# By the 'iddle of the eleventh "ent&ry thi$ had "hanged, a$ $ho(n by t(o $&""e$$f&l %or'an inva$ion$# >he fir$t (a$ led by %or'an advent&rer$ of le$$er nobility, the =a&teville brother$, again$t Si"ily and $o&thern Italy# >he $e"ond (a$ into England, led by the D&:e of %or'andy, 7illia', :no(n at the ti'e a$ Ithe Ba$tardJ be"a&$e of hi$

illegiti'ate birth, b&t by the end of hi$ life a$ Ithe Con)&eror#J

-.
., MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

Si"ily 'ight $ee' an odd pla"e for an atta": by $oldier$ fro' the other $ide of the "ontinent# %or'an$ fir$t gli'p$ed Si"ily and $o&thern Italy ! the t(o pla"e$ al'o$t al(ay$ lin:ed d&ring the 2iddle Age$ ! in -0-0 (hen $o'e %or'an pilgri'$ ret&rning fro' the =oly Land (ere hired a$ 'er"enarie$ by the ByFantine$ to fight for the', fir$t again$t the Italian$ and later again$t the Arab$# In doing $o, they be"a'e (ealthy, and the$e ea$ily a")&ired ri"he$ $oon attra"ted other %or'an$# A'ong tho$e ne( re"r&it$ (ere t(elve brother$ of the =a&teville fa'ily# All (ere experien"ed and $:illed $oldier$, b&t one of the yo&nge$t, 5obert C&i$"ard, get$ 'o$t of the "redit for the "on)&e$t# In -0;< the =a&teville brother$ landed (ith their for"e$ on ByFantine!"ontrolled Si"ily, (hi"h they then too: $eventeen year$ to "on)&er 6-0/-8# >hey then t&rned to(ard $o&thern Italy, al$o ByFantine "ontrolled, (hi"h they "apt&red bet(een -0/- and -0 -# >hey feared little, in"l&ding the papa"y# After the $o&thern Italian$ had t&rned to *ope Leo IE to de"lare a I=oly 7arJ again$t the =a&teville$, the %or'an$ "apt&red hi' at the Battle of Civitate in -0/; and i'pri$oned hi' in an atte'pt to for"e hi' to reno&n"e the =oly 7ar# Det a later pope, %i"hola$ II, perhap$ thin:ing he "o&ld not fight the$e inevitable "on)&eror$, e'ployed 5obert C&i$"ard and hi$ troop$ at different ti'e$ again$t the Cer'an$ and ByFantine$# And in -0/. he na'ed the %or'an leader a$ hi$ va$$al, inve$ting hi' (ith the title of D&:e of Ap&lia and Calabria and Co&nt of Si"ily in re"ognition of hi$ $ervi"e to the "h&r"h# Bro' then &ntil hi$ death in -09/, 5obert reigned a$ r&ler of Si"ily ! a prin"ipality that he "ontin&ed to enlarge ! and defender of the papa"y# In -09<, he even defeated the =oly 5o'an E'peror, =enry I+, at 5o'e, after =enry oppo$ed *ope Cregory +II ! altho&gh he "o&ld not prevent the $a":ing of the "ity by hi$ %or'an, Si"ilian, and $o&thern Italian $oldier$# Bro' a very yo&ng age 7illia' the Con)&eror $ho(ed $i'ilar 'ilitary $:ill and general$hip to that of the =a&teville brother$ in the 2editerranean# Co'ing to the d&"al throne in -0;/ a$ the illegiti'ate heir of D&:e 5obert the 2agnifi"ent, the eight!year!old 7illia' $oon had to defend hi$ right to that throne# In the next three de"ade$ he 'ay have fo&ght in and lived thro&gh 'ore battle$ than any other 'edieval 'ilitary leader# De$pite =enry I of Bran"eG$ f&nding of 7illia'G$ ene'ie$, the %or'an "o&nt (on vi"torie$ at the battle$ of +al!V$!D&ne$ in -0< , 2orte'er in -0/<, and +araville in -0/ # Later, in -00;, he al$o atta":ed and "on)&ered the "o&nty of 2aine in $&pport of hi$ $onG$ "lai'$ there, thi$ ti'e fighting again$t =enry I dire"tly#
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, .0

Of "o&r$e, it i$ 7illia'G$ "on)&e$t of England for (hi"h he i$ K&$tifiably "alled Ithe Con)&eror#J Altho&gh England held little $ignifi"an"e for the E&ropean 2iddle Age$ a$ a (hole before -000, it$ area of infl&en"e before then being al'o$t $olely S"andinavian, after hi$ inva$ion, 7illia' and hi$ royal de$"endant$ 'ade an enor'o&$ i'pa"t, both politi"al and 'ilitary, on the re$t of E&rope thro&gho&t the 2iddle Age$# >here i$ $o'e di$p&te a$ to (hy 7illia' believed that he had a right to be :ing of England# Ba$ed on the $li''e$t of hi$tori"al eviden"e, one $tory ha$ the "hildle$$ ,ing Ed(ard the Confe$$or na'e 7illia' a$ hi$ heir to the Engli$h throne# Ed(ard had $pent $o'e ti'e at the d&"al "o&rt of %or'andy (hen he (a$ an exiled yo&th and :ne( the yo&ng d&:e there, altho&gh the hi$tori"al re"ord$ $ho( that the "onta"t bet(een the t(o (a$ never very fre)&ent or infl&ential# Ed(ard did not a""o'pany 7illia' on any of hi$ 'ilitary advent&re$, nor (a$ there '&"h a$$o"iation bet(een %or'andy and England d&ring hi$ reign# >he d&:e (a$ $&ppo$ed to have vi$ited the :ing in -0/2 d&ring the one!year exile of Ed(ardG$ "hief advi$er$ and in!la($, Earl Cod(in and hi$ $on$, (hen Ed(ard i$ $aid to have reaffir'ed the right of 7illia' to the Engli$h throne# B&t (hen Ed(ard died, on / Aan&ary -000, he na'ed hi$ brother!in!la(, =arold Cod(in$on, the elde$t $&rviving $on of the Cod(in fa'ily, a$ hi$ $&""e$$or# 7illia' "on$idered thi$ not only an in$&lt to (hat he had previo&$ly been pro'i$ed by the dead :ing b&t al$o trea$on, a$, again ba$ed on li'ited eviden"e, =arold $&ppo$edly pro'i$ed to $&pport 7illia'G$ "lai' to the throne again$t all other "lai'$, pre$&'ably in"l&ding hi$ o(n# >here (ere at lea$t t(o 'ore "lai'ant$ to the Engli$h "ro(n, ,ing =arald =ardrada of %or(ay and ,ing Svein E$trid$on of Den'ar:# =arald =ardrada, (ho$e "lai' (a$ the (ea:e$t of the fo&r, even (ent $o far a$ to la&n"h hi$ o(n inva$ion of England, (hi"h for"ed =arold Cod(in$on, only $o'e forty (ee:$ into hi$ :ing$hip, to for"e!'ar"h hi$ ar'y fro' the $o&thern "oa$t of England, (here it a(aited the inva$ion of 7illia', all the (ay to Dor: in the north# At the Battle of Sta'ford Bridge, fo&ght on 2/ Septe'ber -000, =arold Cod(in$on defeated the %or(egian$ and ,ing =arald =ardarda (a$ :illed in the fighting# =arold Cod(in$on (a$ not able to $pend '&"h ti'e "elebrating thi$ vi"tory, ho(ever, a$ (ord )&i":ly rea"hed hi' that, (hile he (a$ fighting the %or(egian$ in the north, 7illia' and the %or'an$ had landed in the $o&th# Eviden"e $&gge$t$ that 7illia' anti"ipated a lengthy defen$e of hi$ ne(ly gained foothold in

$o&thern England# =arold Cod(in$on, fl&$hed (ith hi$ re"ent vi"tory, "ho$e to fa"e the
.1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

%or'an invader$ in battle, on Senla" =ill, north of =a$ting$, on -< O"tober -000# It (a$ a lengthy battle, indeed an I&n&$&al battle,J a$ one hi$torian ha$ de$"ribed it$ &n"o''on length# By it$ end, 7illia'G$ for"e$ had prevailed and =arold, hi$ brother$, and 'any of their $oldier$ (ere dead# Altho&gh there (a$ to be $o'e li'ited Engli$h re$i$tan"e, by thi$ $ingle vi"tory 7illia' had e$$entially ta:en England# %or'an OrganiFation and >a"ti"$ *erhap$ be"a&$e of the $iFe of Charle'agneG$ territorie$ and be"a&$e of hi$ vi"torie$ in (arfare, Carolingian 'ilitary organiFation, $trategy, and ta"ti"$ do'inated for the next fe( "ent&rie$# Ar'ie$ in (hi"h the "avalry (ere the prin"ipal atta":ing for"e be"a'e $tandard a"ro$$ E&rope altho&gh, a$ (a$ the "a$e (ith the Carolingian for"e$, "avalry n&'ber$ on the battlefield never ex"eeded tho$e of the infantry# *roviding 'o&nt$ for all of the "avalry 'eant that a large n&'ber of hor$e$ had to be bred and $&pplied# Altho&gh the Carolingian$ had al(ay$ de'anded $tallion$ a$ trib&te fro' defeated people$, e$pe"ially the Avar$, the$e never provided eno&gh hor$e$ for their 'ilitary need$# =o(ever, be"a&$e of an e)&ine epide'i" that deva$tated the Carolingian 'ilitary herd$ in .-, and the need to re$to": the n&'ber$ of hor$e$ lo$t, noted in 'any "onte'porary $o&r"e$, the b&$ine$$ of hor$e breeding and $&pply i$ better :no(n than al'o$t any other e"ono'i" in$tit&tion# It i$ re"ogniFed, for exa'ple, that by the end of the eighth "ent&ry, 'anaged $t&d far'$ had been e$tabli$hed, o(ned and operated by (ell!to!do lo"al 'agnate$ and lando(ner$# >hey "ontrolled not only the 'anage'ent of the $table$, pa$t&re land$, and field$ that $&pplied the hor$e$G feed b&t al$o the breeding $to": 6the general pra"ti"e (a$ to rotate $tallion$ and 'are$ to prevent inbreeding8# >he high "o$t$ of (arhor$e$ 'ade the$e extre'ely profitable b&$ine$$e$# >hey operated (itho&t '&"h royal over$ight, probably be"a&$e they provided $&ffi"ient 'o&nt$ for the 'ilitary need$ of Charle'agneG$ ar'y# >he o(ner$ of the$e far'$ (ere prohibited fro' rai$ing the pri"e$ of their hor$e$ d&ring the .- "ri$i$, ho(ever# Breeder$ and $table'en al$o $ee' to have experi'ented (ith breeding (arhor$e$, &lti'ately i'proving their $trength and end&ran"e, (hile at the $a'e ti'e re'oving le$$er $teed$# Over a long period, b&t "ertainly by the t(elfth "ent&ry, the 'edieval de$trier, a $trong, heavy (arhor$e, had been bred fro' Ba"trian or Arabian
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, .'

$to":# Bro' ill&$tration$ and the re'ain$ of bone$ it "an be $&r'i$ed that an average de$trier $tood - hand$ tall 609 in"he$ or - ; "enti'eter$8# 7ith it$ $trong bone$ and $trong, $hort ba":, a de$trier (a$ "apable of "arrying a heavily ar'ored $oldier into a battle or a to&rna'ent ! rarely (o&ld a :night &$e the $a'e hor$e for both# 6In "o'pari$on, non'ilitary hor$e$ 'ea$&red -21-; hand$ tall R<91/2 in"he$ or -221-;2 "enti'eter$S d&ring the 2iddle Age$8# 7hen and fro' (here the %or'an$ a")&ired their "avalry $:ill$ "annot be a$"ertained fro' 'edieval $o&r"e$, altho&gh it $ee'$ "lear that they (ere not a")&ired &ntil after %or'andy (a$ fo&nded in .--, (hi"h 'ay indi"ate a Bren"h rather than a S"andinavian infl&en"e# 7hat i$ "ertain i$ that by the ti'e of the d&"al a$"en$ion of 7illia' the Con)&eror in -0;/, %or'an hor$e'en had be"o'e (ell :no(n and 'ilitarily re$pe"ted thro&gho&t E&rope# 7illia' the Con)&eror i$ K&$tifiably "on$idered to be one of the 'o$t fa'o&$ general$ of the 2iddle Age$ ! the Battle of =a$ting$ (a$ only one of hi$ $everal 'ilitary advent&re$# Be"a&$e 7illia'G$ a$"en$ion too: pla"e (hen he (a$ only a "hild, and no do&bt al$o be"a&$e of hi$ illegiti'a"y 6altho&gh he had been legiti'iFed at birth by hi$ father, 5obert8, $everal %or'an noble$ apparently tho&ght they 'ight $trengthen their po$ition and landholding$ (itho&t fear of 'ilitary repri$al fro' the d&:e# B&t 7illia' did re$pond, and he did $o (ith great 'ilitary $trength and ta"ti"al profi"ien"y# =e (a$ $till rea"ting to the rebellion$ of %or'an noble$ a$ late a$ the -000$ (hen he $&""e$$f&lly p&t do(n a rebellion by Conan of Brittany ! an event $ho(n in the $a#eu. Tapestr# " in (hi"h 7illia' and hi$ 'ilitary ento&rage appear only on hor$eba": (itho&t any infantry# Of "o&r$e, 7illia' the Con)&erorG$ ar'y did in"l&de infantry# Spear'en, $(ord$'en, and ar"her$ are all depi"ted in the $a#eu. Tapestr# altho&gh it i$ )&ite "lear in the narrative$ reporting the Battle of =a$ting$ that the "avalry (a$ the 'o$t i'portant# B&t hi$ (a$ not the only eleventh!"ent&ry %or'an ar'y $o organiFed# >he %or'an inva$ion for"e of Si"ily and $o&thern Italy (a$ al$o "avalry do'inant, and the "avalry (a$ &$ed effe"tively in all "a'paign$ and again$t all ene'ie$3 ByFantine$, 2&$li'$, Cer'an$, $o&thern Italian$, and Si"ilian$# Bor exa'ple, at the Battle of Civitate in -0/;, altho&gh *ope Leo IEG$ ar'y o&tn&'bered the %or'an$ al'o$t t(o to one, the initial "harge of %or'an "avalry "a&$ed 'o$t of LeoG$ infantry to flee fro' the battlefield and they )&i":ly defeated tho$e re'aining# >he $o&thern Italian$ and their Cer'an 'er"enarie$ preferred to fight on foot, (rote 7illia' of Ap&lia, be"a&$e they "o&ld not

'ane&ver their hor$e$ a$ expertly a$ the %or'an$#

./ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

A$ at Civitate and =a$ting$, the "avalry "harge (a$ the ta"ti" of "hoi"e for %or'an general$# >o $&""e$$f&lly deliver it again$t other "harging hor$e$ or a $olidly for'ed infantry line, ho(ever, re)&ired training and $tri"t di$"ipline# Sho&ld hor$e'en not be able to ride together or t&rn in &ni$on, di$order (o&ld re$&lt, (hi"h 'ight, at the very lea$t, di$r&pt the i'pet&$ of the "harge, or at (or$t, "a&$e fatalitie$# >hi$ (a$ e$pe"ially i'portant (hen one "on$ider$ that the pri'ary p&rpo$e of the 'edieval "avalry "harge (a$ not ne"e$$arily a "la$h bet(een t(o &nit$ of "avalry# On the "ontrary, the 'o$t $&""e$$f&l "avalry "harge (a$ often again$t infantry in an effort to 'a:e the' flee in pani", di$order, and "onf&$ion, a$ happened at Civitate# If the initial "harge did not $&""eed f&rther "harge$ (ere needed (hi"h 'eant that "avalry had to be able to t&rn and regro&p ! 'a!ne&ver$ that re)&ired $:ill and training# At the Battle of =a$ting$, =arold Cod(in$onG$ infantry, tightly for'ed in a $hield (all, proved to be '&"h 'ore di$"iplined than the infantry at Civitate# >hey did not flee at the initial "harge of 7illia'G$ "avalry, for"ing the' to "harge again and again ! hen"e it (a$ a very long battle# Clearly, the %or'an "avalry (ere (ell trained and highly di$"iplined ! b&t $o (ere the Anglo!Saxon infantry, (ho$e line$ did not brea:# =o(ever, in the end =aroldG$ infantry (ere defeated, l&lled o&t of their po$ition by yet another intri"ate battlefield 'ane&ver that "o&ld only have been perfor'ed by (ell!trained "avalry, hor$e'en (ho ignored both their fatig&e and fr&$tration to exe"&te one of the 'o$t diffi"&lt "avalry ta"ti"$3 the feigned retreat# >hi$ de'anded both $:ill and di$"ipline, for the "avalry had to look a$ if they (ere r&nning a(ay fro' the battle, only to t&rn and "harge again, in "o'plete order at exa"tly the right 'o'ent# S&"h a 'ane&ver '&$t not be perfor'ed too early and rarely 'ore than on"e in a battle# In fa"t, it i$ li:ely that, $ho&ld it not a"hieve it$ p&rpo$e 6the brea:ing of the oppo$ing line in "elebratory p&r$&it8, the battle (o&ld be over, and the "avalry (o&ld retreat, thi$ ti'e in earne$t, fro' the field# At =a$ting$, the feigned retreat (or:ed# 7hile $o'e Anglo!Saxon $oldier$ re'ained in their line$, a $&ffi"ient n&'ber bro:e a(ay and p&r$&ed the retreating %or'an$, de$troying the integrity of the infantry $hield (all# Only too late did they realiFe that the "avalry had t&rned aro&nd and beg&n to "harge again# Be( of the troop$ (ho ran do(n the hill after the %or'an$ "o&ld '&$ter the $peed or $trength to ret&rn to their line$ and (ere ridden do(n and $lain# >ho$e infantry (ho had re'ained on the hill no( fo&nd their $hield (all (ea:ened, and altho&gh =arold Cod(in$on tried to refor' the re'aining Anglo!Saxon $oldier$ into a '&"h $'aller line, they proved
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, .+

to be too fatig&ed and di$organiFed to re$i$t the %or'an$ for long# Shortly thereafter their :ing (a$ :illed and the battle lo$t# >he Cr&$ade$ In re$pon$e to the +i:ing and =&ngarian inva$ion$ of the eighth to tenth "ent&rie$, 'any 'en too: &p the profe$$ion of $oldier, their e'ploy'ent $e"&red by the "ontin&ing inva$ion$# =o(ever, (hen the$e raid$ began to de"line their $:ill$ be"a'e le$$ ne"e$$ary, and $oon, it $ee'$, large n&'ber$ of $oldier$ (ere &ne'ployed# ?n(illing to ret&rn to agri"&lt&ral (or:, $o'e of the$e 'en tried to 'a:e a living by doing exa"tly (hat they had been paid to defend again$t, terroriFing the general pop&lation# A$ the "lergy, 'on:$, (o'en, and poor (ere often the target$ of the$e la(le$$ 'en, their defen$e be"a'e an i$$&e for leader$ of both "h&r"h and $tate# >he initial re$pon$e (a$ the I*ea"e of Cod,J pro"lai'ed thro&gho&t E&rope in the $e"ond half of the tenth "ent&ry# Altho&gh varying $o'e(hat, depending on (ho (a$ pro"lai'ing it 6the "h&r"h8 and (ho (a$ enfor"ing it 6the $tate8, the ba$i" p&rpo$e (a$ to prote"t tho$e (ho "o&ld not prote"t the'$elve$, a$ (ell a$ to prote"t "ertain 'aterial thing$, $&"h a$ "h&r"h b&ilding$, "h&r"h property, and al'$ for the poor# >hi$ i$ exe'plified in the *ea"e of Cod pro"lai'ed in .9. at the Synod of Charro&x in $o&thern Bran"e3 7e, a$$e'bled there in the na'e of Cod, 'ade the follo(ing de"ree$3 -# Anathe'a again$t tho$e (ho brea: into "h&r"he$# If anyone brea:$ into or rob$ a "h&r"h, he $hall be anathe'a &nle$$ he 'a:e$ $ati$fa"tion# 2# Anathe'a again$t tho$e (ho rob the poor# If anyone rob$ a pea$ant or any poor per$on of a $heep, ox, a$$, "o(, goat, or pig, he $hall be anathe'a &nle$$ he 'a:e$ $ati$fa"tion# ;# Anathe'a again$t tho$e (ho inK&re "lergy'en# If anyone atta":$, $eiFe$, or beat$ a prie$t, dea"on, or any other "lergy'an, (ho i$ not bearing ar'$ 6$hield, $(ord, "oat of 'ail, or hel'et8, b&t i$ going along pea"ef&lly or $taying in the ho&$e, the $a"rilegio&$ per$on $hall be ex"o''&ni"ated and "&t off fro' the "h&r"h, &nle$$ he 'a:e$ $ati$fa"tion, or &nle$$ the bi$hop di$"over$ that the "lergy'an bro&ght it &pon

hi'$elf by hi$ o(n fa&lt 6Brian >ierney, ed# and tran$#, T%e Middle Ages vol# -, Sources of Medieval &istor# <th ed# R%e( Dor:3 Alfred A# ,nopf, -.9;S, -;/8#
.) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

Det, the *ea"e of Cod $ee'$ not to have been very effe"tive, a$ (itne$$ed by the fa"t that Catholi" e""le$ia$ti"al leader$, again in "on"ert (ith noble la('a:er$, (ere re)&ired to introd&"e a $i'ilar pro"la'ation, :no(n a$ the >r&"e of Cod, le$$ than a "ent&ry later# >he >r&"e of Cod fo"&$ed 'ore on banning 'ilitary a"tivity at "ertain ti'e$ of the year and of the (ee: and le$$ on prote"ting "ertain people# It prohibited fighting d&ring Lent and fro' 7edne$day $&n$et to 2onday $&nri$e# >he >r&"e of Cod (a$ al$o 'ore $pe"ifi"ally detailed and legali$ti" than the *ea"e of Cod, trying to prote"t everyone at lea$t $o'e of the ti'e, a$ $een in thi$ exa'ple pro"lai'ed in -00; in the Bi$hopri" of >ero&anne in the $o&thern Lo( Co&ntrie$3 Drogo, the Bi$hop of >ero&anne, and Co&nt Bald(in Rof =aina&ltS have e$tabli$hed thi$ pea"e (ith the "ooperation of the "lergy and the people of the land# Deare$t brother$ in the Lord, the$e are the "ondition$ (hi"h yo& '&$t ob$erve d&ring the ti'e of the pea"e (hi"h i$ "o''only "alled the >r&"e of Cod, and (hi"h begin$ (ith $&n$et on 7edne$day and la$t$ &ntil $&nri$e on 2onday# -# D&ring tho$e fo&r day$ and five night$ no 'an $hall a$$a&lt, (o&nd, or $lay another, or atta":, $eiFe, or de$troy a "a$tle, b&rg, or villa, by "raft or by violen"e# 2# If anyone violate$ thi$ pea"e and di$obey$ the$e "o''and$ of o&r$, he $hall be exiled for thirty year$ a$ a penan"e, and before he leave$ the bi$hopri" he $hall 'a:e "o'pen$ation for the inK&ry (hi"h he "o''itted# Other(i$e he $hall be ex"o''&ni"ated by the Lord Cod and ex"l&ded fro' all Chri$tian fello($hip# # # # /# In addition, brethren yo& $ho&ld ob$erve the pea"e in regard to land$ and ani'al$ and all thing$ that "an be po$$e$$ed# If anyone ta:e$ fro' another an ani'al, a "oin, or a gar'ent, d&ring the day$ of the tr&"e, he $hall be ex"o''&ni"ated &nle$$ he 'a:e$ $ati$fa"tion# If he de$ire$ to 'a:e $ati$fa"tion for hi$ "ri'e he $hall fir$t re$tore the thing (hi"h he $tole or it$ val&e in 'oney, and $hall do penan"e for $even year$ (ithin the bi$hopri" # # # 0# D&ring the day$ of pea"e, no one $hall 'a:e a ho$tile expedition on hor$eba":, ex"ept (hen $&''oned by the "o&ntH and all (ho go (ith the "o&nt $hall ta:e for their $&pport only a$ '&"h a$ i$ ne"e$$ary for the'$elve$ and their hor$e$# # All 'er"hant$ and other 'en (ho pa$$ thro&gh yo&r territory fro' other land$ $hall have pea"e fro' yo&# 9# Do& $hall al$o :eep thi$ pea"e every day of the (ee: fro' the beginning of Advent to the o"tave of Epiphany and fro' the beginning
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, .(

of Lent to the o"tave of Ea$ter, and fro' the fea$t of 5ogation$ Rthe 2onday before A$"en$ion DayS to the o"tave of *ente"o$t# .# 7e "o''and all prie$t$ on fea$t day$ and S&nday$ to pray for all (ho :eep the pea"e, and to "&r$e all (ho violate it or $&pport it$ violator$ 6>ierney, -;/1-;08# Of "o&r$e, the *ea"e and >r&"e of Cod (ere highly ideali$ti"# =ad they ever been f&lly effe"tive, (arfare in the re$t of the 2iddle Age$ (o&ld have been nearly "o'pletely eli'inated# It (a$ not, and there i$ even $o'e debate a$ to (hether the$e atte'pt$ at pea"e a"t&ally had '&"h effe"t on the (arrior$ again$t (ho' they (ere dire"ted# >he fa"t that the %or'an$ did 'o$t of their fighting in the period of the >r&"e of Cod "ertainly $ee'$ to indi"ate it$ li'ited effe"tivene$$# Bro' the eighth to the eleventh "ent&rie$ there (a$ little 'ilitary a"tivity bet(een the Chri$tian$ and the 2&$li'$, and (hat there (a$ too: pla"e in $o&thern Italy, Si"ily, and the Cree: I$land$# In 'o$t of the$e en"o&nter$ E&ropean$ (ere $&""e$$f&l, pri'arily the ByFantine$ in Cree"e and the %or'an$ in Italy and Si"ily# *er"eiving that the$e ene'ie$ 'ay be v&lnerable gave $o'e E&ropean leader$ hope to regain land$ that had been lo$t by Chri$tian$ "ent&rie$ before# In the early eleventh "ent&ry the Chri$tian :ing$ of north(e$t Spain, land$ that had never fallen to 2&$li' "on)&e$t, began a re"con<uista a re"on)&e$t of the Iberian penin$&la, a fight (hi"h (a$ to be long, la$ting &ntil -<.2, b&t (hi"h &lti'ately freed all of Spain and *ort&gal fro' 2&$li' "ontrol# >here i$ no do&bt that 'any drea'ed of a recon<uista of the =oly Land ! the 2iddle Ea$tern area $o "alled be"a&$e it held the holie$t $ite$ of Chri$tendo'# =o(ever, the reality (a$ that only a 'aKor "a'paign &nderta:en by a very large ar'y "o&ld have any "han"e of o&$ting tho$e holding the =oly Land# >here (a$ al$o no real need or de$ire to do $o before the 'iddle of the eleventh "ent&ry, a$ the 2&$li'$ "ontrolling tho$e $ite$ (ere &$&ally very friendly to vi$iting Chri$tian pilgri'$# After all, the pilgri'$ (ere good for the lo"al e"ono'y# >rade and ed&"ational idea$ flo(ed bet(een the Chri$tian$ and 2&$li'$ (ith very little diffi"&lty bet(een the eighth and eleventh "ent&ry# =o(ever, "ontrol of the =oly Land be"a'e a "on"ern on"e again in the 'iddle of the eleventh "ent&ry (ith the ri$e of a po(erf&l and p&gna"io&$ 2&$li' gro&p that "a'e into the 2iddle Ea$t fro' the 'id!A$ian $teppe$, the SelK&: >&r:$# >hey did not have the $a'e toleran"e of Chri$tian$ a$ the Bata'id Egyptian$, (ho

"ontrolled '&"h
.MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

of the 2iddle Ea$t at thi$ ti'e# Bor exa'ple the SelK&:$ 'a$$a"red a large gro&p of Cer'an pilgri'$ in Syria in -00<1 -00/# Even 'ore $tartling than that atro"ity, ho(ever, (a$ the defeat of a large ByFantine ar'y by the SelK&: >&r:$ at the battle of 2anFi:ert in -0 -, a defeat (hi"h for"ed the ByFantine E'pire to $&rrender al'o$t all of A$ia 2inor to 2&$li' "ontrol# In re$pon$e to thi$ defeat and the lo$$ of f&rther land, the ByFantine e'peror, Alexi&$ I Co'nen&$, petitioned *ope ?rban II to aid the ByFantine$ in regaining their lo$t territorie$ by $&''oning an ar'y of Catholi" $oldier$ to "a'paign again$t the >&r:$ in the 2iddle Ea$t# S&"h a re)&e$t appealed to the pope in t(o (ay$# >he fir$t (a$ obvio&$ly the "on)&e$t of the =oly Land# Se"ond, by re"r&iting $oldier$ to fight el$e(here, he hoped that the violen"e and (arfare that had plag&ed E&rope for the pa$t -/0 year$ (o&ld di'ini$h# On 2 %ove'ber -0./, at the Co&n"il of Cler'ont, (hi"h (a$ attended by a large n&'ber of e""le$ia$ti" and politi"al leader$, ?rban II "alled for a "r&$ade# It (a$ an e'otional "all to ar'$, a$ $een in 5obert of 5hei'$G de$"ription3 Bro' the "onfine$ of Aer&$ale' and the "ity of Con$tantinople a horrible tale ha$ gone forth and very fre)&ently ha$ been bro&ght to o&r ear$, na'ely, that a ra"e fro' the :ingdo' of the *er$ian$ Rthe 2&$li'$S, an a""&r$ed ra"e, a ra"e &tterly alienated fro' Cod, a generation for$ooth (hi"h ha$ not dire"ted it$ heart and ha$ not entr&$ted it$ $pirit to Cod, ha$ invaded the land$ of tho$e Chri$tian$ and ha$ depop&lated the' by the $(ord, pillage and fireH it ha$ led a(ay a part of the "aptive$ into it$ o(n "o&ntry, and a part it ha$ de$troyed by "r&el tort&re$H it ha$ either entirely de$troyed the "h&r"he$ of Cod or appropriated the' for the rite$ of it$ o(n religion # # # >he :ingdo' of the Cree:$ Rthe ByFantine E'pireS i$ no( di$'e'bered by the' and deprived of territory $o va$t that it "annot be traver$ed in a 'ar"h of t(o 'onth$# On (ho' therefore i$ the labor of avenging the$e (rong$ and of re"overing thi$ territory in"&'bent, if not &pon yo&M Do&, &pon (ho' above other nation$ Cod ha$ "onferred re'ar:able glory in ar'$, great "o&rage, bodily a"tivity, and $trength to h&'ble the hairy $"alp of tho$e (ho re$i$t yo&# Let the deed$ of yo&r an"e$tor$ 'ove yo& and in"ite yo&r 'ind$ to 'anly a"hieve'ent$H the glory and greatne$$ of ,ing Charle'agne and of hi$ $on Lo&i$, and of yo&r other :ing$, (ho have de$troyed the :ingdo'$ of the pagan$, and have extended in the$e land$ the territory of the holy "h&r"h# Let the holy $ep&l"hre of the Lord o&r Savio&r, (hi"h i$ no( po$$e$$ed by &n"lean nation$, e$pe"ially in"ite
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, ..

yo&, and the holy pla"e$ (hi"h are no( treated (ith igno'iny and irreverently poll&ted (ith their filthine$$# Oh, 'o$t valiant $oldier$ and de$"endant$ of invin"ible an"e$tor$, be not degenerate, b&t re"all the valor of yo&r progenitor$ # # # Aer&$ale' i$ the navel of the (orldH the land i$ fr&itf&l above other$, li:e another paradi$e of delight$# >hi$ the 5edee'er of the h&'an ra"e ha$ 'ade ill&$trio&$ by =i$ advent, ha$ bea&tified by re$iden"e, ha$ "on$e"rated by $&ffering, ha$ redee'ed by death, ha$ glorified by b&rial# >hi$ royal "ity, therefore, $it&ated at the "enter of the (orld, i$ no( held "aptive by =i$ ene'ie$, and i$ in $&bKe"tion to tho$e (ho do not :no( Cod, to the (or$hip of the heathen$# She $ee:$ therefore and de$ire$ to be liberated, and doe$ not "ea$e to i'plore yo& to "o'e to her aid# Bro' yo& e$pe"ially $he a$:$ $&""or, be"a&$e, a$ (e have already $aid, Cod ha$ "onferred &pon yo& above all nation$ great glory in ar'$# A""ordingly &nderta:e thi$ Ko&rney for the re'i$$ion of yo&r $in$, (ith the a$$&ran"e of the i'peri$hable glory of the :ingdo' of heaven 6Dana C# 2&nro, =r)an and t%e Crusades R*hiladelphia3 ?niver$ity of *enn$ylvania *re$$, -9./S, /198# 7hether the pope expe"ted that a large n&'ber of $oldier$ (o&ld an$(er hi$ "all to fight in the =oly Land i$ not :no(n# Certainly the ByFantine e'peror did not anti"ipate the n&'ber$ of 7e$tern E&ropean$ (hi"h for'ed the Bir$t Cr&$ade, a$ he $ee'ed to have been "o'pletely &nprepared for tho$e (illing to Ita:e &p the "ro$$J 6the "r&$ader$ affixed a "r&"ifix to their t&ni"$ and $hield$8# ?rbanG$ appeal (a$ extre'ely $&""e$$f&l ! i''ediately after Cler'ont, bi$hop$ and prie$t$ began prea"hing the "r&$ade thro&gho&t E&rope, appealing to all 'ilitary profe$$ional$ to fight again$t the >&r:$# ?nfort&nately, itinerant prea"her$, $&"h a$ *eter the =er'it and 7alter the *ennile$$, (ho $erved the poor al$o too: the 'e$$age of the "r&$ade to their "ongregation$# Soon t(o ar'ie$ of E&ropean Chri$tian$ (ere 'ar"hing to(ard ByFanti&'# One in"l&ded 'any reno(ned lord$ and :night$3 5ay'ond of Saint!Cille$, Co&nt of >o&lo&$eH =&gh of +er!'andoi$, brother to ,ing *hilip I of Bran"eH 5obert, Co&nt of Blander$3 Stephen, Co&nt of Bloi$ and $on!in!la( of 7illia' the Con)&erorH 5obert, D&:e of %or'andy and $on of 7illia' the Con)&erorH Codfrey of Bo&illon, D&:e of Lo(er Lorraine, and hi$ brother, Bald(inH and Bohe'ond C&i$"ard, the $on of 5obert C&i$!"ard, and hi$ nephe(, >an"red# >raveling (ith the $oldier$ (a$ Adhe!'ar, the bi$hop of Le *&y, tit&lar leader of the "r&$ade# =o(ever, the $e"ond ar'y "ontained no (ell!:no(n 'ilitary leader$ or $oldier$# In$tead, it (a$ filled (ith a large n&'ber of &nar'ed pea$ant$,
0,, MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

in"l&ding (o'en and "hildren, (ho had al$o an$(ered the "all, expe"ting that their faith alone "o&ld defeat

the ene'ie$ of Cod# >ogether the t(o gro&p$ 'ay have n&'bered 'ore than -00,000# By the beginning of -0. the$e ar'ie$ had rea"hed Con$tantinople# >he n&'ber$ in the pea$ant$G ar'y, (hi"h arrived fir$t, $&rpri$ed E'peror Alexi&$ Co'nen&$# Indeed, they (ere potentially 'ore of an e"ono'i" proble' than a 'ilitary aid# =e fed the pea$ant$ and )&i":ly ferried the' to the other $ide of the Bo$por&$ (here $hortly thereafter they (ere 'a$$a"red by a 2&$li' ar'y# >he ByFantine e'peror then greeted the $&rpri$ingly large n&'ber$ of $oldier$ arriving (ith the $e"ond ar'y a "o&ple of (ee:$ later# =e (a$ probably hoping at be$t for one or t(o tho&$and $oldier$ to $erve a$ a part of hi$ for"e$, not an entire ar'y it$elf# At the $a'e ti'e, if thi$ 7e$tern E&ropean ar'y (a$ $&""e$$f&l, he (anted hi$ d&e# >herefore, he ref&$ed to allo( the "r&$ader$ to pro"eed on their Ko&rney &ntil they had ta:en an oath of fealty to hi', pro'i$ing that any land$ (hi"h they "apt&red fro' the 2&$li'$ (o&ld be ret&rned to hi'# >he "r&$ader$ rel&"tantly agreed, altho&gh to 'o$t of the' $&"h an oath and pro'i$e to a 'an for (ho' they had little regard 'eant nothing# >he 'ar"h a"ro$$ A$ia 2inor (a$ not ea$y# Altho&gh it began (ith a vi"tory over an ar'y of SelK&: >&r:$ o&t$ide the (all$ of %i"aea, it $oon be"a'e apparent that the "r&$ader$ had gro$$ly 'i$K&dged the di$tan"e they (o&ld have to travel and the "li'ate of A$ia 2inor# >hey had diffi"&lty living off the land, and there (a$ little (ater# So'e gave &p and ret&rned ho'e, b&t 'o$t :ept on 'ar"hing to(ard the =oly Land# Binally, early in -0.9, they rea"hed the fir$t large ene'y "ity, Antio"h ! a $trongly defended, (alled "ity (ith a large "itadel to(ering over it# >ho&gh the "r&$ader$ (ere (ea:ened by $tarvation, their$ (a$ a deter'ined ar'y on a religio&$ )&e$t# Be$ide$, their only 'ean$ of e$"ape (a$ to ret&rn a"ro$$ A$ia 2inor# After $everal 'onth$ of $iege, they (ere able to gain a""e$$ to the "ity ! b&t not the "itadel ! (hen they bribed one of the "aptain$ of a gate to(er# I''ediately they began to gorge the'$elve$ on the fre$h fr&it$ and vi"t&al$, (hi"h led to an o&tbrea: of dy$entery# A$ the "r&$ader ar'y $&ffered, they (ere be$ieged the'$elve$ by a large >&r:i$h relief ar'y# Ironi"ally, a$ $tarvation began to affe"t the no(!be$ieged "r&$ader$, the dy$entery a"t&ally began to "lear &p# >hen, on 29 A&ne -0.9, one of their a""o'panying prie$t$, *eter Bartholo'e(, "lai'ed to have fo&nd the lan"e of Longin&$ 6the lan"e that had pier"ed Chri$tG$ $ide on the "ro$$8, the lo"ation of (hi"h he $aid he $a( in a drea'# >a:ing thi$ a$ a $ign of the divine
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 0,0

favor of their )&e$t and by f&rther $ighting$ of Saint Ceorge and other 'ilitary $aint$, the "r&$ader$ $allied o&t of the "ity and defeated a '&"h larger 2&$li' for"e# >hat the SelK&: >&r:$ and Bata'id Egyptian$ had been fighting their o(n (ar for $everal year$ before the "r&$ader$ appeared in the =oly Land &ndo&btedly helped the latter at Antio"h# Both Antio"h and Aer&$ale' (ere pla"e$ they had fo&ght over ! the >&r:$ had "apt&red Aer&$ale' in -0 0, b&t the Bata'id$ had regained it early in -0.., (hen the "r&$ader$ (ere 'ar"hing fro' Antio"h to(ard the "ity# >h&$, (hen the "r&$ader$, no( po$$ibly n&'bering no 'ore than 20,000, rea"hed Aer&$ale', they fa"ed a (ea:ened "ity and a fatig&ed pop&lation# B&t the (all$ of Aer&$ale' re'ained $trong, and the inhabitant$ (ere deter'ined# It (a$ not &ntil -/ A&ly -0.., after a 'aKor a$$a&lt of the (all$ &$ing $iege to(er$, that the "r&$ader$ finally "apt&red it# In re$pon$e to the ardent defen$e, and f&eled by r&'or$ of great trea$&re$ hidden in the "ity, the "r&$ader$ 'a$$a"red everyone in the "ity# 5ay'ond dGAg&ilier$, "haplain to 5ay'ond of Saint!Cille$ and an eye(itne$$ to the 'a$$a"re, (rite$3 # # # (onderf&l $ight$ (ere to be $een# So'e of o&r 'en 6and thi$ (a$ 'ore 'er"if&l8 "&t off the head$ of their ene'ie$H other$ $hot the' (ith arro($, $o that they fell fro' the to(er$H other$ tort&red the' longer by "a$ting the' into the fla'e$# *ile$ of head$, hand$, and feet (ere to be $een in the $treet$ of the "ity# It (a$ ne"e$$ary to pi": oneG$ (ay over the bodie$ of 'en and hor$e$# B&t the$e (ere $'all 'atter$ "o'pared to (hat happened at the >e'ple of Solo'on, a pla"e (here religio&$ $ervi"e$ are ordinarily "hanted# 7hat happened thereM If I tell the tr&th, it (ill ex"eed yo&r po(er$ of belief# So let it $&ffi"e to $ay thi$ '&"h, at lea$t, that in the >e'ple and por"h of Solo'on, 'en rode in blood &p to their :nee$ and bridle rein$# Indeed, it (a$ a K&$t and $plendid K&dg'ent of Cod that thi$ pla"e $ho&ld be filled (ith the blood of the &nbeliever$, $in"e it had $&ffered $o long fro' their bla$phe'ie$# >he "ity (a$ filled (ith "orp$e$ and blood 6A&g&$t C# ,rey, T%e 'irst Crusade- T%e Accounts of ,#ewitnesses and (articipants R*rin"eton, %A3 *rin"eton ?niver$ity *re$$, -.2-S, 2/.12008# In the year$ i''ediately after the fall of Aer&$ale', the "r&$ader$ extended their "ontrol to land$ and to(n$ neighboring tho$e they had "apt&red# 5ef&$ing to give the$e to the ByFantine e'peror or to 'a:e the' papal fief$ a$ *ope ?rban II de$ired, "r&$ader leader$ $et &p their o(n :ingdo'$3 Bohe'ond C&i$"ard be"a'e
0,1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

:ing of Antio"h and the area aro&nd itH Bald(in of Bo&illon, (ho had ta:en an ar'y northea$t of Antio"h to Ede$$a and "apt&red it, e$tabli$hed a :ingdo' thereH 5ay'ond of Saint!Cille$ be"a'e :ing of >ripoli after the "ity (a$ "apt&red in --0.H and Codfrey of Bo&illon, (ho by the fall of Aer&$ale' had be"o'e the leader of the "r&$ader$, be"a'e the :ing of Aer&$ale'# B&t 'o$t of the "r&$ader$ (anted to ret&rn ho'e# >hey had

been traveling for 'ore than three year$, often &nder extre'ely har$h "ondition$, and only a fe( (anted to re'ain in the =oly Land# By the t&rn of the t(elfth "ent&ry, the :ingdo' of Aer&$ale' had only ;00 $oldier$ to defend it, and other "r&$ader :ingdo'$ had even $'aller n&'ber$# Still, initially there (ere fe( proble'$ for the re$ident "r&$ader$, e$pe"ially a$ they periodi"ally re"eived reinfor"e'ent$ fro' E&rope3 yo&nger (arrior$ (ho (anted to 'a:e their na'e$ and fort&ne$ in the =oly Land# Bor a (hile the "r&$ader$ al$o "ontin&ed to be $&""e$$f&l# Cae$area fell to the' in --0-, >arto&$ in --02, A"re and A&bail in --0<, >ripoli in --0., Beir&t and Sidon in ---0, and >yre in --2<# >hey al$o began b&ilding large $tone "a$tle$, the $iFe of (hi"h had never been $een in E&rope# So'e of the$e "a$tle$ (ere large eno&gh to $&$tain their garri$on$ for five year$, or, it (a$ hoped, a$ long a$ it (a$ needed to re"eive relief fro' E&rope $ho&ld they be atta":ed# Binally, to in"rea$e "r&$ader n&'ber$, three 'ilitary 'ona$ti" order$ (ere e$tabli$hed in the =oly Land3 the ,night$ =o$pitaller, the ,night$ >e'plar, and the >e&toni" ,night$# >hen in --<< the "ity and :ingdo' of Ede$$a, lo"ated $o'e di$tan"e fro' the other :ingdo'$, poorly 'anned, and (ith no nat&ral defen$e$, fell to a ne( SelK&: >&r:i$h ar'y# I''ediately, a Se"ond Cr&$ade to the =oly Land (a$ "alled thro&gho&t E&rope# Again "r&$ade prea"her$ (ent forth, the Ci$ter"ian 'on:, Bernard of Clair!va&x being perhap$ the 'o$t fa'o&$ of the$e# It (a$ $aid that (hen he prea"hed for $oldier$ to fight the "r&$ade, (ive$ hid their h&$band$ and 'other$ hid their $on$, $o effe"tive (ere hi$ $er'on$3 >he earth tre'ble$ and i$ $ha:en be"a&$e the ,ing of =eaven ha$ lo$t hi$ land, the land (here he on"e (al:ed # # # >he great eye of *roviden"e ob$erve$ the$e a"t$ in $ilen"eH it (i$he$ to $ee if anyone (ho $ee:$ Cod, (ho $&ffer$ (ith hi' in $orro(, (ill render hi' hi$ heritage # # # I tell yo&, the Lord i$ te$ting yo& 65# =# C# Davi$, A &istor# of Medieval ,urope- 'rom Constantine to Saint /ouis RLondon3 Long'an, -. 0S, 299129.8#
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 0,'

A large n&'ber of 'en again Itoo: &p the "ro$$,J in"l&ding t(o :ing$, Conrad III of Cer'any and Lo&i$ +II of Bran"e# =o(ever, de$pite thi$ royal parti"ipation and the large n&'ber$ involved, thi$ Se"ond Cr&$ade "o&ld not d&pli"ate the $&""e$$ of the fir$t# In fa"t, the "r&$ader$ had no $&""e$$ (hat$oever# A$ $oon a$ they arrived in the =oly Land, they began to )&arrel (ith the Chri$tian$ already there (ho' they bla'ed for the defeat of Ede$$a be"a&$e they had dealt too lightly (ith the 2&$li'$# In t&rn, the re$ident Chri$tian$ re$ented the$e ne( arrival$, no 'atter (hat their ran: or $tat&$, for trying to ta:e over the $trategi" leader$hip of the "r&$ade# >he plan of the re$ident "r&$ader$ (a$ to ta:e an ar'y north to Aleppo, a "ity held by the "aliph of the SelK&: >&r:$, %&r!ad!Din# B&t Conrad, Lo&i$, and the other ne( "r&$ader$ $a( a "lo$er target in Da'a$"&$, a "ity led by a 2&$li' ally of the "r&$ader$ (ho (a$ an ene'y of %&r!ad!Din# >hey prevailed, and on 2< A&ne --<9 the $e"ond "r&$ader$ 'ar"hed on Da'a$"&$# =o(ever, even before rea"hing the "ity, the t(o :ing$ began to arg&e over (ho (a$ to ta:e "redit for the vi"tory, (hi"h, in fa"t, never "a'e# Bor not only did the atta": of Da'a$"&$ fail, b&t the "itiFen$ of the to(n (ere $o enraged at the di$loyalty of the "r&$ader$ that they not only re'oved their o(n leader, b&t they al$o $&b'itted to %&r!ad!Din# After thi$ defeat, Conrad III i''ediately $et o&t for ho'e# Lo&i$ +II $tayed on in Aer&$ale', b&t by $&''er --<. he al$o ret&rned to E&rope# Bollo(ing hi$ defeat of the Chri$tian$, %&r!ad!Din began to extend hi$ "ontrol of the region# S&rpri$ingly, he fir$t "ho$e to bypa$$ the "r&$ader :ingdo'$ and atta": Bata'id Egypt, (hi"h fell to hi' in --09# >he Chri$tian$ (ere therefore $&rro&nded, b&t in -- <, before %&r!ad!Din "o&ld 'a:e hi$ 'ove again$t the', he died# =e (a$ $&""eeded by one of hi$ 'ilitary leader$, the 'an (ho had been "hiefly re$pon$ible for the "on)&e$t of Egypt, Saladin# SaladinG$ ar'y (ill be di$"&$$ed 'ore "o'pletely later in the "hapter# =ere it i$ $i'ply ne"e$$ary to follo( hi$ hi$tory a$ it pertain$ to the defeat of the "r&$ader$ at the Battle of =attin, hi$ re"apt&re of Aer&$ale' ! both of (hi"h pro'pted the >hird Cr&$ade ! and hi$ vi"tory again$t that "r&$ade# Saladin (a$ a re'ar:able 'an and a re'ar:able general ! perhap$ one of the great!e$t ! and a re'ar:able politi"al leader# Born in >i:rit, of ,&rdi$h ba":gro&nd, and nephe( to one of %&r!ad!DinG$ 'ilitary leader$, Shir:&h, he $ee'$ an odd "hoi"e to have led the largely SelK&: >&r:i$h ar'y after the death of %&r!ad!Din# And it (a$ "ertainly
0,/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

tr&e that there (a$ $o'e di$agree'ent a$ to hi$ ability to lead 2&$li'$ of different ethni" gro&p$, tho&gh not after he reKoined the 'ain ar'y in Da'a$"&$, bringing (ith hi' a large n&'ber of re"r&it$ fro' Egypt ! and therefore re'inding all tho$e in %&r!ad!DinG$ "o&rt (ho do&bted hi$ leader$hip that he (a$ the "on)&eror of Egypt and held "o'plete "ontrol over the Bata'id$# 7hat 'ight have been a tran$fer of leader$hip de"ided by (ar be"a'e in$tead a pea"ef&l a""eptan"e of the 'ilitary legiti'a"y of an obvio&$ leader# >ho$e (ho follo(ed Saladin never regretted their $&pport of hi'# =e 'arried %&r!ad!DinG$ (ido(, and fo&nded the

Ayy&bid dyna$ty# It (a$ (ell :no(n by the ti'e of hi$ a$"en$ion to the "aliphate that Saladin (anted to atta": the "r&$ader :ingdo'$# >(o $'all, exploratory "a'paign$ before %&r!ad!DinG$ death, in -- - and -- ;, had revealed the 'ilitary v&lnerabilitie$ of the "r&$ader$, in parti"&lar the (ea:ne$$ of the r&le of the yo&ng :ing of Aer&$ale', Bald(in I+ the Leper, (ho$e terrible affli"tion provided hi$ "ogno'en a$ (ell a$ an early death and the la": of an heir# Di$agree'ent$ over politi"al and 'ilitary poli"y o""&rred fre)&ently a'ong the "r&$ade leader$, e$pe"ially bet(een the "a&tio&$ regent, 5ay'ond III, :ing of >ripoli, and the belli"o$e C&y of L&$ignan, Bald(inG$ brother!in!la(, (ho$e belligeren"e (a$ f&eled by the Crand 2a$ter of the >e'plar$, Cerard of 5idfort, and one of the tr&ly na$ty "hara"ter$ of the entire "r&$ade$, 5aynald of ChWtillon, then Lord of O&ltreKo&rdain and Ca$tellan of ,era: and 2ontrNale "a$tle$# 5aynald had $ho(n for $o'e ti'e that he had no re$pe"t for the ten&o&$ pea"e that exi$ted bet(een the "r&$ader$ and Saladin# By thi$ ti'e, he had already offended the ByFantine e'peror, 2an&el I Co'nen&$, by atte'pting the "on)&e$t of Cypr&$# =e had $pent 'ore than fifteen year$ in a Kail in Aleppo after being "apt&red d&ring one of hi$ 'any raid$ into Syria and Ar'enia fro' hi$ then re$iden"e of Antio"h# =e had planned an atta": on 2e""a and 2edina a$ one of hi$ 'any pirating a"tivitie$ on the 5ed Sea ! a n&'ber of the $oldier$ he had $ent on thi$ expedition (ere "apt&red and beheaded in Cairo# =e had al$o 'ade it a pra"ti"e to atta": and pl&nder the "aravan$ that pa$$ed any(here near ,era:, one of (hi"h al$o "ontained SaladinG$ $i$ter# Of "o&r$e, all of the$e a"tivitie$ defied the n&'ero&$ treatie$ bet(een the "r&$ader$ and the 2&$li'$# Saladin (i$ely (aited for the death of Bald(in the Leper, anti"ipating that there (o&ld be a fight over hi$ inheritan"e# =i$ patien"e (a$ re(arded in --9/ (hen the :ing died and al'o$t i''ediately 5ay'ond of >ripoli ! (ho had been Bald(inG$ regent $in"e -- < ! and C&y of L&$ignan ! hi$ "lo$e$t 'ale relative, altho&gh by
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 0,+

'arriage only ! fo&ght over (ho (a$ to reign in Aer&$ale'# 5ay'ond $po:e for pea"e and C&y for (ar, the latter a po$ition al$o $&pported by 5aynald of ChWtillon and the >e'plar$, (ho$e favor pla"ed C&y on the throne# I''ediately after(ard, C&y began to '&$ter the "r&$ader$ for a "a'paign again$t Saladin# 5ay'ond in t&rn re'oved hi$ troop$ and $&ed Saladin for pea"e# >h&$, the "r&$ader ar'y (a$ $plit, and Saladin realiFed that the ti'e (a$ right to p&r$&e hi$ "a'paign to regain Aer&$ale'# L&ring C&yG$ ar'y to >iberia$, near the La:e of Calilee 6then :no(n a$ La:e >iberia$8, Saladin trapped the "r&$ader$ in the valley bet(een the =orn$ of =attin, "&t off their (ater $&pply, filled the air (ith $'o:e and arro($, and defeated their "harge$# Be( "r&$ader$ e$"aped# C&y of L&$ignan, 5aynald of ChWtillon, and 'ore than -;0 >e'plar$ (ere a'ong tho$e ta:en pri$oner# Saladin had C&y and 5aynald bro&ght to hi$ tent and the follo(ing (a$ (itne$$ed by the "hroni"ler Baha al!Din3 Saladin invited the :ing RC&yS to $it be$ide hi', and (hen Arnat R5aynaldS entered in hi$ t&rn, he $eated hi' next to hi$ :ing and re'inded hi' of hi$ 'i$deed$# I=o( 'any ti'e$ have yo& $(orn an oath and violated itM =o( 'any ti'e$ have yo& $igned agree'ent$ yo& have never re$pe"tedMJ 5aynald an$(ered thro&gh a tran$lator3 I,ing$ have al(ay$ a"ted th&$# I did nothing 'ore#J D&ring thi$ ti'e ,ing C&y (a$ ga$ping (ith thir$t, hi$ head dangling a$ tho&gh dr&n:, hi$ fa"e betraying great fright# Saladin $po:e rea$$&ring (ord$ to hi', had "old (ater bro&ght, and offered it to hi'# >he :ing dran:, then handed (hat re'ained to 5aynald, (ho $la:ed hi$ thir$t in t&rn# >he $&ltan then $aid to C&y3 IDo& did not a$: per'i$$ion before giving hi' (ater# I a' therefore not obliged to grant hi' 'er"y#J After prono&n"ing the$e (ord$, the $&ltan $'iled, 'o&nted hi$ hor$e, and rode off, leaving the "aptive$ in terror# =e $&pervi$ed the ret&rn of the troop$, and then "a'e ba": to hi$ tent# =e ordered 5aynald bro&ght there, then advan"ed before hi', $(ord in hand, and $tr&": hi' bet(een the ne": and the $ho&lder!blade# 7hen 5aynald fell, he "&t off hi$ head and dragged the body by it$ feet to the :ing, (ho began to tre'ble# Seeing hi' th&$ &p$et, Saladin $aid to hi' in a rea$$&ring tone3 I>hi$ 'an (a$ :illed only be"a&$e of hi$ 'alefi"en"e and perfidyJ 6S# A# Allen and E'ilie A't, ed$#, T%e Crusades- A +eader R*eterboro&gh, ?,3 Broadvie(, 200;S, -/21-/;8# All pri$oner$ (ho (o&ld reno&n"e the "r&$ade and pro'i$e not to fight f&rther again$t Saladin (ere freedH the -;0 >e'plar$, (ho' Saladin regarded a$ fanati"$, (ere exe"&ted# After thi$ vi"tory,
0,) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

Saladin 'oved again$t the no( largely &ndefended "ity of Aer&$ale', (hi"h he "on)&ered on 2 O"tober --9 # 5e'e'bering the $ho":ing 'a$$a"re of all the to(nG$ inhabitant$ by the fir$t "r&$ader$ nearly a "ent&ry before, Saladin allo(ed all Chri$tian$ there to be ran$o'ed or, if they "o&ld not afford a ran$o', freed# >he fall of Aer&$ale' to Saladin $ho":ed Chri$tian E&rope, and a >hird Cr&$ade (a$ )&i":ly "alled# >hi$ "r&$ade attra"ted $oldier$ fro' thro&gho&t E&rope, b&t e$pe"ially tho$e in the ar'ie$ of three :ing$3 Brederi": I Barbaro$$a of Cer'any, *hilip II A&g&$t&$ of Bran"e, and 5i"hard I, the Lionheart, of England# Brederi": Bar!baro$$a left in --9., traveling over land, b&t fe( of hi$ for"e, de"i'ated by di$ea$e, fatig&e, and apathy, ever rea"hed the =oly Land# 2any ret&rned ho'e after the 0 !year!old Brederi": died (hen he fell off hi$ hor$e into the river Salaph in A$ia 2inor and dro(ned# >he other t(o :ing$ traveled by $hip and

arrived $afely, b&t began to )&arrel over their re$pe"tive role$ in the fighting# Altho&gh the parti"ipant$ in the >hird Cr&$ade $&""eeded in reta:ing A"re and Aaffa and even defeated Saladin at the Battle of Ar$&f on -Septe'ber --.-, they "o&ld never a"hieve the &nified atta": ne"e$$ary to re"apt&re Aer&$ale'# Binally, in O"tober --.-, *hilip ret&rned to Bran"e and began atta":ing 5i"hardG$ territory there# A year later, in O"tober --.2, 5i"hard al$o ret&rned to E&rope, b&t on hi$ ro&te ho'e he (a$ "apt&red, i'pri$oned, and held for ran$o' by Leopold, the D&:e of A&$tria, (ho$e banner he had in$&lted at the $iege of A"re# >he >hird Cr&$ade failed to a""o'pli$h nearly all that it$ leader$ initially $et o&t to do, altho&gh it in"l&ded the be$t (arrior$ in all E&rope# >he >hird Cr&$ade (a$ the la$t 7e$tern E&ropean "a'paign in the 2iddle Ea$t to in"l&de the parti"ipation of 'ore than a $ingle prin"e# It$ defeat, for fe( "on$idered the "apt&re of A"re and Aaffa to 'a:e &p for the fail&re to reta:e Aer&$ale', al$o $ee'ed to herald a general apathy "on"erning the 2iddle Ea$t that $pread over the next "ent&ry# >he "r&$ader$ $till held onto three :ingdo'$ ! Antio"h, >ripoli, and A"re ! b&t there (ere fe(er and fe(er E&ropean reinfor"e'ent$# =ad the 'ilitary 'ona$ti" order$, the ,night$ >e'plar and ,night$ =o$pitaller, not been able to $&pply $oldier$ to garri$on the "r&$ader fortifi"ation$ and to prote"t "r&$ader traveler$ and pilgri'$, the re'aining :ingdo'$ (o&ld have failed '&"h earlier than they did# E&ropean$ $tarted to be"o'e "yni"al of f&rther "r&$ading# Earlier prohibition$ again$t trade (ith the 2&$li'$ began to be ignored, and tho$e (ho (ere able to ta:e advantage of that trade, 'o$t notably the Cenoe$e and *i$an$, profited greatly fro' it#
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 0,(

>he papa"y had al$o lo$t fa"e# ?nable to deliver a vi"tory in 'ore than a h&ndred year$, in --. papal "ontrol over the "all to "r&$ade$ even be"a'e threatened by the =oly 5o'an E'peror, =enry +I, (ho 'ade plan$ to lead an ar'y to the =oly Land (itho&t the per'i$$ion of *ope Cele$tine III, and to add all that he gained there to hi$ :ingdo'# B&t he died $&ddenly and &nexpe"tedly before he "o&ld 'o&nt the "a'paign# A $tronger pope, Inno"ent III, (a$ ele"ted to repla"e Cele$tine at hi$ death in --.9, and, deter'ined to reinvigo!rate the "r&$ade$, he i''ediately "alled for a fo&rth one# =o(ever, the Bo&rth Cr&$ade (a$ doo'ed fro' the $tart# Altho&gh not a$ 'any a$ (ere anti"ipated, a large for"e gathered in +eni"e in -20- (ith the goal of traveling to the =oly Land# Det they never "a'e "lo$e to a"hieving that goal# >hey tried to arrange pa$$age by $ea b&t, not having eno&gh 'oney, they $tr&": a deal (ith the +enetian$ to tran$port the' there# =o(ever, fir$t the +enetian$ "o'pelled the "r&$ader$ to atta": a =&ngarian "ity, Oara, (hi"h ! de$pite being Catholi" ! threatened the Adriati" trading 'onopolie$ of +eni"e# Bollo(ing thi$ the "r&$ader$ (ere ta:en to ByFanti&' (here in -20; they began to be$iege Con$tantinople, be"a&$e the e'peror had re"ently $igned a trading pa"t (ith the Cenoe$e, rival$ to the +enetian$# ?nder the g&i$e of a$:ing for 'oney and $&pplie$ to pro"eed to the =oly Land, the "r&$ader$ be"a'e i'patient (ith the inhabitant$G &n(illingne$$ to "o'ply (ith their re)&e$t$ and too: the "ity by $tor'# >he Latin ,ingdo' of Con$tantinople, (hi"h they e$tabli$hed there, la$ted &ntil -20- (hen an atta": fro' the exiled ByFantine e'peror, 2i"hael +III *alaeolog&$, a"ting in "on"ert (ith the Cenoe$e, re$tored Con$tantinople to the ByFantine E'pire# >he rift$ bet(een ByFanti&' and the 7e$t, and bet(een Cree: and 5o'an Chri$tianitie$, (o&ld never be healed# >he re$&lt of the Bo&rth Cr&$ade ex"ited fe( in E&rope, ex"ept for the +enetian$# *ope Inno"ent III (a$ e$pe"ially di$plea$ed# Bore$eeing the proble'$ thi$ 'i$g&ided "a'paign 'ight "a&$e, he (rote the follo(ing in a letter to the papal legate (ho (ent (ith the "r&$ader$3 =o(, indeed, i$ the Cree: "h&r"h to be bro&ght ba": into e""le$ia$ti"al &nion and to a devotion for the Apo$toli" See (hen $he ha$ been be$et (ith $o 'any affli"tion$ and per$e"&tion$ that $he $ee$ in the Latin$ only an exa'ple of perdition and the (or:$ of dar:ne$$, $o that $he no(, and (ith rea$on, dete$t$ the Latin$ 'ore than dog$M A$ for tho$e (ho (ere $&ppo$ed to be $ee:ing the end$ of Ae$&$ Chri$t, not their o(n end$, (ho$e $(ord$, (hi"h they (ere $&ppo$ed to &$e
0,MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

again$t the pagan$, are no( dripping (ith Chri$tian blood they have $pared neither age nor $ex 6Aa'e$ Br&ndage, T%e Crusades- A *ocumentar# &istor# R2il(a&:ee, 7I3 2ar)&ette ?niver$ity *re$$, -.02S, 2091 20.8# =e "ertainly had "a&$e for anger and (a$ a(are that the "r&$ading ideal, to (in ba": the =oly Land, had lo$t it$ "redibility# It be"a'e in"rea$ingly diffi"&lt, too, to get $oldier$ to fight again$t non!Chri$tian$ in the =oly Land, and the proble'$ of their being diverted on their (ay to (age (ar again$t other Chri$tian$ only added to the diffi"&ltie$# >here (ere fe( "r&$ade$ in the thirteenth "ent&ry ! they (ere al'o$t al(ay$ &n$&""e$$f&l and often

e'barra$$ed the "h&r"h that, in gro(ing de$peration, "ontin&ed to "all for the'# So'e, $&"h a$ the ChildrenG$ Cr&$ade of -2-2, (here a large n&'ber of adole$"ent and ad&lt pea$ant$ tho&ght that they "o&ld $i'ply defeat the 2&$li'$ (ith their I"hildli:eJ faith, (ere $topped by the pope and other e""le$ia$ti"al leader$ before they got too far ! Italy in the "a$e of the ChildrenG$ Cr&$ade# Other$ (ere K&$t poorly planned and exe"&ted, in"l&ding tho$e of Andre( II, the :ing of =&ngary, and Leopold +I, the D&:e of A&$tria, in -2- 1-2-.H tho$e of E'peror Brederi": II in -22 and -229H or tho$e of Lo&i$ IE in -2<91-2/0 and -2/<# Of "o&r$e, there (ere $o'e vi"torie$, $&"h a$ Leopold +IG$ "apt&re of the Egyptian "ity of Da'ietta in -2-. and it$ re"apt&re by Lo&i$ IE in -2<9 ! in bet(een tho$e t(o "on)&e$t$, it had been reta:en by the Egyptian$ in -22- ! or the re"apt&re of an &npop&lated and dereli"t Aer&$ale' by Brederi": II in -229 ! it (a$ lo$t again in -2<<# B&t the$e did not o&t(eigh the large n&'ber of defeat$ that (ere $&ffered, the greate$t of (hi"h (a$ probably in -2/0 (hen ,ing Lo&i$ IE and hi$ entire ar'y (ere ta:en pri$oner by the Egyptian$, ne"e$$itating the pay'ent of a h&ge ran$o' for their freedo'# >he Chri$tian$ (ere not even able to ta:e advantage of the 2ongol inva$ion of the 2&$li' 2iddle Ea$t in the 'iddle of the thirteenth "ent&ry# >he 2ongol$ "on)&ered all of >&r:ey, *er$ia, and Syria, de$troying Aleppo, Da'a$"&$, and Baghdad, b&t (ithdre( fro' the 2iddle Ea$t before atta":ing any of the "r&$ader holding$ (hen "onfli"t$ of inheritan"e and leader$hip aro$e a'ong the'# On"e the 2&$li'$ had re"overed fro' the 2ongol defeat$, they on"e again t&rned their attention to the re'aining "r&$ader holding$# >he re$ident "r&$ader$ "o&ld do little# By the end of the thirteenth "ent&ry, (ith no $ign of reinfor"e'ent$ fro' E&rope, the re'aining "r&$ader :ingdo'$ began to fall3 in -20/ Cae$area, =aifa,
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 0,.

and Ar$&f (ere ta:enH in -209 Antio"h fellH in -29. >ripoli (a$ "apt&redH and finally, in -2.- the la$t of the "r&$ader :ingdo'$ di$appeared (hen A"re fell to the Egyptian$# >he thirteenth "ent&ry $a( a $hift in prioritie$ and "r&$ade$ (ere "alled not to the =oly Land b&t to pla"e$ in E&rope# >(o of the$e are (ell :no(n3 the fir$t a $&""e$$f&l "r&$ade again$t the Albigen!$ian$, a hereti"al Chri$tian $e"t living in $o&thern Bran"e, (hi"h too: pla"e bet(een -20. and -22.H and the $e"ond again$t the people of *r&$$ia and Livonia, Balti" "oa$tal land$ (ho$e inhabitant$ had never a""epted Chri$tianity# >o fight the Balti" Cr&$ade$, the >e&toni" ,night$ $hifted their e'pha$i$ a(ay fro' the =oly Land to northea$tern E&rope# >hi$ "r&$ade, (hi"h began in -220, did not end &ntil the early $ixteenth "ent&ry (hen the 5efor'ation and Cer'an nationali$' red&"ed the politi"al role of the >e&toni" Order to nothing# =o(ever, the "all for "r&$ade "ontin&ed (ell into the early 'odern era# By the end of the 2iddle Age$ every :ing agreed, in prin"iple, to parti"ipate in a "r&$ade, only $&b$e)&ently to brea: hi$ pro'i$e# In addition, by the 'iddle of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry a ne( I$la'i" foe appeared in the 2iddle Ea$t, the Otto'an >&r:$# >heir pre$en"e in the ea$tern 2editerranean altered the balan"e of po(er there and thro&gho&t $o&thea$tern E&rope and the 2iddle Ea$t# Even before the end of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry they had o""&pied not only the =oly Land and A$ia 2inor b&t had al$o $o&ndly defeated a large Anglo!Bran"o!B&rg&ndian!=&ngarian for"e at the Battle of %i"opoli$ in -;.0# %or did their "on)&e$t$ end there ! they "apt&red Egypt, the Sa&di penin$&la, and 'o$t of %orth Afri"a, and they too: Con$tantinople in -</; and =&ngary in -/20# Even (hen they (ere defeated, for exa'ple at the $iege of +ienna in -/2., at 2alta in -/0/, and at the naval battle of Lepanto in -/ -, they re'ained a potent and dangero&$ foe# E&ropean 7arfare in the >(elfth and >hirteenth Cent&rie$ Bollo(ing 7illia' the Con)&erorG$ vi"tory at the Battle of =a$ting$ he 'ar"hed dire"tly to the "apital, London, and in a very $hort period e$tabli$hed hi$ r&le over the entire :ingdo'# >he death of =arold at =a$ting$ (a$ i'portant a$ it 'eant that there (a$ nobody to rally $&pport for rebellion, b&t even 'ore $ignifi"ant (a$ the politi"al and 'ilitary ad'ini$tration that 7illia' )&i":ly p&t into pla"e#
00, MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

=e al$o re(arded all tho$e (ho (ere faithf&l to hi' and tho$e (ho had di$ting&i$hed the'$elve$ in the "on)&e$t (ith land$, title$, and lord$hip$ ! hi$ I"o'panion$,J faithf&l to hi' a$ their leader, and obligated to hi' for their title$ and land# B&t (hen 7illia' died in -09 , there (a$ $o'e "onf&$ion over (hi"h of hi$ three $on$ $ho&ld r&le over England and %or'andy# Strangely, at lea$t to 'odern hi$torian$, 7illia' had na'ed hi$ elde$t $on, 5obert, a$ D&:e of %or'andy and hi$ $e"ond $on, 7illia' 5&f&$, a$ ,ing of England# 7hy had he $plit hi$ holding$M And (hy had he given hi$ elde$t $on the D&"hy of %or'andy and hi$ $e"ond $on the ,ingdo' of England, (hi"h, if not a 'ore i'portant politi"al entity, (a$ "ertainly one 'ore independent fro' the Bren"h "ro(nM I$ it po$$ible, a$ $o'e hi$torian$ a$$ert, that he $a( in 7illia' 5&f&$ a $tronger leader than 5obertM It i$ an intere$ting )&e$tion, b&t one that i$ largely &ni'portant a$, (ithin a fe( year$, it t&rned o&t that the $tronge$t of all three of 7illia'G$ $on$ (a$ a"t&ally hi$ yo&nge$t $on, =enry# Bir$t, =enry too: over the Engli$h throne (hen 7illia' (a$ :illed in a h&nting a""ident# =e then defeated

hi$ brother 5obert at the Battle of >in"hebrai in --0. and too: over the D&"hy of %or'andy# Later, he proved hi$ 'ilitary pro(e$$ and hi$ "lai' to hi$ fatherG$ territorie$ by defeating hi$ nephe(, 7illia' of Clito 65obertG$ $on8, at the Battle of Bre'Xle, de$pite the pre$en"e of the Bren"h :ing, Lo&i$ +I, in $&pport of 7illia'# =e al$o p&t do(n an &pri$ing a'ong hi$ Engli$h noble$ at the Battle of %orthallerton in --;9 6al$o :no(n a$ the Battle of the Standard8# >he "on"ept of the Idivine rightJ to r&le 'ight have prevented the latter "onfli"t, a$ it had $o often :ept the Bren"h :ing fro' noble &pri$ing$, b&t it had never been de"lared in England# %or (a$ it ever a":no(ledged# A$ a re$&lt, al'o$t every Engli$h :ing d&ring the 2iddle Age$ (a$ for"ed to "ontend (ith baronial revolt$ and "ivil (ar# >he earlie$t, and perhap$ 'o$t 'ilitarily $ignifi"ant of the$e, "a'e at the death of =enry I (hen a di$p&te aro$e over (ho (o&ld $&""eed hi'# =enryG$ na'ed heir, hi$ nephe( Stephen, (a$ i''ediately oppo$ed by =enryG$ da&ghter, 2athilda, (ho had a n&'ber of Engli$h noble $&pporter$# 7hat re$&lted (a$ a deva$tating "ivil (ar that la$ted fro' --;. to --/;# A $e"ond exa'ple of thi$ type of baronial "hao$ o""&rred in -2-/ d&ring the reign of ,ing Aohn (hen the lord$ of England for"ed their 'onar"h to $ign the 2agna Carta, (hi"h a(arded the' "ertain po(er$ over the :ing, a 'ove provo:ed by AohnG$ ab&$e of taxation and the lo$$ of 'o$t of the Engli$h land$ in Bran"e# A third exa'ple (a$ d&ring the reign of AohnG$ $on, =enry III, (ho, de$pite $&rviving an earne$t effort to &n$eat hi' by one of
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 000

hi$ lord$, Si'on de 2ontfort, (a$ for"ed to $ign a(ay 'ore of hi$ po(er$ to the noble$ in the vario&$ a'ended ver$ion$ of the 2agna Carta that appeared fre)&ently thro&gho&t hi$ long reign# Event&ally thi$ in"l&ded the e$tabli$h'ent of the fir$t Engli$h parlia'ent# *&t $i'ply, (itho&t the Idivine rightJ to r&le provi$ion of the Bren"h :ing$, Engli$h :ing$ (ere for"ed to prove their 'ilitary leader$hip# >he $trong 'ilitary leader$, $&"h a$ =enry I, =enry II, and Ed(ard I, (ere able to en$&re pea"e at ho'e and (ere $&""e$$f&l abroadH (hile the (ea: 'ilitary leader$, li:e Stephen, Aohn, =enry III, or Ed(ard II, $&ffered internal &pri$ing$ at ho'e and, generally, lo$$e$ over$ea$# Be"a&$e of the prote"tion afforded by the Engli$h Channel, (hen the Engli$h (ere defeated by foreign po(er$ ! 'o$t often by the Bren"h ! the lo$$e$ (ere &$&ally at the expen$e of their holding$ on the "ontinent# A "&rio&$ $it&ation aro$e (hen 7illia' the Con!)&erer be"a'e :ing of England# A$ he (a$ al$o D&:e of %or'andy he (a$ obligated to do ho'age to the :ing of Bran"e for tho$e land$# *erhap$ thi$ i$ (hy 7illia' $eparated the t(o holding$ bet(een hi$ elde$t $on$ at hi$ death# B&t the t(o (ere re&nited by hi$ third $on, =enry I, at the t&rn of the t(elfth "ent&ry# B&rther'ore, (ith the $&""e$$ion of =enry II to the Engli$h throne after the death of Stephen ! the irony of thi$ being that =enry II (a$ the $on of 2athilda, StephenG$ foe thro&gho&t al'o$t hi$ entire reign ! the Co&nty of AnKo& in Bran"e (a$ al$o added to the Engli$h royal holding$, and (ith =enryG$ 'arriage to Eleanor of A)&itaine, $o too (a$ her inheritan"e, the d&"hie$ of A)&itaine and Ca$"ony and the "o&ntie$ of *onthie& and *oito&# >hi$ 'eant that (hen their $on, 5i"hard the Lionheart, be"a'e :ing of England in -09., he held 'ore land in Bran"e than all of the other Bren"h noble$ "o'bined, and "ertainly 'ore than the :ing *hilip A&g&$t&$ of Bran"e# Of "o&r$e, thi$ led to the diffi"&ltie$ bet(een tho$e t(o :ing$ on the >hird Cr&$ade, a$ already di$"&$$ed, and to *hilip atta":ing the$e land$ after he had ret&rned fro' the =oly Land# 5i"hard, on hi$ ret&rn fro' the "r&$ade$ and fro' hi$ i'pri$on'ent by the d&:e of A&$tria, $pent the re$t of hi$ life defending hi$ Bren"h holding$# =e died in -0.. after being $hot by a "ro$$bo( d&ring one of the$e (ar$# It (a$ Aohn, 5i"hardG$ brother and $&""e$$or, (ho lo$t the' in -2-< (hen hi$ ar'y (a$ $o&ndly defeated at the Battle of Bo&vine$ by *hilip A&g&$t&$ at the head of a for"e that in"l&ded the e'peror Otto I+ of Cer'any a$ (ell a$ 'any of the noble$ of Bran"e, the Lo( Co&ntrie$, and Cer'any# *hilipG$ i'pre$$ive vi"tory led to the "onfi$"ation of all of the other Engli$h land$ in Bran"e, ex"ept for
001 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

Ca$"ony, and for the next "ent&ry there (a$ relative pea"e bet(een the t(o :ingdo'$# Det thi$ (a$ not to be the la$t Anglo!Bren"h (ar, a$ the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar (o&ld prove# D&ring the =igh 2iddle Age$, de$pite being legally part of the =oly 5o'an E'pire, Italian$ fre)&ently $o&ght $elf!r&le, e$pe"ially after the tenth "ent&ry (hen the to(n$ of northern and "entral Italy be"a'e 'ore pop&lo&$ and (ealthier# 2oreover, only (hen a =oly 5o'an E'peror "o&ld g&arantee the $e"&rity of hi$ throne (o&ld he vent&re $o&th to Italy to p&t do(n any rebellion ! a rare o""&rren"e a$ they &$&ally la":ed any politi"al $e"&rity be"a&$e of the fa"t that they (ere ele"ted, $o'eti'e$ by only the $li''e$t of 'aKoritie$# >o travel to Italy (a$ al$o expen$ive, long, and diffi"&lt and, on"e on the other $ide of the Alp$, the ret&rn (a$ e)&ally expen$ive, long, and diffi"&lt# On the other hand, Italian "itie$ generally bro&ght h&ge a'o&nt$ of taxe$ into the I'perial "offer$, $o if an e'peror "o&ld 'ar"h into Italy and i'po$e, or rei'po$e, hi$ a&thority, it 'ight t&rn o&t to be a profitable

'ilitary endeavor# %or (a$ it &$&ally too diffi"&lt to p&t do(n an Italian rebellion on"e the Cer'an$ (ere thro&gh the Alp$ a$ any $oldier$ the Italian$ "o&ld '&$ter or pay for generally lo$t to the 'ore profe$$ional, 'ore experien"ed, 'ore $:illed, better led, and better ar'ed and ar'ored Cer'an $oldier$# >h&$, '&"h of the 'edieval hi$tory of the =oly 5o'an E'pire and Italy i$ intert(ined, e$pe"ially d&ring the =igh 2iddle Age$# D&ring thi$ period $o'e of the $tronge$t e'peror$ r&led, and, al'o$t al(ay$ (hen they did, a Cer'an ar'y "o&ld be fo&nd $o&th of the Alp$# >he be$t exa'ple of thi$ 'ay be E'peror Brederi": I Bar!baro$$a 6--221--.0, E'peror --<21--.08# By the ti'e Brederi": had been de$ignated a$ the $&""e$$or of E'peror Conrad III in --<2, he (a$ an experien"ed 'ilitary "o''ander# It 'ay in fa"t have been the 'ilitary leader$hip he $ho(ed in --<0 in p&tting do(n the in$&rre"tion of D&:e Conrad of OYhringen on behalf of Conrad III that led to hi$ being re"ogniFed a$ hi$ $&""e$$or, de$pite having no dire"t fa'ilial tie$ to hi'# >hi$ $a'e 'ilitary leader$hip 'ay al$o have been the rea$on for hi$ &nani'o&$ ele"tion, a rare event in 'edieval Cer'an politi"$# Be"a&$e of the $trength and the "ohe$ion of hi$ politi"al "ontrol in Cer'any, in --/< Brederi": Barbaro$$a led hi$ fir$t "a'paign $o&th of the Alp$ into Italy# It had been a (hile $in"e the Italian$ had fa"ed a 'ilitary threat fro' the north# %either of Brederi":G$ t(o prede"e$$or$, Lothair II and Conrad III, had proven $trong eno&gh to p&r$&e any 'ore than the 'o$t ten&o&$ diplo'ati" "onne"tion$
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 00'

(ith the inhabitant$ of Italy, leaving the', e$pe"ially tho$e in the northern and "entral to(n$, to virt&ally r&le the'$elve$# =o(ever, it (a$ not only allegian"e to the =oly 5o'an E'pire that had (aned d&ring thi$ periodH the "olle"tion of taxe$ and other d&tie$ had al'o$t "o'pletely "ea$ed, (hile the pa$$e$ thro&gh the Alp$ had be"o'e $o infe$ted (ith band$ of o&tla($, that fe( trader$, pilgri'$, "h&r"h'en, or other traveler$ "o&ld pa$$ thro&gh the' (itho&t being hara$$ed to pay for prote"tion# By --/< Brederi": "ertainly (anted to $olve the$e proble'$, bring Italy ba": into &nion (ith the re$t of the =oly 5o'an E'pire, "lear &p the la(le$$ne$$ of the Alpine pa$$e$, and "olle"t the o&t$tanding taxe$# If he tho&ght he "o&ld do all of thi$, ho(ever, then hi$ fir$t expedition into Italy '&$t be K&dged a fail&re, for altho&gh he (a$ able to 'ar"h hi$ ar'ie$ all the (ay to 5o'e, rea"hing there in the 'iddle of --//, he did not bring the rebellio&$ for"e$ in the north to heel, e$pe"ially not the 2ilane$e or their allie$# %or "o&ld he even bring pea"e a'ong the fa"tion$ in 5o'eH altho&gh he did $&""eed in being "ro(ned =oly 5o'an E'peror by *ope Adrian I+, on -9 A&ne, before ret&rning to Cer'any# >hat the to(n of 2ilan led thi$ rebellion i$ not $&rpri$ing (hen one realiFe$ that it$ (ealth (a$ derived largely fro' it$ "ontrol of 'o$t of the Alpine pa$$e$ ! anyone (ho (i$hed to travel along tho$e trea"hero&$ ro&te$ had to pa$$ thro&gh 2ilan# >hi$ 'eant that the to(n (a$ al'o$t al(ay$ tee'ing (ith pilgri'$ and trader$, (ho $pent large a'o&nt$ on ho&$ing, tran$portation, g&ide$, g&ard$, and vi"t&al$ fro' the 2ilane$e 'er"hant$# >hi$ (ealth tran$lated, a$ it often did el$e(here in the 2iddle Age$, into a de$ire for $overeignty# Bre)&ently, thi$ p&t the 2ilane$e at odd$ (ith their Cer'an lord$# Before Brederi": Barbaro$$a, perhap$ the 'o$t fa'o&$ "a$e (a$ the to(n leader$hipG$ oppo$ition to E'peror =enry I+ d&ring the $o!"alled Inve$tit&re Controver$y# In addition, the 2ilane$e al(ay$ $ee' to have been able to for"e other to(n$ in northern and "entral Italy to Koin their rebellion$, even tho$e that (o&ld have been better off had they $ided (ith 2ilanG$ opponent$ or, at lea$t, re'ained ne&tral# 7hen Barbaro$$a ret&rned north in --//, having failed to $e"&re 2ilanG$ $&bK&gation, hi$ Cer'an baron$ too: thi$ a$ a $ign of (ea:ne$$, and the re"ently "ro(ned =oly 5o'an E'peror (a$ $&ddenly fa"ed (ith having to )&ell di$$ent a'ong the', e$pe"ially by =enry the Lion, D&:e of Saxony and, fro' --/0, Bavaria# Event&ally, thro&gh diplo'ati" a$ (ell a$ 'ilitary 'ean$, Brederi": (a$ able to pla"ate or defeat all hi$ adver$arie$, and by --/9 thi$ had re$&lted in
00/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

an even $tronger 'ilitary pre$en"e in Cer'any and a rene(ed de$ire to ret&rn to Italy# Brederi":G$ $e"ond Italian "a'paign (a$ far 'ore $&""e$$f&l than hi$ fir$t had been# A'ong hi$ n&'ero&$ early vi"torie$, the greate$t &ndo&btedly (a$ the "apt&re of 2ilan, (hi"h fell to I'perial for"e$ on Septe'ber --/9 after a $hort $iege# Other rebellio&$ to(n$ fell )&i":ly into line# =o(ever, they (o&ld not $tay that (ay for long# >he pre'at&re death of *ope Adrian I+, (ho$e papa"y had $&pported Barbaro$$a, for"ed Brederi": to involve hi'$elf in a prolonged fight over papal $&""e$$ion# >hi$ di$tra"tion bro&ght f&rther in$&rre"tion, and the e'peror had to fight n&'ero&$ engage'ent$ again$t al'o$t all of the to(n$ in northern Italy and Lo'bardy, in"l&ding, again, 2ilan# >hi$ ti'e it (a$ not &ntil 2ar"h --02 that 2ilan on"e 'ore fell to Cer'an troop$# On"e Brederi": ret&rned to Cer'any, 2ilan and 'o$t of the re$t of Italy again de"lared their freedo',

for"ing the e'perorG$ third expedition $o&th of the Alp$ in --0;# On thi$ o""a$ion, hi$ ar'y fa"ed a ne( allian"e of earlier ene'ie$, the Lo'bard Leag&e# >he Lo'bard Leag&e had been for'ed initially by the $'aller to(n$ of +erona, +i"enFa, and *ad&a, b&t $oon 'ore $&b$tantial allie$ Koined3 +eni"e, Con$tantinople, and Si"ily# In the beginning, 2ilan $tayed o&t of the Leag&e, altho&gh probably 'ore o&t of fatig&e than any di$agree'ent (ith it$ anti!I'periali$t p&rpo$e# Ba"ing the &nity and 'ilitary $trength of the Lo'bard Leag&e, Brederi":G$ --0; "a'paign failed, a$ did hi$ fo&rth "a'paign in --00# In thi$ latter expedition, it (a$ not only the Italian$ (ho defeated the invading Cer'an$, b&t al$o di$ea$e, in parti"&lar fever, (hi"h al'o$t annihilated the'# Seeing their $&""e$$, the 2ilane$e Koined the Leag&e# *erhap$ be"a&$e of the $etba":$ of hi$ la$t t(o Italian "a'paign$, Brederi": Barbaro$$a did not "a'paign an ar'y in Italy again &ntil -- <, (hen he (ent there to prevent an allian"e bet(een the Lo'bard Leag&e and *ope Alexander III fro' for'ing# Altho&gh never a friend or $&pporter of Brederi":, $in"e he (a$ na'ed pope in --/., Alexander had re'ained ne&tral in the affair$ of northern Italy# In -- < he began to entertain the Lo'bard Leag&eG$ petition$ for allian"e, and (ith it, obvio&$ly, papal approval for their rebellion# S&"h an arrange'ent (a$ not in Brederi":G$ intere$t, and he (a$ deter'ined to $top it# 7hen he (a$ &nable to do $o diplo'ati"ally, he began a ne( "a'paign# Bro' -- < to -- 0 Brederi": Ko&rneyed aro&nd Italy, trying hi$ be$t, tho&gh in vain, to defeat the Lo'bard Leag&e# By -- 0 he had be"o'e fr&$trated at the la": of progre$$ he
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 00+

had 'ade3 the Italian$ had not been pa"ified, nor had the pope ba":ed do(n in hi$ $&pport of the'# =e pre$$ed on (ith hi$ "a'paign, b&t in doing $o he $&ffered perhap$ hi$ greate$t defeat on 2. 2ay (hen a "o'bined for"e of 2ilane$e, Bre$"ian$, and +erone$e $oldier$ "r&$hed a $'aller Cer'an ar'y at the Battle of Legnano, nearly :illing the e'peror in the fighting# By O"tober -- 0 Brederi": (a$ for"ed to $ign the >reaty of Anagni (ith Alexander III, re"ogniFing hi' a$ pope and giving hi' a large n&'ber of "on"e$$ion$# And the follo(ing 2ay, Brederi": $igned the >reaty of +eni"e, 'a:ing a tr&"e (ith the Lo'bard Leag&e and the ,ingdo' of Si"ily# Over the next fe( year$, he (a$ for"ed to be"o'e 'ore involved in affair$ in Cer'any# Another "a'paign thro&gh the Alp$ (a$, at lea$t for the 'o'ent, &nthin:able, and in A&ne --9; the e'peror on"e 'ore 'ade pea"e (ith the Lo'bard Leag&e, in the >reaty of Con$tan"e, (hi"h granted nearly "o'plete $overeignty to it$ 'e'ber$# Altho&gh Brederi": and $o'e of hi$ $&""e$$or$ (o&ld ret&rn to Italy, 'o$t notably Brederi": II 6E'peror -2-21-2/08, they (ere never able to brea: the de$ire for independen"e a'ong tho$e to(n$ that had experien"ed thi$ $elf! governan"e# *ea"e (a$ not to be had in Italy, ho(ever# On"e the "o''on ene'y in the =oly 5o'an E'peror had been pa"ified, the Italian$ $ettled into an al'o$t "on$tant $tate of "ivil (ar# >(o partie$ had for'ed in the (ar$ (ith Brederi": Barbaro$$a, the Chibelline$ ! (ho $&pported the e'peror ! and the C&elf$ ! (ho $&pported the pope# After the t&rn of the thirteenth "ent&ry, divi$ion$ along the$e party line$ be"a'e fier"e, $plitting region$, "itie$, and people# Soon C&elf "itie$ oppo$ed Chibelline "itie$ and vi"e ver$a, and thi$ oppo$ition often led to (arfare# One of the 'o$t violent of the$e "onfli"t$ (a$ the de"ade!long (ar fo&ght bet(een Bloren"e 6C&elf8 and Siena 6Chibelline8 fro' -2/0 to -200# Binally, after $everal $'aller expedition$ again$t ea"h other had failed to bring any "on"l&$ion to their ho$tility, the Battle of 2ontaperti (a$ fo&ght, and the Siene$e defeated the larger Blorentine for"e$# A very pre"ario&$ pea"e follo(ed, b&t later in the "ent&ry (ar bro:e o&t on"e 'ore, b&t thi$ ti'e the Blorentine$ defeated their Siene$e opponent$ in -29. at the battle$ of Ca'paldino and Caprona# B&t thi$ vi"tory over the I'perial $&pporter$ did not $ati$fy the Blorentine$, and in -;00 they divided into the Bla": C&elf$ ! tho$e (ho "ontin&ed to $&pport the pope ! and the 7hite C&elf$ ! tho$e (ho $o&ght $elf!r&le# Bighting even bro:e o&t in the $treet$# 7ar had be"o'e ende'i" to Italy (ith perhap$
00) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

the only &nified re$olve (a$ the idea that f&t&re (ar$ (ere to be fo&ght not by Italian "itiFen$ b&t by paid $oldier$ fro' o&t$ide Italy, the "ondottieri# >a"ti"$, Strategy, ,nighthood, and Chivalry >he (aging of (arfare on the E&ropean "ontinent at the ti'e of the "r&$ade$ did not differ fro' that (aged in the =oly Land# All E&ropean po(er$, of any $iFe ! in"l&ding the 'ore "entral land$ of Bran"e, England, Italy, and the =oly 5o'an E'pire and the frontier land$ of ByFanti&', S"andinavia, S"otland, Iberia, =&ngary, and the vario&$ Balti" and Bal:an land$ ! had adopted "avalry a$ their pri'ary for"e by thi$ ti'e# Altho&gh the n&'ber of hor$e'en in any ar'y never ex"eeded the n&'ber of infantry, it (a$ the 'ilitary do'inan"e of the "avalry that for'ed the ta"ti"al, $trategi", and "hivalri" poli"ie$ of the period#

In battle$, "avalry $oldier$ $ho(ed the "onfiden"e of their $:ill, (ealth, and, often, nobility# It (a$ a "onfiden"e borne al$o by their n&'ber$, the $trength of their ar'or, the inten$ity of their training, their di$"ipline, the "lo$ene$$ of their for'ation, and an a""&'&lation of their vi"torie$# A'broi$e, the late t(elfth!"ent&ry poeti" %or'an "hroni"ler, de$"ribe$ their 'ilitary pre$en"e on the battlefield3 T%e most )eautiful C%ristian warriors T%at ever saw t%e people of eart%. T%e# were serried in t%eir ranks As if t%e# were people forged in iron. T%e )attle line was wide and strong And could well sustain fierce attacks0 And t%e rearguard was so full >f good knig%ts t%at it was difficult To see t%eir %eads If not %ig%er up0 It was not possi)le to t%row a prune ,.cept on mailed and armored men 6A'broi$e, T%e Crusade of +ic%ard /ion"&eart tran$# 2# A# =&bert and A# L# La'onte R%e( Dor:3 Col&'bia ?niver$ity *re$$, -.<-S8# 7hen for'ed into a tightly pa":ed, (ell!di$"iplined, and trained &nit, "alled by different na'e$ thro&gho&t the 2iddle Age$ !
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 00(

?c%elle consta)ularium )ataille and conrois " "avalry "o&ld "harge (ith great for"e and organiFation# >o $tand again$t the' too: great "o&rage and only a fe( infantry $oldier$ of the =igh 2iddle Age$ $ee'ed to have po$$e$$ed it# Con$e)&ently, battle$ of the period (ere often fo&ght by "avalry again$t other "avalry# Do'inant on the battlefield for $o long, infantry, for thi$ 'o'ent in hi$tory, too: a $e"ondary role# >he di$"ipline of "avalry for"e$, and $o'eti'e$ their training, (a$ largely dependent on their leader$hip# A good leader 'o$t often led hi$ hor$ed troop$ to vi"tory, a bad leader often to defeat# D&ring the period of "avalry battlefield do'ination, leader$hip (a$ often deter'ined by 'ilitary obligation, and 'ilitary obligation (a$ ba$ed on (hat ha$ be$t been ter'ed Ithe fe&do!va$$ali" $y$te'#J ?nder thi$ $y$te', all 'en (ere IobligatedJ to perfor' 'ilitary $ervi"e to the lord$ (ho o(ned or "ontrolled the fief$ on (hi"h they lived and fro' (hi"h they derived their e"ono'i" livelihood$# >here (a$ no &nifor'ity in the$e obligation$# >er'$ of fe&do!va$$ali" re$pon$ibilitie$ differed (ith nearly every "ontra"t 'ade bet(een lord and va$$al# Bor exa'ple, in 'edieval 5o'ania, $ervi"e (a$ given &ntil the age of $ixty, &nle$$ repla"ed by a $&itable heir before then, and "on$i$ted of fo&r 'onth$ of the year $pent in "a$tle d&ty, fo&r 'onth$ $pent in the field, and fo&r 'onth$ at ho'e# And in the Latin ,ingdo' of Aer&$ale', 'ilitary $ervi"e (a$ for the entire year &ntil death# O&t$ide of the$e 'ore (ar!torn region$, ho(ever, fe&do!va$$ali" 'ilitary $ervi"e (a$ '&"h $horter, &$&ally being re)&ired only in defen$ive $it&ation$ ! (hen $oldier$ (ere re)&ired for 'ilitia d&ty ! or (hen the lord (ho (a$ o(ed the obligation de$ired to go on "a'paign# ?nder a parti"&larly belli"o$e leader, thi$ 'ight 'ean a 'ilitary $ervi"e that "o&ld la$t '&"h of the year for 'any year$ in a ro(, (hile &nder a (ea:er, 'ore pea"ef&l leader there (a$ a li:elihood of never being re)&ired to perfor' 'ilitary d&tie$# 7hen $&''oned for d&ty, a 'edieval $oldier (a$ re)&ired to bring hi'$elf and, if he had the', hi$ retin&e and to pay for al'o$t all of the ar'$, ar'or, hor$e$, and provi$ion$ needed to $&$tain the' on their "a'paign or in their fortifi"ation# >heoreti"ally thi$ 'eant that no paid 'edieval ar'y (a$ needed d&ring the =igh 2iddle Age$# In reality, ho(ever, to fill o&t their n&'ber$, 'o$t 'edieval 'ilitary leader$ had to 'a:e pro'i$e$ of finan"ial $&pport or rei'b&r$e'ent for lo$t reven&e$ or ani'al$ to tho$e "alled into $ervi"e# Even thi$ did not al(ay$ (or:# Bor exa'ple, in -;00, (hen Ed(ard I "alled hi$ already fatig&ed fe&dal levy to 'ilitary $ervi"e, only forty :night$ and ;00 $ergeant$ re$ponded, and Ed(ard had to give &p
00MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

any tho&ght$ of (ar that year# At ti'e$, 'edieval for"e$ (ere al$o $&pple'ented (ith 'er"enarie$# Still, de$pite the i'portan"e pla"ed on the' by 'any 'ilitary hi$torian$, battle$ (ere infre)&ent d&ring the =igh 2iddle Age$# Large 'edieval land battle$ (ere &$&ally only fo&ght (hen one po(er (a$ invading or

trying to $te' an inva$ion ! for exa'ple Sta'ford Bridge 6-0008, =a$ting$ 6-0008, 2anFi:ert 6-0 -8, %orthallerton 6--;98, Ar$&f 6--.-8, and Bal:ir: 6-2.98 ! or (hen leading or en"o&ntering rebellion$, for exa'ple Ca$$el 6-0 -8, the El$ter 6-0908, BrN'&le 6---.8, Bo&rgthNrolde 6--2<8, Lin"oln 6--<-8, Legnano 6-- 08, *ar'a 6-2<98, Bo&vine$ 6-2-<8, Le(e$ 6-20<8, Eve$ha' 6-20/8, Benevento 6-2008, and >aglia"oFFo 6-2098# Leader$ only very rarely fo&ght 'ore than one large battle ! for exa'ple, :ing$ 7illia' the Con)&eror and =enry I, and e'peror$ =enry I+ and Brederi": II ! and then, it $ee'$, only (hen ego too: the pla"e of "a&tion# Often a leader fl&$hed (ith vi"tory in one battle 'et defeat in a follo(ing battle, $&"h a$ =arold Cod(in$on, Si'on de 2ontfort, and 7illia' 7alla"e# Even that reno(ned 'edieval $oldier, 5i"hard the Lion!heart, (a$ only involved in three pit"hed battle$ d&ring hi$ "areer, in"l&ding tho$e fo&ght d&ring the >hird Cr&$ade# In reality, the $iege (a$ al'o$t al(ay$ far 'ore i'portant and profitable for 'edieval leader$ for 'a:ing "on)&e$t$ and "apt&ring land# A leader a$ 'ilitarily a$t&te a$ ,ing *hilip II 6A&g&$t&$8 fo&ght only one 'aKor battle d&ring hi$ lengthy reign over Bran"e, the battle of Bo&vine$ in -2-<, (hi"h in fa"t "o&ld be $aid to have profited hi' very little a$ far a$ a"t&al land gain$# Det hi$ $iege$ of notable fortifi"ation$ and to(n$ thro&gho&t AnKo&, %or'andy, and A)&itaine bro&ght hi' nearly all of the IEngli$hJ land$ in Bran"e, ex"ept for Ca$"ony# Intere$tingly, a 'edieval battle, (hile e"ono'i"ally very expen$ive to fight, did not often re$&lt in 'any death$# A$ "avalry began to deter'ine (hat o""&rred in 'edieval "onfli"t$ $o'e ti'e after the ri$e of the Carolingian$, battlefield death$ be"a'e le$$ fre)&ent, a$ the ran$o'ing of I:night$J and other "avalry $oldier$ began to bring a large profit to anyone (ho "o&ld "apt&re one# At the Battle of Bo&!vine$, for exa'ple, fe(er than 200 Allied and only t(o Bren"h :night$ (ere :illed, altho&gh perhap$ a$ 'any a$ <0,000 fo&ght in the "onfli"t, (hile at the battle of BrN'&le, Orderi" +itali$ report$ that altho&gh Inine h&ndred :night$ (ere engaged, only three (ere :illed,J $o'ething he attrib&te$ to the fa"t that IChri$tian $oldier$ did not thir$t for the blood of their brother$J 6Orderi" +itali$, T%e ,cclesiastical &istor# of >rderic @italis, ed# and tran$# 2arKorie Chibnall
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 00.

ROxford3 Clarendon *re$$, -. 9S, +I3008# Other high 'edieval battle$ had $i'ilar lo( n&'ber$ of death$# >hi$ "o&ld be a$"ribed to the pri'ary &$e of $hort!range (eapon$ in the$e battle$ ! the $pear4 lan"e, $(ord, and 'a"e ! a$ "ontrol of oneG$ (eaponry (a$ ne"e$$ary for the ability to pre$erve opponent$ for ran$o'# =o(ever, the non:illing attit&de of $oldier$ to(ard their ene'ie$ $ee'$ far 'ore i'portant, a$ later high death rate$ &$ing $hort!range (eapon$ at the battle$ of Co&rtrai 6-;028 and %i"opoli$ 6-;.08 (o&ld $ho(# >hro&gho&t the eleventh and t(elfth "ent&rie$, :nighthood (a$ being in$tit&ted thro&gho&t E&rope# Called a miles in Latin, c%evalier in Bran"e, ritter in the =oly 5o'an E'pire, ca)allero in Spani$h, and knig%t in Engli$h, initially tho$e $o elevated (ere noble$ (ho$e land, (ealth, title, and $tat&$ di$ting&i$hed the' fro' ordinary $oldier$# It i$ diffi"&lt to :no( exa"tly (hen the pra"ti"e of 'a:ing :night$ began or (here it originated# %o do"&'ent exi$t$ that indi"ate$ ho( or (hy the fir$t :night$ (ere 'ade, altho&gh it $ee'$ 'ore than li:ely that 'edieval :night$ (ere the re$&lt of evol&tion rather than revol&tion, 'eaning that they "a'e to exi$t a$ they (ere in the high and later 2iddle Age$, not all at on"e, b&t over a long period of ti'e# ,night$ (ere, a$ the ter'$ de$"ribing the' often "onfir'ed, "avalry, and they had fe( other d&tie$ than to perfor' a$ hor$e'en in battle# =o(ever, before too long, 'ore re)&ire'ent$ (ere pla"ed on the' (ith the re$&lt that :night$ began to be 'ore di$tin"t than other "avalry $oldier$# Altho&gh all :night$ re'ained "avalry $oldier$, not all "avalry $oldier$ (ere :night$# >o be a :night 'eant that one had to earn the title thro&gh $:ill and a"tion di$played in (arfare or to&rna'ent$# Of "o&r$e, (ar$ (ere not (aged often, and battle$ fo&ght even le$$ often# So "avalry pra"ti"e had to be done el$e(here, and training a""o''odated by other 'ean$# >hi$ began early in a pro$pe"tive :nightG$ life, if he (a$ a noble# =i$ tea"her in thi$ endeavor (o&ld be a :night hi'$elf, often the boyG$ father, if not a relative or "lo$e friend# =e (a$ trained in riding a hor$e, "o&"hing a lan"e, &$ing hi$ $(ord fro' hor$eba":, and $o'eti'e$ even thro(ing a Kavelin or $pear fro' hor$eba":# >hi$ (a$ $&pple'ented by training in the &$e of (eapon$ (hen fighting on foot# 5oger of =ove!den de$"ribe$ thi$ :nightly ed&"ation, in thi$ "a$e to the $on$ of ,ing =enry II of England3 >hey $trove to o&tdo the other$ in handling (eapon$# >hey realiFed that (itho&t pra"ti"e the art of (ar did not "o'e nat&rally (hen it (a$ needed# %o athlete "an fight tena"io&$ly (ho ha$ never re"eived
01, MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

any blo($3 he '&$t $ee hi$ blood flo( and hear hi$ teeth "ra": &nder the fi$t of hi$ adver$ary, and (hen he i$ thro(n to the gro&nd he '&$t fight on (ith all hi$ 'ight and not lo$e "o&rage# >he oftener he fall$, the 'ore deter'inedly he '&$t $pring to hi$ feet again# Anyone (ho "an do that "an engage in battle "onfidently# Strength gained by pra"ti"e i$ inval&able3 a $o&l $&bKe"t to terror ha$ fleeting glory# =e (ho i$ too (ea: to

bear thi$ b&rden, thro&gh no fa&lt of hi$ o(n, (ill be over"o'e by it$ (eight, no 'atter ho( eagerly he 'ay r&$h to the ta$:# >he pri"e of $(eat i$ (ell paid (here the >e'ple$ of +i"tory $tand 65oger of =oveden, C%ronica ed# 7# St&bb$ RLondon, -90.S, II3-001-0 8# *erhap$ the be$t pla"e$ for a yo&ng :night or $)&ire 6a :night in training8 to pra"ti"e the art of "avalry (arfare (a$ the to&rna'ent# 7hen and (here the fir$t to&rna'ent (a$ held i$ &n:no(n# 5e"ent eviden"e ha$ $&gge$ted that it 'ight have been a$ early a$ the beginning of the eleventh "ent&ry# Certainly by the early t(elfth "ent&ry, they (ere being held every(here in E&rope# By that ti'e they had al$o "a&ght the i'agination of 'any (riter$ and arti$t$, and thi$ (o&ld per$i$t thro&gho&t the re$t of the 2iddle Age$# Early to&rna'ent$ (ere 'o$tly 'elee$, (here tea'$ of "avalry fo&ght a 'o": battle over a large field# 2&"h of the fighting in the$e $ee'$ to have been (ith $(ord$ and 'a"e$# >he earlie$t to&rna'ent$ 'ight even have been held before lan"e$ (ere "o&"hed ! indeed, to&rna'ent$ 'ay (ell have pop&lariFed the &$e of thi$ 'ethod of "avalry "o'bat# Event&ally, the Ko&$t be"a'e 'ore pro'inent than the 'elee# D&ring the la$t t(o "ent&rie$ of the 2iddle Age$ 'elee$ virt&ally di$appeared# In Ko&$t$, t(o rider$ divided by a barrier (o&ld approa"h ea"h other (ith "o&"hed lan"e$# *oint$ (ere a(arded for "onta"t (ith an opponentG$ ar'or, $hield, and hel'et# 5arely (a$ a :night &nhor$ed, a$ that (a$ tho&ght to be too life!threatening, b&t $ho&ld a lan"e $hatter (ith a&dien"e!plea$ing $pe"ial effe"t$, extra point$ 'ight be gained# So'e :night$ 'ade their na'e$ on the to&rna'ent "ir"&it# Individ&al$, $&"h a$ 7illia' 2ar$hal and ?lri"h von Lie"hten$tein, (ere reno(ned thro&gho&t E&rope for their Ko&$ting $:ill$, even having hi$torie$ (ritten abo&t the' ! a"t&ally ?lri"h von Lie"hten$tein (rote hi$ o(n# So'e $:illed Ko&$ter$ "o&ld al$o 'a:e a living on the to&rna'ent "ir"&it# +i"tor$ (o&ld profit fro' I(inningJ their opponent$G ar'or and hor$e, a$ the$e (ere al(ay$ offered ba": to their o(ner$ for a ran$o'# >here (ere al$o ti'e$ (hen the "h&r"h and vario&$ govern'ent$ tried to "ontrol to&rna'ent$, even prohibiting
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 010

the'# 5arely, tho&gh, did the$e ban$ la$t for long, a$ the &rge to Ko&$t, and to "elebrate Ko&$t$, (a$ $i'ply too $trong# ,nighthood al$o a")&ired it$ o(n "ode of "ond&"t, "alled I"hivalryJ by "onte'porarie$ a$ it applied to the hor$e'an, the c%evalier or :night# >he rea$on$ for the exi$ten"e of $&"h a "ode of 'artial honor are not :no(n# 7a$ it in$tit&ted by the "h&r"h at the ti'e of the "r&$ade$ a$ a 'ean$ of reg&lating the a"tion$ of the (arrior "la$$M Or (a$ it $o'ething (hi"h "a'e fro' (ithin, fro' a "la$$ of :night$ (ho de"ided they needed a $et of virt&o&$ )&alitie$ or a r&le of "ond&"t to off$et their belli"o$e a"tivitie$ and rep&tationM 7hile neither the origin nor the rea$on$ for "hivalryG$ exi$ten"e 'ay be "learly &nder$tood, the )&alitie$ that defined a "hivalri" :night are (ell :no(n# Aohn of Sali$b&ry en&'erated the' in the t(elfth "ent&ry3 Ra :nightG$ role i$S to defend the Ch&r"h, to a$$ail infidelity, to venerate the prie$thood, to prote"t the poor fro' inK&rie$, to pa"ify the provin"e, to po&r o&t their blood for their brother$ # # # and, if need be, to lay do(n their live$ 6Aohn of Sali$b&ry, (olicraticus ed# C# C# 7ebb ROxford3 Clarendon, -.0.S, II3-08# ,night$ (ere al$o to honor (o'en, (ho$e parti"ipation in the "ode (a$ to allo( their :night$ to give thi$ honor and to $&pport the' (ith love and, on 'any o""a$ion$, (ith $y'bol$ of their $&p!port ! a garter or $a$h# 2edieval "hivalry (a$ "ha'pioned not only by the brotherhood of :night$ b&t al$o by n&'ero&$ (or:$ of art and literat&re# A very large n&'ber of the Tales of Art%ur and %is Anig%ts of t%e +ound Ta)le (ere (ritten fro' the t(elfth to the fifteenth "ent&ry, rea"hing land$ and lang&age$ that no "o'parable nonreligio&$ text or genre of text had before# In an era before printing, $&"h a feat '&$t be "on$idered re'ar:able# It (a$ al$o &ndo&btedly $&$tained by fre)&ent profe$$ional $porting event$, to&rna'ent$, in (hi"h the :night$ often too: part# A52S A%D A52O5 >he $a#eu. Tapestr# At $o'e ti'e before -092 in the $o&th of England one of the 'o$t re'ar:able exa'ple$ of 7e$tern art (a$ prod&"ed# %o( :no(n a$
011 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

the $a#eu. Tapestr#, tho&gh in fa"t it i$ not $tri"tly a tape$try b&t an e'broidered linen $trip, it depi"t$ the event$ leading &p to D&:e 7illia' of %or'andyG$ inva$ion and the "on)&e$t of England in -000# 7hat i$ re'ar:able abo&t thi$ 'on&'ental (or:, it 'ea$&re$ $o'e 22< feet 609#;9 'eter$8 in length, i$ it$ depi"tion of the (hole panoply of the ar'ie$ of both %or'andy and England# It $ho($ not only the ar'$ and ar'or (orn and &$ed at the ti'e, b&t the battle $"ene$ give &$ $o'e of the be$t infor'ation (e have a$ to ho( ar'ie$ fo&ght in the eleventh "ent&ry# It i$ thi$ feat&re that i$, perhap$, 'o$t i'portant# ?$ing it (e "an begin

to $ee not only ho( the (ar$ of the de"ade$ before -000 (ere fo&ght b&t al$o ho( the fir$t "r&$ader$ (ent into battle again$t the 2&$li'$ at the end of the "ent&ry# >he $oldier$ depi"ted on the >ape$try are of three ba$i" type$# >he fir$t, the greater 'aKority, are $ho(n fighting on hor$eba": and (ear 'ail $hirt$ and hel'et$# 2o$t "arry :ite!$haped $hield$ and are ar'ed (ith $(ord$ and lan"e$ (hile a fe( "arry $o'e for' of "l&b or 'a"e# A $e"ond gro&p al$o (ear$ 'ail and hel'et$ b&t fight on foot (ith $(ord$# >he la$t gro&p, (ho al$o fight on foot, are ar'ed (ith bo($ and arro($ and are $ho(n (itho&t any prote"tive ar'or, 'ail, or hel'et$# Ea"h (ill be di$"&$$ed in detail# >he 'ail $hirt$, "alled ha&ber:$, $ho(n in the >ape$try "over the tor$o and ar'$ extending to K&$t above the elbo(# >he &pper part$ of the leg$ of the $oldier$ are al$o prote"ted (ith 'ail tho&gh (hether the$e are leg$ in the $a'e 'anner a$ the ar'$ and "o'pletely en"lo$e the thigh$ i$ not ea$y to deter'ine# =o(ever in the 'argin$ of the battle $"ene$ dead $oldier$ are $ho(n being $tripped of their ar'or and the$e (o&ld "onfir' that the 'ail (a$ K&$t a long $hirt rea"hing do(n to K&$t above the :nee, $plit at front and ba": to enable eno&gh 'ove'ent to (al: and ride a hor$e# >he (ay the leg$ are $ho(n "overed in 'ail i$ probably K&$t a "onvention of the >ape$try 'a:er$# >he hel'et$ (orn in the >ape$try are all very '&"h ali:e and are the type :no(n a$ $pangenhel', "on$i$ting of a (ide band that en"ir"le$ the head atta"hed to (hi"h are t(o narro( band$ ! one fro' front to ba":, the other fro' $ide to $ide ! (hi"h go over the head# >he re$&lting triang&lar!$haped $pa"e$ are then filled (ith iron plate$ tho&gh the exa'ple fro' Benty Crange, ad'ittedly '&"h earlier in date, i$ tho&ght to have been filled (ith horn# A proKe"tion, "alled the na$al, extend$ do(n fro' the front of the en"ir"ling band to "over the no$e# >hi$ for' of hel'et $ho($ $o'e $i'ilaritie$ to tho$e fo&nd at Benty Crange and the Coppergate $ite in Dor:,
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 01'

England, a$ (ell a$ hel'et$ fro' S"andinavia, and appear$ to have been (ide$pread thro&gho&t E&rope fro' the late 5o'an period# ?nfort&nately, the haphaFard (ay "olor$ are &$ed in the >ape$try 'ean$ it i$ not po$$ible to be "lear abo&t the 'aterial$ &$ed in their 'an&fa"t&re# ?nli:e the hel'et$ 'entioned earlier, tho$e $ho(n in the >ape$try are le$$ ro&nded and "o'e to a point at the top of the head# 2any of the $oldier$ are al$o (earing 'ail beneath their hel'et$ a$ an additional prote"tion# >ho&gh it ha$ been "lai'ed that thi$ 'ail 'ay be atta"hed to the lo(er rear of the hel'et and a"t $olely a$ a ne": defender, it i$ "lear that thi$ (a$ $eparate fro' the hel'et# >hi$ i$ "onfir'ed by the fa"t that (here a hel'et ha$ been di$pla"ed to one $ide or (here a hel'et i$ not being (orn the 'ail i$ $ho(n "overing the head a$ (ell a$ prote"ting both the front and ba": of the ne": ! e$$entially a 'ail Ihel'etJ or "oif# 7hether the "oif (a$ part of the 'ain body of the $hirt or i$ $eparate i$ not at all "lear, tho&gh later eviden"e (o&ld $&gge$t that the "oif (a$ atta"hed to the $hirt# An &n&$&al feat&re on 'any of the 'ail $hirt$ i$ a re"tang&lar pie"e, o&tlined (ith a different "olor, in the top front of the $hirt# >hi$ ha$ not been $ati$fa"torily explained b&t 'ay be additional prote"tion for the opening at the ne":# >he 'ail $hirt, "oif, and hel'et are &$&ally the only pie"e$ of ar'or (orn ! the lo(er leg$, feet, and hand$ are not nor'ally prote"ted in any (ay ! K&$t one or t(o fig&re$, &$&ally that of the D&:e, are $ho(n (ith 'ail prote"ting the lo(er li'b$# =o(ever, 'o$t of the 'o&nted $oldier$ are al$o "arrying a di$tin"tive :ite!$haped $hield ! ro&nded at the top and extending do(n to a point ! (hi"h al$o $erved a$ an effe"tive additional defen$e# 2ade of (ood, and probably "overed (ith leather, all appear to have a binding, po$$ibly of iron tho&gh thi$ "annot be proved, ro&nd the edge$# >ho&gh 'any are plain $o'e are de"orated (ith $'all di$"$, po$$ibly rivet head$, aro&nd a "entral bo$$# A $'all n&'ber have very $i'ple de$ign$ that 'ay have a"ted a$ an identifier of $o'e :ind ! the f&n"tion of heraldry at a later date ! tho&gh thi$ i$ p&re "onKe"t&re# Ea"h $hield i$ fitted (ith three $trap$ at the rear# In a"tion the left ar' (a$ in$erted thro&gh t(o $horter $trap$ and re$ted again$t a $'all internal pad# >he $hield "o&ld then be 'ane&vered effe"tively a$ a defen$e again$t both $(ord blo($ and arro($# A longer $trap (a$ &$ed to $ling the $hield over the left $ho&lder (hen not in &$e# Altho&gh thi$ type of $hield i$ 'o$tly $ho(n being &$ed by the 'o&nted $oldier$, $o'e (ere al$o &$ed by foot $oldier$ (ho "o&ld hold the' $ide by $ide to for' a I$hield (allJ for additional prote"tion#
01/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

>ho&gh the :ite $hape i$ &bi)&ito&$ there are a fe( exa'ple$ of the ro&nd $hield (ith a "entral bo$$# >he$e appear to have been &$ed ex"l&$ively by the Engli$h foot $oldier$ and, li:e the :ite!$haped $hield, they al$o appear to have their edge$ bo&nd (ith iron# >hey have very pro'inent bo$$e$ ! probably of iron a$ in 'any ex"avated exa'ple$# It i$ po$$ible that the Engli$h (ere &$ing the older for' of $hield and that the :ite $hield (a$ fairly ne( at thi$ period# >he offen$ive (eapon$ of the 'o&nted $oldier$ (ere the $(ord, $pear, and a variety of "l&b$ or 'a"e$# >he

$(ord$ are all very $i'ilar to one another and of a $i'ple $hape# >he broad blade, in the region of ; feet 6.0 "enti'eter$8 long, i$ parallel for '&"h of it$ length (ith a ro&nded, bl&nt point &$ed pri'arily for $la$hing and "&tting rather than for thr&$ting# >he hand i$ prote"ted by a very $i'ple $hort "ro$$ g&ard, o""a$ionally $lightly "&rved to(ard the hand, and the po''el i$ &$&ally of $i'ple glob&lar for'# >he $"abbard appear$ to be atta"hed to a $i'ple (ai$t belt at the left $ideH 'o$t $ee' to be plain, (ith no "hape or lo":et, b&t o""a$ionally a binding "an be $een# %o dagger$ are vi$ible# >he $pear, apparently abo&t 01 feet 6212#; 'eter$8 long, (a$ fitted (ith a $i'ple, $o'eti'e$ barbed, leaf! $haped head# 7here they are being &$ed in atta": the $pear i$ 'ore often than not $ho(n in $&"h a (ay that it i$ "lear that it (a$ thro(n and not &$ed a$ a "o&"hed lan"e, held &nder the ar', a$ (o&ld later be"o'e the nor'# Only in one or t(o "a$e$ i$ the $pear $ho(n in a I"o&"hedJ po$ition# It $ee'$ li:ely that thi$ (a$ probably not the nor'al 'ethod of fighting at the ti'e and that thro(ing the $pear (a$ the preferred (ay# O""a$ionally, too, the $pear appear$ to have been &$ed a$ a thr&$ting (eapon (ith the $oldier leaning for(ard in hi$ $addle to extend hi$ rea"h# >he final (eapon &$ed by the 'o&nted $oldier$ i$ $o'e for' of "l&b or 'a"e, tho&gh the$e are not "o''on# >ho&gh $o'e have a very definite 'a"e!li:e head, other$ are K&$t $i'ple "l&b$ that K&$t thi":en to(ard the end# >he foot $oldier$ "an be divided, a$ already 'entioned, into t(o type$ ! tho$e (ith and tho$e (itho&t ar'or# >ho$e (earing ar'or are dre$$ed in exa"tly the $a'e 'anner a$ tho$e on hor$eba": in a long 'ail $hirt, hel'et, and 'ail "oif and again are not (earing defen$e$ on their lo(er leg$, feet, or hand$# 2any "arry the $a'e :ite!$haped $hield, altho&gh $o'e of the Engli$h $oldier$ are &$ing the ro&nd $hield noted above# >he ar'ored foot $oldier$ are "arrying $(ord$ of the $a'e type a$ tho$e on hor$eba":, and $o'e are $ho(n (ielding $pear$, again &$ing the' both a$ a thro(ing or thr&$ting
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 01+

(eapon# A&$t one ar'ored $oldier i$ $ho(n (ielding a bo( and arro( ! the $tave of (hi"h i$ approxi'ately / feet 6-#/ 'eter$8 long (hile the arro($ are in the order of ;01;0 in"he$ 6 /1.0 "enti'eter$8 long (ith barbed head$ and flight$# =e ha$ a $heaf, a "ylindri"al bag or "ontainer, of arro($ $e"&red to hi$ (ai$t belt and, rather $trangely, i$ holding an additional fo&r arro($ in hi$ left hand (hile a"t&ally appearing to be $hootingL >he final (eapon depi"ted on the >ape$try i$ the battle!axe, (hi"h i$ $ho(n being (ielded by the Engli$h ar'ored foot $oldier$# >(o type$ are evident# A $'aller one!handed axe that "o&ld al$o be &$ed a$ a "l&b and that, in one or t(o "a$e$, 'ay be being thro(n# >he larger axe i$ &$&ally (ielded (ith both hand$# Binally, there are "o'pletely &nar'ored foot $oldier$# 2o$t of the$e are $ho(n ar'ed (ith bo($ and arro($ '&"h li:e that of the ar'ored $oldier noted above ! a bo( abo&t / feet 6-#/ 'eter$8 long (ith arro($ (ith barbed head$ and flight$# All have a $heaf of arro($ at their right hip $l&ng on either a (ai$t or a $ho&lder $trap# ?nli:e the later longbo(, (hi"h (a$ dra(n $o that the rear of the arro( "a'e to the $ide of the fa"e, the$e ar"her$ appear to be dra(ing the arro( ba": to their "he$t# >ho&gh &nar'ored, 'any of the ar"her$ are $ho(n (earing a headpie"e of $o'e :ind, altho&gh the$e appear to be 'ore li:e "ap$ or $oft hat$ than hel'et$# >o(ard the end of the >ape$try a n&'ber of &nar'ored foot $oldier$ are al$o $ho(n (ith :ite! $haped $hield$ and $pear$ or el$e ar'ed (ith a t(o!handed axe# >he hor$e$ depi"ted in the >ape$try are not prote"ted (ith any for' of ar'or# Bridle$, bit$, and rein$ appear to be (ell developed and $i'ilar to tho$e &$ed right do(n to the 'odern day# Saddle$ are very di$tin"tive and appear to be very Ibox!li:eJ (ith high front$ and ba":$ 6tho&gh not a$ high a$ they (ere later to be"o'e8# Stirr&p$ are &niver$ally &$ed and are (orn very long ! the leg$ of the rider$ being $traight, or very nearly $o, in all "a$e$# Al'o$t all rider$ (ear $i'ple pri": $p&r$# It i$ al$o "lear that al'o$t all the hor$e$ (ere 'ale# >he eviden"e fro' the >ape$try give$ &$ not only a $nap$hot of the (eapon$ &$ed and the (ay$ that ea"h type of $oldier (a$ ar'ed at the ti'e b&t it al$o give$ &$ $o'e "l&e$ a$ to fighting ta"ti"$# 2any $oldier$, e$pe"ially the %or'an$, fo&ght on hor$eba": and (ere prote"ted (ith 'ail ar'or and hel'et$# >hey al'o$t all "arried a $hield and fo&ght pri'arily (ith the $pear and the $(ord# >he for'er (a$ &$ed 'ainly a$ a thro(ing (eapon# >a"ti"$ appear to have been an initial "harge (ith the $pear, (hi"h (a$ then thro(n, and thi$ (a$ follo(ed &p by the &$e of the $(ord a$ a $la$hing and "&tting (eapon# >he foot $oldier$ (ere divided into t(o type$# >he fir$t,
01) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

ar'ored in exa"tly the $a'e (ay a$ tho$e on hor$eba":, fo&ght (ith a $pear and $(ord# >hey too "arried $hield$ that "o&ld, (hen need aro$e, be held $ide by $ide to for' a prote"tive $hield (all# Altho&gh $o'e ar'ored foot $oldier$ fo&ght (ith bo($, &nar'ored ar"her$ (ere (idely &$ed# 7hat the >ape$try doe$ tend

to $ho( i$ that the ar'or and (eapon$ &$ed by both the %or'an$ and Engli$h (ere very $i'ilar $o that it i$ "lear that the vi"tory of the %or'an$ (a$ not d&e to their te"hni"al $&periority# +i"tory or defeat in battle (a$ rarely if ever di"tated by the a"t&al hard(are &$ed b&t (a$ 'ore a "on$e)&en"e of a "o'plex "o'bination of fa"tor$ ! not lea$t training, leader$hip, 'orale, and l&":# >he (ealth of arti$ti" infor'ation in the $a#eu. Tapestr#, (hi"h i$ virt&ally &n$&rpa$$ed &ntil the early 'odern period, offer$ &$ a rare gli'p$e at the breadth and depth of the ar'$, ar'or, and ta"ti"$ of 7e$tern E&rope at the t&rn of the fir$t 'illenni&'# 7hen the ar'ie$ of the Bir$t Cr&$ade 'ade their (ay to the =oly Land in -0.0 they (ere e$$entially ar'ed in the $a'e (ay a$ the $oldier$ (ho too: part in the battle of =a$ting$ in -000# 2o&nted $oldier$ (earing a long 'ail $hirt and hel'et and "arrying a $pear and $(ord for'ed the ba":bone of the for"e$ that $et o&t to free Aer&$ale' fro' the 2&$li'$# And indeed there (ere fe( $ignifi"ant "hange$ in ar'$ and ar'or thro&gh the fir$t half of the t(elfth "ent&ry# A'ong the $'all "hange$ that are apparent, extending the $leeve$ to "over the ar' do(n to the (ri$t i$ perhap$ the 'o$t $ignifi"ant# 7hat i$ al$o "lear fro' other pi"torial eviden"e, ill&$tration$ and $"&lpt&re, i$ that the for'$ of ar'$ and ar'or depi"ted on the >ape$try (ere &$ed thro&gho&t E&rope#

A52O5
>he period fro' aro&nd -0/0 to the end of the thirteenth "ent&ry i$ one in (hi"h there are $&rpri$ingly fe( "hange$ to ar'or# 2ail ar'or (a$ &$ed to prote"t the body fro' the head to the thigh$# >hi$ (a$ a&g'ented by )&ilted gar'ent$, the a:eton and the ga'be$on, and by the end of thi$ period the (hole (a$ "overed (ith a flo(ing $&r"oat# A $i'ple "oni"al hel'et (a$ $till being &$ed, tho&gh the 'ore ro&nded for', the cervelli?re (a$ perhap$ 'ore "o''on by -;00# In addition there (a$ the great hel' and the :ettle hat# Ar'or for the hand$, ba$i"ally K&$t $i'ple 'ail exten$ion$ of the $leeve$, and for the leg$ (a$ al$o introd&"ed#
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 01(

Bro' the 'iddle of the t(elfth "ent&ry the (earing of a long textile gar'ent, "alled a $&r"oat or "oat ar'or, over the ar'or (a$ adopted# >he rea$on$ for thi$ are $till debated# It$ &$e to di$play heraldry to enable the identifi"ation of the (earer "annot be $&$tained a$ $&r"oat$ bearing ar'$ do not appear till the early fo&rteenth "ent&ry# It 'ay be that their &$e (a$ the re$&lt of "opying the fa$hion of the "r&$ader$G 2&$li' ene'ie$ in the =oly Land# 7hatever the rea$on, the $&r"oat, rare till the end of the t(elfth "ent&ry, be"a'e in"rea$ingly "o''on after abo&t -2-0 (hen it developed into a loo$e $leevele$$ gar'ent (ith a deeply $lit $:irt rea"hing to aro&nd the 'id "alf# It (a$ (idely &$ed thro&gho&t the thirteenth "ent&ry, event&ally di$appearing at the beginning of the fo&rteenth# It$ (ide$pread &$e and depi"tion in ill&$tration$ and $"&lpt&re ob$"&re$ the detail of the ar'or (orn beneath (ith the re$&lt that it i$ often diffi"&lt for &$ to $ee the "hange$ going on# >he lengthening of the $leeve$ of the 'ail $hirt do(n to the (ri$t that o""&rred fro' abo&t --00 (a$ follo(ed to(ard the end of the t(elfth "ent&ry by their exten$ion to "over the ba":$ of the hand$, to for' $o! "alled '&ffler$, a fa$hion (hi"h la$ted till the early year$ of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry# >he 'ail K&$t prote"ted the ba": of the hand and the pal' (a$ "overed (ith "loth or leather# O""a$ionally $eparate finger$ are $ho(n b&t thi$ i$ rare# >o hold the $leeve tightly in po$ition, "ord$ or thong$ at the (ri$t (ere al$o "o''on# >he &bi)&ito&$ "oni"al hel'et (ith a na$al depi"ted in the $a#eu. Tapestr# al$o "ontin&ed to be &$ed thro&gho&t the t(elfth "ent&ry and (ell into the next# A $lightly 'ore ro&nded for' appeared to(ard the end of the t(elfth "ent&ry and the t(o (ere &$ed $ide by $ide# Bro' abo&t -220 a $i'ple ro&nded $:&ll!li:e hel'et, "alled a cervelli?re or, later, a ba$"inet, often (orn &nder the 'ail "oif, be"a'e very "o''on# Bro' the early year$ of the thirteenth "ent&ry a g&ard "overing the fa"e (a$ al$o $o'eti'e$ fitted to the hel'et and thi$ (a$ then extended ro&nd the head to for' perhap$ the 'o$t re"ogniFable pie"e of ar'or today, the hel' or great hel'# Of fairly $i'ple "ylindri"al $hape (ith a flat top and (ith $ight and breath hole$ "&t into the front, it (a$ (orn over the 'ail "oif and ar'ing "ap, tho&gh it had it$ o(n padded lining, and $e"&red (ith a "hin $trap# >he la$t hel'et to be introd&"ed in thi$ period (a$ the $o!"alled :ettle hat# It "on$i$ted of a "lo$e!fitting bo(l (ith a (ide, flat bri'# >hi$ $tyle of hel'et had been "o''on in the "la$$i"al (orld and in fa"t a very $i'ilar hel'et (a$ &$ed by the Carolingian$ a$ already noted# It had fallen o&t of &$e in E&rope, tho&gh, and (a$ not
01MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

reintrod&"ed till the end of the t(elfth "ent&ry, b&t it then had a very long life ! $i'ilarly $haped hel'et$ (ere $till being 'ade and &$ed in $eventeenth!"ent&ry E&rope# >he earlier exa'ple$, at lea$t till (ell into the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, (ere "on$tr&"ted li:e the $pangenhel' ! fro' an iron fra'e(or: in (hi"h the $pa"e$ (ere filled (ith $eparate triang&lar!$haped plate$ ! tho&gh later exa'ple$ (ere 'ade fro' either a $ingle

pie"e of iron or fro' t(o plate$ Koined do(n a "entral ridge# >he :ettle hat (a$, li:e the $pangenhel', relatively ea$y and "heap to prod&"e and (a$ the hel'et &$ed by the "o''on $oldier tho&gh it (a$ $o'eti'e$ al$o (orn by the :nightly and &pper "la$$e$# Along$ide the &$e of 'ail ar'or there developed fro' the $e"ond half of the t(elfth "ent&ry vario&$ )&ilted textile defen$e$, the po&r!point, the a:eton, and the ga'be$on, tho&gh their exa"t p&rpo$e and &$e are $o'e(hat diffi"&lt to differentiate# >rying to pin do(n K&$t (hat a ga'be$on (a$ i$ "onf&$ing a$ both it and the ter' aketon $ee' to have been &$ed indi$"ri'inately for gar'ent$ (orn both over and &nder the ha&ber:. =o(ever, for o&r p&rpo$e$ it i$ li:ely that it refer$ to a gar'ent (orn over the 'ail $hirt, rather li:e the $&r"oat# >he a:eton (a$ probably a plain, )&ilted "oat (orn &nderneath the 'ail ar'or tho&gh it (a$ al$o (orn by "o''on $oldier$ a$ their only defen$e# *o&rpoint i$ probably the 'ore generi" na'e &$ed for all type$ of $oft, )&ilted defen$e$# ?nfort&nately, none of the$e gar'ent$ $&rvive and all o&r infor'ation on the' i$ derived fro' (ritten $o&r"e$, (hi"h are often diffi"&lt to interpret, or fro' ill&$tration$, $"&lpt&re$, or bra$$e$# Of "o&r$e by their very nat&re they are not pro'inent a$ they (ere (orn beneath other defen$e$ $o that (e "an only "at"h gli'p$e$ of the' at be$t# Before leaving the di$"&$$ion of ar'or, 'ention '&$t be 'ade of ga'boi$ed "&i$$e$, e$$entially padded thigh defen$e$, (hi"h $tarted to appear in the later thirteenth "ent&ry# Bro' the 'iddle of the thirteenth "ent&ry began the long develop'ent of plate ar'or# At fir$t thi$ (a$ )&ite li'ited (ith the addition of $'all plate$ to v&lnerable part$ of the body, parti"&larly the elbo($ and :nee$, b&t the$e grad&ally extended till plate ar'or "overed al'o$t the entire body# >he$e develop'ent$ are 'ore f&lly dealt (ith in Chapter <# =or$e Ar'or A$ already noted no hor$e ar'or i$ $ho(n in the $a#eu. Tapestr#, and it (o&ld appear that hor$e$ (ere not prote"ted till perhap$ the
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 01.

later t(elfth "ent&ry, tho&gh the early eviden"e i$ rather "onf&$ing# Bro' the later t(elfth "ent&ry, too, it (a$ "o''on to "over the hor$e in a large flo(ing "loth "alled a "apari$on, (hi"h (a$ e'blaFoned (ith the riderG$ "olor$ or ar'$, e$pe"ially later on# Defen$e$ in the for' of a 'ail trapper, (hi"h "overed the hor$e fro' the head do(n to it$ :nee$, appear fro' abo&t the 'iddle of the thirteenth "ent&ry, tho&gh the "apari$on often ob$"&re$ it in "onte'porary ill&$tration$# *late ar'or for the hor$e (a$ developed at '&"h the $a'e ti'e a$ plate defen$e$ for the rider ! aro&nd -2/0, tho&gh early referen"e$ are rare# Certainly ar'or to prote"t the head, the $haffron, (a$ "o''on fro' abo&t -2 /, a$ are defen$e$ 'ade fro' hardened leather, cuir )oulli to prote"t the $ide$ and rear of the hor$e# >he develop'ent of hor$e ar'or in the later thirteenth "ent&ry i$ di$"&$$ed in greater detail in Chapter <# Shield$ A$ (e $a( in the di$"&$$ion of the ar'$ and ar'or of the $a#eu. Tapestr# the "o''on $hield in &$e in the later eleventh "ent&ry (a$ :ite!$haped (ith a di$tin"tive "&rved top and long tapering for'# It re'ained in &$e &ntil abo&t -200, altho&gh the top be"a'e flatter and the overall $hape 'ore triang&lar# >hro&gh the fir$t half of the thirteenth "ent&ry it (a$ then red&"ed in $iFe (hile the $ide$ be"a'e $lightly "onvex# >hi$ $'aller triang&lar!$haped $hield, $o'eti'e$ today "alled the IheaterJ $hield fro' it$ $i'ilarity in $hape to the botto' of a flat iron, re'ained in &$e thro&gho&t the re$t of thi$ period# Lan"e$ A 'aKor "hange in thi$ period, and one that (a$ event&ally to have a far!rea"hing effe"t, (a$ the introd&"tion of the lan"e and it$ &$e a$ an offen$ive (eapon fro' aro&nd --/0# >hi$ i'portant "hange (a$ to infl&en"e the (ay ar'ie$ fo&ght for the next fo&r "ent&rie$# E$$entially, there (a$ a "hange fro' &$ing the $pear a$ a thro(ing (eapon to &$ing the lan"e a$ a thr&$ting (eapon and the parallel develop'ent of (hat i$ fre)&ently referred to a$ the &$e of 'o&nted $ho": ta"ti"$# It i$, perhap$, (orth(hile to loo: at thi$ i'portant develop'ent and thi$ (eapon and it$ &$e in 'ore detail# In the $a#eu.
0', MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

Tapestr# the $pear i$ a (eapon 'ade of (ood of perhap$ 01 feet 6-#912#- 'eter$8 long (ith a leaf!$haped head that (a$ $o'eti'e$ barbed# It (a$ held either at the $ide of the body or in an over ar' po$ition and (a$ e$$entially thro(n at the ene'y at a $&itable "lo$e range# >he rider (o&ld then dra( hi$ $(ord and "ontin&e the atta":# >he lan"e (a$ a little longer ! aro&nd .1-0 feet 62# 1; 'eter$8 ! and $t&rdier and (a$ held &nder the ar', "o&"hed, and gripped in $&"h a (ay that it "o&ld be &$ed to thr&$t and "harge at the ene'y, :eeping hold of the lan"e the (hole ti'e# ?$ing the thro(ing $pear the hor$e troop$ rode &p to the ene'yG$ line$, thre( their $pear$, and then "ontin&ed the atta": (ith $(ord$# Ar'ed (ith the "o&"hed lan"e the rider rode

right at the for'ation of foot $oldier$ hoping to be able to $(eep all before hi'# 7hat (a$ i'portant (a$ the I$ho":J ele'ent of the atta":# And here perhap$ i$ the "r&"ial part of the lan"e atta": ! (hat the "avalry (ere trying to a""o'pli$h (a$ to $o overa(e the ene'y that they t&rned and ran ! and (ho (o&ld not (ith a for'ation of hor$e'en "o'ing dire"tly at yo&# And 'any battle$ and $:ir'i$he$ '&$t have been (on in thi$ 'anner ! a "lo$e!:nit and di$"iplined &nit of "avalry riding do(n on yo& (a$ eno&gh to p&t fear into 'o$t heart$# =o(ever, (ith experien"e and training it (a$ "lear that thi$ $ort of atta": "o&ld be Iad$orbedJ and defle"tedH for exa'ple, letting the "avalry thro&gh the line$ of foot $oldier$ and then atta":ing the' fro' behind ! a ta"ti" that (a$ to be $een in it$ final for' in the early fo&rteenth "ent&ry# And here i$ the $e"ond "r&"ial "hange in (arfare ! training# Soldier$ '&$t al(ay$ have &nderta:en $o'e for' of training and pra"ti"e in fighting ! 'o$t e$pe"ially tho$e on hor$e$# A"ting together a$ a &nit and perfor'ing the $a'e 'ane&ver$ in &ni$on (a$ e$$ential# And at abo&t thi$ ti'e, the beginning of the t(elfth "ent&ry, (e $ee the beginning$ of the training for battle in the develop'ent of the to&rna'ent# >o&rna'ent$ e'erged a$ a di$tin"t feat&re of 'artial ga'e$ fro' abo&t the end of the eleventh "ent&ry, po$$ibly in northern Bran"e# It i$ probable that their ri$e (a$ lin:ed to the develop'ent of the &$e of the "o&"hed lan"e in (ar, (hi"h ne"e$$itated pra"ti"e and training, e$pe"ially a$ part of a tea' or gro&p of :night$# >o&rna'ent$ enabled individ&al$ to gain experien"e both (ith the ne( (eapon and (ith fighting a$ part of a Itea'J or gro&p of other :night$# At fir$t to&rna'ent$ (ere ba$i"ally "onte$t$ bet(een large gro&p$ of :night$, "alled 'elee$, and &$&ally involved $everal "o'panie$ of "o'batant$, ea"h of (hi"h "o&ld "on$i$t of &p to 200 :night$# >hey too: pla"e over very large area$ ! 'any $)&are 'ile$ ! and there (ere
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 0'0

fe(, if any, r&le$ or reg&lation$ ! largely be"a&$e there (a$ no enfor"e'ent# Con$iderable da'age (a$ done to land, "rop$, and b&ilding$ by tho$e ta:ing part, and thi$ (a$ '&"h re$ented tho&gh there (a$ often little that "o&ld be done to $top the'# In England there (a$ $o'e atte'pt to de$ignate part$ of the "o&ntry$ide a$ pla"e$ (here to&rna'ent$ "o&ld ta:e pla"e, b&t thi$ (a$ not adopted el$e(here# InK&rie$ (ere fre)&ent and death$ not at all &n&$&al a'ong the parti"ipant$# %ot $&rpri$ingly perhap$, the "h&r"h did not vie( the$e a"tivitie$ very favorably and fro' the --;0$ tried to ban the'# Bailing thi$ they ex"o''&ni"ated parti"ipant$ and prevented tho$e (ho (ere :illed d&ring a to&rna'ent, not an &n&$&al o""&rren"e at thi$ period, fro' being b&ried in "on$e"rated gro&nd# >he "h&r"h, tho&gh, never $&""eeded in having the' $topped altogether ! they (ere K&$t too &$ef&l and (ere obvio&$ly $&"h an e$$ential part of the life of the 'o&nted $oldier# >raining for battle 'eant that not only (ere yo& able to fight a$ a &nit or gro&p and "arry o&t the $a'e 'ane&ver$ and 'ove'ent$ a$ yo&r fello( $oldier$ b&t, (hen it did "o'e, yo& (ere prepared for the har$h realitie$ of "o'bat# And it (a$ probably thi$ "o'bination, 'ore than anything, that (a$ i'portant ! developing fighting 'ethod$ and te"hni)&e$ a$ (ell a$ gaining experien"e that (a$ "r&"ial# And thi$ help$ to explain, perhap$, (hy early to&rna'ent$ (ere $o violent ! they needed to repli"ate a$ "lo$ely a$ po$$ible the a"t&al "ondition$ of battle# Bor of "o&r$e training and experien"e "o&ld $ignifi"antly rai$e the "han"e$ of $&""e$$ on the battlefield and, tho&gh it i$ "lear that it did not g&arantee vi"tory, 'ight tip the balan"e fro' a po$$ible defeat to vi"tory '&"h li:e the 'orale!boo$ting effe"t of $ho(ing yo&r leaderG$ pre$en"e ! '&"h a$ 7illia' of %or'andy did in the "lo$ing $tage$ of the Battle of =a$ting$# And indeed it i$ (orth noting that "reating an i'pre$$ion of po(er and for"e $o that yo&r opponent (a$ over(hel'ed and fled (a$ K&$t a$ i'portant, perhap$ 'ore $o, than a"t&ally :illing the ene'y# S(ord$ A$ (e $a( in the di$"&$$ion of the $a#eu. Tapestr# the $(ord in &$e in the later de"ade$ of the eleventh "ent&rie$ (a$ )&ite $i'ple ! "on$i$ting of a (ide, do&ble!edged blade (ith a $o'e(hat ro&nded end, a $i'ple "ro$$ g&ard, and po''el# E$$entially, thi$ (a$ a "&tting and thr&$ting (eapon (ell $&ited to the hand!to!hand "o'bat and the 'ail ar'or in &$e at the ti'e# It (a$ :ept in a $"abbard that
0'1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

(a$ $e"&red to a $i'ple (ai$t belt# And ba$i"ally thi$ (a$ the type of $(ord that (a$ &$ed thro&gho&t the next t(o "ent&rie$ ! a (eapon (ith a broad blade and $i'ple hilt# =o(ever, it i$ not tr&e to $ay that all $(ord$ in thi$ period (ere identi"al# >here (a$ "on$iderable variation in length, for exa'ple, fro' a$ $hort a$ 20 in"he$ 600 "enti'eter$8 to a$ long a$ ;9 in"he$ 6.0 "enti'eter$8# >he "ro$$ g&ard, tho&gh &$&ally of )&ite $i'ple for', often K&$t a plain $traight bar of iron, "o&ld al$o be 'ore elaborate# Bor exa'ple, the end$ 'ight "&rve either a(ay fro' or to(ard the hand, it 'ight be 'ore highly $haped, and it 'ight be de"orated# >he po''el too tended to be relatively $i'ple ! 'any $(ord$ K&$t having a plain di$" po''el ! tho&gh earlier exa'ple$ (ere often of the $o!"alled IbraFil n&tJ for' "o''on in the earlier period# >he$e early exa'ple$ fre)&ently have in$"ription$ or in$"ribed de"oration on the blade it$elf#

>he grip (a$ &$&ally $hort, fitting K&$t one hand, tho&gh longer grip$, (hi"h "o&ld a""o''odate a $e"ond hand to in"rea$e the po(er of atta":, (ere not &n:no(n# Crip$ the'$elve$ ranged fro' the $i'ple (ood bo&nd (ith leather to the very elaborate de"orated high!$tat&$ exa'ple$ 'ade for :ing$ and prin"e$# Dagger$ De$pite the fa"t that no dagger$ are depi"ted on the $a#eu. Tapestr# their &$e '&$t have been (ide$pread at the ti'e and indeed for all thi$ period, tho&gh they do not fig&re greatly a$ a fighting (eapon &ntil the later thirteenth "ent&ry 6$ee Chapter <8# >he $eax $ee'$ to have been the "o''on and (ide$pread for' of dagger fro' before thi$ period 6$ee Chapter 28 &ntil aro&nd -;00# Cl&b$, C&dgel$, and Irreg&lar 7eapon$ >he $a#eu. Tapestr# in"l&de$ a'ong the (eapon$ &$ed (hat appear$ to be a $i'ple "l&b ! a $i'ple handheld (eapon that $(ell$ to(ard the end and that "o&ld obvio&$ly be &$ed to deliver an effe"tive and di$abling blo(, e$pe"ially to lightly ar'ored or &nar'ored $oldier$# >he very nat&re of (arfare 'ean$ that $o'eti'e$ )&ite "r&de and $i'ple (eapon$ (ere &$ed that, by their very nat&re, do not $&rvive# >hi$ ha$ lead to the erroneo&$ vie( that they (ere not &$ed at all or,
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 0''

'ore "o''only, they are "o'pletely ignored in $t&die$ of ar'$ and ar'or# =o(ever, it '&$t have al(ay$ been the "a$e that $i'ple (eapon$, far' i'ple'ent$ and "l&b$ for exa'ple, (ere &$ed in (arfare, e$pe"ially of "o&r$e by the poorer $oldier$ of lo( $o"ial $tanding b&t al$o perhap$ by Iirreg&larJ "o'batant$# And here perhap$ (e $ho&ld "on$ider the (eapon that "on$i$t$ of a (ooden handle to one end of (hi"h i$ atta"hed a length of "hain ending (ith an iron ball, often $pi:ed# Opinion$ abo&t (hether thi$ $ee'ingly I)&inte$$ential 'edieval (eaponJ of "artoon and 'ovie fa'e really exi$ted are $everely divided# =o(ever, it K&$t doe$ not appear in the 'edieval re"ord in 7e$tern E&rope ! tho&gh $o'ething $i'ilar i$ o""a$ionally $ho(n in non!7e$tern $o&r"e$# Indeed fro' a pra"ti"al point of vie( it (o&ld 'a:e a very proble'ati" (eapon for the (ielder, a$, $ho&ld the blo( fail to 'eet it$ atta":er, the 'o'ent&' of the ball end (o&ld bring it ba": to inK&re the &$erL 7hat (a$ $o'eti'e$ &$ed, ho(ever, (a$ the agri"&lt&ral flail or a (eapon ba$ed on it# >hi$ "on$i$ted of a long (ooden $haft to (hi"h a $e"ond, and $horter, pie"e of (ood (a$ atta"hed by 'ean$ of a $i'ple iron ring# >hi$ (a$ "ertainly &$ed by the "o''on $oldier, tho&gh $&rviving exa'ple$ date fro' the late 'odern period and into the $eventeenth "ent&ry# Staff 7eapon$ Eviden"e for the type$ and &$e of $taff (eapon$ before the end of the thirteenth "ent&ry i$ $o'e(hat pat"hy# >hey (ere al(ay$ the (eapon$ of the foot $oldier$ and it appear$ that in thi$ period (ere, on the (hole, $o'e(hat idio$yn"rati"# >he $taff (eapon$ of the later 'iddle age$, de$"ribed in detail in Chapter <, appear to have been introd&"ed fro' the end of the thirteenth "ent&ry# >here i$ little eviden"e for their &$e before then, tho&gh there are o""a$ional referen"e$ to $o'e for' of long!hafted (eapon, $o'e of (hi"h 'ay be referring to axe$ rather than the polear' of the later 'edieval period# Bor exa'ple, in . a Catalan do"&'ent refer$ to a guisarme de$"ribed a$ a long!hafted (eapon (ith an extre'ely long, axe!$haped head# Si'ilarly, a "apital of the Ch&r"h of St# %e"taire in Bran"e, "arved in the late eleventh or early t(elfth "ent&ry, depi"t$ t(o 5o'an $oldier$ "arrying long!hafted (eapon$, one of (hi"h i$ fitted (ith an axe head and the other (ith (hat appear$ 'ight be a broad blade li:e the later glaive .
0'/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

Sling$ >ho&gh hardly "on$idered today, the $ling (a$ &$ed thro&gho&t the 'edieval period to thro( proKe"tile$ of $tone or lead# Extre'ely $i'ple, $ling$ (ere 'ade fro' :notted $tring and leather and (ere &$ed ex"l&$ively by the "o''on $oldier# ?nfort&nately, their very nat&re 'ean$ no exa'ple$ have $&rvived, and they are fre)&ently overloo:ed a$ a (eapon even tho&gh there are ill&$tration$ of their &$e# Cro$$bo($ >he "ro$$bo( probably de$"ended fro' the an"ient Cree: gas"trap%retes 6or Ibelly!bo(J8, and (a$ al$o &$ed both in 5o'e and China# =o(ever, it doe$ not $ee' to have be"o'e pop&lar in 7e$tern E&rope &ntil the eleventh "ent&ry, tho&gh $o'e hi$torian$ have arg&ed that the "ro$$bo( (a$ &$ed, albeit infre)&ently, by the Bran:$ thro&gho&t the early 2iddle Age$# It $ee'$ "ertain that it (a$ not :no(n to the 2&$li'$ nor the ByFantine$# Anna Co'nena, the da&ghter of the ByFantine e'peror, $ee'ed "o'pletely over(hel'ed by the (eapon, (hi"h (a$ "arried by the fir$t "r&$ader$# >hi$ i$ her intri"ate de$"ription of the "ro$$bo(3

>he "ro$$bo( i$ a (eapon of the barbarian$, ab$ol&tely &n:no(n to the Cree:$# In order to $tret"h it one doe$ not p&ll the $tring (ith the right hand (hile p&$hing the bo( (ith the left a(ay fro' the bodyH thi$ in$tr&'ent of (ar, (hi"h $hoot$ 'i$$ile$ to an enor'o&$ di$tan"e, ha$ to be $tret"hed by lying al'o$t on oneG$ ba":H ea"h foot i$ pre$$ed for"ibly again$t the half!"ir"le$ of the bo( and the t(o hand$ t&g at the bo(, p&lling it (ith all oneG$ $trength to(ard$ the body# At the 'id!point of the $tring i$ a groove, $haped li:e a "ylinder "&t in half and fitted to the $tring it$elfH it i$ abo&t the length of a fair!$iFed arro(, extending fro' the $tring to the "entre of the bo(# Along thi$ groove, arro($ of all :ind$ are $hot# >hey are very $hort, b&t extre'ely thi": (ith a heavy iron tip# In the $hooting the $tring exert$ tre'endo&$ violen"e and for"e, $o that the 'i$$ile$ (herever they $tri:e do not rebo&ndH in fa"t they tran$fix a $hield, "&t thro&gh a heavy iron brea$tplate and re$&'e their flight on the far $ide, $o irre$i$tible and violent i$ the di$"harge# An arro( of thi$ type ha$ been :no(n to 'a:e it$ (ay right thro&gh a bronFe $tat&e, and (hen $hot at the (all of a very great to(n it$ point either protr&ded fro' the inner $ide or b&ried it$elf in the (all and di$appeared altogether# S&"h
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 0'+

i$ the "ro$$bo(, a tr&ly diaboli"al 'a"hine# >he &nfort&nate 'an (ho i$ $tr&": by it die$ (itho&t feeling the blo(H ho(ever $trong the i'pa"t he :no($ nothing of it 6Co'nena R-.0.S3;-01;- 8# E$$entially then the "ro$$bo( "on$i$ted of a tiller, 'ade of (ood and often de"orated (ith horn ivory or bone, to one end of (hi"h (a$ atta"hed a $hort bo(# At fir$t thi$ (a$ K&$t 'ade fro' (ood, li:e the ordinary bo(, b&t (a$ repla"ed by $tronger and 'ore po(erf&l "o'po$ite bo($ 'ade fro' layer$ of horn and $ine( gl&ed together# >he $tring, $tret"hed bet(een the end$ of the bo(, (a$ p&lled ba":, either by hand or by 'ean$ of a 'e"hani"al devi"e, and fitted into a groove "&t into the edge of a di$", the n&t, 'ade of horn or other hard 'aterial, $et into the $to": and (hi"h (a$ held in the firing po$ition by a trigger 'e"hani$'# A $hort!flighted arro(, "alled a )&arrel, (a$ then pla"ed in a groove "&t in the top of the tiller and $et again$t the $tring# S)&eeFing the trigger relea$ed the n&t, (hi"h t&rned abo&t it$ "enter, relea$ing the $tring and $hooting off the )&arrel# At fir$t they (ere not $o very po(erf&l, de$pite perhap$ Anna Co'nenaG$ de$"ription, (hi"h exaggerate$ their effe"tivene$$, and the $tring "o&ld be p&lled ba": by hand, the "ro$$bo( being held $e"&rely by in$erting a foot thro&gh a loop fa$tened to the end of the tiller# A $i'ple hoo:, atta"hed to a (ai$t belt, (a$ al$o fre)&ently &$ed# Again the "ro$$bo( (a$ held by one foot and the &$er bent do(n and "a&ght the $tring in the hoo:# >he a"t of $tanding &p p&lled the $tring ba": to the firing po$ition# Bor 'ore po(erf&l bo($ the $o!"alled Igoat$!footJ lever (a$ &$ed# >hi$ $i'ple lever devi"e "on$i$ted of t(o interlo":ing fra'e$ pivoted abo&t their end$# It (a$ laid onto the $to": folded over# >he $tring (a$ then hoo:ed on to one end and the a"tion of &nfolding the t(o end$ and p&lling the fra'e$ ba": into the $traight po$ition dre( the $tring ba": to the n&t# >he )&arrel (a$ nor'ally $hort ! in the region of -2 in"he$ 6;0 "enti'eter$8 long ! and thi":er than the arro($ &$ed (ith ordinary bo($, aro&nd -42 in"h 6-2#/ ''8 in dia'eter and fitted (ith a $&b$tantial iron head often of pyra'idal for'# >he "ro$$bo( offered a n&'ber of advantage$ over the bo(# Bir$t, it "o&ld be prepared and be ready to let off ahead of the ti'e needed ! &nli:e a longbo( (hi"h ha$ to be relea$ed a$ $oon a$ it i$ dra(n# Se"ond (a$ the fa"t that it$ effe"tive &$e did not depend on an enor'o&$ a'o&nt of training and pra"ti"e a$ did the longbo(# On the negative $ide, it "o&ld ta:e $o'e "on$iderable ti'e to prepare for $hooting#
0') MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

A&$t ho( effe"tive a (eapon it (a$ i$ diffi"&lt, (ell nigh i'po$$ible, to a$"ertain (ith any "onfiden"e# >ho&gh it ha$ been $aid to be a very po(erf&l (eapon, a$ Anna Co'nena, for exa'ple, $tate$, it$ &$e never $ee'$ to have "onferred any $ignifi"ant advantage to either $ide# =o(ever, it '&$t have been &$ef&l after the t(elfth "ent&ry a$ it$ &$e in"rea$ed 'ar:edly a"ro$$ "ontinental E&rope# Co''ander$ fre)&ently e'ployed 'er"enary "ro$$bo('en ! pri'arily fro' Ca$"ony or Cenoa# >hey (ere &$ed ta"ti"ally at the beginning of a battle and on the flan:$ a$ a 'ean$ to hara$$ oppo$ing for"e$ and prevent flan:ing a"tion$# Of all the (eapon$ &$ed in the 2iddle Age$ the "ro$$bo( (a$ $ingled o&t for parti"&lar "onde'nation by the "h&r"h, (hi"h pro$"ribed it$ &$e on the gro&nd$ of it$ violen"e and po(er, fir$t in -0.01-0. and again by the Se"ond Lateran Co&n"il in --;.# >he fa"t that the$e prohibition$ had a very li'ited effe"t i$ perhap$ $&rpri$ing b&t doe$ $ho( that no 'ilitary leader or "o''ander "o&ld afford not to &$e the'# Longbo($ >he longbo(, a$ (e have $een above, i$ feat&red on the $a#eu. Tapestr# and (a$ &$ed thro&gho&t the period# It re)&ired a great deal of $:ill, experien"e, and training and, probably for thi$ rea$on, it (a$ a $pe"ialty (eapon of parti"&lar region$ of E&rope, 'o$t notably the 7el$h 2ar"he$# Ar"her$ in the $a#eu.

Tapestr# are $ho(n p&lling the $tring ba": to the "he$t (hile later the bo( (a$ p&lled ba": to the $ide of the fa"e# 7hether thi$ re$&lted in greater po(er, needed 'ore $:ill, or (a$ K&$t a different fa$hion i$ i'po$$ible to a$"ertain# It be"a'e the (eapon, par ex"ellen"e, of the $erie$ of (ar$ :no(n today a$ the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar, and i$ dealt (ith in detail in the final $e"tion belo(# Siege 7eapon$ In a period that $a( little "hange in 'any (eapon$ and fe( ne( one$, perhap$ the greate$t develop'ent$ (ere in $iege engine$ ! the treb&"het, the great "ro$$bo(, and the $pringald . Li:e $everal other i'portant and $ignifi"ant innovation$, g&npo(der and Cree: fire for exa'ple, the origin$ of the treb&"het are '&"h di$"&$$ed and di$p&ted# It i$ li:ely that it i$ very an"ient, orig!
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 0'(

inating probably in China bet(een the fifth and third "ent&rie$ BC, and fro' there diff&$ed (e$t(ard to the I$la'i" land$ by the end of the $eventh "ent&ry AD# It then $pread to the 2editerranean, (here it i$ po$$ible to follo( it via ByFanti&' to Si"ily and $o&thern Italy, (here it 'ight have arrived a$ early a$ the ninth "ent&ry, b&t it (a$ al(ay$ rare and &n&$&al till the 'iddle of the t(elfth "ent&ry# =o(ever, it i$ i'po$$ible to tra": it$ progre$$ (ith any "ertainty, and there (ill probably al(ay$ be "ontrover$y abo&t it$ develop'ent before the t(elfth "ent&ry# 7hat i$ "lear tho&gh i$ that there (ere t(o different type$ of 'a"hine$# >he fir$t and $i'pler ver$ion, "alled a tra"tion treb&"het or po$$ibly a perriBre "on$i$ted of an ar' $et &ne)&ally on t(o &pright $&pport$# >o the $horter end (ere $e"&red 'any $hort length$ of rope (hile to the other (a$ atta"hed a $ling "ontaining the proKe"tile# A 'an (a$ a$$igned to ea"h of the $hort length$ of rope and at a given $ignal all p&lled do(n in &ni$on ! the ar' $(&ng abo&t it$ pivot la&n"hing the proKe"tile on it$ (ay# >he $e"ond ver$ion (a$ very $i'ilar to the perriBre b&t (a$ &$&ally larger and in$tead of the for"e being generated by 'anpo(er it (a$ po(ered by 'ean$ of a large "o&nter(eight ! hen"e the "o''on 'odern na'e, the "o&nter(eight treb&"het# >he fir$t a""o&nt$ of the &$e of both type$ of treb&"het in 7e$tern E&rope are fro' the 'iddle year$ of the t(elfth "ent&ry# *erhap$ the fir$t i$ in --< (hen t(o tra"tion treb&"het$ (ere reportedly &$ed by the "r&$ader$ to "apt&re 2&$li' Li$bon, (hile one of the fir$t 'ention$ of the "o&nter(eight treb&"het (a$ in --0/ at the ByFantine $iege of Oevg'inon# Bro' then on there are fre)&ent 'ention$ of their &$e in both narrative and pi"torial $o&r"e$, and it i$ "lear that they $pread thro&gho&t E&rope# >he tra"tion treb&"het probably (ent o&t of &$e aro&nd the 'iddle of the thirteenth "ent&ry, po$$ibly a$ a "on$e)&en"e of the $&periority and i'proved a""&ra"y of the "o&nter(eight treb&"het, (hi"h "ontin&ed in &$e do(n to the 'iddle of the fifteenth "ent&ry, tho&gh it$ &$e after -<00 (a$ very li'ited# >he a''&nition for both type$ of treb&"het (a$ pri'arily $tone and only by &$ing ball$ of a "on$i$tent (eight (a$ any a""&ra"y a"hievable# =o(ever, it i$ "lear that al'o$t anything that "o&ld be &$ed a$ a proKe"tile (a$ &$ed at one ti'e or another ! in"l&ding ani'al "ar"a$$e$ 6po$$ibly to $pread di$ea$e8 and in"endiarie$# A&$t (hat (eight of proKe"tile (a$ "o''on i$ diffi"&lt to a$"ertain (ith any "ertainty# >here are "lai'$ that $tone$ &p to $everal h&ndred po&nd$ (ere &$ed, tho&gh 'odern experi'ent ha$ $ho(n that the "o&nter(eight to thro( $&"h (eight$ (o&ld have been a$trono'i"al#
0'MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

A (eight of aro&nd --0 po&nd$ 6/0 :ilogra'$8 i$ perhap$ the &pper li'it, tho&gh it ha$ been fo&nd that ;/ po&nd$ 6-/ :ilogra'$8 i$ probably the 'o$t effe"tive $iFe to a"hieve a rea$onable range, in the region of ;;0 yard$ 6;00 'eter$8# >he a''&nition for tra"tion tre!b&"het$ (o&ld have been le$$ a$ the for"e available to thro( the proKe"tile$ (a$ li'ited# Ca"he$ of $tone rep&tedly to be &$ed by tra"tion treb&"het$ for the defen$e of Da'a$"&$ d&ring the "r&$ade$ $ho( a general &nifor'ity in (eight of aro&nd -- po&nd$ 6/ :ilogra'$8# >he great "ro$$bo( (a$ e$$entially the $a'e a$ the (eapon de$"ribed earlier b&t of greatly in"rea$ed $iFe ! larger than "an a"t&ally be held by hand# >he bo($ of the$e large "ro$$bo($ (ere of "o'po$ite "on$tr&"tion, 'ade fro' horn and $ine(, and (ere in the order of /10 -42 feet 6-#012 'eter$8 long and (ere 'o&nted on a (ooden $tand# >hey (ere $panned by 'ean$ of a (indla$$ arrange'ent or by 'ean$ of a $"re(!threaded 'e"hani$'# One 'odern e$ti'ate for the for"e re)&ired to dra( the $tring ba": i$ in the region of 2,900 po&nd$ 6-,;00 :ilogra'$8 tho&gh thi$ $ee'$ a very high fig&re# >hey $hot large )&arrel$ of perhap$ - -4212 -42 feet 6/0190 "enti'eter$8 long and (eighing abo&t - po&nd 6/00 g8# >hey (ere too large to 'ove aro&nd ea$ily and (ere $et &p on "a$tle or fortifi"ation (all$ or el$e bro&ght to the $ite of a $iege (hen needed# >he $pringald i$ a $o'e(hat 'ore proble'ati" (eapon a$ it i$ "o'pletely &n"lear (hether it (a$ the $a'e (eapon a$ the 5o'an balli$ta (hi"h $o'e hi$torian$ believe never di$appeared fro' the battlefield and re'ained in &$e thro&gho&t the intervening period or (hether the 5o'an (eapon died o&t and the later $pringald (a$ a reinvention# On balan"e it i$ diffi"&lt to $&pport the po$ition that the 5o'an 'a"hine

"ontin&ed in &$e and it (o&ld appear that the $pringald (a$ reinvented and probably fir$t &$ed in the 'iddle of the thirteenth "ent&ry# It (a$ $o'e(hat $i'ilar to the great "ro$$bo( and fired a $i'ilar proKe"tile# =o(ever, the bo( (a$ 'ade in t(o halve$, ea"h abo&t 21; feet 6 0190 "enti'eter$8 long, one end of ea"h (a$ atta"hed to either $ide of a (ooden fra'e by 'ean$ of a t(i$ted and ten$ioned $:ein of hor$e hair# >he $tring (a$ atta"hed to the o&ter end$ of the t(o bo($ and a (indla$$ (a$ &$ed to p&ll it ba": to the firing po$ition again$t the ten$ion of the $e"&ring $:ein$# A 'odern e$ti'ate of the for"e needed to p&ll the ar'$ ba": i$ ;,.00 po&nd$ 6-,900 :ilogra'$8# Eviden"e for their &$e i$ rare and (hat i$ there i$ diffi"&lt to eval&ate, b&t by the end of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry they had largely di$appeared fro' E&ropean ar$enal$#
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 0'.

In"endiarie$ A$ (e $a( in Chapter 2, Cree: fire, a b&rning li)&id p&'ped o&t of $o'e for' of 'a"hine '&"h li:e a 'odern!day fla'ethro(er, (a$ &$ed a$ a deva$tating (eapon 'ainly at $ea by the ByFantine$ fro' the $eventh "ent&ry AD# It$ later hi$tory i$ extre'ely diffi"&lt to a$"ertain a$ there are fe( referen"e$ and (hat (e have are diffi"&lt to interpret, tho&gh it $ee'$ to di$appear fro' the $o&r"e$ fro' $o'e ti'e in the tenth "ent&ry# =o(ever, it i$ "lear that the &$e of fire a$ a (eapon ha$ al(ay$ been i'portant, e$pe"ially in a (orld (here everything (a$ 'ade fro' nat&ral and very fla''able 'aterial$ and the de$ire to find in"endiary 'ixt&re$ and 'aterial$ ha$ al(ay$ been $trong# At $o'e ti'e, po$$ibly in the t(elfth "ent&ry, a 'aterial that (a$ given the na'e Cree: fire (a$ introd&"ed# =o(ever, thi$ (a$ not the li)&id of the ByFantine$ b&t a 'ixt&re of fla''able 'aterial$ $&"h a$ tar!li:e $&b$tan"e$, g&'$, and re$in$ 'ixed (ith $&lf&r and other "he'i"al$# It (a$ pa":ed into "era'i" pot$ or $'all (ooden "ontainer$ and either thro(n by hand or fro' a treb&"het# One of the "r&"ial )&e$tion$ i$ (hether the$e 'ixt&re$ "ontained $altpeter, pota$$i&' nitrate, the :ey ingredient of g&npo(der# >ho&gh it i$ &nli:ely, at lea$t before the later de"ade$ of the thirteenth "ent&ry, it i$ not in"on"eivable and '&"h re'ain$ to be done on the hi$tory of in"endiarie$ in the t(elfth and thirteenth "ent&rie$ before (e "an an$(er thi$ )&e$tion (ith any "ertainty#

>=E E%E2D3 >=E A52D OB SALADI%

Bor a little &nder t(o "ent&rie$, fro' -0.. to -2.-, E&rope fo&ght a $erie$ of (ar$ and battle$ for "ontrol of the =oly pla"e$ in the 2iddle Ea$t ! the "a'paign$ that today (e "all the "r&$ade$# Altho&gh the for"e$ again$t (hi"h they fo&ght over thi$ period (ere 'any and varied, it i$ perhap$ tho$e of the great 2&$li' leader Saladin in the later t(elfth "ent&ry that had probably the greate$t effe"t on the ar'ie$ and ta"ti"$ of 7e$tern E&rope# 2&"h li:e the ar'ie$ of 7e$tern E&ropean, tho$e of Saladin (ere "o'po$ed of both hor$e and foot $oldier$ in (hi"h the "avalry, tho&gh fe(er in n&'ber, (ere again do'inant ! not only in the ta"ti"$ and $trategy adopted b&t al$o in the 'ind$ and heart$ of tho$e
0/, MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

that fo&ght ! it i$ the 'o&nted $oldier$ (ho (ere re'e'bered both then and today# And again tho&gh very different in detail, the ar'$ and ar'or (orn by the 2iddle Ea$tern troop$ (a$ broadly $i'ilar to tho$e &$ed in the 7e$t ! the 'ail $hirt, hel'et, $(ord, lan"e, and bo(, for exa'ple# 2ail ar'or (a$ the &$&al for' of defen$e for the body a$ in the 7e$t b&t (a$ often a&g'ented by large iron plate$ over the "he$t area or by panel$ 'ade fro' $'all re"tang&lar plate$ of iron that (ere inter(oven (ith the 'ail ! $o'eti'e$ "alled I'ail and plateJ "on$tr&"tion# >hi$ type of defen$e (a$ exten$ively &$ed and "ontin&ed far longer than in the 7e$t and "an, probably, be explained by the de$ire for 'ore flexible ar'or that refle"ted the ta"ti"al &$e of $peed on the battlefield# >he ar'or (a$ very li:e the ha&ber: and "overed the tor$o fro' the ne": to the &pper thigh$ and &$&ally had integral $hort $leeve$# A 'ail "oif 'ight al$o be (orn, again $o'eti'e$ a&g'ented (ith $'all re"tang&lar iron plate$# Babri" ar'or, or )&ilted defen$e$, (a$ al$o :no(n, a$ (a$ ar'or 'ade (here the plate$ (ere 'ade fro' leather# Ar'or of a $i'ilar type, 'ail and plate, (a$ al$o 'ade for the ar'$ and leg$# A n&'ber of hel'et type$ (ere &$ed# >he fir$t (a$ 'ade fro' I'ail and plateJ a$ already de$"ribed and "overed the head and the ba": of the ne":# >he $e"ond type "on$i$ted of a $i'ple one!pie"e iron hel'et that K&$t "overed the top of the head (ith a $i'ple 'ail defen$e hanging do(n to "over the $ide$ and ba": of the head and ne":# In 'ore developed for'$ the hel'et Ibo(lJ (a$ enlarged and "overed the head do(n to the level of the ear$# >he $ide$ of the fa"e (ere prote"ted (ith "hee:!pie"e$ and the ba": of the head (ith 'ail# On $o'e exa'ple$ a $eparate no$e g&ard, a na$al, (hi"h "o&ld be rai$ed and lo(ered (a$ fitted to the front of the hel'et# 2&$li' troop$ al$o "arried "ir"&lar $hield$, tho&gh the :ite!$haped $hield (a$ al$o :no(n a$ (a$ a tall

infantry type (ith a flat ba$e# >he "hara"teri$ti" $(ord of the late!t(elfth!"ent&ry 2&$li' (arrior (a$, li:e the older Arabi" $(ord$, $traight and either $ingle or do&ble edged# It had a relatively $i'ple "ro$$ g&ard and hilt, tho&gh highly de"orated and ornate pie"e$ (ere al(ay$ prod&"ed for tho$e (ho "o&ld afford the'# At $o'e $tage, and K&$t (hen i$ hard to pin do(n, the "&rved $aber or $"i'itar (a$ introd&"ed fro' the Ea$t# Both, tho&gh e$pe"ially the $aber, (ere de$igned a$ "&tting and $la$hing (eapon$ and not thr&$ting (eapon$# S(ord$ of both type$ (ere :ept in a $heath atta"hed to a (ai$t belt or $l&ng over one or other $ho&lder# >he 'yth of the )&ality of 2&$li' $(ord$ and the "onf&$ion over the &$e of the ter'$ IDa'a$"&$J or Ida'a$"ene
THE CRUSADES& 0,+,*0',, 0/0

bladeJ ha$ often "onf&$ed (riter$# >he "onf&$ion ha$ ari$en, perhap$, be"a&$e the phra$e i$ &$ed to de$"ribe blade$ that have a $&rfa"e pattern $o'eti'e$ "alled a (atered $&rfa"e# >here are, in fa"t, fo&r (ay$ pattern$ "an be prod&"ed and fo&r varietie$ of $(ord$ or, rather, $teel to (hi"h thi$ (ord ha$ been applied# >he$e are, &$ing their 'odern ter'inology3 pattern (elded, inlaied, preferentially et"hed, and "r&"ible# *attern!(elded blade$ are, a$ (e have already $een, 'ade by (elding together $everal rod$ or bar$ of iron and the$e are forged into a blade (hi"h, (hen the $&rfa"e i$ lightly et"hed, reveal$ a $&rfa"e pattern# Inlayed $teel, (here different 'etal$ are in!layed into the $&rfa"e, and preferentially et"hed $teel, (here a pattern i$ et"hed into the $&rfa"e, are fre)&ently referred to a$ Ifal$e da'a$"eneJ or Iartifi"ial da'a$"ene#J >r&e Da'a$"&$ i$ 'ade fro' "r&"ible $teel and i$ a '&"h $&perior 'aterial fro' (hi"h to 'a:e blade$# In the t(elfth "ent&ry thi$ 'aterial (a$ i'ported fro' India and '&"h priFed ! for exa'ple, (hen Saladin (anted to $e"&re the help of the 2&$li' 7e$t he $ent the', a'ong other thing$, a pre$ent of Indian $(ord blade$# It $ho&ld be noted that tho&gh the (ord IDa'a$"&$J or Ida'a$"eneJ i$ &$ed, there i$ no eviden"e that $(ord$ (ere ever 'ade in Da'a$"&$L 7herea$ in the 7e$t the 'a"e (a$ not ever a pop&lar (eapon it (a$ very "o''on a'ong the 2&$li' $oldier$ of SaladinG$ ar'y# It (a$ de$"ribed a$ an ar'or!brea:ing (eapon and (a$ &$&ally $hort and often had a flanged or glob&lar iron head# >he 2&$li' $oldierG$ pri'ary (eapon (a$, a$ in 7e$tern E&rope, the lan"e, altho&gh it (a$ &$ed in a 'ore flexible (ay ! not K&$t a$ a $ho": (eapon# It i$ al$o "lear that they &$ed both the lan"e, "o&"hed &nder the right ar', and the $pear, (hi"h (a$ thro(n# Other for'$ of polear'$ (ere al$o "ertainly &$ed by 2&$li' infantry b&t, tho&gh it i$ "lear that they (ere &$ed, they are not ea$ily identifiable# >he bo(, the re"&rved or "o'po$ite type, (a$ al$o &$ed, tho&gh to (hat extent i$ &n"ertain# It 'ay have been &$ed by the infantry, po$$ibly in pla"e of the thro(ing $pear, b&t the eviden"e i$ $o'e(hat "ontradi"tory# >he axe, (ith a "hara"teri$ti" $e'i"ir"&lar head, (a$ al$o &$ed by $o'e $e"tion$ of the ar'y# >he t(o ar'ie$ that fa"ed ea"h other, 2&$li' and Chri$tian, d&ring the late t(elfth "ent&ry (ere not, a$ i$ evident, ar'ed or e)&ipped that differently fro' ea"h other# Altho&gh there (ere differen"e$, the$e (ere in no (ay de"i$ive# 7hat (a$ different (ere the $trategy, ta"ti"$, leader$hip, 'orale, and di$"ipline of the $oldier$# Even before the fir$t blo( (a$ delivered, Saladin and hi$ ar'y had a very po$itive advantage#

CHAPTER FOUR

T!e L#te Mi$$le A%es& 0',,*0++,

=IS>O5D
After the fall of A"re and the effe"tive end of the Cr&$ading Era in -2.-, the fo&rteenth and fifteenth "ent&rie$ (ere a period do'inated by "onfli"t$ both (ithin and bet(een E&ropean "o&ntrie$ and $tate$# >he Engli$h fo&ght the S"ot$, the Bren"h, the B&rg&ndian$, and the Spani$h and end&red a br&tal "ivil (ar, the 7ar of the 5o$e$# >he Bren"h (aged (ar again$t the B&rg&ndian$, the Italian$, and the *ort&g&e$e# >he B&rg&ndian$ "a'paigned again$t the S(i$$ and the Cer'an$# >he Cer'an$ (ent to (ar (ith the Italian$ and they al$o fo&ght a'ong the'$elve$, a$ did the Italian$# >he vario&$ Iberian :ingdo'$ atta":ed one other and (aged (ar again$t the 2&$li'$# >he Dane$ "la$hed (ith the S(ede$, and both fo&ght the %or(egian$# >he >e&toni" ,night$ battled (ith the *r&$$ian$, Livo!nian$, and 5&$$ian$H and everyone tried ! vainly ! to fight again$t the Otto'an >&r:$# =o(ever, the 'o$t end&ring and $iFeable "onfli"t of thi$ (hole period (a$ the $erie$ of (ar$ and battle$ that la$ted fro' -;; to -</; and "a'e to be :no(n a$ the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar# 7hen ,ing Ed(ard III of England la&n"hed hi$ fir$t 'aKor inva$ion of the "ontinent in -;;., it (a$ o$ten$ibly to re"over the "ro(n of Bran"e, (hi"h in hi$ vie( had been I$tolenJ fro' hi' in -;29# De$pite being the "lo$e$t genealogi"al heir to

Charle$ I +, he (a$ de"lared ineligible to be :ing of Bran"e be"a&$e hi$ de$"ent (a$ thro&gh a (o'an, hi$
0/'
0// MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

'other, I$abella, the $i$ter of the de"ea$ed :ing# >he throne in$tead (a$ given to a "o&$in, *hilip of +aloi$, (ho (a$ "ro(ned a$ ,ing *hilip +I of Bran"e# At the ti'e the Bren"h had a $trong and reno(ned ar'y and Ed(ardG$ 'ove (a$ tho&ght by 'any in England and in Bran"e to be fooli$h# D&ring the thirteenth "ent&ry, &nder able (arrior :ing$ $&"h a$ *hilip II A&g&$t&$ and *hilip I+ the Bair, Bran"e had (on 'any (ar$ and $trengthened it$ border$ again$t the Spani$h :ingdo'$, Italy, and the =oly 5o'an E'pire, (hile at the $a'e ti'e regaining al'o$t all of the Engli$h land$ in Bran"e# 5ebellio&$ lord$ and hereti"al $e"t$ al$o felt the $trength of Bran"eG$ 'ilitary 'ight# >he for'er (ere i'pri$oned or, 'ore often, exe"&ted (hile the latter had their po(er and a&thority "hallenged# *hilip I+ (a$ $o "onfident of hi$ 'ilitary, politi"al, and e""le$ia$ti"al po(er that in -;0 he (a$ able to "hallenge the ,night$ >e'plar, the large$t 'ilitary 'ona$ti" order# =e de"lared thi$ re'nant of the "r&$ading pa$t to be hereti"al and "onfi$"ated it$ trea$&re$ and land$# >ho&gh it i$ tr&e that d&ring the thirteenth and early fo&rteenth "ent&rie$, the Bren"h had $&ffered $o'e defeat$, 'o$t notably that by ,ing Lo&i$ IE on "r&$ade in Egypt and %orth Afri"a and by Bren"h noble ar'ie$ (ho fo&ght again$t Ble'i$h to(n$people at the battle$ of Co&rtrai in -;02 and Ar)&e$ in -;0;, the$e (ere )&i":ly forgotten and (hatever $etba":$ that re$&lted (ere )&i":ly re"lai'ed# At fir$t Ed(ard IIIG$ "a'paign in -;;. gained hi' very little# >ho&gh b&oyed &p by allian"e$ (ith $everal Lo( Co&ntrie$ prin"i!palitie$ ! (hi"h (ere dependent on Engli$h (ool for their e"ono'i" pro$perity ! he $ailed ba": a"ro$$ the Channel only to find hi$ landing blo":ed by a large Bren"h and Cenoe$e fleet at Sl&y$# >he re$&lting naval battle, (hi"h too: pla"e on 2< A&ne -;<0, (a$ the fir$t 'aKor engage'ent of the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar# By the end of the day, the Engli$h navy had (on, ably a$$i$ted by their allie$, prin"ipally Ble'ing$ fro' Sl&y$ and nearby Br&ge$ (ho (at"hed the fight fro' the $hore and :ept any Bren"h $ailor$ fro' e$"aping# In doing $o, the Engli$h al'o$t "o'pletely de$troyed the Bren"h navy# Ed(ard III follo(ed thi$ (ith a $iege of the to(n of >o&rnai, the large$t northern to(n that had de"lared it$ allegian"e to the Bren"h# Initially, at lea$t, the $iege (ent the (ay the Engli$h :ing had planned# =i$ ar'y and allie$ de$troyed Bren"h!allied land$ and village$ nearby and, tho&gh *hilip +I and the Bren"h ar'y "a'ped (ithin $ight of the be$ieged to(n, they ref&$ed to do battle# >he to(n $ee'ed on the verge of $&rrendering# =o(ever, the allian"e that Ed(ard III depended on bro:e &p be"a&$e of internal bi":ering, and hi$ o(n
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0/+

parlia'ent held &p '&"h!needed f&nd$ for hi' to "arry on the (ar# =e (a$, therefore, for"ed to $ign the >r&"e of E$plN"hin (ith the Bren"h and to ret&rn (ith hi$ ar'y to England# Altho&gh *hilip +I appeared to have (on a great vi"tory by rai$ing the $iege of >o&rnai, it )&i":ly proved to have gained hi' little 'ore than a brief re$pite# Ed(ard III re'oved opponent$ to the (ar fro' hi$ govern'ent, b&ilt &p hi$ (ar finan"e$, and planned hi$ ret&rn# A""ording to the >r&"e of E$plN"hin, the Engli$h "o&ld not atta": Bran"e for five year$# Before that ti'e had pa$$ed, ho(ever, "ivil (ar bro:e o&t in Brittany bet(een t(o heir$ to the va"ant d&"al throne# S&pporting one Breton "andidate (hile *hilip $&pported the other, Ed(ard &$ed thi$ ex"&$e to re$tart ho$tilitie$ (ith Bran"e# B&t thi$ proved to be b&t a $ide$ho( to the 'ain (ar# In -;<0, after the >r&"e of E$plN"hin had offi"ially expired, the Engli$h atta":ed Bran"e proper# 7ith a large ar'y, n&'bering probably a$ 'any a$ -/,000, Ed(ard landed in %or'andy ! a d&"hy lo$t in -2-< by hi$ great!great!grandfather, Aohn ! and began a 'ar"h to(ard the Lo( Co&ntrie$# =e $topped at CrN"y, in the "o&nty of *onthie&# >he Bren"h ar'y, $till &nder the leader$hip of *hilip +I, (hi"h (a$ follo(ing the Engli$h, de"ided thi$ ti'e to give battle, and on 20 A&g&$t -;<0, the t(o $ide$ fo&ght the fir$t great land battle of the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar# A$ (a$ to be repeated thro&gho&t the next "ent&ry, the Bren"h $oldier$ greatly o&tn&'bered their opponent$, b&t lo$t# *hilip (a$ able to e$"ape the "arnage, fleeing to *ari$ &nder the "over of dar:ne$$, b&t 'any of hi$ lord$ and "aptain$ (ere :illed# Ed(ard 'oved vi"torio&$ly to the to(n of Calai$, and, after a yearlong $iege, again (ith the Bren"h :ing "a'ping idly by, the b&rgher$ "o&ld no longer (ith$tand their for"ed h&nger and the to(n fell# >he Engli$h (ere to &$e Calai$ a$ their "ontinental Ibea"hheadJ for the next t(o "ent&rie$# 7hile the Bren"h $ee'ed in"apable of $lo(ing Engli$h 'ilitary progre$$, a plag&e of &npre"edented $"ale and 'ortality did# >he Bla": Death, a$ it be"a'e :no(n, $(ept thro&gh E&rope in -;<91-;<. and effe"tively halted f&rther "a'paigning by Ed(ard and the Engli$h ar'y# >he effe"t$ of thi$ pe$tilen"e on the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar ! on 'anpo(er, leader$hip, finan"e$, a$ (ell a$ $trategy and ta"ti"$ ! (ere 'aKor# %ot only (a$ there a "e$$ation of ho$tilitie$ for nearly a de"ade, b&t (hen they began ane(, in -;//1-;/0, the $iFe$ of ar'ie$ (ere dra'ati"ally red&"ed# Be"a&$e of thi$, the Engli$h adopted a ne( ta"ti" of (arfare that

they (o&ld pra"ti"e (ith reg&larity and profi"ien"y for the re$t of the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar3 the c%evauc%?e. >he c%evauc%?e (a$ a )&i": "avalry "a'paign (ith the
0/) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

goal of pillaging &nfortified village$ and to(n$, de$troying "rop$ and ho&$e$, $tealing live$to":, and generally di$r&pting and terroriFing r&ral $o"iety# It (a$ on one of the$e c%evauc%?es in -;/0, (hen Ed(ard IIIG$ $on, Ed(ard the Bla": *rin"e, (a$ raiding thro&gh the north!"entral region$ of Bran"e, that ,ing Aohn II of Bran"e 6*hilip +I had died in -;/08 atta":ed the $'aller for"e$ of the Engli$h ar'y o&t$ide of the to(n of *oitier$# >he re$&lt (a$ the $a'e a$ a de"ade before at CrN"y3 he lo$t# Aohn (a$ "apt&red and i'pri$oned in the >o(er of London# >he in"ar"eration of their :ing for"ed Bren"h royal repre$entative$ to the negotiation table, (here, on 9 2ay -;00, the >reaty of BrNtigny (a$ $igned bet(een the t(o (arring $tate$# >he Bren"h pro'i$ed to pay ; 'illion golden "ro(n$ a$ a ran$o' for Aohn and to "on"ede the d&"hie$ of A)&itaine and *onthie& and the to(n of Calai$ to the Engli$h :ing# Bor hi$ part, Ed(ard III, rather $&rpri$ingly, pro'i$ed to reno&n"e hi$ "lai' to the Bren"h throne# And yet, the i'pri$on'ent that :ept ,ing Aohn II in London 'ay have been the be$t thing that "o&ld have happened to the Bren"h 'ilitarily# It (a$ extre'ely diffi"&lt for the Bren"h to rai$e their :ingG$ ran$o' ! indeed, it (a$ never "o'pletely paid# 7hile he lingered in the >o(er of London, the re$pon$ibility for prote"ting Bran"e fell on hi$ $on and heir, the f&t&re Charle$ +# =e (a$ for"ed to defend hi$ :ingdo'G$ border$, not only again$t the Engli$h, (ho $till "ontin&ed to fight for (hat (a$ not "overed by the >reaty of BrNtigny, b&t al$o again$t the %avarre$e ! (ho$e :ing, Charle$, (a$ 'a:ing hi$ o(n "lai'$ to Bren"h land$ and title$ ! and again$t roving band$ of Engli$h and Bren"h $oldier$ left (itho&t e'ploy'ent by the treaty, the $o!"alled Bree Co'panie$, (ho (ere "arrying on their o(n (ar and pl&ndering the "o&ntry$ide# >he da&phin Charle$ (a$ ably aided in thi$ d&ty by a ri$ing Bren"h 'ilitary $&per$tar, Bertrand d& C&e$"lin# D& C&e$"lin fo&ght 'any battle$# In $o'e he (a$ dreadf&lly over'at"hed and &n$&""e$$f&l# In fa"t, he (a$ ta:en pri$oner in -;0< after hi$ defeat at A&ray, and again in -;0 after the in"on"l&$ive battle of %UKera, in Ca$tile# At the latter, $o'eti'e$ "alled the 7ar of the >(o *edro$, d& C&e$"lin too: the $ide of Enri)&e of >ra$ta!'ara in hi$ $tr&ggle for $&""e$$ion in Ca$tile again$t hi$ half!brother, *edro the Cr&el, (ho (a$ $&pported by the Bla": *rin"e# B&t Bertrand d& C&e$"lin (a$ &$&ally $&""e$$f&l and ,ing Charle$ + ! for he had a$$&'ed the throne in -;0< on the death of hi$ father in London ! $a( hi$ 'ilitary fort&ne$ begin to ri$e# Slo(ly, he began to regain lo$t part$ of hi$ :ingdo'# By -;0., he had ta:en
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0/(

ba": A)&itaineH by -; -, he had 'ade pea"e (ith Charle$ of %avarreH in that $a'e year, he again began to exert a&thority in Brittany and in -; 2, hi$ allie$, the Ca$tilian$, defeated the Engli$h fleet off the "oa$t of La 5o"helle# By -; he had o&tlived both hi$ "hief ene'ie$H Ed(ard the Bla": *rin"e died in A&ne -; 0 of a di$ea$e he had a")&ired d&ring hi$ "a'paign in Spain and he (a$ follo(ed le$$ than a year later by hi$ father, Ed(ard III# =i$ $&""e$$or, 5i"hard II, (a$ a "hild &ntrained in the (arfare of hi$ father or grandfather, a $it&ation that Charle$ +, and after hi$ death in -;90, hi$ $on, Charle$ +I, too: f&ll advantage of, driving the Engli$h ba": &ntil they "o&ld barely hold on to Calai$ and Ca$"ony# In -;.0 5i"hard II $igned a tr&"e (ith Charle$ +I in *ari$, dependent on hi$ 'arriage to I$abella, one of Charle$ +IG$ da&ghter$, and a "o''it'ent to an Anglo!Bren"h Cr&$ade to the ea$t again$t the Otto'an >&r:$# Altho&gh Bran"e and England did not ex"hange blo($ d&ring the period bet(een the >reaty of *ari$ and -<-/, (hen =enry + la&n"hed hi$ atta": on Bran"e, fighting "ontin&ed# Even (itho&t Engli$h interferen"e, the 'ilitary $it&ation in Bran"e d&ring thi$ period (a$ far fro' re$olved# Charle$ +IG$ 'ental illne$$ led to &n$table :ing$hip, and a n&'ber of hi$ "o&$in$ and &n"le$ vied for politi"al po(er to fill the va"&&'# >he D&:e$ of B&rg&ndy and Or!lNan$, "o&$in$ of both the :ing and, of "o&r$e, of ea"h other, both tho&ght they $ho&ld be the only one helping Charle$ +I to r&le Bran"e# A$ they "o&ld not agree to $hare that re$pon$ibility, they fo&ght ea"h other, dra(ing the re$t of Bran"e into the "onfli"t# Bor the re$t of the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar, the$e t(o fa"tion$, :no(n a$ the B&rg&ndian$ and Ar'agna"$, &$ed every 'ean$, fro' a"t&al battle$ and $iege$ to a$$a$$ination, to fight one other# >he t(o partie$ did little 'ore than ex"hange belli"o$e (ord$ &ntil 20 %ove'ber -<0 , (hen Lo&i$, the D&:e of OrlNan$, (a$ a$$a$$inated in *ari$# Aohn the Bearle$$ (a$ )&i":ly i'pli"ated, and the t(o $ide$ '&$tered their ar'ie$# >here $ee'$ little do&bt a'ong hi$torian$ that Aohn the Bearle$$ planned thi$ a$$a$$ination to ta:e advantage of the (ea: $tate of the Ar'agna"$ and their $&pporter$ to extend hi$ o(n land$ and politi"al po(er# >he plan $tarted to go a(ry for Aohn (hen the a$$a$$ination of a fello( Bren"h

ari$to"rat "a&$ed 'any of the other Bren"h noble$ to oppo$e hi'H even hi$ previo&$ allie$ (ere no( $&$pi"io&$# B&t thi$ did not di$"o&rage the D&:e of B&rg&ndy# Indeed, he de"ided that thi$ (a$ the ti'e to $trengthen hi$ po$ition by 'ilitary 'ean$ and began to (age (ar again$t anyone (ho oppo$ed hi'# =e &$ed hi$ large ar'y, together (ith perhap$ the large$t, 'o$t diver$e g&npo(der artillery train in E&rope, to atta":
0/MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

hi$ Ar'agna" ene'ie$, and by -<-. he had ta:en a large part of Bran"e, in"l&ding *ari$# 7hen =enry + invaded Bran"e, $everal year$ into thi$ Bran"o!B&rg&ndian $tr&ggle, he fo&nd a Bran"e (ea:ened by "ivil (ar# >he B&rg&ndian$ either "ollaborated (ith hi$ inva$ion or ignored it, and the Ar'agna"$ $ee'ed &nable to de"ide (hether to fight again$t the Engli$h or the B&rg&ndian$# 7hen =enry "a'e to the throne of England in 2ar"h -<-;, he $ee'$ to have had t(o goal$ in 'ind3 the re"apt&re of the for'erly Engli$h!held land$ in Bran"e and the re!a$$ertion of hi$ "lai' to the Bren"h throne# On -< A&g&$t -<-/, =enryG$ inva$ion for"e landed at the 'o&th of the Seine and i''ediately laid $iege to the nearby to(n of =arfle&r# =i$ ar'y (a$ not large, probably n&'bering no 'ore than .,0001-0,000 $oldier$, of (hi"h only abo&t a )&arter (ere 'en!at!ar'$ and the re$t longbo(!'en# B&t the Bren"h appear to have been "o'pletely &nprepared for thi$ atta": and &nable to rai$e a relief ar'y# On 22 Septe'ber, the to(n $&rrendered# Shortly thereafter, =enry began a 'ar"h to Calai$, hoping, it i$ arg&ed, not to en"o&nter the Bren"h ar'y, tho&gh (illing, it $ee'$ fro' the re$&lt, to engage $ho&ld they "at"h hi'# On 2/ O"tober -<-/, the Bren"h finally "a&ght the Engli$h o&t$ide the village of Agin"o&rt# A$ at CrN"y and *oitier$, the Bren"h ar'y $ho&ld have ea$ily defeated their Engli$h foe$, if for no other rea$on than that they o&tn&'bered the' by three or fo&r ti'e$ 6aro&nd 20,000 to not )&ite 0,0008, and that 'o$t of the Bren"h (ere :night$ and 'en!at!ar'$# Det they did not# In (hat (a$ "ertainly one of the greate$t and 'o$t tr&'peted vi"torie$ of the entire 2iddle Age$, the Engli$h annihilated their opponent$# At the end of the day, 'ore than -0,000 Bren"h $oldier$ lay dead, in"l&ding the Con$table and Ad'iral of Bran"e, ; d&:e$, "o&nt$, and 'ore than .0 other lord$ and -,/00 :night$# Other i'portant Bren"h lord$ had been ta:en pri$oner# On the Engli$h $ide the "a$&altie$ (ere lightH only a fe( h&ndred (ere :illed, in"l&ding the D&:e of Dor: and the Earl of S&ffol:# I''ediately follo(ing the battle of Agin"o&rt there (a$ little f&rther Engli$h 'ilitary a"tion# =enry + ret&rned to London to hi$ peopleG$ a""lai' and $&""eeded in rai$ing 'ore 'oney and troop$ for a larger inva$ion of Bran"e# =e began that inva$ion late in -<- # By -<20 he had "on)&ered %or'andy, giving hi' "o'plete "ontrol of the northea$t and $o&th(e$t of Bran"e ! the Engli$h $till held Ca$"ony ! (hile hi$ allie$, the B&rg&ndian$ and Breton$, held the north(e$t and ea$t of Bran"e, in"l&ding *ari$, and the Lo( Co&ntrie$# >he Ar'agna"$ (ere p&$hed $o&th, belo( the Loire 5iver,
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0/.

(here they held on, very ten&o&$ly, to a $'all part of the Bren"h :ingdo'# On 2- 2ay -<20, the >reaty of >roye$ (a$ $igned bet(een =enry + and Charle$ +I# >hi$ treaty in all it$ intri"a"y "an be red&"ed to a $ingle provi$ion3 it 'ade =enry + heir to the throne of Bran"e# Charle$ +I (a$ $till re"ogniFed a$ :ing, b&t $ho&ld he die, and he (a$ ailing 'o$t of the ti'e, =enry + (o&ld a$$&'e hi$ throne# It effe"tively di$inherited Charle$G$ only re'aining $on, the da&phin Charle$# In addition, =enry + (o&ld 'arry Charle$ +IG$ yo&nge$t da&ghter, Catherine, and their elde$t $on (o&ld th&$ be"o'e heir to the "ro(n$ of both Bran"e and England# Of "o&r$e, at the $igning of the >reaty of >roye$, no one believed =enry + (o&ld die before the frail Charle$ +I# =o(ever, d&ring the $iege of 2ea&x in -<22, =enry + "ontra"ted (hat (a$ probably an inte$tinal illne$$, perhap$ dy$entery, and died a fe( (ee:$ later, on ;- A&g&$t -<22# Charle$ +I $till lived, altho&gh he follo(ed =enry to the grave later the $a'e year# Al$o in -<22, Catherine, =enryG$ (ife and Charle$G$ da&ghter, gave birth to a $on, na'ed after hi$ father, (ho, al'o$t fro' the 'o'ent he (a$ born, (a$ :ing of Bran"e and England# =o(ever, the di$inherited da&phin, Charle$, $till had the $&pport of 'any in Bran"e, in"l&ding the Ar'agna"$, and they (ere not prepared to allo( thi$ Engli$h baby, =enry +I, to $it on the throne of their :ingdo'# One of the$e $&pporter$ (a$ a yo&ng pea$ant girl na'ed Aoan of Ar"# D&ring the year$ bet(een the death of =enry + in -<22 and AoanG$ ri$e to leader$hip in the Bren"h ar'y in -<2., the Engli$h p&$hed deep into Ar'agna" territory, rea"hing a$ far a$ the Loire 5iver and be$ieging the regionG$ "apital, OrlNan$, altho&gh they (ere &nable to "apt&re it# >he Engli$h had been be$ieging the "ity for five 'onth$ and, de$pite having too fe( $oldier$ even to $&rro&nd the to(n, $ee'ed to be on the verge of "apt&ring it# =o(ever, Aoan ! (ho, follo(ing angeli" Ivoi"e$J $he $aid had $ent her on a 'i$$ion of 'ilitary relief for the Bren"h, pre$ented her$elf to and "onvin"ed the heir to the Bren"h throne, Charle$, to 'a:e her a leader of hi$ ar'y ! ref&$ed to allo( OrlNan$ to fall and, after defeating $everal of their field fortifi"ation$, a$ (ell a$ the >o&relle$, the $tone bridgehead in (hi"h they had their head)&arter$, $he for"ed the Engli$h to rai$e their $iege and (ithdra(# >a:ing fre$h heart the Bren"h, (ith Aoan goading the' on, "ha$ed the Engli$h fro' the re$t of their Loire holding$# Bollo(ing an &neventf&l 'ar"h thro&gh B&rg&ndian!held territory to

5hei'$, on - A&ly -<2., the 'an for (ho' Aoan had fo&ght, the da&phin Charle$, (a$ "ro(ned ,ing Charle$ +II# Aoan then $et o&t to "on)&er *ari$, (hi"h (a$ held at the ti'e by an Anglo!B&rg&ndian allian"e, b&t (a$ &n$&""e$$f&l,
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retreating event&ally to the to(n of Co'piVgne, (hi"h (a$ &nder $iege by B&rg&ndian for"e$# On 2; 2ay -<;0, leading a $ortie o&t of Co'piVgne, Aoan (a$ $eparated fro' the 'ain body of her for"e, "apt&red by the B&rg&ndian$, and event&ally $old to the Engli$h# A little 'ore than a year later, on ;0 2ay -<;-, $he (a$ b&rned to death a$ a hereti" in the 'ar:etpla"e of 5o&en# After her exe"&tion, and perhap$ even a little be"a&$e of it, AoanG$ infl&en"e in"rea$ed and there (ere no f&rther 'aKor 'ilitary $etba":$ for the Bren"h or their :ing, Charle$ +II# 2o$t i'portantly, (ithin five year$, a pea"e "onferen"e (a$ held at Arra$# 7hile failing to $top the (ar bet(een England and Bran"e, the treaty $igned at Arra$ in -<;/ for"ed the B&rg&ndian d&:e, *hilip the Cood, (ho had a$"ended to the d&"al throne in -<-. after the a$$a$$ination of hi$ father, Aohn the Bearle$$, to rea$$e$$ hi$ allian"e (ith England# =e de"ided that it (a$ ti'e to I$(it"h $ide$J in the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar, (ithdra(ing fro' a"tive $&pport of England, if not "o'pletely allying hi'$elf (ith Charle$ +II# >hi$ (a$ a diffi"&lt 'ove for *hilip, b&t it (a$ 'ore of a proble' for the Engli$h, and their (ar effort in Bran"e never )&ite re"overed# It too: another $eventeen year$, b&t event&ally the Engli$h :ing lo$t all of hi$ land$ in Bran"e ! ex"ept for Calai$# 2aine fell in -<<.H %or'andy, in -</0H and Ca$"ony, in -</;# >he latter had been in Engli$h hand$ $in"e Eleanor of A)&itaine pa$$ed it to her $on, 5i"hard the Lionheart, in the t(elfth "ent&ry# >he Engli$h ar'yG$ lo$$e$ in Bran"e (ere deva$tating for it$ ineffe"tive :ing, =enry +I# ?nable to $&$tain, let alone repeat, hi$ fatherG$ $&""e$$e$, hi$ throne (a$ threatened (hen hi$ "o&$in, 5i"hard, D&:e of Dor:, "lai'ed it in -</0# 7hat follo(ed (a$ ;/ year$ of al'o$t "on$tant politi"al &pheaval and "ivil (ar, (hat i$ no( "alled the 7ar$ of the 5o$e$# B&rg&ndy, too, $&ffered fro' the "on$e)&en"e$ of the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar# >he end of the allian"e (ith England in -<;/ led to revolt$ by the $o&thern Lo( Co&ntrie$ to(n$, prin"ipally Chent, Br&ge$, and Dpre$, (ho$e e"ono'i" pro$perity depended on pea"ef&l "onne"tion$ (ith the Engli$h# 2oreover, neither *hilip the Cood nor hi$ $on and heir, Charle$ the Bold, ever "o'pletely allied the'$elve$ (ith the Bren"h# >h&$, (hen the ne( :ing of Bran"e, Lo&i$ EI ! (ho a$"ended the Bren"h throne at the death of hi$ father, Charle$ +II, in -<0- ! fo&ght the B&rg&ndi!an$ in the 7ar of the *&bli" 7eal, the be$t they "o&ld do (a$ fight to a dra(, po$tponing rather than ending the Bren"h a")&i$ition of their land$# %or did the belli"o$e Charle$ the Bold $&""eed in enlarging hi$ d&"al holding$ in Lorraine, Cer'any, or S(itFerland# ?l!
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0+0

ti'ately, at the battle of %an"y in -< , Charle$ (a$ :illed# Be"a&$e he la":ed a 'ale heir, the pro$pero&$ and po(erf&l do'ain$ of the B&rg&ndian d&:e$ (ere inherited by hi$ da&ghter, 2ary, and after her &nti'ely death in -<92, they (ere ab$orbed into the holding$ of her h&$band, the =ab$b&rg r&ler of A&$tria and later =oly 5o'an E'peror, 2axi'ilian I# B&t not all of the for'er B&rg&ndian holding$ (ere inherited by 2ary and 2axi'ilian# Lo&i$ EIG$ ar'ie$ for"ibly too: a lot of B&rg&ndian territory after Charle$ the BoldG$ death ! al'o$t the (hole of *i"ardy, Artoi$, Al$a"e, Lorraine, and event&ally B&rg&ndy it$elf# >he =ab$b&rg re$pon$e (a$ $lo( in "o'ing, for 2axi'ilian had 'ore pre$$ing 'atter$ at hand# Bro' the end of the 7ar of the Si"ilian +e$per$ 6-2921-;028, the Italian$ tried to de"ide for the'$elve$ (hat govern'ent they (anted, re$&lting in "onfli"t bet(een the Chibelline$ ! (ho $&pported I'perial r&le ! and the C&elf$ ! (ho $&pported papal r&le# >he C&elf$ (ere $&""e$$f&l in the fir$t de"ade of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, ironi"ally at '&"h the $a'e ti'e the papa"y 'oved to Avignon in -;09# S&ddenly freed fro' either I'perial or papal infl&en"e, the large n&'ber of $overeign $tate$ in northern and "entral Italy began to try to exert "ontrol over their neighbor$# Bloren"e, 2ilan, and +eni"e, and to a le$$er extent L&""a, Siena, 2ant&a, and Cenoa, all profited fro' the early!fo&rteenth!"ent&ry 'ilitary $it&ation by exerting their independen"e# B&t thi$ independen"e "a'e at a pri"e# >he inhabitant$ of the north Italian "ity!$tate$ had eno&gh (ealth to be able to pay for other$ to fight for the' and they fre)&ently e'ployed $oldier$, "ondottieri in their lang&age 6fro' the condotte the "ontra"t hiring the$e $oldier$8 and 'er"enarie$ in o&r$# Indeed, the i''en$e (ealth of the Italian "ity!$tate$ in the late 2iddle Age$ 'eant that the n&'ber of native $oldier$ (a$ lo(er than el$e(here in E&rope at the $a'e ti'e, b&t it 'eant the "o$t of (aging (ar (a$ '&"h higher# One 'ight thin: that having to add the pay for "ondottieri to the nor'al "o$t$ of (ar (o&ld have li'ited the n&'ber$ of 'ilitary "onfli"t$ in late 'edieval Italy# B&t that (a$ not the "a$e and, in (hat (a$ an in"redibly belli"o$e ti'e, Italy (a$ one of the 'o$t fo&ght over region$ in E&rope# 2o$t of the$e (ar$ (ere $'all, (ith one "ityG$ 'er"enary for"e$ fa"ing anotherG$, b&t they (ere very fre)&ent# >hey gave e'ploy'ent to a large n&'ber of "ondottieri, (ho in t&rn fo&ght the (ar$, (hi"h in t&rn e'ployed the "ondottieri# An obvio&$ $elf!perpet&ating "ir"le developed# It

(a$ f&eled by a n&'ber of fa"tor$3 the (ealth of northern ItalyH the greed of (ealthier Italian$ to a")&ire 'ore (ealth by o""&pying neighboring "itie$ and land$ 6or to :eep the$e "itie$ fro' "o'peting by in"orporating their
0+1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

e"ono'ie$8H their &n(illingne$$ the'$elve$ to fight the (ar$H and the availability of a large n&'ber of 'en (ho (ere not only (illing to do $o, b&t (ho $a( reg&lar e'ploy'ent in their 'er"enary "o'panie$ a$ a 'ean$ to "o'fort, (ealth, and often title$ and offi"e$# In -<-0, one "ondottierie, Bra""io da 2ontone, be"a'e lord of *er&gia, (hile a $hort ti'e later t(o other$, "ondottieri $on$ of the "on!dottiere 2&""io Attendolo SforFa, Ale$$andro and Bran"e$"o, be"a'e the 2a$ter of *e$aro and D&:e of 2ilan, re$pe"tively# Other "ondottieri be"a'e governor$ of ?rbino, 2ant&a, 5i'ini, and Ber!rara d&ring the fifteenth "ent&ry# +eni"e and Cenoa "ontin&ed to be the greate$t rival$ a'ong the northern Italian "ity!$tate$# Both believed the 2editerranean to be their$, and they ref&$ed to $hare it (ith anyone, in"l&ding %aple$ and Aragon, nor, of "o&r$e, (ith ea"h other# >hi$ be"a'e a 'ilitary i$$&e at the end of the fifteenth "ent&ry# >he "o''on pra"ti"e (a$ a 'onopoly trading "ontra"t# +eni"eG$ 'onopoly (ith the "r&$ader $tate$ "ea$ed (hen the "r&$ader$ (ere for"ed fro' the 2iddle Ea$t in -2.-, altho&gh they (ere able to $&$tain their trade (ith the vi"torio&$ 2&$li' po(er$# And +eni"eG$ "ontra"t (ith Con$tantinople (a$ abandoned (ith the fall of the Latin ,ingdo' in -20-, only to be repla"ed by a $i'ilar "ontra"t (ith Cenoa that (o&ld la$t till the "ityG$ fall to the Otto'an >&r:$ in -</;# Bre)&ently d&ring the late 2iddle Age$, thi$ rivalry t&rned to (arfare, fo&ght pri'arily on the $ea, a$ (a$ fitting for t(o naval po(er$# +eni"e al'o$t al(ay$ (on the$e engage'ent$, 'o$t notably the 7ar of Chioggia 6-; 01-;9-8, and there $ee'$ little do&bt that $&"h defeat$ led to a (ea:ening of the politi"al independen"e and e"ono'i" $trength of Cenoa# Altho&gh +eni"e never a"t&ally "on)&ered Cenoa, nor doe$ it appear that the +enetian r&ler$ "on$idered thi$ to be in their "ityG$ intere$t, other prin"ipalitie$ did target the on"e po(erf&l "ity!$tate# Bloren"e held Cenoa for a period of three year$ 6-;/;1-;/08, and %aple$, Aragon, and 2ilan vied for "ontrol in the fifteenth "ent&ry# See:ing defen$ive a$$i$tan"e, the 5ep&bli" of Cenoa $o&ght allian"e (ith the ,ingdo' of Bran"e, and it i$ in thi$ "ontext that their 'o$t pro'inent 'ilitary feat&re i$ $et, the Cenoe$e 'er"enary# D&ring the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar, Cenoa $&pplied Bran"e (ith naval and, 'ore fa'o&$ly, "ro$$bo('en 'er"enarie$, the latter ironi"ally provided by a "ity (ho$e experien"e in land (arfare (a$ rather thin# Before the fifteenth "ent&ry, the 5ep&bli" of +eni"e had al$o rarely parti"ipated in land "a'paign$ ! ex"ept for leading the for"e$ of the Se"ond Cr&$ade in their atta": of Con$tantinople in -20<#
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0+'

Seeing the $ea not only a$ a provider of e"ono'i" $e"&rity b&t al$o a$ defen$e for the "ity, +enetian doge$ and other "ity offi"ial$ had rarely p&r$&ed "a'paign$ again$t their neighbor$# =o(ever, in -<0<1 -<0/, a +enetian ar'y, on"e again al'o$t entirely 'er"enarie$, atta":ed to the (e$t and "apt&red +i"enFa, +erona, and *ad&a# In -<--1-<-2 and again in -<-91-<20, they atta":ed to the northea$t, again$t =&ngary, and "apt&red Dal'atia, Br&ili, and I$tria# So far it had been ea$y ! $i'ply pay for eno&gh "ondottieri to fight the (ar$, and reap the profit$ of "on)&e$t# B&t in -<2< +eni"e ran into t(o Italian "ity!$tate$ that had the $a'e 'ilitary philo$ophy they did, and both (ere a$ (ealthy3 2ilan and Bloren"e# >he re$&lt (a$ thirty year$ of protra"ted (arfare# >he $trategy of all three of the$e "ity!$tate$ d&ring thi$ "onfli"t (a$ to e'ploy 'ore and 'ore 'er"enarie$# At the $tart, the +enetian ar'y n&'bered -0,0001-2,000H by -<;2 thi$ fig&re had gro(n to -9,000H and by -<;. it (a$ 2/,000, altho&gh it de"lined to 20,000 d&ring the -<<0$ and -</0$# >he other t(o "ity!$tate$ :ept pa"e# At al'o$t any ti'e after -<;0 'ore than /0,000 $oldier$ (ere fighting in northern Italy# >he e"ono'y and $o"iety of the (hole region (ere da'aged, (ith little gain by any of the protagoni$t$ d&ring the (ar# At it$ end, a negotiated $ettle'ent, +eni"e gained little, b&t it al$o lo$t very little# >he "ity (ent ba": to (ar in -< 91-< ., the *aFFi 7ar, and again in -<921-<9<, the 7ar of Berrara# >he Blorentine$ and 2ilane$e parti"ipated in both a$ (ell# After the a")&i$ition of +i"enFa, +erona, and *ad&a in -<0/ +eni"e $hared a land frontier (ith 2ilan# Bro' that ti'e for(ard 2ilan (a$ the greate$t threat to +eni"e and her allie$, and to pra"ti"ally any other "ity! $tate, to(n, or village in northern Italy# 2ilan al$o $hared a land frontier (ith Bloren"e, and if 2ilane$e ar'ie$ (ere not fighting +enetian ar'ie$, they (ere fighting Blorentine ar'ie$, $o'eti'e$ ta:ing on both at the $a'e ti'e# >heir ani'o$ity predate$ the later 2iddle Age$, b&t it inten$ified (ith the (ealth and ability of both $ide$ to hire "ondottieri# >hi$ led to (ar$ (ith Bloren"e in -;/-1-;/< and -;.01-<02, and (ith Bloren"e and +eni"e

6in leag&e together8 in -<2;1-</<, -< 91-< ., and -<921-<9<# In tho$e rare ti'e$ (hen not at (ar (ith Bloren"e or +eni"e, 2ilane$e ar'ie$ often t&rned on other neighboring to(n$, for exa'ple, "apt&ring *avia and 2onFa a'ong other pla"e$# *erhap$ the 'o$t telling $ign of 2ilanG$ belli"o$ity i$ the ri$e to po(er of it$ "ondottiere r&ler, Bran"e$"o SforFa, in -</0# SforFa had been one of 2ilanG$ "ondottieri "aptain$ for a n&'ber of year$, follo(ing in the foot$tep$ of hi$ father, 2&""io, (ho had been in the
0+/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

"ity!$tateG$ e'ploy off and on $in"e abo&t -<00# Both had perfor'ed diligently, $&""e$$f&lly, and, at lea$t for "ondottieri, loyally, and they had be"o'e (ealthy be"a&$e of it# Bran"e$"o had even 'arried the illegiti'ate da&ghter of the reigning D&:e of 2ilan, Bilippo 2aria +i$"onti# B&t d&ring the 'o$t re"ent (ar$, after he had a$$&'ed the lord$hip of *avia, and in the (a:e of BilippoG$ death in -<< , the 2ilane$e de"ided not to rene( Bran"e$"oG$ "ontra"t# In re$pon$e, the "ondottiere &$ed hi$ ar'y to be$iege the "ity, (hi"h "apit&lated in le$$ than a year# 7ithin a very $hort ti'e, Bran"e$"o SforFa had in$in&ated hi'$elf into all fa"et$ of 2ilane$e r&leH hi$ brother even be"a'e the "ityG$ ar"hbi$hop in -</<, and hi$ de$"endant$ "ontin&ed to hold po(er in the $ixteenth "ent&ry# Cenoa, +eni"e, and 2ilan all fo&ght exten$ively thro&gho&t the fo&rteenth and fifteenth "ent&rie$, b&t Bloren"e played the 'o$t a"tive role in Italian (arfare of the later 2iddle Age$# A rep&bli"an "ity!$tate, altho&gh in the fifteenth "ent&ry "ontrolled al'o$t ex"l&$ively by the 2edi"i fa'ily, Bloren"e had been deeply involved in the C&elf and Chibelline "onfli"t$ of the thirteenth "ent&ry, $erving a$ the "enter of the C&elf party# B&t tho&gh the C&elf$ (ere $&""e$$f&l thi$ did not bring pea"e to Bloren"e and (hen, in -;0-, they $plit into t(o partie$ ! the bla":$ and the (hite$ ! the fighting "ontin&ed &ntil -;0 # Before thi$ fe&d (a$ even "on"l&ded, ho(ever, the Blorentine ar'y, n&'bering ,000, 'o$tly "ondottieri, atta":ed *i$toia, "apt&ring the "ity in -;0 # In -;-/ in leag&e (ith %aple$, Blorentine for"e$ atte'pted to ta:e *i$a, b&t (ere defeated# In -;2/, they (ere again defeated (hile trying to ta:e *i$a and L&""a# Bet(een -;/- and -;/< they fo&ght the 2ilane$e# Bro' -; 0 to -; 9 they fo&ght again$t papal for"e$ hired at and dra(n fro' 5o'e in (hat (a$ :no(n a$ the 7ar of the Eight Saint$, b&t the Blorentine$ lo$t 'ore than they gained# Bor'ing the Leag&e of Bologna (ith Bologna, *ad&a, Berrara, and other northern Italian "itie$, they (arred again$t 2ilan fro' -;.0 to -<02# 7hile they (ere initially $&""e$$f&l again$t the 2ilane$e, Cian CaleaFFo, D&:e of 2ilan, (a$ event&ally able to bring *i$a, L&""a, and +eni"e onto hi$ "ityG$ $ide, and on"e again Bloren"e (a$ defeated# In -<00 Bloren"e annexed *i$a (itho&t ar'ed re$i$tan"e# B&t (ar bro:e o&t (ith 2ilan again in -<2; la$ting &ntil -</<H Bloren"e (o&ld ally (ith +eni"e in -<2/, and (ith the papa"y in -<<0# Battle$ (ere lo$t on the Ser"hio in -</0 and at I'ola in -<;<, b&t (on at Anghiara in -<<0# Binally, after the *ea"e of Lodi (a$ $igned in -</< ending the "onfli"t, a leag&e (a$ for'ed bet(een Bloren"e, +eni"e, and 2ilan that la$ted for 2/ year$# B&t, after the '&rder of Ci&liano deG 2edi"i and the
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0++

atte'pted '&rder of hi$ brother, LorenFo ! *ope Sixt&$ I+ (a$ "o'!pli"it in the affair ! (ar bro:e o&t in -< 9 (ith the papa"y and la$ted &ntil the death of Sixt&$ in -<9<# In addition, inter$per$ed (ith the$e external (ar$ (ere n&'ero&$ rebellion$ (ithin Bloren"e it$elf# In -;</ a revolt bro:e o&t at the anno&n"e'ent of the ban:r&pt"y of the Bardi and *er&FFi ban:ing fir'$H in -;09 the dyer$ revoltedH in -; 9 there (a$ the Cio'pi 5evoltH and in -;92 the popolo grasso revolt# %one of the$e (ere exten$ive or $&""e$$f&l, b&t they did di$r&pt $o"ial, e"ono'i", and politi"al life in the "ity &ntil per'anently p&t to re$t by the ri$e to po(er of the 2edi"i$# 7hy Bloren"e "ontin&ed to (age $o 'any (ar$ in the fa"e of $o 'any defeat$ and revolt$ i$ $i'ple to &nder$tand# Again one '&$t $ee the role of the "ondottieri in Blorentine 'ilitary $trategyH a$ long a$ the governor$ of the "ity!$tate (ere (illing to pay for 'ilitary a"tivity and a$ long a$ there (ere $oldier$ (illing to ta:e thi$ pay, (ar$ (o&ld "ontin&e &ntil the (ealth of the to(n ran o&t# In 5enai$$an"e Bloren"e thi$ did not happen# >a:e, for exa'ple, the e'ploy'ent of perhap$ the 'o$t fa'o&$ "ondottiere, Sir Aohn =a(:(ood# Co'ing $o&th in -;0-, d&ring one of the l&ll$ in fighting in the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar, the Engli$h'an =a(:(ood Koined the 7hite Co'pany, a &nit of "ondottieri already fighting in Italy# In -;0<, (hile in the pay of *i$a, the 7hite Co'pany had it$ fir$t en"o&nter (ith Bloren"e (hen, &nable to effe"tively be$iege the "ity, they $a":ed and pillaged it$ ri"h $&b&rb$# In -; /, no( &nder the leader$hip of =a(:(ood, the 7hite Co'pany 'ade an agree'ent (ith the Blorentine$ not to atta": the', only to di$"over later that year, no( in the pay of the papa"y, that they (ere re)&ired to fight in the Blorentine! "ontrolled 5o!'agna# =a(:(ood de"ided that he (a$ not a"t&ally atta":ing Bloren"e, and the 7hite Co'pany "on)&ered BaenFa in -; 0 and Ce$ena in -; # =o(ever, perhap$ be"a&$e the papa"y ordered the 'a$$a"re$ of the people of both to(n$, a $hort ti'e later =a(:(ood and hi$ "ondottieri left their papal

e'ploy'ent# >hey did not $tay &ne'ployed for long, ho(everH Bloren"e hired the' al'o$t i''ediately, and for the next $eventeen year$, Aohn =a(:(ood and the 7hite Co'pany fo&ght diligently, altho&gh not al(ay$ $&""e$$f&lly, for the "ity# All of the "o'panyG$ "ondottieri be"a'e )&ite (ealthy, b&t =a(:(ood e$pe"ially pro$pered# =e (a$ granted three "a$tle$ o&t$ide the "ity, a ho&$e in Bloren"e, a life pen$ion of 2,000 florin$, a pen$ion for hi$ (ife, Donnina +i$"onti, payable after hi$ death, and do(rie$ for hi$ three da&ghter$, above hi$ "ontra"ted pay# Blorentine$, it $ee'$, loved to lavi$h their (ealth on tho$e (ho' they e'ployed to "arry o&t their (ar$, (hether they (ere $&""e$$f&l or not#
0+) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

In "o'pari$on to the north, the $o&th of Italy (a$ po$itively pea"ef&l# 2&"h of thi$ "a'e fro' the fa"t that there (ere only t(o po(er$ in $o&thern Italy# >he *apal State$, (ith 5o'e a$ their "apital, did not have the pro$perity of the northern "ity!$tate$, and in fa"t for 'o$t of the later 2iddle Age$ they (ere, e$$entially, ban:r&pt# B&t e"ono'i" proble'$ (ere not the only 'atter that di$r&pted 5o'an life# Bro' -;09 to -; 9 there (a$ no pope in 5o'e and fro' then &ntil -<- the 5o'an pontiff (a$ one of t(o 6and $o'eti'e$ three8 pope$ $itting on the papal throne at the $a'e ti'e# B&t even after -<- the papa"y (a$ (ea:, :ept that (ay by a 5o'an pop&la"e not (illing to $ee a theo"ra"y ret&rn to po(er# *erhap$ thi$ i$ the rea$on (hy the *apal State$ $&ffered $o 'any in$&rre"tion$# In -;< Cola di 5ienFo defeated the 5o'an noble$ and (a$ na'ed >rib&ne by the 5o'an people# =e governed &ntil tho$e $a'e people overthre( and exe"&ted hi' in -;/<# In -<;< the Col&'na fa'ily e$tabli$hed a rep&bli"an govern'ent in the *apal State$, for"ing the r&ling pope, E&geni&$ I+, to flee to Bloren"e# =e did not ret&rn and ree$tabli$h hi$ govern'ent &ntil -;<;# Binally, in -</;, a plot to p&t another rep&bli"an govern'ent in pla"e (a$ halted only by the general di$li:e for it$ leader, Stefano *or"aro, (ho (a$ exe"&ted for trea$on# One 'ight thin: that $&"h politi"al and e"ono'i" t&r'oil (o&ld not breed '&"h 'ilitary "onfiden"e, yet it did not $ee' to :eep the governor$ of the *apal State$ fro' hiring 'er"enarie$, 'a:ing allian"e$ (ith other Italian $tate$, or p&r$&ing an a"tive 'ilitary role, e$pe"ially in the "entral part$ of Italy# ?$&ally $'all papal ar'ie$ (ere pitted again$t '&"h larger northern "ity!$tate for"e$, yet often the$e $'all n&'ber$ "arried the day, perhap$ not (inning 'any battle$, b&t often (inning the (ar$, "ertainly a$ '&"h be"a&$e of the *apal State$ allian"e$ a$ it$ 'ilitary pro(e$$# >hi$ 'eant that de$pite all the obvio&$ &pheaval in the *apal State$ d&ring the later 2iddle Age$, at the beginning of the -<.0$ it (a$ '&"h larger and 'ore po(erf&l than it had ever been previo&$ly# >he ,ingdo' of %aple$, en"o'pa$$ing both the $o&thern third of the Italian penin$&la and Si"ily, $ee'ingly had none of the politi"al or e"ono'i" proble'$ of it$ neare$t neighbor, the *apal State$# Co'ing o&t of the 7ar of Si"ilian +e$per$ in -;02, it had both a pro$pero&$ e"ono'y and a $table govern'ent &nder it$ :ing$, Charle$ II of AnKo& and 5obert of AnKo&, &ntil the 'iddle of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry# B&t the Angevin$ (ere a large fa'ily and 'any of it$ 'e'ber$ l&$ted for po(er, no 'atter ho( they obtained it, and (hen 5obert died in -;<;, a $&""e$$ion "ri$i$ developed#
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0+(

5obertG$ da&ghter, Aoanna I, (a$ na'ed )&een, b&t thi$ did not $ati$fy her Angevin "o&$in, ,ing Le(i$ of =&ngary# =e invaded %aple$ in -;<9, only to be driven o&t by the Bla": Death, b&t he ret&rned in -;/0 and "apt&red %aple$# =e left, ho(ever, in le$$ than a year, and Aoanna re$&'ed "ontrol# 7hen $he died (itho&t "hildren in -;92, and her "o&$in, Charle$ III, (a$ "ro(ned in her pla"e, another "o&$in, Lo&i$ of AnKo&, led an ar'y into %aple$ to "lai' the throne# Altho&gh Lo&i$ died in the atte'pt to "apt&re the $o&thern Italian :ingdo', hi$ $on, Lo&i$ II, did $o in -;.0# =e, in t&rn, (a$ re'oved by yet another "o&$in, Ladi$la$, (ho r&led &ntil -<-- (hen Lo&i$ II, in yet another atte'pt to gain the throne, defeated hi' at the Battle of 5o""a$e""a# B&t Lo&i$ ret&rned to Bran"e, leaving Ladi$la$ a$ :ing# At hi$ death in -<-<, Ladi$la$ (a$ $&""eeded by hi$ $i$ter, Aoanna II# She r&led &ntil -<20 (hen inva$ion$, by both her "o&$in Lo&i$ III and Alfon$o + of Aragon, re$&lted in the :ingdo' "o'ing &nder Alfon$oG$ "ontrol# >o pre$erve her reign, Aoanna (a$ for"ed to na'e Alfon$o a$ her $&""e$$or# B&t (hen $he died in -<;/, the Aragone$e had been thro(n o&t of %aple$, and AoannaG$ "o&$in, 5enN II of AnKo&, (a$ re"ogniFed a$ :ing of %aple$# 5enN r&led, altho&gh al'o$t al(ay$ ab$ent fro' the :ingdo' be"a&$e of threat$ again$t hi$ land$ in AnKo& and Lorraine, &ntil Alfon$o ret&rned to %aple$ in -<<;# Alfon$o, :no(n a$ Alfon$o the 2agnifi"ent, and hi$ $on, Berrante, governed %aple$ relatively pea"ef&lly fro' then &ntil -<.<# >he $tr&ggle$ over %aple$ by vario&$ bran"he$ of the Angevin fa'ily 'eant t(o very i'portant thing$3 the e"ono'y (ent fro' rob&$t to r&in, and their ar'ie$ (ere al(ay$ in the field# Of "o&r$e, the $e"ond no do&bt added to the fir$t, for the "o$t of paying troop$ ! al!tho&gh it appear$ that 'o$t of the$e (ere %eapolitan$ and not "on!dottieri ! and the de$tr&"tion "a&$ed by the "on$tant (arring on an agri"&lt&ral $o"iety (a$ i''en$e# >he vario&$ $tate$ that 'ade &p the =oly 5o'an E'pire entered the fo&rteenth "ent&ry in "hao$# >here had

been little "ontin&ity in I'perial govern'ent, and the ele"toral pro"e$$ of "hoo$ing an e'peror prod&"ed "onf&$ion and t&r'oil# Sin"e the end of the reign of Brederi": II in -2/0, there (a$ rarely a $'ooth tran$fer of po(er fro' one r&ler to the next# %or did 'ilitary $&""e$$ g&arantee hereditary $&""e$$ion, a$ it had earlier in the 2iddle Age$# Ego and Kealo&$y deter'ined far 'ore than did "o'peten"e# So, altho&gh 5&dolf of =ab$b&rg, in hi$ (ar$ in Bohe'ia, had done '&"h to add to the E'pire and to in"rea$e the $e"&rity of it$ border$ ! (hi"h earlier (o&ld have en$&red patrilineal $&""e$$ion ! (hen he died in -2.-,
0+MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

the ele"tor$ did not "hoo$e hi$ $on, 5&dolf, b&t "ro(ned Adolf of %a$$a& in hi$ $tead# Civil (ar en$&ed &ntil -2.9 (hen Albert I of =ab$b&rg, one of 5&dolfG$ $on$, defeated and :illed Adolf at the battle of CTllhei'# B&t a$ 'any of the I'perial ele"tor$ and noble$ "ontin&ed to reKe"t hi$ r&le, AlbertG$ reign (a$ anything b&t pea"ef&l, and at hi$ death in -;09 the ele"tor$ pa$$ed over hi$ $on, al$o na'ed Albert, to "hoo$e =enry of L&xe'bo&rg, (ho reigned &ntil -;-;# >h&$, the t(o 'o$t i'portant fa'ilie$ for the later hi$tory of the =oly 5o'an E'pire gained po(er and altho&gh it tran$ferred ba": and forth bet(een the', they did not lo$e it &ntil -.-9# B&t it (a$ an in$e"&re beginning# On"e again, in -;-;, there (a$ no $'ooth ele"tion# Aohn of Bohe'ia, =enry of L&xe'bo&rgG$ $on, (a$ "hallenged by Brederi": of =ab$b&rg and Le(i$ of Bavaria# A$ had been done $o 'any ti'e$ before in the$e $it&ation$, ar'ie$ (ere '&$tered and a "ivil (ar (a$ fo&ght# Le(i$, (ho had too little po(er to be ele"ted e'peror in hi$ o(n right, )&i":ly $&pported Aohn of Bohe'iaG$ "lai', and (hen the t(o $ide$ finally 'et in battle, at 2Phldorf in -;22, it (a$ they (ho (on, "apt&ring Brederi": in the en"o&nter# A $ha:y agree'ent for "oe'peror$hip bet(een the three "lai'ant$ (a$ bo&ght (ith the vi"tory, b&t after Le(i$ de"lared hi'$elf $ole e'peror in -;29, being "ro(ned a$ $&"h in 5o'e, and the death of Brederi": in -;;0, the =oly 5o'an E'pire (a$ on"e 'ore e'broiled in "ivil (ar# >hi$ (a$ given even 'ore $ignifi"an"e (hen *ope Aohn EEII ex"o''&ni"ated Le(i$ for hi$ pre$&'ptive a"tion$, and Aohn of Bohe'ia re$ponded by de"laring that thi$ (ar had be"o'e a "r&$ade# By -;<0 nothing had been de"ided by 'ilitary 'ean$, $o (hen Aohn died, the Cer'an prin"e$, ref&$ing to re"ogniFe the ex"o''&ni"ated Le(i$, "ho$e AohnG$ $on, Charle$ of Bohe'ia, a 'an (ho had *ope Cle'ent +IG$ ble$$ing and (ho they hoped (o&ld be able to re$tore pea"e to the E'pire# After Le(i$ died the follo(ing year there (a$ no f&rther oppo$ition to E'peror Charle$ I+G$ r&le and, &ntil -; 9, there (a$ pea"e for the 'o$t part in the =oly 5o'an E'pire# Charle$ even had the "onfiden"e to reg&late the pro"e$$ of ele"ting ne( r&ler$ by pro"lai'ing the Colden B&ll in -;/0# Bro' then on there (o&ld be a "ollege of no 'ore than $even ele"tor$ (ho (o&ld ele"t a ne( e'peror, hopef&lly in$tilling pea"e to a pro"e$$ that had $een little $in"e it$ initiation# >hi$ 'ight have (or:ed, too, if Charle$G$ $&""e$$or$ had been anything li:e hi'# =i$ $on, 7en"e$la$ II of Bohe'ia, $pent hi$ reign 6-; 91-<008 for the 'o$t part in a dr&n:en and in"o'petent $t&por# 5&pert III of the *alatinate 6al$o :no(n a$ 5&pert of 7ittel$!
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0+.

ba"h8 depo$ed 7en"e$la$ in -<00, and, (hen he died in -<-0, another of Charle$G $on$, Sigi$'&nd of L&xe'bo&rg, :ing of =&ngary, (a$ ele"ted, Bor the re$t of the fifteenth "ent&ry ! in -<;9 Sigi$!'&nd (a$ $&""eeded for a year by hi$ $on!in!la(, Albert of A&$tria, and then by Brederi": III of =ab$b&rg &ntil -<.; ! Cer'any re'ained free fro' "ivil (ar, b&t had little pea"e on it$ border$, a$ her neighbor$ preyed on (hat they per"eived a$ (ea: govern'ent and di$&nity a'ong the vario&$ prin"e$ to gain land and $overeignty# >(o gro&p$ are e$pe"ially i'portant to the 'ilitary hi$tory of the region d&ring the late 2iddle Age$# >he 'ore $&""e$$f&l of the t(o, the S(i$$, began $ee:ing independen"e fro' their Cer'an overlord$ in the late thirteenth and early fo&rteenth "ent&rie$# >he =oly 5o'an E'pire had r&led the S(i$$ $in"e the ti'e of Charle'agne, b&t in ti'e$ of govern'ental in$tability, the thinly pop&lated S(itFerland (a$ &$&ally overloo:ed# >o $&rvive, S(i$$ to(n$ ! far $'aller than 'o$t Cer'an, Ble'i$h, or Italian one$ ! for'ed independent politi"al organiFation$ (ith their neighboring r&ral en"lave$, :no(n a$ "anton$# In -2.-, three of the$e "anton$, ?ri, S"h(yF, and ?nter!(alden, allied to for' a &nion, the fir$t S(i$$ Confederation# >hi$ ne( Confederation did not generate '&"h intere$t in the =oly 5o'an E'pire a$ a (hole, b&t it "a&$ed $o'e "on$ternation in the A&$trian =ab$b&rg fa'ily (ho$e holding$ in"l&ded S(itFerland# >hi$ "on"ern in"rea$ed f&rther in -2.2 (hen the Confederation &nited (ith O&ri"h and Bern to for' an anti!=ab$b&rg leag&e# =o(ever, Albert I of =ab$b&rg (a$ at that ti'e "on"erned 'ore (ith hi$ $tr&ggle to gain the I'perial throne, and neither he nor hi$ $on$ paid the' '&"h attention &ntil -;-/, (hen Leopold I of =ab$b&rg, D&:e of A&$tria, 'o&nted a 'aKor "a'paign again$t the'# In their t(enty!fo&r year$ of independen"e the S(i$$ Confederation had al(ay$ prepared for an inva$ion, and

(hen Leopold atta":ed he fo&nd that 'any of the ea$y 'o&ntain pa$$e$ (ere barred to hi' by (ell! 'aintained fortifi"ation$, for"ing hi' to ta:e 'ore dangero&$ ro&te$# =e al$o fo&nd a pop&lation that (a$ &n(illing to either give &p their independen"e or fight by "onventional 'ean$# At the Battle of 2orgarten, on -< %ove'ber -;-/, the A&$trian ar'y (a$ a'b&$hed and 'a$$a"red (hile traveling thro&gh one of the$e 'ore dangero&$ pa$$e$# Bollo(ing their &nanti"ipated $&""e$$ the S(i$$ Confederation initiated a pea"e treaty that Leopold (a$ for"ed to $ign in -;-9# *roble'$ el$e(here in the =oly 5o'an E'pire allo(ed the' to re'ain independent for another $ixty!eight year$, &ntil -;90, (hen another largely A&$trian for"e de"ided to ta:e the' on# >he Battle of Se'pa"h
0), MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

that follo(ed had the $a'e re$&lt a$ 2orgarten, ex"ept that thi$ "onfli"t al$o "o$t the D&:e of A&$tria, Leopold III, hi$ life# >(o year$ later, hi$ $&""e$$or, Albert III, lo$t yet again to the S(i$$ at the battle of %Yfel$# In all of the$e "onfli"t$ the S(i$$ di$played a talent for $trategy and ta"ti"$# Creatly o&tn&'bered ea"h ti'e and fighting 'ore noble ar'ie$, they neverthele$$ (on# >he =oly 5o'an E'pire event&ally $a( the f&tility of trying to regain their lo$t Alpine land$ and in -<<0 $igned the >reaty of Con$tan"e, for'aliFing (hat everyone already :ne( to be a reality, the S(i$$ ConfederationG$ right to $elf!governan"e# %ot learning the Cer'an$G le$$on, in the -< 0$ Charle$ the Bold, D&:e of B&rg&ndy, tried again to "apt&re a part of S(itFerland# On"e 'ore S(i$$ $oldier$ ro$e to the o""a$ion, $o&ndly defeating the B&rg&ndian$ at the battle$ of Crand$on and 2&rten in -< 0 and %an"y in -< , (here Charle$ the Bold (a$ :illed# >he follo(ing year, Charle$G$ heir, 2ary, 'ade pea"e (ith the S(i$$ Confederation at O&ri"h# =er "o$igner (a$ her h&$band, 2axi'ilian, the D&:e of A&$tria# All d&ring thi$ period the S(i$$ Confederation gre( ever larger# L&"erne Koined it in -;;2H O&ri"h in -;/-H Bern, Clar&$, and O&g in -;/2H and +alai$ in -<0;# =o(ever, the Confederation (a$ not (itho&t it$ proble'$ and the "anton$ fre)&ently fo&ght a'ong the'$elve$, 'o$tly be"a&$e the larger S(i$$ to(n$ de$ired territorial expan$ion# Det (hen there (a$ a "o''on ene'y, for exa'ple the A&$trian$ or the B&rg&ndian$, the$e $a'e rival$ &nited in defian"e of the foreigner$# And they &$&ally (on# In Early 2odern E&rope the rep&tation of the S(i$$ $oldier$G ability in (arfare had gro(n to $&"h height$ that they be"a'e the 'o$t $o&ght after and highly paid 'er"enarie$# Bor t(enty!five year$, bet(een -<-/ and -<<0, a $e"ond gro&p, the =&$$ite$, al$o gained n&'ero&$ vi"torie$ again$t =oly 5o'an I'perial for"e$# Originally for'ed by Bohe'ian and 2oravian nobility prote$ting the theologian Aan =&$G$ exe"&tion for here$y at the Co&n"il of Con$tan"e in -<-/, the =&$$ite$ be"a'e a 'ilitary target both for their religio&$ differen"e$ and their nationali$ti" pre$&'ption$# Be"a&$e of their a$$o"iation (ith the exe"&ted hereti", on - 2ar"h -<20 *ope 2artin + de"lared that all Catholi" prin"e$ $ho&ld lead "r&$ade$ again$t the'# >he fir$t "r&$ade (a$ la&n"hed that $a'e year by E'peror Sigi$'&nd and $&rpri$ingly 'et (ith di$a$ter at the battle$ of S&do'er 62/ 2ar"h8, +it:o( =ill 62- A&ly8, and the =eight$ of +y$Zenrad 6- %ove'ber8# A $e"ond "r&$ade failed (hen the =&$$ite$ defeated a "o'bined ar'y of $everal Cer'an prin"e$ at the Battle of SaaF in %ove'ber -<2-, and then, in Aan&ary -<22, the
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0)0

ar'y of Sigi$'&nd at the battle$ of ,&tnU =ora and %e['e":y\ Brod# Bo&r year$ later a third "r&$ader ar'y, led by Albert, D&:e of A&$tria, (a$ defeated fir$t at O(ettl in 2ar"h and then at ]$ti in A&ne# >he next year a "r&$ading ar'y of the Engli$h "ardinal =enry Bea&fort fled a$ the =&$$ite$ approa"hed the' at StrZibo# A "r&$ading ar'y led by the Italian "ardinal A&liano Ce$arini had a $i'ilar experien"e at Do'aFZli"e in -<;-# In the fir$t $ixteen year$ of their rebellion, the =&$$ite$ (ere only defeated in 'inor $:ir'i$he$, (inning every other 'ilitary engage'ent again$t any for"e$ $ent again$t the'# So'eti'e$, a$ in the la$t t(o battle$, their opponent$ ref&$ed even to fight the'# Credit '&$t Z "ertainly be given to the =&$$ite general$ Aan OiFZ:a and Andre( *ro:op the Creat for their leader$hip, a$ (ell a$ bla'e to Sigi$'&nd, Albert of A&$tria, "ardinal$ Bea&fort and Ce$arini, and vario&$ Cer'an prin"e$ for their ineffe"tive 'ilitary "o''and# >he =&$$ite$ (ere helped too by their novel ta"ti"$, "hiefly their &$e of wagen")urgs fortified (agon for'ation$ fro' (hi"h g&npo(der (eapon$ (ere fired# >hat their fa'ilie$ traveled (ith the' and (ere pre$ent at their battle$ al$o gave an &ndo&bted 'orale boo$t to the =&$$ite $oldier$# Defeat event&ally "a'e fro' (ithin the =&$$ite$ the'$elve$# Bro' the very beginning they had divided into t(o fa"tion$# >he ?tra)&i$t$, a 'ore 'oderate gro&p, (a$ le$$ i'pre$$ed by =&$G$ theology than they (ere by the idea of Bohe'ian nationali$'# >he $e"ond fa"tion, (hi"h (a$ 'ore fanati"ally atta"hed to =&$G$

refor'ing idea$, (a$ "alled the >aborite$ after -<20 (hen they $eiFed A&$ti in Bohe'ia and fo&nded the "o''&nity of >abor# >he >aborite$ al(ay$ &nited (ith their 'ore 'oderate "oreligioni$t$ (hen there (a$ a "o''on ene'y to defeat, b&t in ti'e$ of pea"e, e$pe"ially after the Co&n"il of Ba$el agreed in prin"iple to the =&$$ite!initiated Co'pa"t$ of *rag&e in -<;;, the >aborite$ "la$hed (ith the ?tra)&i$t$# Event&ally, in -<;<, the ?tra)&i$t$, allied (ith Catholi" "ontingent$ of their for'er ene'ie$, 'et and defeated the >aborite$ at the Battle of Lipany, :illing their leader *ro:op# >hi$ 'ar:ed the beginning of the end# De$pite Sigi$'&ndG$ a""eptan"e of the Co'pa"t$ of *rag&e in -<;0, the =&$$ite$ began to lo$e $&pport# By the 'iddle of the "ent&ry, &nable to re"over their for'er 'ilitary glory or even to 'o&nt '&"h of an ar'ed re$i$tan"e to f&rther inva$ion$, the leading 'e'ber$ (ere h&nted do(n and :illed# By the 'iddle of the thirteenth "ent&ry, the Spani$h recon<uista had $talled# >he :ingdo'$ of Ca$tile, Aragon, and *ort&gal had all gained '&"h land by p&$hing the frontier bet(een 2&$li' and
0)1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

Chri$tian $o&th(ard, b&t aro&nd -2/0 thi$ advan"e $talled# Bortifi"ation$ (ent &p on both $ide$, and a ten&o&$ pea"e $et in# 7arfare bet(een the t(o religion$ (a$ )&i":ly repla"ed by (ar$ a'ong the 2&$li'$ and the Chri$tian$# 2o$t often, the$e (ar$ (ere fo&ght over )&e$tion$ of $&""e$$ion at the death of a previo&$ r&ler# 7ar$ to de"ide the $&""e$$ion in Ca$tile 6and early on Ca$tile and Leon8 (ere fo&ght in -29<, -2./, -;-2, and fro' -;00 to -;0.# >hi$ la$t, the 7ar of the >(o *edro$, (a$ fo&ght bet(een *edro the Cr&el and hi$ half!brother, Enri)&e of >ra$ta'ara, and led event&ally to the -;0 Battle of %UKera, (hi"h in"l&ded the Bla": *rin"e and an Engli$h ar'y fighting on the $ide of *edro and Bertrand d& C&e$"lin and a Bren"h ar'y fighting (ith =enry# B&rther (ar$ of $&""e$$ion (ere fo&ght in -;90, -;.0, and -<0/1-<0 # >he $&""e$$ion in Aragon provo:ed "onfli"t$ in -<-01-<-2 and -<0-1-<02# *ort&gal $&ffered too (ith $&""e$$ion (ar$ in -; 21-;9/, -<<., -< /1-<90, and -<9;# >hi$ in"l&ded the Battle of AlK&barrota, fo&ght in -;9/, (here Ao^o of *ort&gal, (ith Engli$h a$$i$tan"e, defeated A&an of Ca$tile to gain the throne# ?lti'ately, it (a$ the 'arriage of Berdinand of Aragon and I$abella of Ca$tile in -<0. and the later "o'bination of their t(o :ingdo'$ that bro&ght pea"e to the Iberian penin$&la, e$pe"ially after pea"e (a$ 'ade (ith *ort&gal in -<90# So'eti'e$ the proble'$ of $&""e$$ion (ere ha$tened by the for"ible overthro( of r&ler$ and, on o""a$ion, '&rder# >hi$ (a$ e$pe"ially tr&e in the Caliphate of Cranada# In -;0., the "aliph 2&ha''ed III (a$ depo$ed by hi$ brother %a$r# In -;/<, D&$&f I (a$ '&rdered and $&""eeded by hi$ $on, 2&ha''ed +, and in -;/., he (a$ depo$ed in favor of hi$ brother, I$'aGil II, (ho a year later (a$ '&rdered and repla"ed by 2&ha''ed +I# >(o year$ after that, 2&ha''ed +I (a$ '&rdered at the behe$t of the :ing of Ca$tile, *edro I Ithe Cr&el,J (ho pla"ed 2&ha''ed + ba": on the Crenadian throne# In -<2 , a revol&tion depo$ed 2&ha''ed +III and p&t 2&ha''ed IE in "ontrol, only for hi' to be '&rdered t(o year$ later and 2&ha''ed +III ret&rned to po(er# In -<;- 2&ha''ed +III (a$ again depo$ed, thi$ ti'e repla"ed by D&$&f I, (ho the next year (a$ repla"ed by 2&ha''ed +III and then exe"&ted# In -<</, 2&ha''ed +III (a$ depo$ed for a third and final ti'e by hi$ nephe(, 2&ha''ed E, (ho later in the year (a$ depo$ed and repla"ed by SaGd al!2&$taG _n, only to ret&rn to Cranada one year later# In -</<, SaGd on"e again depo$ed 2&ha''ed E# In -<92, Boabdil depo$ed hi$ father, `Aba l!al!=a$an, be"o'ing Caliph 2&ha''ed EI, b&t after he (a$ "apt&red at the $iege of L&"ena by a Ca$tilian ar'y, `Aba l!al!=a$an ret&rned to the throne# In -<9/ he
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0)'

abdi"ated in favor of hi$ brother, 2&ha''ed EII, only to have Boabdil relea$ed fro' pri$on by Berdinand and I$abella in order to "a&$e f&rther $&""e$$ion proble'$ for the I$la'i" $tate# In -<9., the :ing and )&een of Spain "apt&red 2&ha''ed EII at the Battle of BaFa, and he (a$ repla"ed by Boabdil# ?ntil the r&le of Berdinand and I$abella at the end of the fifteenth "ent&ry, the Spani$h Chri$tian :ing$ 'ade very fe( atte'pt$ to "apt&re 'ore 2&$li' territory d&ring the later 2iddle Age$# In fa"t, in 'any of the n&'ero&$ "onfli"t$ the 2&$li'$ (ere $een a$ allie$ by the vario&$ Chri$tian heir$ (ho (ere fighting for $&""e$$ion to their re$pe"tive throne$, and vi"e ver$a# 2&$li'$ al$o fo&ght a$ 'er"enarie$ in Chri$tian! Chri$tian "onfli"t$, and Chri$tian$ (ere hired to fight in the 2&$li'!2&$li' (ar$# >here (ere $o'e $&""e$$e$ ! C&F'Un el B&eno "apt&red Cibraltar fro' Crenada in -;0., b&t it (a$ lo$t again in -;2;# Alfon$o EI, :ing of Ca$tile, tried to ta:e Cibraltar in -;<., b&t he died of the Bla": Death in the pro"e$$ and hi$ ar'ie$ (ithdre(# Ao^o I of *ort&gal "apt&red Ce&ta on the 2oro""an "oa$t in -<-/# A&an I of Ca$tile defeated a Cranadian ar'y at the Battle of La =ig&era in -<; # Enri)&e I+ of Ca$tile re"apt&red Cibraltar in -<02# And the *ort&g&e$e too: >angier in -< -# B&t it (a$ the "o'bined effort$ of Berdinand and I$abella that event&ally drove the 2&$li'$ fro' Spain# Beginning al'o$t i''ediately after their a""e$$ion to the throne$ of Ca$tile in -< < and Aragon in -< ., the

t(o re#es catolicos 6Catholi" :ing$8 revived the recon<uista and al'o$t i''ediately 'et (ith $&""e$$# A$ 'entioned, in -<9; they defeated and "apt&red the "aliph of Cranada, BoabdilH at L&ana, in -<9. they defeated hi$ repla"e'ent, 2&ha''ed EII, at BaFaH and in -<.2, they defeated Boabdil again after a year! long $iege of the "ity of Cranada after (hi"h the 2&$li' o""&pation of the Iberian penin$&la, (hi"h had beg&n in --, ended entirely#

2ILI>A5D O5CA%IOA>IO%
By the beginning of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry it had be"o'e evident that the traditional $y$te' for 'ilitary re"r&it'ent (a$ failing to "all &p $&ffi"ient troop$ to fight a 'aKor "a'paign or even to defend the border$ of a $tate &nder atta":# >he re$&lt (a$ an in"rea$ed &$e of paid troop$# At fir$t thi$ (a$ $i'ply the pay'ent for $ervi"e to the traditional leader$ of for"e$# >a:ing a$ a 'odel an earlier provi$ion,
0)/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

"alled a fief"rente ! 'onetary "o'pen$ation of an ann&al pay'ent to "over $o'e of the "o$t$ of 'ilitary $ervi"e ! (hi"h had been 'ore and 'ore fre)&ently &$ed d&ring the thirteenth "ent&ry, :ing$ and prin"e$ began to in$tit&te a $y$te' (hereby they paid a pen$ion, rather li:e a retainer, to the leader$ of their ar'ie$# By the end of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, $&"h pen$ion$ (ere in pla"e thro&gho&t E&rope, and 'o$t 'aKor 'ilitary leader$ (ere (ell paid for their $ervi"e# By thi$ ti'e traditional levy $&''on$e$ had al$o been $&$pended# A $e"ond (ay of a&g'enting the traditional 'ean$ of a")&iring 'ilitary $ervi"e (a$ the (ar indent&re# >hi$ (a$ a $light variation on the pen$ion, &$&ally on a $'aller $"ale, and (a$ a "ontra"t bet(een a lord and a retainer 6or "aptain8, the latter to $erve the for'er, or bet(een t(o 'inor 'ilitary leader$, d&:e$, "o&nt$, earl$, and $o on, of '&t&al 'ilitary $&pport (hen re)&ired# In ret&rn for the $ervi"e of a "ertain n&'ber of "avalry, infantry, and 'i$$ile troop$, they (ere given an ann&al pay'ent, a$ (ell a$ rei'b&r$e'ent for tran$portation "o$t$ and any lo$$e$ of (arhor$e$# Booty and ran$o'$ (ere divided into three e)&al $hare$3 a third for the lord, a third for the "aptain, and a third for the 'en# 7ar indent&re$ "o&ld al$o be $&b"ontra"ted o&t to leader$ of $'aller, often 'ore $pe"ialiFed, for"e$# 2ilitary leader$ 'ight agree to $erve a lord for life, $&"h a$ Sir =&gh =a$ting$ (ho in -;00 "ontra"ted by indent&re to fight (ith Aohn of Ca&nt &ntil either he or Ca&nt died# At other ti'e$, the indent&re$ (ere of '&"h $horter d&ration# Al'o$t all of the leader$ (ho an$(ered =enry +G$ $&''on$ to fight in Bran"e in -<-/ "ontra"ted (ith hi' only for the length of the "a'paign# 2any of the$e fo&ght for pro'i$ed, f&t&re "o'pen$ation, a$ =enry had not been allo"ated 'oney fro' *arlia'ent to pay for the expedition# =o(ever, thi$ (a$ rare# %or'ally, ordinary $oldier$ (ere paid )&ite (ell for their $ervi"e, and "aptain$, of "o&r$e, (ere paid even better# >he latter (ere al$o often able to $iphon off $o'e of the 'oney 'eant for other $oldier$ into their o(n po":et$# Still, they (ere re$pon$ible for any extra "o$t$ in"&rred, and they (ere al(ay$ a""o&ntable for pro'pt pay'ent to their o(n 'en, even if the lord (ho hired hi' (a$ late (ith hi$ pay'ent# By the end of the 2iddle Age$, 'ilitary re"r&it'ent relied heavily on indent&re$ and 'any "ontra"tor$ and $&b"ontra"tor$ (ere hired for ea"h 'ilitary "a'paign# >he$e provided 'any different type$ of $oldier$, and all (ere paid for their $:ill$ and experien"e, a$ (ell a$ for the ta$:$ they perfor'ed in battle$ and at $iege$# ,night$ (ere paid the 'o$tH e$)&ire$ 6or $)&ire$8 and 'en!at!ar'$ (ere next !
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0)+

altho&gh often depending on (hether they fo&ght on hor$e or foot ! and "ro$$bo('en and ar"her$ (ere paid the lo(e$t (age$# C&nner$ (ere paid a$ '&"h a$ :night$# B&t even pen$ion$ and (ar indent&re$ did not $ati$fy the need for the large n&'ber$ of $oldier$ re)&ired to fill the ran:$ of 'any ar'ie$ in E&rope d&ring the late 2iddle Age$# >h&$, 'any $overeign$ began to loo: for nonnoble 'ilitary leader$ (illing to fight (ith their retin&e$ for $i'ilar pay'ent$ to tho$e offered to their 'ore noble "o&nterpart$, generally (ith the addition of &nreg&lated booty# >he$e gro&p$ of 'er"enarie$ be"a'e :no(n by the na'e$ free "o'panie$ or, in Italy, "ondottieri# >he proble' (a$, ho(ever, (ho' to hire and ho( to hire the'# A"t&ally, thi$ t&rned o&t to be relatively ea$y# 2er"enarie$ have al(ay$ exi$ted, 'o$tly veteran$ of 'ilitary $ervi"e (ho, in ti'e$ of pea"e, "o&ld not find e'ploy'ent in the ar'ie$ or at the garri$on$ of their previo&$ leader$ and (ho did not feel in"lined to ret&rn to a non'ilitary life# Often, gro&p$ of the$e $oldier$, $o'eti'e$ for'er ene'ie$, gathered aro&nd leader$ (ho had gained a good rep&tation for fighting# >hey (ere led by "aptain$ (ho (ere &$&ally not noble$, "ertainly not noble$ of high ran:, b&t (ho had leader$hip and organiFational )&alitie$ that appealed to 'en (ho$e live$ depended on the'# Captain$ (o&ld pre$ent their 'er"enary "o'panie$ for hire, and they (o&ld agree (ith a potential e'ployer to $erve for a $et a'o&nt of ti'e for an agreed a'o&nt of 'oney ! al'o$t al(ay$ paid in advan"e ! negotiating al$o their $&pply of food, ho&$ing (hen not on "a'paign, and

the ta:ing and di$trib&tion of booty# Ar'$, ar'or, and hor$e$ (ere $&pplied by the 'er"enarie$ the'$elve$, altho&gh repla"e'ent$ for lo$$e$ a$ a re$&lt of 'ilitary a"tion "o&ld al$o be part of their "ontra"t$# *eriod$ of e'ploy'ent varied of "o&r$e, and depended on the threat per"eived by their e'ployer a$ (ell a$, "r&"ially, on ho( '&"h 'oney they had available and (ere (illing to $pend# 2any of their leader$, or "aptain$, be"a'e (ell :no(n# 2en $&"h a$ Aohn =a(:(ood, 2ontreal dGAlbarno, 5obert ,nolle$, Albergio da Barbiano, 7erner of ?r$lingen, Albert SterF, Ettore 2anfredi, Bertrand d& C&e$"lin, Conrad of Landa&, Ca$tr&""io Ca$tra"ane, Sylve$tre B&de$, =anne:in Bongarten, Bertrand de la Salle, A'bro!gio +i$"onti, and 'any other$ led ar'ie$ of 'er"enarie$ d&ring thi$ ti'e# Cenerally, "aptain$ only $tayed leader$ &ntil they "o&ld no longer bring in the de$ired pay'ent or began to be le$$ $&""e$$f&l ! $o'eti'e$ the$e t(o (ere interrelated ! and then their troop$ $o&ght ne( leader$hip# >hey (ere al$o not $o bo&nd by the traditional "ode$
0)) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

of "hivalry, and their pra"ti"e of (ar (a$ generally a""o'panied by &nli'ited pillaging and vi"io&$ br&tality# Often it i$ diffi"&lt to K&dge fro' the extant $o&r"e$ (hat per"entage of a late 'edieval ar'y (a$ hired# D&ring the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar, there (ere "a'paign$ (here fe(, if any, $oldier$ (ere 'er"e!narie$ ! for exa'ple, Ed(ard IIIG$ CrN"y4Calai$ "a'paign of -;<0 and =enry +G$ "on)&e$t of %or'andy fro' -<- to -<20# In "ontra$t, in Italy d&ring the fo&rteenth, fifteenth, and $ixteenth "ent&rie$, 'er"enarie$ "o&ld n&'ber in the tho&$and$# Indeed, the exten$ive (arfare of the region d&ring thi$ period and the (ealth of the to(n$ that e'ployed the' 'ay have $ti'&lated a 'ar:et for thi$ type of (arrior (ith fe( "o'parable hi$tori"al exa'ple$# 2o$t 'er"enarie$ (ere infantry $oldier$, b&t 'any other$ 'ade their living a$ ar"her$ ! both longbo('en and "ro$$bo('en ! g&nner$, and even "avalry# Bor 'o$t of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, there (a$ no national &nity to the gro&p$ for hire, other than 'o$t "a'e fro' o&t$ide the Italian penin$&la# Bor exa'ple, 7illia' de la >orre, a Catalan 'er"enary, (ho$e "o'pany (a$ hired fir$t by Bologna and then by Bloren"e at the very end of the thirteenth and beginning of the fo&rteenth "ent&rie$# Bro' pay ro$ter$ that re'ain, the nationality of /; of hi$ -00 'en "an be a$"ertained3 29 fro' *rovenbe, 9 fro' northern Bran"e, fro' Italy, fro' Iberia, 2 fro' Blander$, and - fro' England# A$ already o&tlined, the Italian "ity!$tate$ provide the be$t exa'ple for the &$e of 'er"enarie$ in the later 2iddle Age$, tho&gh they (ere by no 'ean$ the only one$# By the end of the fifteenth "ent&ry, every :ingdo' and prin"ipality (a$ e'ploying paid $oldier$ of one :ind or another# Bor exa'ple, thro&gho&t the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar, the Bren"h :ing$ e'ployed S"otti$h $oldier$, Cenoe$e "ro$$bo('en, and Cenoe$e and Ca$tilian $ailor$# In the -< /1-< S(i$$!B&rg&n!dian 7ar, Charle$ the Bold, D&:e of B&rg&ndy, hired Italian and Engli$h 'er"enarie$ ! e$pe"ially Engli$h longbo('en# In the -<90$ and -<.0$, LiNge paid 'er"enarie$ fro' the =oly 5o'an E'pire, S(itFerland, and Bran"e, and in the Aragone$e!Ca$tilian 7ar again$t Cranada of -<901-<.2, Berdinand and I$abella hired Bren"h, Cer'an, Ble'i$h, and Engli$h troop$# >he to(n of 2etF, fighting again$t the D&:e of Lorraine in -<.0, e'ployed Bren"h, Cer'an$, B&rg&ndian$, Spaniard$, Italian$, Slav$, and Albanian$# By the end of the fifteenth "ent&ry, S(i$$ 'er"enarie$ had be"o'e the 'o$t de$ired profe$$ional $oldier$ for hire, and they (o&ld re'ain $o (ell into the $eventeenth "ent&ry#
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0)(

D&ring the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, there (a$ &$&ally a 'ixt&re of for"e$ in an ar'y, $o'e traditionally re"r&ited, $o'e paid by pen$ion, $o'e indent&red, and $o'e 'er"enarie$# By the beginning of the fifteenth "ent&ry, ho(ever, 'o$t 'ilitary organiFation$ (ere 'ade &p of only t(o type$3 'er"enarie$ and per'anent I$tandingJ ar'ie$# >ho&gh the latter event&ally be"a'e the nor', thro&gho&t the $ixteenth and into the $eventeenth "ent&ry, 'er"enarie$ "ontin&ed to play a leading role in ar'ie$ thro&gho&t E&rope# Bet(een -000 and -;00 a ne( 'iddle "la$$ began to develop in to(n$ and &rban "enter$# >he 'iddle "la$$ (a$ (ealthy and lo"ally po(erf&l b&t (a$ not repre$ented in the traditional agri"&lt&ral $o!"ioe"ono'i" $tr&"t&re$ of govern'ent# >hi$ fre)&ently led to rebellion$, a"tion$ that did not ne"e$$arily begin b&t often ended (ith 'ilitary "onfli"t# Before -;00 there had been $o'e pop&lar rebellion$, b&t the$e had 'o$t often been $hort!lived and violently $&ppre$$ed, $&"h a$ tho$e in Laon, +eFelay, and Br&ge$ d&ring the t(elfth "ent&ry# =o(ever, d&ring the la$t )&arter of the thirteenth "ent&ry, a$ to(n$ "ontin&ed to gro( and gain in i'portan"e, pop&lar &rban &pri$ing$ in"rea$ed "on$iderably, and the large$t &rban "on"entration$ prod&"ed the large$t pop&lar rebellion$# By the end of the "ent&ry, the "itiFen$ of both Br&ge$ and Laon had openly rebelled, and "itiFen$ in other to(n$ in the $o&thern Lo( Co&ntrie$ and northern Italy threatened $i'ilar &pri$ing$# B&t (hile $o'e to(n$ "he":ed their rebellion$ d&ring the thirteenth "ent&ry, it appear$ a$ if nothing "o&ld be done to $top the large n&'ber$ of pop&lar revolt$ that o""&rred thro&gho&t E&rope d&ring the fo&rteenth,

fifteenth, and $ixteenth "ent&rie$# >he$e (ere 'o$tly &rban affair$# >he$e rebellion$ (ere e$pe"ially prevalent in the to(n$ of northern and "entral Italy, the $o&thern Lo( Co&ntrie$, the S(i$$ "anton$, and the to(n$ of the =an$eati" Leag&e# Bor exa'ple, d&ring the later 2iddle Age$ not only (a$ the Co&nty of Blander$ a$ a (hole involved in &pri$ing$ fro' -;02 to -;0/, -;2; to -;29, -;;. to -;<0, -; . to -;9/, and -<<. to -</;, b&t there (ere $'aller lo"al rebellion$ al'o$t every year# D&ring the reign of one "o&nt, Lo&i$ of 2ale, (ho r&led fro' -;<0 to -;9<, not only (a$ there a large rebellion that la$ted fro' -; . to -;9/, b&t al$o $everal &pri$ing$ in all three of the "o&ntyG$ large to(n$ ! in Dpre$ in -;/.1-;0-, -;0 , -; -, and -; H in Br&ge$ in -;/-, -;0 , and -;0.H and in Chent in -;/.1-;00 ! a$ (ell a$ n&'ero&$ &pri$ing$ in $everal of the $'aller to(n$ of the "o&nty# >here (ere al$o 'ore than 200 rebellion$ in 'ore than one h&ndred to(n$ in the =oly 5o'an E'pire bet(een -;0- and -/<0#
0)MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

>ho$e fa"ing late 'edieval &rban rebellion$ generally follo(ed only one "o&r$e3 their $&ppre$$ion by the inter"e$$ion of a $trong and de"i$ive 'ilitary for"e# >he Co&nty of Blander$ d&ring the fo&rteenth "ent&ry i$ a good exa'ple# In -;02, after Br&geoi$ rebel$ :illed 'ore than ;00 Bren"h $oldier$ $ent to p&t do(n a $'all &pri$ing in the to(n, the Bren"h :ing, *hilip I+ 6the Bair8, $ent a large 'ilitary for"e north to )&ell the no(, '&"h larger, "o&nty (ide rebellion# >he re$&lt (a$ the Battle of Co&rtrai, and defeat for the Bren"h at the hand$ of the rebel$# It too: t(o 'ore bloody battle$ ! Ar)&e$, a lo$$ for the Bren"h, and 2on$!en!*NvVle, a lo$$ for the Ble'ing$ ! and 'ore than three year$ before the "o&nty of Blander$ (a$ for"ed to $&b'it to the :ing of Bran"e# Before pea"e (a$ 'ade in -;0/, 'any had died on both $ide$, in"l&ding the leading Ble'i$h general, 7illia' of APli"h# Det the Ble'i$h de$ire for e"ono'i" and politi"al $elf!r&le (a$ not )&en"hed by the violen"e of the Bren"h rea"tion to the -;021-;0/ rebellion, and they rebelled on"e again in -;2;1-;29# >he re$&lt thi$ ti'e (a$ the Battle of Ca$$el, a Bren"h vi"tory# Det again the Ble'ing$ revolted in -;;9, led by the Chentenaar (eaver, Aa"ob van Artevelde# On thi$ o""a$ion, the Bren"h "o&ld not effe"tively &$e 'ilitary for"e to p&t do(n the Ble'i$h rebellion, a$ the Engli$h, allie$ of the Ble'ing$, po$ed a greater threat d&ring the$e early year$ of the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar# It (a$ not &ntil -;<0, (hen an &pri$ing by another fa"tion in Chent led to Aa"ob van ArteveldeG$ a$$a$$ination, that pea"e (o&ld ret&rn to the "o&nty# =o(ever, thirty!three year$ later, the Ble'ing$ revolted again, thi$ ti'e &nder *hilip van Artevelde, the $on of the earlier rebel leader# In -;92, a l&ll in the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar fighting allo(ed the yo&ng Bren"h :ing, Charle$ +I, to $end a large ar'y north, (hi"h re$&lted in a Bren"h vi"tory at the Battle of 5o$ebe:e, tho&gh the "itiFen$ of Chent, leader$ a'ong the rebel$, held o&t &ntil -;9/# *ea$ant revolt$ (ere far le$$ fre)&ent and $ee' to have been p&t do(n (ith far greater violen"e# >he large$t of the$e (ere the Aa")&erie 5evolt of the Ile!de!Bran"e in -;/01-;/9, the Engli$h *ea$ant$G 5evolt of -;9-, and the Cer'an *ea$ant$G 5evolt of -/2/# >he$e r&ral, pea$ant &pri$ing$ $ee' to have gro(n o&t of the $a'e di$$ati$fa"tion over e"ono'i" and politi"al "ondition$ that had led their &rban "o&nterpart$ to rebel, and they 'ay even have been in$pired by their $&""e$$# B&t (itho&t (ealth, ar'$, and fortifi"ation$, or even the ability to rai$e taxe$ by &rban rebel$, late 'edieval pea$ant rebel$ "o&ld not defend the'$elve$ $&""e$$f&lly again$t the large 'ilitary for"e$ $ent again$t the'# >hey (ere &$&ally defeated )&i":ly and (ith '&"h blood$hed, and they rarely rebelled again#
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0).

S>5A>ECD A%D >AC>ICS

7herea$ it (o&ld be (rong to $&gge$t that the year -;00 'ar:ed any $ort of dra'ati" "hange to the (ay battle$ (ere fo&ght, it i$ tr&e to $ay that the trend of an ever!in"rea$ing n&'ber of battle$, (hi"h began in the later thirteenth "ent&ry, "ontin&ed# Bet(een -;02 and -;< , for exa'ple, no fe(er than nineteen 'aKor en"o&nter$ (ere fo&ght in 7e$tern E&rope, 'ore than d&ring the t(o previo&$ "ent&rie$# 7hat i$ noti"eable abo&t thi$ period too i$ the greater n&'ber$ :illed, even of tho$e (ho (o&ld have bro&ght "on$iderable ran$o'$# At Co&rtrai in -;02 bet(een forty and fifty per"ent of the Bren"h "avalry (ere :illedH at Banno":b&rn in -;-<, bet(een -/< and 00 Engli$h noble$ diedH at 2on$!en!*NvVle in -;0< both the Bren"h and the Ble'ing$ lo$t &p(ard$ of <,000 ea"hH at %evilleG$ Cro$$ in -;< , the lo(e$t e$ti'ate of S"ot$ :illed i$ 2,000H at CrN"y in -;<0, nine Bren"h prin"e$, 'ore than -,200 :night$, and bet(een -/,000 and -0,000 other$ (ere $lainH and at ,ephi$$o$ in -;--, nearly the (hole Athenian Bran:i$h for"e di$appeared# >he high n&'ber of large!$"ale battle$ "ontin&ed right do(n to the early 'odern period, a$ (ar after (ar (a$ de"ided 'ore on the battlefield than by $iege# >hree battle$, at Crand$on, 2&rten, and %an"y, fo&ght in -< 01-< , de"ided the final o&t"o'e of the S(i$$!B&rg&ndian 7ar$ in favor of the S(i$$, (hile no fe(er than fifteen 'aKor battle$ (ere fo&ght d&ring the thirty!t(o!year $pan of the 7ar$ of the 5o$e$ in England# Binally, the (ar$ bet(een the =oly 5o'an E'pire and Bran"e, together (ith their allie$, fo&ght largely in

Italy d&ring the late fifteenth and early $ixteenth "ent&rie$, are "hara"teriFed 'ore by their battlefield engage'ent$, at Se'inara in -<.<, Bornovo in -<./, Cerignola in -/0;, Carigliano 6t(o battle$8 in -/0;, Agnadello in -/0., 5avenna in -/-2, %ovara in -/-;, 2arignano in -/-/, Bi"o""a in -/22, *avia in -/2/, Landriano in -/2., and Cere$ole in -/<<, than by any other 'ilitary a"tivity# In all of the$e battle$, "a$&alty rate$ (ere al$o high# One rea$on for the in"rea$ed fre)&en"y of battle$ fo&ght bet(een -;00 and -/<< (a$ the pre$en"e of ever! in"rea$ing n&'ber$ of infantry and their prevalen"e on the battlefield# Altho&gh before thi$ period there had been vi"torie$ by infantry over "avalry, the predo'inan"e of the "avalry (a$ $&"h that 'any battle$ (ere fo&ght e$$entially by "avalry again$t "avalry# >hi$ $tarted to "hange in the early fo&rteenth "ent&ry (hen, for exa'ple, Ble'i$h, S"otti$h, S(i$$, Bri$ian, and LiNgeoi$ infantry $oldier$ all began to gain vi"torie$ over largely "avalry!ba$ed Bren"h, Engli$h, A&$trian, and Cer'an ar'ie$#
0(, MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

>he ta"ti"$ &$ed by the$e infantry!do'inated ar'ie$ developed )&ite )&i":ly in the fir$t de"ade$ of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry# After "hoo$ing a $&itable $ite for a battle and preparing the battlefield by digging dit"he$, "on$tr&"ting (agon fortre$$e$, or flooding already 'ar$hy gro&nd, $o that their opponent$ had only one "o&r$e of atta":, the frontal a$$a&lt, infantry (ere ordered in a defen$ive for'ation in one or 'ore $olid line$ to a(ait a "harge# 7hen it "a'e, the &$e of 'i$$ile (eapon$, "o'bined (ith the "aref&lly "ho$en and prepared terrain, "a&$ed "onf&$ion and di$order in the "harging "avalry, (ith the effe"t that by the ti'e they rea"hed the infantry they had lo$t their i'pet&$ and hit their target (ith little for"e# 7ell!prepared infantry (ere then able to p&ll 'o&nted $oldier$ fro' their hor$e$ and to fini$h the' off &$ing $taff (eapon$, axe$, $(ord$, and dagger$# >he$e ta"ti"$ (ere effe"tive ti'e and again, no 'atter (ho the infantry en"o&ntered or ho( (ell they (ere ar'ored# A$ a "on$e)&en"e, the n&'ber of dead, regardle$$ of their ran: or $tat&$, ro$e dra'ati"ally# On"e e$tabli$hed, the$e ta"ti"$ proved extre'ely effe"tive again$t all opponent$# 7hen adopted by the Engli$h, at the Battle of Bor!o&ghbridge in -;22 and later at D&pplin 2oor and =alidon =ill, fo&ght in -;;2 and -;;;, re$pe"tively, the longbo( (a$ added on the flan:$ to repla"e the need for dit"he$ or (ood$ to prevent flan:ing atta":$# ?$ing longbo('en the Engli$h (ere able to defeat $&perior for"e$ at $&"h "r&"ial battle$ of the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar a$ CrN"y, *oitier$, AlK&barota, Agin"o&rt, and +erne&il# By the -<<0$ handheld g&n$ began to appear, a&g'enting and even $&pplanting the longbo( and the "ro$$bo(, altho&gh it (a$ not &ntil the early $ixteenth "ent&ry, for exa'ple at the Battle of *avia in -/2/, that they "an be $aid to have played a really $ignifi"ant role on the battlefield# ?lti'ately, "avalry $oldier$ a$ 'ain atta": troop$ de"lined in n&'ber$ and i'portan"e, and "avalry (arfare, $o do'inant d&ring the 2iddle Age$, (a$ e$$entially over by the early $ixteenth "ent&ry# It (a$ )&i":ly re"ogniFed, too, that infantry for"e$ (ere al$o 'ore $&ited to the ta$: of be$ieging fortifi"ation$# Cavalry "o&ld perfor' $"avenging and re"onnoitering d&tie$, b&t at the a"t&al $iege hor$e'en (ere for"ed to di$'o&nt if they (i$hed to parti"ipate in "apt&ring the fortifi"ation# Ca$tle$ "ontin&ed to fall for the $a'e rea$on$ they al(ay$ had3 $tarvation, negotiation, trea"hery, or de$tr&"tion# >he only 'aKor "hange at the end of the 2iddle Age$ (a$ the appearan"e of g&npo(der (eapon$# =o(ever, it i$ a 'yth that g&npo(der artillery bro&ght a )&i":er end to 'edieval "a$tle$ and to(n (all$# 7hile it i$ often believed that g&npo(der artillery "o&ld ea$ily brea"h the flat $tone (all$ of 'edieval "a$tle$, generally thi$ doe$
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0(0

not $ee' to have been the "a$e# On $o'e o""a$ion$, "ertainly, g&npo(der (eapon$ (ere very effe"tive in defeating traditional 'edieval fortifi"ation$# In -</; *hilip the Cood, D&:e of B&rg&ndy, for"ed the $&rrender of three $'all $o&thern Lo( Co&ntry fortifi"ation$ held by Chentenaar rebel$3 S"hendelbe:e, *oe:e, and Cavere# >he fir$t t(o fell to B&rg&ndian g&nfire, and the final "a$tle "apit&lated on"e a relief for"e of rebel$ (a$ defeated in battle again$t the B&r!g&ndian$ o&t$ide the "a$tleG$ (all$# >hat $a'e year, Con$tantinople, on"e the large$t "ity in E&rope, fell after a lengthy bo'bard'ent by the g&npo(der artillery of 2eh'ed IIG$ Otto'an >&r:i$h ar'y# On other o""a$ion$, the threat of g&npo(der artillery in $iege$ no do&bt bro&ght a )&i":er end to (hat 'ight have been an other(i$e lengthy $tandoff# >hi$ be"a'e a $trategy pra"ti"ed e$pe"ially (ell by =enry + in hi$ "on)&e$t of %or'andy fro' -<- to -<20# >here (a$ little Bren"h rea"tion to =enryG$ inva$ion, and the oppo$ing garri$on$ of the 'any "a$tle$ and to(n$ the Engli$h "apt&red (ere $'all and had little de$ire to fight or end&re a $iege again$t hi'# >hey $ee'ed not to have been (illing to (ith$tand a "on"erted Engli$h atta": &$ing g&npo(der (eapon$# In$tead, 'o$t often the$e garri$on$ (o&ld $et a date (hereby they (o&ld $&rrender if not re!lieved ! &$&ally t(o (ee:$# >hi$ (a$ done at al'o$t all of =enryG$ "apt&red $ite$, all of (hi"h $&rrendered on the agreed date (hen no relieving for"e had arrived# Of all the pla"e$ "apt&red by

=enry, only Caen and 5o&en re$i$ted the Engli$h be$ieger$H tho&gh &lti'ately, and (itho&t Bren"h relief, both fell# 2o$t often, tho&gh, g&npo(der (eaponry did not alter the advantage of the be$ieged over the be$ieger$# Sho&ld a garri$on or the to(n$people (i$h to re$i$t the negotiation$ of tho$e be$ieging the', even if fa"ing a large g&npo(der artillery train, they (ere generally able to hold o&t, at lea$t &ntil defeated in a 'ore traditional (ay, $&"h a$ by $tarvation or trea"hery# Bor exa'ple, the to(n of Co'!piVgne, (here Aoan of Ar" (a$ "apt&red, did not fall to *hilip the Cood in -<;0 de$pite the pre$en"e of an extre'ely large n&'ber of g&npo(der (eapon$ ! "onte'porary "hroni"ler$ report the pre$en"e of at lea$t five large bo'bard$, t(o veuglaires one large and one $'all, inn&'erable couloverines and t(o engins a'ong the be$ieging B&rg&ndian ar'y, and other $o&r"e$ re"ord the tran$portation of at lea$t - ,000 po&nd$ of g&npo(der (ith the artillery train# A $i'ilar $it&ation fa"ed *hilip the Cood in -<;0, (hen an even larger artillery train ! eighteen bo'bard$, t(enty gros veuglaires .9 veuglaires 2/ petit veuglaires 2/ canons 22 crapaudeau. /2 gros couloverines and 2</ couloverines ! (a$ defeated by the Engli$h
0(1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

garri$on in le$$ than nineteen day$# >he $iege of %e&$$, a B&rg&n!dian $iege, led thi$ ti'e by *hilipG$ $on, Charle$ the Bold, (a$ laid for al'o$t a year, fro' ;0 A&ly -< < to -; A&ne -< /, d&ring (hi"h ti'e it$ (all$ (ere "on$tantly bo'barded by the B&rg&ndian g&npo(der artillery# >hey &$ed bo'bard$, courtau. serpentines "&l!verin$, and %a<ue)usses and had, by one a""o&nt, 'ore than ;00 "art$ of g&n$, not "o&nting hi$ handheld g&npo(der (eapon$, couloverines and %a<ue)usses. Det Charle$ (a$ not able to for"e the inhabitant$ to $&rrender# 2id(ay thro&gh the $iege the gate$ and (all$ of the to(n lay in r&in$, b&t only t(i"e (ere B&rg&ndian $oldier$ able to enter %e&$$, and on both o""a$ion$ they (ere beaten ba": and their f&rther entry blo":ed# Binally, in 2ay -< /, (ith a Cer'an relief for"e approa"hing, Charle$, infl&en"ed by the fatig&e of hi$ $oldier$, di$$ati$fa"tion a'ong hi$ $&bKe"t$ paying for the $iege at ho'e, and, of "o&r$e, the r&'bling$ of revolt in the Lo( Co&ntrie$, (a$ for"ed to $ee: a tr&"e and to rai$e the $iege#

A52S A%D A52O5

>he period -;001-//0 $a( a n&'ber of develop'ent$ and "hange$ to (eapon$ and (arfare# Altho&gh 'o$t (ere 'erely develop'ent$ fro' earlier ti'e$ rather than revol&tionary "hange$, there (ere a n&'ber of $ignifi"ant advan"e$# A 'o&nted :night $till "arried a lan"e and (ielded a $(ord and dagger, altho&gh he event&ally di$"arded hi$ $hield# 2o$t i'portantly, hi$ ar'or developed fro' the $i'ple 'ail $hirt to the f&ll! plate harne$$ "overing al'o$t the entire body# =i$ hor$e (a$ al$o in"rea$ingly prote"ted and, by the end of the fifteenth "ent&ry, "o&ld al$o be en"a$ed in plate ar'or li:e it$ rider# A$ noted above thi$ period al$o $a( the ri$e of the &$e of infantry, (hi"h "on$i$ted pri'arily of the 'iddle and lo(er "la$$e$ of $o"iety and e$pe"ially &rban 'ilitia$# 2o$t of the$e foot $oldier$ (ere ar'ed (ith $o'e for' of $taff (eapon, (hi"h al$o &nder(ent $o'e "hange$ to "o&nter the ri$e in plate ar'or# >he "ro$$bo( "ontin&ed in &$e, altho&gh it too (a$ i'proved to in"rea$e it$ po(er and range (ith the introd&"tion of the $teel bo(# Of e)&al i'portan"e, parti"&larly for the Engli$h, (a$ the develop'ent and ta"ti"al &$e of the longbo(# >he one really $ignifi"ant "hange, ho(ever, (a$ the develop'ent and &$e of g&npo(der (eapon$, both handg&n$ and artillery, altho&gh they did not, at fir$t, "o'pletely $&pplant traditional (eapon$ or non!g&npo(der artillery, e$pe"ially the treb&"het#
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0('

Ar'or Develop'ent$ in ar'$ and ar'or d&ring the 2iddle Age$ did not o""&r $&ddenly and "hange (a$ $lo(, &$&ally ta:ing de"ade$ to be"o'e f&lly i'ple'ented# Often, "hange$ in one type of (eapon or ar'or (o&ld effe"t "hange in another# D&ring the late 2iddle Age$ one of the bigge$t develop'ent$, for tho$e (ho "o&ld afford it 6ba$i"ally the &pper "la$$e$8, (a$ in ar'or# Altho&gh the beginning$ of plate ar'or, leading to the develop'ent of the I:night in $hining ar'or,J are not f&lly &nder$tood or "o'pletely "lear, they "an be tra"ed to the 'iddle of the thirteenth "ent&ry# In abo&t -2/0 pie"e$ of ar'or to "over the front and $ide$ of the :nee$, poleyn$, appear in ill&$tration$, and di$"!$haped "o&ter$, ar'or to prote"t the elbo(, follo( $oon after in abo&t -200# *late ar'or "overing the $hin$ al$o develop$ at aro&nd the $a'e ti'e b&t i$ not "o''on &ntil the early de"ade$ of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry# *late ar'or for the tor$o al$o $ee'$ to have developed, b&t the $&r"oat, a long fabri" gar'ent, (hi"h (a$ &niver$ally (orn over it, hide$ the early develop'ent$ in ill&$tration$ and other depi"tion$# It i$ "lear, too, that the $&r"oat (a$ it$elf $o'eti'e$ reinfor"ed (ith ro($ of re"tang&lar plate$, $et verti"ally and riveted to the in$ide of the fabri"# By the late thirteenth "ent&ry, a ne( defen$e had developed, the "oat of plate$ ! ba$i"ally a textile or leather "oat to the in$ide of (hi"h iron plate$ (ere atta"hed# >he exa"t for' and "on$tr&"tion of the "oat of plate$ i$

not al(ay$ "lear a$ it i$ hidden, a$ already noted, by the $&r"oat that (a$ (orn over it# =o(ever, the ex"avation of 'a$$ grave$ fro' the Battle of +i$by, fo&ght in -;0-, ha$ provided 'any exa'ple$ of "oat$ of plate$# >he t(enty!five re"overed all have the $a'e ba$i" "hara"teri$ti"$3 all "over the tor$o and "on$i$t of overlapping iron plate$ that have been riveted or la"ed onto the in$ide of a leather or textile "overing# Only t(o ar'or$ have plate$ atta"hed to the o&t$ide of the "overing, and in both "a$e$ the$e (ere only $'all $ho&lder plate$# >here i$ "on$iderable variation in the $iFe of the plate$, fro' 0 by 20 in"he$ 6-/ by /0 "enti'eter$8 to le$$ than 0#9 by < in"he$ 62 by -0 "enti'eter$8, and in the n&'ber &$ed, fro' 9 to al'o$t 000# On $o'e +i$by ar'or$ the plate$ are pla"ed verti"ally, (hile other$ are horiFontal, and $o'e have "o'bination$ of both# 7hile 'o$t "over the entire tor$o (ith a $:irt to the hip$, other$ are 'ore tight!fitting and extend only to the (ai$t# Extra $ho&lder plate$ appear to have been added to $o'e, b&t not all# 2o$t "oat$ of plate$ "over the front and ba":, altho&gh at lea$t five 'ay have "overed only the front and $ide$, leaving the ba": (itho&t plate prote"tion# Al'o$t
0(/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

all opened at the ba":, (ith t(o opening on one $ide, t(o on both $ide$ and one in the front# So'e (ere de"orated (ith bronFe 'o&nting$ in the $hape of heraldi" $hield$, fle&r!de!li$, or $hell$# *late ga&ntlet$ for the hand$ and gorget$, plate$ "overing the ne": and "hin, appear at the end of the thirteenth "ent&ry# Bro' abo&t -;00 poleyn$ and greave$, the ar'or for the lo(er leg$, o""&rred 'ore fre)&ently, and $abaton$, ar'or for the foot often 'ade in the $hape of the $hoe (orn at the period, fir$t e'erged aro&nd -;20# B&ll!plate ar' defen$e$ appeared abo&t the $a'e ti'e and "on$i$ted of t(o g&tter! $haped plate$ for the &pper and lo(er ar'$ and a "entral "&p!$haped "o&ter over the elbo(, all $trapped over the $leeve of the ha&ber:# $esagews $'all di$"$haped plate$, (ere $o'eti'e$ fa$tened (ith la"e$ at the $ho&lder and elbo(# 5e"tang&lar plate$, "alled ailette$, often $ho(n in ill&$tration$ fro' abo&t -2 / to abo&t -;/0, (ere atta"hed to the $ide$ of the $ho&lder$ and proKe"ted &p on either $ide of the head# >he$e probably filled no defen$ive p&rpo$e, b&t (ere only fli'$y pie"e$ bearing orna'ental or heraldi" devi"e$# Bro' abo&t -2/0, the 'ail "oif (a$ 'ade $eparate fro' the ha&ber:, (hi"h (a$ often $hortened at the $ide$ and "alled a ha&bergeon# >he great hel', (orn over the cervelli?re deepened &ntil it to&"hed the $ho&lder$# Bro' abo&t -;00 the cervelli?re (a$ $&pplanted by the ba$"inet, a type of hel'et that (a$ very "o''on to abo&t -</0 and, tho&gh rarer after(ard, doe$ not "o'pletely di$appear &ntil the 'iddle of the $ixteenth "ent&ry# >here (ere three type$3 a $'all glob&lar for' "overing the $ide$ and rear of the head, often (ith a vi$orH a deep "oni"al hel'et ar"hed over the fa"e and extending do(n al'o$t to the $ho&lder$ at the $ide$ and ba": and al$o fitted (ith a vi$orH and a tall "oni"al hel'et (ith a $traight horiFontal lo(er edge "&t off at the level of the ear$# All three "ontin&ed in &$e &ntil the 'iddle of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry# >he :ettle hat al$o "ontin&ed in &$e, altho&gh after abo&t -;20 it i$ $ho(n (ith a tall $:&ll, very '&"h li:e a ba$"inet# An &p!to!date f&lly ar'ored :night of the early de"ade$ of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry (o&ld have been better prote"ted than hi$ prede"e$$or$ of a "ent&ry earlier# =e (o&ld have donned a "lo$e!fitting $hirt, bree"he$, and ho$e# On hi$ leg$ he (o&ld then p&t 'ail "ha&$$e$, ga'boi$ed "&i$$e$ (ith poleyn$ atta"hed, greave$, and $abaton$# Over hi$ body he (o&ld have a ha&ber: or a ha&bergeon, probably (ith the ar' defen$e$, va'bra"e$, atta"hed to the $leeve$, and over thi$ a "oat of plate$# =e 'ight have (orn )esagews and ailette$ and po$$ibly al$o a bevor# Over thi$ he (o&ld then have
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0(+

donned a $&r"oat and a $(ord belt aro&nd hi$ (ai$t# 7hen a"tion (a$ i''inent he (o&ld then have p&lled on hi$ ba$"inet, po$$ibly (ith a great hel' over the top "o'plete (ith hi$ "re$t, and ga&ntlet$# Over the "o&r$e of the de"ade$ after -;20, ar'orer$ "ontin&ed to develop the vario&$ pie"e$ of plate ar'or for the body and li'b$# >he ha&bergeon "ontin&ed to be (orn &nder ar'or thro&gho&t the period a$ (a$ the a:eton# Bro' abo&t -;<0, the plate$ "overing the "he$t (ere "o'bined to for' a r&di'entary brea$tplate, (hi"h at fir$t only "overed the &pper "he$t areaH a $erie$ of horiFontal plate$, riveted to a fabri" "over, (ere added to extend prote"tion to over the hip$# By abo&t -; 0 the brea$tplate (a$ extended do(n(ard by 'ean$ of an atta"hed $:irt of hoop$, a fa&ld, to "over the (hole tor$o# >he evol&tion of the ba":plate i$ 'ore diffi"&lt to follo( b&t (a$ probably $i'ilar to that of the brea$tplate# >o(ard the end of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry t(o ne( develop'ent$ to the brea$tplate 'ade their appearan"e# >he fir$t (a$ a hinged bra":et fa$tened to the right $ide of the brea$tplate, (hi"h a"ted a$ a $top for the "o&"hed lan"e, the lan"e re$t# >he other (a$ an additional bar of iron riveted to the brea$tplate K&$t belo( the ne":, (hi"h a"ted a$ a $top if the (earer (a$ hit by a (eapon 6hen"e the na'e $top!rib ). >he$e be"a'e "o''on on ar'or &ntil abo&t -</0# Both "an be $een on a fine early exa'ple of a brea$tplate no( at Ch&rb&rg Ca$tle in north Italy and dated to abo&t -;901-;.0# >he ar'orer al$o "ontin&ed to i'prove the ar'or for the li'b$# Bro' abo&t -;<0 "&i$$e$ (ere $ho(n 'ade

fro' plate$, rather li:e the brigandine 6$ee the $e"tion$ that follo(8 and poleyn$ (ere 'ade $'aller to K&$t "over the front and $ide$ of the :nee# After -; 0 the "&i$$e$ (ere 'ade fro' a $ingle iron plate and the greave$ &$&ally "on$i$ted of t(o plate$, at the front and ba": of the leg, fa$tened together (ith $trap$ and b&":le$# >he defen$e$ for the ar'$ developed in '&"h the $a'e (ay a$ tho$e for the leg$, altho&gh there (ere 'any variation$ in $hape and for' a"ro$$ E&rope# >&b&lar or g&tter!$haped plate$ for the &pper and lo(er ar', canons (ith or (itho&t a "o&ter at the elbo(, $e"&red to the ha&ber: (ere the 'o$t "o''on for'# ?ntil abo&t -; / ga&ntlet$ (ere 'ade fro' $'all plate$, b&t fro' abo&t -;90 the ho&rgla$$ for' in (hi"h a $ingle plate "overed the ba": and $ide$ of the hand and the (ri$t appeared# >he finger$ (ere prote"ted by $'all overlapping plate$, and the$e (ere $o'eti'e$ de"orated (ith gadlings $'all de"orative fig&re$ atta"hed to the :n&":le plate, a$ on the ga&ntlet$ of the Bla": *rin"e in Canterb&ry Cathedral#
0() MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

>he ba$"inet re'ained a pop&lar hel'et thro&gho&t the period, and by abo&t -;;0 it extended do(n to the ba$e of the ne": and for(ard to "over the rear of the "hee:$# After abo&t -;;0 it (a$ &$&ally fitted (ith an aventail, a 'ail exten$ion "overing the ne": and $ho&lder$, (hi"h (a$ $e"&red to the hel'et by vervelles iron peg$ (ith a tran$ver$e hole# >he ba$"inet (a$ fitted (ith a vi$or, "alled a Alapp"visier (hi"h, at fir$t, (a$ ro&nded and pivoted at the $ide$ of the $:&ll, altho&gh later (a$ atta"hed to the top "enter of the fa"e opening# >he tall for' of the ba$"inet (ith a point at the rear and a vi$or pivoted at the $ide$ be"a'e very "o''on thro&gho&t E&rope fro' abo&t -;90# It i$ $o'eti'e$ "alled a Ipig!fa"ed ba$"inetJ by 'odern $"holar$ altho&gh the ter' vi$ored ba$"inet (a$ 'ore "o''on at the ti'e# A variation of the ba$"inet, fitted (ith plate$ re$e'bling the aventail, and "alled a great ba$"inet (a$ &$ed pri'arily for Ko&$ting# >he :ettle hat (a$ $till pop&lar, and the great hel' "hanged very little thro&gho&t the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, altho&gh after abo&t -;/0 it (a$ relegated to the to&rna'ent# By the $e"ond de"ade of the fifteenth "ent&ry "o'plete f&ll!plate ar'or had developed and t(o very di$tin"t area$ of ar'or 'a:ing had e'erged ! northern Italy, 'ainly in 2ilan and Bre$"ia, and $o&thern Cer'any, e$pe"ially A&g$b&rg, %&re'berg, Land$h&t, and Inn$br&":# Ea"h area prod&"ed ar'or of a di$tin"tive $tyle and both (ere do'inated by a $'all n&'ber of great ar'orer$3 the 2i$$aglia fa'ily of 2ilan and the =el'$"h'ied dyna$ty of A&g$b&rg (ere po$$ibly the greate$t of the$e# Of "o&r$e ar'or (a$ 'ade in other part$ of E&rope, $&"h a$ England, Bran"e, Spain, and the Lo( Co&ntrie$, b&t very little i$ :no(n abo&t the$e (or:$hop$ and ar'orer$# All prod&"ed not only high!)&ality ar'or, tailor!'ade to fit an individ&al (ho "o&ld afford it, b&t al$o "heaper ar'or# Indeed, the (or:$hop$ in Italy pra"ti"ed an early for' of 'a$$ prod&"tion ! $pe"iali$t$ in the different part$ of ar'or $&pplied a "entral ar'$ 'er"hant (ho 'ade &p "o'plete ar'or$ to f&lfill order$ fro' all over E&rope# >he ri"he$t patron$, $&"h a$ the d&:e$ of B&rg&ndy, (ere able to bring ar'orer$ to (or: at their "o&rt$, (hile other$, $&"h a$ the d&:e$ of 2ilan, often 'ade an ann&al pay'ent, a retainer, to an ar'orer to en$&re better $ervi"e# 2en of le$$er (ealth li:e Sir Aohn *a$ton, a (ell!to!do Engli$h :night, had to rely on I'ail order#J =e (rote to an ar'orer in Br&ge$, 2artin 5ondelle, to p&r"ha$e a I"o'plete harne$$,J b&t 5ondelle (a$ not prepared to "o''it hi'$elf to a pri"e &ntil he :ne( exa"tly (hat Sir Aohn (antedL =igh!)&ality ar'or (a$ $haped and fitted to every part of the body and "lo$ely follo(ed the fa$hion of the dre$$ of the day ! for exa'ple, the
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0((

high (ai$tline$ and "lo$ely fitted "lothe$ of the later fifteenth "ent&ry (ere "lo$ely "opied by ar'orer$# Italian f&ll!plate ar'or i$ "hara"teriFed by it$ ro&nded for', (hile that 'ade in Cer'any or in the Cer'an fa$hion had a 'ore ang&lar $hape# Bor '&"h of the fifteenth "ent&ry, the Italian brea$tplate (a$ for'ed of an &pper brea$tplate, (hi"h (a$ ro&nded and "&t off at the (ai$t, and a lo(er brea$tplate, the pla":art, fa$tened together (ith leather $trap$ and b&":le$# >he pla":art (a$ &$&ally fitted (ith a $:irt, or fa&ld, of t(o or three plate$# >he ba":plate (a$ $i'ilar and atta"hed to the brea$tplate at the $ho&lder and (ai$t# >he va'bra"e$ "on$i$ted of a $hort t&b&lar &pper "annon, a "o&ter (ith a di$"!$haped plate "overing the elbo( Koint, and a lo(er "annon extending to the (ri$t# >he re"tang&lar!$haped pa&l!dron$ (ere &$&ally a$y''etri"al, that on the (earerG$ left larger than that on the right, allo(ing greater freedo' for the right ar' for fighting# >he ar'or for the leg$ (a$ very $i'ilar to tho$e &$ed earlier and "on$i$ted of plate "&i$$e$ and greave$ atta"hed to po!leyn$ at the :nee$# >he feet (ere &$&ally "overed (ith 'ail rather than plate $abaton$# Bro' abo&t -<;0 the botto' plate of the fa&ld (a$ "&t in half to for' t(o re"tang&lar plate$, "alled ta$$et$, (hi"h (ere h&ng fro' the brea$tplate on $trap$ and b&":le$# So'eti'e$ additional ta$$et$ (ere added to the $ide$ and ba":plate# >he ar' defen$e$ "hanged little over the follo(ing de"ade$ altho&gh the a$y''etri"al pa&l!dron$ (ere 'ade larger at the ba":, $o'eti'e$ even overlapping one other, and the &pper "annon (a$ extended to "over the &pper ar'# Earlier fingered ga&ntlet$ developed into 'itten$, the right "on$i$ting of a (ri$t plate (ith t(o plate$ "overing the finger$, and the left of a $ingle plate over the hand# >he leg harne$$

"hanged very little ex"ept that the $ide (ing$ on the poleyn$ (ere 'ade larger# >he typi"al hel'et$ of the Italian (or:$hop$ (ere the $allet, the ar'et, and the :ettle hat# >he $allet, a hel'et "lo$ely fitting to the front of the head and for'ed into a long ItailJ at the rear "overing the ne":, developed early in the fifteenth "ent&ry, (ith the fir$t referen"e in Italian $o&r"e$ in -<0 , and be"a'e pop&lar after abo&t -<;0# >he front (a$ "&t o&t aro&nd the fa"e and "lo$ed (ith a vi$or, fa$tened to the $ide$ of the hel'et $:&ll, (hi"h "o&ld be lifted to provide extra ventilation# A $lit bet(een the top of the vi$or and the hel'et bo(l provided vi$ion (hen the vi$or (a$ do(n# >he ar'et "on$i$ted of a $hallo( bo(l "overing the top of the head (ith a narro( exten$ion do(n the ba":# >(o large plate$, hinged to the lo(er edge of the bo(l, "overed the $ide$ of the fa"e# >he opening over the
0(MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

fa"e (a$ fitted (ith a pointed vi$or, pivoted at the $ide$# >he :ettle hat "ontin&ed to be (orn, altho&gh it (a$ not a$ pop&lar# >he Cer'an brea$tplate of the -<20$ and -<;0$ (a$ 'ore ang&larH the &pper part flared o&t and the lo(er ba": angled into the (ai$t, giving it a very "hara"teri$ti" IboxJ $hape# =o(ever, fro' the -<00$ it developed into a 'ore $lender, elongated for', often (ith ripple!li:e fl&ting and applied bra$$ border$, $o'eti'e$ :no(n a$ the I=igh!Cothi" $tyle,J a$ $ho(n by t(o ar'or$ 'ade for the ar"hd&:e$ 2axi'ilian and Sig'&nd of >yrol in abo&t -<90 by LorenF =el'$"h'ied# In the -<20$ a $'all ar' defen$e "overing the $ho&lder, the $pa&dler, "a'e into &$e, and by the -</0$ thi$ (a$ atta"hed to the &pper "annon, a feat&re that "ontin&ed into the $ixteenth "ent&ry# >he leg harne$$ (a$ very $i'ilar to that of the Italian $tyle, altho&gh (ith $'aller $ide (ing$ on the poleyn$ and $abaton$ 'ade of horiFontal plate$ in the $hape of "onte'porary foot(ear# In Cer'any the :ettle hat, often (ith a (ide bri', (a$ pop&lar &ntil abo&t -</0, and the ba$"inet "ontin&ed to be (orn# =o(ever, the ar'et (a$ not a$ pop&lar a$ in Italy &ntil the $ixteenth "ent&ry# >he $allet i$ fir$t 'entioned in the -<20$ b&t (a$ rare &ntil the -<00$ (hen a "o'bination of the :ettle hat and the $allet developed to for' the "hara"teri$ti" Cer'an $allet ! a hel'et (ith a long tail over the ne":, $o'eti'e$ for'ed of $everal plate$, and a deep $:&ll fitted to the $hape of the head# >he Cer'an $allet had either a vi$or pivoted at the $ide$, the eye $lot for'ed bet(een the lo(er edge of the $:&ll and the &pper edge of the vi$or, or (a$ in one pie"e (ith eye $lot$ "&t in the front# Bro' abo&t -/00, the $eparate $tyle$ that had evolved in Italy and Cer'any 'erged, re$&lting in a $ingle line of develop'ent# Still the t(o 'ain ar'or "enter$ "ontin&ed '&"h a$ before, $&pplying both the fine ar'or$ for tho$e (ho "o&ld pay a$ (ell a$ the 'ore '&ndane, plain ar'or for the "o''on $oldier# D&ring the fir$t de"ade$ of the $ixteenth "ent&ry a pop&lar $tyle of ar'or (a$ introd&"ed (here the $&rfa"e (a$ de"orated (ith parallel line$ of ridge$, the $o!"alled I2axi'ilianJ $tyle, probably a f&$ion of the earlier Cer'an ripple! fl&ting and Italian ro&nded $tyle$# >he ridge$ (ere not only de"orative b&t al$o helped $trengthen the ar'or by providing additional rigidity# At '&"h the $a'e ti'e, the applied bra$$ border$ of the earlier period (ere repla"ed by t&rned edge$, &$&ally de"orated (ith roping# >he brea$tplate (a$ no( &$&ally glob&lar in $hape (ith atta"hed ta$$et$# >he ar' defen$e$ (ere al'o$t al(ay$ in one pie"e, the lo(er
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0(.

and &pper "annon$ Koined per'anently to the "o&ter (ith internal leather$ and rivet$, and the (hole fre)&ently al$o Koined per'anently to the pa&ldron# >he "ollar, gorget, be"a'e a $tandard feat&re, (orn &nderneath the "&ira$$, to (hi"h the ar'$ (ere atta"hed# >he al'ain "ollar al$o be"a'e pop&lar, in (hi"h the $pa&dler$ (ere atta"hed to the "ollar, "overed the $ho&lder$, and (ere (orn (ith 'ail $leeve$# Bor the fir$t de"ade$ of the "ent&ry, 'itten ga&ntlet$ (ere very "o''on, tho&gh they (ere repla"ed fro' abo&t -/;0 by fingered ga&ntlet$# >he leg harne$$ "hanged very littleH the "&i$$e$, poleyn$, and greave$ (ere either 'ade $eparately and Koined together (ith fa$tening$ or 'ade all of a pie"e and $e"&red together (ith leather$ and rivet$# Sabaton$, often atta"hed to the greave$, (ere &$&ally of plate, altho&gh in Italy there (a$ $till a tenden"y to (ear 'ail $abaton$# >he ar'et "ontin&ed to be pop&lar and (a$ Koined, $hortly after -/00, by a ne( hel'et type, today "alled the "lo$e hel'et# >he )&inte$$ential :nightG$ head prote"tion of the $ixteenth "ent&ry, the "lo$e hel'et (a$ $o'e(hat $i'ilar in for' to the ar'et# It "on$i$ted of a bo(l "overing the top of the head and extending do(n ro&nd the ba": of the head and ne":# >he vi$or, &$&ally for'ed of three $eparate plate$, (a$ hinged at the $ide$ and "o&ld be lifted (hen needed# Slot$ for $ighting and breathing (ere provided# >he $:&ll of the b&rgonet (a$ $i'ilar to that of the "lo$e hel'et, b&t in$tead of a vi$or "overing the fa"e, the front (a$ left open# Above the eye$ a $'all pea: K&tted for(ard, and hinged "hee:!pie"e$, (hi"h (ere tied together (ith a "ord beneath the "hin, prote"ted the $ide$ of the fa"e# >he b&rgonet allo(ed for '&"h greater

vi$ion and (a$ le$$ &n"o'fortable to (ear than other hel'et$ a$ it left the 'o&th and no$e open, altho&gh in $o'e exa'ple$ an additional pie"e, the b&ffe, (a$ fitted to the front to prote"t the fa"e (hen ne"e$$ary# ?$ed e$pe"ially by the infantry and the light "avalry, it (a$ pop&lar thro&gho&t the $ixteenth "ent&ry# >he :ettle hat (a$ $till pop&lar, b&t (a$ no( "alled the 'orionH it had a tall $:&ll and a narro( bri' and (a$ &$&ally fitted (ith "hee:!pie"e$ that (ere tied together &nder the "hin# >he infantry, poorer and le$$ (ell paid than the :night$ on hor$eba":, (ere &$&ally 'ore $i'ply ar'ed# Bor tho$e (ho "o&ld afford it, e$pe"ially tho$e re"r&ited fro' to(n$, &rban 'ilitia$, and 'er"enarie$, 'ail $hirt$ and hel'et$ (ere "o''on and "o&ld be a&g'ented by other pie"e$ of ar'or, for exa'ple a brea$tplate# Bor tho$e le$$ (ell off, prote"tion 'ight be nothing 'ore than a )&ilted Ka":et perhap$ (ith a $i'ple hel'et# In"rea$ingly tho&gh, the ar'or
0-, MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

that (a$ adopted by the infantry (a$ the brigandine and the Ka":# >he brigandine (a$ 'ade of $'all re"tang&lar plate$ of iron riveted to a $leevele$$ fabri" Ka":et that fa$tened &p the front or on one $ide, providing a "ontin&o&$ b&t flexible prote"tion, very $i'ilar to 'odern fla: Ka":et$# >he plate$ overlapped one another to provide good prote"tion for the "he$t and ba":, e$pe"ially again$t $(ord thr&$t$# Extant exa'ple$ $ho( K&$t ho( (ell the proble'$ of ar'or (ere &nder$tood# >he iron plate$, very prone to r&$ting, e$pe"ially fro' the $(eat prod&"ed in the extre'e$ of battle, (ere "oated (ith a prote"tive layer, applied by dipping the plate$ in a 'olten bath of a lead and tin 'ixt&re very $i'ilar to 'odern $older# >ho&gh 'o$tly &$ed by the poorer $oldier$, del&xe ver$ion$ for :night$ and prin"e$ (ere al$o prod&"ed and (ere 'ade &$ing "o$tly $il:$ and bro"ade$# >he Ka": (a$ 'ade fro' $'all $)&are plate$ of iron, ea"h (ith a hole thro&gh it$ "enter, la"ed bet(een t(o layer$ of fabri" (ith "ord, giving the' a "hara"teri$ti" )&ilted appearan"e# Aa":et$ and hat$ (ere 'ade in the $a'e (ay b&t, &nli:e brigandine$, Ka":$ $ee' to have been only 'ade fro' "heap, "oar$e 'aterial$ for "o''on $oldier$# Both the Ka": and the brigandine (ere e$pe"ially pop&lar in the fifteenth "ent&ry, b&t they (ere in &$e before then and (ere $till being &$ed by the light infantry, (ith 'ail $leeve$ and a pi:e, in the late $ixteenth and early $eventeenth "ent&rie$# After abo&t -/00, it be"a'e 'ore &$&al for the infantry, and the light "avalry, to (ear a "or$elet, "on$i$ting of a "ollar, brea$tplate, ba":plate, ta$$et$, va'bra"e$, and ga&ntlet$ (ith an open hel'et# S&rfa"e de"oration, )&ite rare in the fifteenth "ent&ry, be"a'e 'ore "o''on in the $ixteenth "ent&ry, and ar'or$ (ere often Iet"hed and gilded#J *attern$ (ere dra(n on the $&rfa"e, &$&ally in narro( band$, and the$e (ere treated (ith a"id, (hi"h et"hed the' into the $&rfa"e of the 'etal# >he pattern$ (ere then gilded, giving the ar'or a glittering and ri"h appearan"e, tho&gh in extant ar'or$ thi$ $&rfa"e de"oration, e$pe"ially the gold, ha$ been (orn a(ay by "ent&rie$ of "leaning# Bine ar'or (a$ al(ay$ a $tat&$ $y'bol, pro"lai'ing oneG$ (ealth and po$ition in $o"iety, and thi$ rea"hed a "li'ax in the $ixteenth "ent&ry (hen highly elaborate and de"orated IparadeJ ar'or$ (ere prod&"ed# Often "opying an"ient 5o'an original$, or 'ore fan"if&l in nat&re, for exa'ple i'itating fa$hionable "onte'porary dre$$, the$e (ere &$&ally not $&itable for a"t&al &$e in battle# Bre)&ently thro&gh the later fifteenth and $ixteenth "ent&rie$, very fine ar'or$ (ere given by one r&ler to another a$ a for' of diplo'ati" gift, or fro' a (ife to her h&$band for $pe"ial o""a$ion$ $&"h a$ (edding$, or a$ Chri$t'a$ pre$ent$#
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0-0

Altho&gh ar'or 'ight appear to be heavy, and there i$ a pop&lar 'yth that the ar'ored :night needed to be (in"hed into hi$ $addle, thi$ (a$ never the "a$e# A f&ll $&it of battle ar'or (eighed in the region of /01.0 po&nd$ 6201<0 :ilogra'$8 di$trib&ted over the entire body# >he (ay that ea"h of the Koint$ of the body (a$ 'i'i":ed by the ar'or, at the elbo( and :nee for exa'ple, 'eant that the :night (a$ able to 'ove very '&"h a$ in nor'al life, altho&gh (ith $o'e "&rtail'ent of the extre'e$ of 'ove'ent# >he ex"eption to thi$ (a$ ar'or for to&rna'ent$, (hi"h "o&ld be very heavy and very re$tri"tive to $afeg&ard the life of the "onte$tant# Bro' at lea$t the 'iddle of the fifteenth "ent&ry, there (a$ an in"rea$ing de'and for ar'or$ de$igned and 'ade for $pe"ifi" &$e$, e$pe"ially for the gro(ing fa$hion and proliferation of the to&rna'ent# Bro' an"ient ti'e$ :night$ trained to fight and to develop their "o'bat $:ill$ in the 'elee, a 'o": battle (here gro&p$ of 'o&nted :night$ fo&ght one another in a IfriendlyJ fa$hion# =o(ever, 'elee$ "o&ld get o&t of hand and re$&lt in $erio&$ inK&ry or even death# By the -200$ the to&rna'ent had "hanged $o that, in$tead of 'any :night$ fighting together, individ&al :night$ fo&ght one another# >hi$ "o&ld ta:e 'any for'$, fro' Ko&$ting on hor$eba": (ith bl&nt lan"e$ to fighting on foot (ith polla.es or halberd$# >he idea in all "a$e$ (a$ '&"h the $a'e3 the :night gained val&able experien"e in fightingH the "onte$tant$ "o'peted again$t one another, $"oring point$ and (inning priFe$ and heart$, and the a&dien"e (a$ enter! tained ! '&"h a$ in any $port today#

At fir$t the ar'or for to&rna'ent$ (a$ $i'ilar to that (orn for (ar, b&t grad&ally $pe"ialiFed harne$$e$ (ere developed# Bor Ko&$ting on hor$eba":, the :night &$ed a $pe"ial $addle and (a$ prote"ted (ith extra plate$ of iron or thi": (ooden $hield$# So'eti'e$ for foot "o'bat, the :night (ore ar'or (ith a (ide $:irt of iron to prote"t hi$ leg$# ?nli:e ar'or for (ar, ar'or for Ko&$ting "o&ld be very heavy and often did not allo( very '&"h 'ove'ent ! K&$t eno&gh to be able to hit the opponent in fa"t# >o&rna'ent$ (ere fre)&ently very elaborate affair$ la$ting day$, or even (ee:$, "o'plete (ith all $ort$ of entertain'ent$, fighting of every :ind, $"ore $heet$, and (inner$ and lo$er$# At the other extre'e, individ&al :night$ $o'eti'e$ "hallenged other :night$ in $ingle "o'bat# A$ to&rna'ent$ be"a'e ever 'ore elaborate and $pe"ial ar'or (a$ needed for ea"h type of fighting, the garnit&re (a$ devel!oped ! a ba$i" $&it of ar'or $&pplied (ith additional plate$, 'ore than 00 in very elaborate garnit&re$, (hi"h "o&ld be added or ex"hanged (ith pie"e$ for ea"h type of fighting# >he$e extra pie"e$
0-1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

(ere often $e"&red (ith n&t$ and bolt$, and $pe"ial tool$ (ere needed to p&t the' together, th&$ adding to the 'yth of the ar'ored :night bolted into hi$ ar'or# =or$e Ar'or >he 'ail trapper or trapper$ 'ade rather li:e the "oat of plate$ "ontin&ed in &$e into the fo&rteenth "ent&ry# ?nfort&nately, the "apari$on, the large textile "overing for the (hole hor$e that had fir$t appeared in the late t(elfth "ent&ry and often bore heraldi" "olor$ or the riderG$ "oat of ar'$, hide$ (hat (a$ (orn &nderneath, 'a:ing it diffi"&lt to be $&re of the early develop'ent$ of hor$e ar'or# *op&lar thro&gho&t the thirteenth and fo&rteenth "ent&rie$, "apari$on$ di$appear by abo&t -</0, ex"ept for &$e in to&rna'ent$# =o(ever, plate defen$e$, in"l&ding the $haffron, the head defen$e, began to appear, at '&"h the $a'e ti'e a$ did plate ar'or for the rider, in abo&t -2/0# >he $haffron i$ "o''only depi"ted fro' abo&t -2 / prote"ting the &pper portion$ of the hor$eG$ head# >he$e earlie$t referen"e$ to plate defen$e$, 'ade fro' either cuir )oulli or 'etal, al$o 'ention flan!"hard$, for the $ide$, and "r&pper$, for the rear, of the hor$e# It i$ li:ely that trapper$ of plate, $i'ilar to the "oat of plate$ for the rider, (ere al$o &$ed, tho&gh the eviden"e i$ $"ar"e# D&ring the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, the $haffron, in"rea$ingly 'ade of 'etal, (a$ extended to "over the front and $ide$ of the hor$eG$ head fro' behind the ear$ to the '&FFle and had both eye and ear g&ard$# Exa'ple$ are rare before -</0 ex"ept for t(o, one of 'etal, the 7ar(i": $haffron, of the fir$t )&arter of the fifteenth "ent&ry and a $e"ond dating to the fir$t half of the "ent&ry 'ade fro' hardened leather# >he top of the head and the ne": (ere prote"ted by the poll plate and the "rinet re$pe"tively# Bro' the -;20$ plate$ (ere (orn over the 'ail trapper at the front, $ide$, and rear, and ill&$tration$ $ho( 'any different "o'bination$ of plate$# >he 'ail trapper "ontin&ed in &$e &ntil the -<20$, after (hi"h there are in"rea$ing referen"e$ to hor$e ar'or 'ade fro' 'etal and $o'e al$o 'ade the $a'e (ay a$ brigandine$# By the 'iddle of the fifteenth "ent&ry, the f&ll bard, or hor$e ar'or, "on$i$ted of a $haffron, "rinet, peytral, "overing the front of the hor$e, and flan"hard$ and "r&pper, "overing the rear# Over the "o&r$e of the later fifteenth "ent&ry, the $haffron be"o'e narro(er and (a$ 'ore open, (hile the peytral, (hi"h earlier had been very deep and fitted "lo$e to the front leg$, (a$ $hortened and flared a(ay fro' the body, pre$&'ably to allo( greater freedo' of 'ove'ent#
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0-'

Bro' late in the "ent&ry, hor$e ar'or (a$ in"rea$ingly de"orated (ith fl&ting, e'bo$$ed ridge$, or other pattern$ and (a$ often 'ade to 'at"h the ar'or of the rider# In the $ixteenth "ent&ry, the $haf!fron (a$ red&"ed $till f&rther in $iFe &ntil it "overed K&$t the &pper half of the head and the "rinet "overed K&$t the top of the ne":, rather than f&lly en"lo$ing it# >he f&ll bard (a$ "o''on &ntil the -//0$, after (hi"h it in"rea$ingly (ent o&t of fa$hion ex"ept for &$e in to&rna'ent$# =or$e ar'or (a$ &$ed in to&rna'ent$ fro' abo&t -</0 and (a$ often $pe"ially de$igned for it# Bor exa'ple, $haffron$ (ere 'ade (ith no eye hole$ and had a pro'inent 'edial ridge# In $o'e for'$ of to&rna'ent, the ar'or (a$ repla"ed by a large $e'i"ir"&lar padded "&$hion, the )uffet (hi"h fitted a"ro$$ the front of the hor$e and (a$ (orn (ith a $haffron and f&ll "apari$on# Shield$ and *avi$e$ Shield$ "ontin&ed to be &$ed thro&gh the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, b&t by the early de"ade$ of the fifteenth "ent&ry (ere be"o'ing le$$ and le$$ "o''on &ntil 'id!"ent&ry, after (hi"h they (ere &$ed rarely in battle# >hey (ere, ho(ever, &$ed for $o'e type$ of Ko&$t (here $'all (ooden $hield$ (ere $e"&red to the left $ide of the ar'or to prote"t the $ho&lder# Bro' the later thirteenth "ent&ry a type of $hield "alled the pavi$e (a$ developed, (hi"h (ent on to be exten$ively &$ed thro&gho&t the fo&rteenth and fifteenth "ent&rie$, 'o$t notably by "ro$$bo('en ar"her$

and handg&nner$# *avi$e$ (ere large ro&ghly re"tang&lar $hield$ of varying $iFe$# >he large$t 'ea$&red abo&t / feet 6-#9 'eter$8 high by 21; feet 6001.0 "enti'eter$8 (ide# 7eighing 'ore than 20 po&nd$ 69#/ :ilogra'$8, the$e (ere propped &p by a (ooden or 'etal bra"e that, (hen not in &$e, (a$ $tored in a groove 'ade in the ba": of the $hield# Shorter pavi$e$, 'ea$&ring 212 -42 feet 6001 / "enti'eter$8 high by -1- -42 feet 6;01</ "enti'eter$8 (ide and (eighing le$$ than -0 po&nd$ 6< :ilogra'$8, "o&ld be held in the hand$ of a$$i$tant$, "alled pavesarii. 7hen $et on the gro&nd, often in long ro($, ar"her$ "o&ld either $hoot fro' behind the' or &$e the' a$ prote"tion bet(een $hot$# S&rviving exa'ple$ are fre)&ently painted (ith heraldi" or $y'boli" devi"e$, e$pe"ially of Cer'ani" to(n$, tho&gh they $ee' to have been &$ed thro&gho&t E&rope# A$ the na'e $&gge$t$, the earlie$t pavi$es ! tho&ght to have originated $o'eti'e in the early to 'id! thirteenth "ent&ry ! (ere a$$o"iated (ith the northern Italian to(n of *avia# =o(ever, the
0-/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

fir$t $olid eviden"e for their &$e in (arfare are Blorentine reg&lation$ i$$&ed $hortly before the Battle of 2ontaperti in -200 that de'anded the $ervi"e of all of the to(nG$ $oldier$, in"l&ding ar"her$, "ro$$bo('en, and their pavesarii. >he latter (ere re)&ired to "arry their pavi$e$ near to the "ro$$bo('en and to be ready to &$e the$e $hield$ to prote"t the'# 7hen the ar'y (a$ not involved in fighting, the pavi$e$ (ere to be "arried in the baggage, b&t the pavesarii (ere al$o to re'ain "lo$e to the' $o that they "o&ld be retrieved )&i":ly if needed# =o(ever, they do not appear el$e(here in E&rope &ntil the fo&rteenth "ent&ry# D&ring thi$ "ent&ry and the next one, pavi$e$ be"a'e very pop&lar thro&gho&t E&rope, a$ $ho(n by their fre)&ent referen"e$ in (ritten do"&'ent$, ill&$tration$ in arti$ti" $o&r"e$, and extant exa'ple$# Det by the early $ixteenth "ent&ry they had largely di$appeared# CA+AL5D 7EA*O%S 2o&nted on hi$ hor$e, the f&lly ar'ored :night (a$ a for'idable opponent and a fighting for"e to be re":oned (ith# =i$ pri'ary ta$: (a$ to brea: &p the ene'yG$ frontline troop$, :illing and "a&$ing pani" and di$order to the extent that they (o&ld ta:e fright and flee# 2o$t had, by thi$ ti'e, di$"arded the $hield$ of the earlier "ent&rie$, and they fo&ght (ith the "o&"hed lan"e for the initial "harge# On"e the lan"e had done it$ ta$:, it (a$ di$"arded and the :night fo&ght at "lo$e )&arter$ (ith $(ord, (ar ha''er, and axe# Lan"e$ A$ thro&gho&t the 2iddle Age$, the late 'edieval lan"e (a$ &$&ally 'ade fro' a$h, altho&gh other (ood$ (ere &$ed (here and (hen ne"e$$ary, and fitted (ith a $lender, pointed iron head# A di$" of iron, the va'plate, (a$ atta"hed to the rear a$ a hand!g&ard, and it (a$ gripped bet(een the ar' and the body, "o&"hed# S(ord$ >he $(ord began to "hange in the later thirteenth "ent&ry fro' a "&tting and $la$hing (eapon (ith a relatively (ide blade to a thr&$t!
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0-+

ing and pier"ing (eapon (here the point (a$ &$ed 'ore than the edge$# It (a$ a "hange that no do&bt i$ related to the develop'ent of plate ar'or# D&ring the fir$t half of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, $(ord blade$ (ere 'ade narro(er (ith longer point$ and (ere dia'ond or hexagonal in "ro$$!$e"tion# Over the $a'e period, the grip (a$ lengthened and extended $o that it "o&ld be &$ed in one or t(o hand$# >he $i'ple $traight "ro$$ g&ard of the earlier $(ord al$o "hanged, and by aro&nd the 'iddle of the fifteenth "ent&ry (a$ "&rved to(ard the blade, and the $i'ple (heel!$haped po''el (a$ repla"ed by po''el$ of triang&lar, "oni"al, or oval $hape# %ational "hara"teri$ti"$ al$o e'erged d&ring thi$ period, and $(ord$ of different de$ign$ developed in vario&$ area$ of E&rope# An extra ring at the ba$e of the blade (a$ $o'eti'e$ added thro&gh (hi"h the forefinger (a$ in$erted, and fro' the early fifteenth "ent&ry an iron ring (a$ al$o added to one )&illon a$ extra prote"tion# Bro' abo&t -</0, a $e"ond ring (a$ added to the other )&illon, and by the end of the "ent&ry pie"e$ of iron, "alled g&ard$, (ere added fro' the )&illon$ to the po''el to provide added prote"tion for the hand# Over ti'e there (a$ a tenden"y for the hilt to be"o'e 'ore elaborate and additional g&ard$ (ere added, (hi"h in $o'e "a$e$ al'o$t en"lo$ed the hand in a "age of iron bar$# =o(ever, thi$ develop'ent (a$ neither $traightfor(ard nor reg&lar, and 'any early feat&re$, $&"h a$ $traight )&illon$, "ontin&ed to be &$ed on $o'e type$ of $(ord$# D&ring the fifteenth "ent&ry, there (a$ a tenden"y for $(ord$ to be 'ade lighter, and at the end of the "ent&ry, they had be"o'e an e$$ential part of everyday dre$$# A$ a re$&lt, $(ord$ be"a'e 'ore highly de"orated and ornate, leading event&ally to the develop'ent of the rapier in the $ixteenth "ent&ry, the "ivilian $(ord par ex"ellen"e#

>raining in the &$e of $(ord$ (a$ of "o&r$e very i'portant, and $(ord$'an$hip (a$ ta&ght in a 'a$ter4p&pil relation$hip# Bro' the early fo&rteenth "ent&ry, the te"hni)&e$ of fighting (ith the $(ord $tarted to be (ritten do(n and ill&$trated, and there are 'an&$"ript$ $ho(ing the vario&$ $tarting po$ition$, "alled (ard$, and $e)&en"e$ of 'ove'ent$ that (ere to be learned# Altho&gh fe( exa'ple$ fro' the fifteenth "ent&ry $&rvive, $&"h a$ the 'ect)uc% of =an$ >alhof!fer, (ritten in -<0 , fen"ing boo:$ proliferated after the -/;0$ (hen fen"ing be"a'e part of every gentle'anG$ ed&"ation# D&ring the early $ixteenth "ent&ry, a n&'ber of $"hool$ al$o began to be e$tabli$hed thro&gho&t the "apital$ of E&rope and a n&'ber of different te"hni)&e$ developed#
0-) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

Dagger$ >ogether (ith the $(ord (orn on the left hip, 'o$t $oldier$ (o&ld al$o "arry a dagger, either $&$pended fro' hi$ right $ide, hanging do(n verti"ally at the front, or "arried al'o$t horiFontally a"ro$$ the ba":# 7hen (orn at the front, it (o&ld nor'ally be dra(n (ith the blade belo( the hand in the $tabbing grip, and if (orn at the ba": it "o&ld be gra$ped $o that the blade (a$ either above or belo( the hand# Beginning in -;00 a n&'ber of different type$ of dagger$ appeared a"ro$$ E&rope# >he )&illon dagger probably fir$t developed aro&nd the 'iddle of the thirteenth "ent&ry# >he earlier ver$ion$ of the$e dagger$ have )&illon$ and po''el$ that "&rve a(ay fro' the grip, :no(n a$ antennae!po''el$, or po''el$ in a "re$"ent or ring for'# Later )&illon dagger$ are "hara"teriFed by g&ard$ that re$e'ble )&illon$ of $(ord$, and indeed 'o$t often loo: li:e $'aller ver$ion$ of "onte'porary $(ord$# *o''el$ "o&ld be of al'o$t any for' ! di$"$, (heel$, o"tagonal, or $pheri"al po''el$ a'ong other$# >he grip "o&ld be of one or t(o pie"e$ and (a$ &$&ally (rapped in leather and (ire# >he )&illon$ often "&rve for(ard to(ard the blade, (hi"h i$ &$&ally $hort and "o&ld be do&ble edged, of flattened dia'ond $e"tion, or $ingle edged and triang&lar in $hape# In both, the blade taper$ fro' the hilt to the point# S&rviving $"abbard$ are rare, e$pe"ially early one$, b&t (ere probably of leather (ith a 'etal throat and "hape# ?$&ally a :nightly (eapon, they (ere (orn on the right $ide hanging fro' the $(ord belt on a "ord or thong# >he rondel dagger (a$ introd&"ed aro&nd -;00 and (a$ in (ide$pread &$e all over 7e$tern E&rope fro' the 'iddle of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry# 2o$t often $lender and elegant in for', li:e the )&il!lon dagger, it too (a$ a :nightly (eapon# It gained it$ na'e fro' the di$"$ of (ood or 'etal at either end of the grip# >he blade (a$ relatively $hort, do&ble edged, and of flattened dia'ond $e"tion, and tapered fro' the hilt to the point# Later on, the blade$ be"a'e longer, &p to abo&t -/ or -0 in"he$ 6;91<0 "enti'eter$8, and $ingle!edged blade$ be"a'e 'ore "o''on# S"abbard$ (ere &$&ally K&$t $i'ple leather $heath$, often (ith de"orative tooling# *erhap$ the 'o$t "o''on and (idely &$ed for' of dagger (a$ the ba$elard, (hi"h probably originated in Ba$el, S(itFerland, in the late thirteenth or early fo&rteenth "ent&ry, and )&i":ly $pread all over E&rope# Ba$elard$ (ere very "o''on fro' -;/0 &ntil the late fifteenth "ent&ry# An anony'o&$ Engli$h (riter of the early fifteenth "ent&ry de"lared that3
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0-(

T%ere is no man wort% a leke $e %e sturd# )e %e meke $ut %e )ear a ba$ilard 6C# B# La:ing, A +ecord of ,uropean Armour and Arms T%roug% Seven Centuries / vol$# RLondon, -.201 -.22S, III398# Altho&gh d&ring the fo&rteenth "ent&ry ba$elard$ (ere parti"&larly a :nightly (eapon, e$pe"ially in $o&thern Cer'any and Italy, in the fifteenth "ent&ry they be"a'e 'ore of a "ivilian (eapon# >hey (ere "o''only (orn on the right hip, $&$pended at the front or fro' a hanger atta"hed to the $(ord belt# >he hilt$ have a very "hara"teri$ti" for' (ith "ro$$ pie"e$ at both the g&ard and po''el end$ giving it the $hape of an I=J on it$ $ide or a "apital II#J >he "ro$$ pie"e$ "an be of e)&al length and both "an be )&ite $'all, b&t the typi"al ba$elard ha$ a "ro$$ pie"e at the g&ard $lightly longer than that at the po''el# >he grip i$ &$&ally 'ade of t(o pie"e$ of (ood, ivory, horn, or bone, riveted thro&gh the tang, often (ith 'any rivet$# Altho&gh early exa'ple$ have $ingle!edged blade$, they are 'o$t "o''only of do&ble!edged or flattened dia'ond for'# S"abbard$, again rare $&rvival$, (ere 'ade fro' leather (ith 'etal 'o&nt$ at the throat, 'iddle, and "hape# L&x&ry ver$ion$ of ba$elard$ (ere al$o 'ade, and a fe( have $&rvived in (hi"h the $"abbard i$ 'ade fro' "arved ivory or bone# So'e ba$elard$ have elaborately "arved hilt$ of box(ood, bone, or ivory and another type ha$ "&rved "ro$$ pie"e$ $hod (ith 'etal# An intrig&ing type of dagger (a$ developed abo&t -;00 in (hi"h the hilt (a$ 'ade fro' (ood (ith no 'etal and $haped (ith t(o pro'inen"e$ at the g&ard and a b&lbo&$ :nob at the top# >he "onte'porary na'e (a$ ballo": dagger, obvio&$ly derived fro' the $hape of the g&ard, b&t 'ore pr&di$h hi$torian$ in the nineteenth "ent&ry "alled the' :idney dagger$, even tho&gh $o'e are re'ar:ably phallifor' in $hape# >he grip$ of

ballo": dagger$ that $&rvive are 'ade in one pie"e and, altho&gh 'o$t are 'ade fro' plain (ood, ivory, or horn, later 'etal exa'ple$ are :no(n# Early exa'ple$ have a $ingle!edged blade of triang&lar "ro$$!$e"tion tapering evenly fro' the hilt to the point, b&t fro' abo&t -<00, do&ble!edged ver$ion$ appear# S"abbard$ (ere &$&ally 'ade of leather (ith no 'etal 'o&nt$# >he ballo": dagger (a$ (orn on the left hip, hanging verti"ally at the front or $o'eti'e$ horiFontally at the ba":# >he eared dagger, "hara"teriFed by t(o di$"$ at the po''el rather li:e ear$, developed in Spain at the end of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry
0-MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

and $pread to Italy, Bran"e, Cer'any, and England in the fifteenth# In general, eared dagger$ are elegant and &$&ally highly de"orated (ith ena'el, in"i$ed, or "olored de"oration to a grip of bone or ivory, together (ith et"hing, da'a$"ening in gold or $ilver, niello (or:, and, in the $ixteenth "ent&ry, "a$t 'edallion$# >he g&ard i$ &$&ally of di$" for', larger early on, and red&"ing in $iFe &ntil it al'o$t di$appear$# >he blade i$ broad and do&ble edged, often (ith a broad ri!"a$$o# >he final di$tin"t type of dagger, the $o!"alled "in)&edea 6literally Ifive finger$J8, (a$ a $pe"ialty of Italy# >he very broad flat blade, (hi"h taper$ evenly fro' the hilt to the point, ha$ either a $trong 'edial ridge or i$ fl&ted# >he fl&te$ are al'o$t al(ay$ arranged in three layer$ r&nning (ith the axi$ of the blade, t(o at the tip, three i''ediately behind tho$e, and fo&r near the hilt# >he hilt "an be of t(o for'$, either (ith a (heel po''el, a grip li:e a $(ord, and )&il!lon$ "&rved to(ard the blade or, 'ore "o''only, it had an ar"hed po''el (ith $trongly do(n!"&rving )&illon$ of re"tang&lar "ro$$!$e"tion# Cin)&edea$ "an be very long and indi$ting&i$hable fro' a $(ord, or $hort and dagger!li:e# S"abbard$ (ere &$&ally 'ade fro' cuir )oulli, $haped to fit the blade, and often "overed in tooled de"oration# Of "o&r$e, thro&gho&t the late 2iddle Age$ a (ide range of :nive$ and pea$ant dagger$ of 'any different for'$ (ere al$o in &$e# 2a"e$, 7ar =a''er$, and *ollaxe$ 7hile $(ord$ (ere pri'arily &$ed for $la$hing and thr&$ting, 'o&nted "avalry al$o &$ed a n&'ber of other "lo$e!range (eapon$, altho&gh none a$ "o''on a$ the $(ord# >he 'a"e, (hi"h had been &$ed $in"e the t(elfth "ent&ry, (a$ no( often 'ade entirely of iron, a$ oppo$ed to earlier ver$ion$ that "on$i$ted of a "opper alloy or iron head 'o&nted on a (ooden $haft# It (a$ therefore heavier and 'ore "apable of infli"ting greater da'age, and (a$ e$pe"ially effe"tive again$t 'ore heavily ar'ored foe$# >he 'a"e $till intere$ted 'any (ho de$"ribed (arfare in the late 2iddle Age$, a$ $een, for exa'ple, in the follo(ing $tate'ent of Ceoffrey Cha&"er3 I7ith 'ighty 'a"e$ the bone$ they to!bre$t#J Short (ar ha''er$ "on$i$ting of a re"tang&lar head, often (ith a ba":(ard protr&ding $pi:e, (ere very effe"tive fro' hor$eba": and (ere "o''on fro' the 'id!thirteenth "ent&ry, (hen one i$ $ho(n in the hand of an anony'o&$ Engli$h :nightG$ effigy in 2alvern *riory Ch&r"h# A $&rviving (ar ha''er,
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0-.

dating fro' aro&nd -</0, in the 7alla"e Colle"tion in London, ha$ a ha''er head that i$ $)&are in $hape, altho&gh t&rned at a </ degree angle to pre$ent a dia'ond!$haped frontH the pi": i$ $hort, $lightly "&rved, and e)&al in length to the head# >he axe, (hi"h earlier had, for the 'o$t part, been &$ed pri'arily by the infantry and had fallen into di$&$e, again be"a'e pop&lar and (a$ &$ed for fighting on foot, a$ (ell a$ by "avalry and in foot to&rna'ent$# Bitted (ith a long t(o!handed $haft, they (ere al$o &$&ally f&rni$hed (ith a ba":(ard!fa"ing $hort $pi:e ! a (eapon "alled a pollaxe# InK&rie$, "a&$ing death, fro' the $pi:e$ of both (ar ha''er$ and pollaxe$ have been identified in the $:&ll$ re"overed fro' the grave$ of $oldier$ :illed at the battle$ of +i$by in -;0- and >o(!ton in -<0-#

I%BA%>5D 7EA*O%S
Late 'edieval infantry (ere ar'ed (ith a variety of (eapon$# Bor per$onal prote"tion, it (a$ "o''on to "arry a $(ord or a dagger and &$&ally both# =o(ever, the infantry $oldierG$ 'ain (eapon in thi$ period (a$ the $taff (eapon# S(ord$ and Dagger$ S(ord$ and dagger$ &$ed by infantry (ere $i'ilar to tho$e &$ed by the "avalry, b&t they (ere &$&ally $i'pler and therefore "heaper to o(n# Staff 7eapon$ Staff (eapon$, &$ed both by foot and e)&e$trian $oldier$, are of great anti)&ity, b&t the period fro' -;00 (a$ (hen they e$pe"ially "a'e into their o(n a$ an infantry (eapon# In -;02, at the Battle of Co&r!trai, the

Ble'i$h to(n$'en fro' Br&ge$, Dpre$, and Co&rtrai, ar'ed, in the 'ain, (ith $taff (eapon$ ro&ted a $&perior and $&ppo$edly better!ar'ed Bren"h ar'y# >he rea"tion to thi$ vi"tory, e$$entially by the lo(er and 'iddle "la$$e$, and the large n&'ber$ of Bren"h "avalry dead, (ere noted thro&gho&t E&rope and "a&$ed &proar a'ong the noble$, :night$, and the &pper "la$$e$ of $o"iety# >he
0., MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

(eapon, "alled a goedendag 6literally Igood 'orningJ or Igood dayJ8, (hi"h "a&$ed $&"h a deva$tating and &nexpe"ted vi"tory, far fro' being $ophi$ti"ated or innovative, (a$ ba$i"ally a heavy!headed "l&b to (hi"h iron $pi:e$ (ere atta"hed# >heir &$e at Co&rtrai and, e)&ally i'portant, the di$"ipline of the Ble'i$h for"e$, 'ar: the ri$e of the infantry ar'ed (ith $taff (eapon$ a$ a potent for"e on the battlefield$ of E&rope# >hi$ vi"tory (a$ follo(ed by that of the S(i$$ &$ing $taff (eapon$ at the battle of 2orgarten again$t the A&$trian$ in -;-/# Bro' thi$ ti'e on $taff (eapon$ played an in"rea$ingly i'portant part on the battlefield ! blo":$ of di$"iplined, (ell!trained, and (ell!drilled infantry, all ar'ed (ith $i'ilar (eapon$, (ere "o''on do(n to the $eventeenth "ent&ry# >he traditional infantry (eapon, the $pear or long $pear a$ it be"a'e :no(n in the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, (a$ aro&nd -/ to -9 feet long 6/ to 0 'eter$8 and (a$ e$$entially a defen$ive (eapon# It (a$ &$ed to extend the rea"h of the foot $oldier in a thr&$ting 'otion that, (hen (ell dire"ted, (a$ effe"tive again$t other infantry and 'o&nted troop$, e$pe"ially (hen &$ed in "lo$ely ordered for'ation$# By the beginning of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, the $pear had been Koined, a$ already de$"ribed, by other for'$ of $taff (eapon$, in parti"&lar the goedendag. =o(ever, the in"rea$e in the &$e of ar'or, e$pe"ially the develop'ent of the f&ll!plate harne$$, led to the need for an infantry (eapon that (a$ "apable of both thr&$ting and "&tting a"tion$# E$$entially, the ability of plate ar'or to re$i$t penetration, "o&pled (ith it$ $'ooth, ro&nded $&rfa"e$, (hi"h tended to defle"t blo($, 'eant that the thr&$ting $pear (a$ le$$ effe"tive# Bro' the very end of the thirteenth "ent&ry, there developed a ne( type of $taff (eapon, the halberd, (hi"h "o'bined the $pear (ith the long, t(o! handed axe# At fir$t it "on$i$ted of a fairly broad blade (ith a $pi:e proKe"ting fro' the top $e"&red to the end of a long pole ! aro&nd 0 feet 62 'eter$8 in length# It (a$ &$ed in a $i'ilar (ay to the $pear a$ a thr&$ting (eapon, b&t it "o&ld al$o be $(&ng over the head and bro&ght do(n (ith "on$iderable for"e# D&ring the fifteenth "ent&ry, an extra $pi:e (a$ added to the axe portion of the head 'a:ing it an even 'ore for'idable (eapon# >he halberd i$ 'o$t "lo$ely a$$o"iated (ith the S(i$$ ar'ie$ of the later thirteenth and, e$pe"ially, the fo&rteenth and fifteenth "ent&rie$# >he S(i$$ had been granted right$ of freedo', (hi"h "arried (ith the' the right to bear ar'$, and thi$ re$&lted in a pop&lation that "arried (eapon$ a$ a nor' of everyday life# >hi$ fa'iliarity (ith ar'$, e$pe"ially $taff (eapon$, re$&lted in the "reation of a vol&n!
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0.0

tary, part!ti'e ar'y that (a$ both (ell di$"iplined and $:illed# And, in fa"t, S(i$$ 'er"enarie$ gained a "on$iderable rep&tation all over E&rope d&ring the fifteenth and early $ixteenth "ent&rie$ and (ere '&"h $o&ght after by 'ilitary leader$ and "o''ander$# By the end of the fifteenth "ent&ry, a very "hara"teri$ti" S(i$$ halberd had developed, altho&gh it i$ i'portant to note that it (a$ not K&$t the (eapon that 'ade the S(i$$ $&"h a for'idable for"e b&t di$"ipline and the ability to fight a$ a &nit# >he halberd and the goedendag (ere Koined by a variety of other $taff (eapon$ over thi$ period, $o'e very "hara"teri$ti" of parti"&lar area$ and $o'e 'ore (idely di$trib&ted aro&nd E&rope# >he glaive, a large "&tting and thr&$ting (eapon, had a long blade (ith a "onvex front edge and a $traight ba":# Altho&gh it (a$ never very "o''on, it probably fir$t appeared in E&rope d&ring the thirteenth "ent&ry and (a$ &$ed thro&gho&t the end of the 2iddle Age$# Later, in the $ixteenth "ent&ry, it "a'e to be &$ed very '&"h a$ a "ere'onial (eapon "arried by offi"ial g&ard$ and in pro"e$$ion$# >he bill (a$ far 'ore "o''only &$ed thro&gho&t E&rope in the later 'edieval period# Altho&gh there (ere "on$iderable variation$ in it$ for', it generally "on$i$ted of a for(ard!fa"ing hoo: (ith one or 'ore $pi:e$ proKe"ting fro' the rear and4or front# Si'pler bill$ (ere very $i'ilar to halberd$ and (ere probably &$ed in '&"h the $a'e (ay# Other, 'ore "o'plex type$ (ere developed# Bor exa'ple, the 7el$h bill had a long $lender "&rved blade and a right!angle $pi:e, and the roncone developed in Italy, had a long $traight blade (ith a $'aller "&rved hoo: and both top and ba":(ard!fa"ing $pi:e$# Binally, the parti$an, a later type of $taff (eapon &$ed thro&gho&t E&rope fro' abo&t -/00, (a$ ba$i"ally a long, flat blade tapering to a point, rather li:e an elongated $pear# 2ISSILE 7EA*O%S Sling$ Sling$ (ere $till being &$ed on the battlefield d&ring the late 2iddle Age$, altho&gh they (ere not "o''on nor n&'ero&$# Altho&gh $tone$ re'ained the 'ain a''&nition, they (ere al$o &$ed to thro( firepot$ and other in"endiarie$# >he$e (ere fitted (ith a f&$e that "o&ld be lit before thro(ing and, on $hattering, the "ontent$ ignited, $preading fire and "onf&$ion#

0.1

MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

Cro$$bo($ >he "ro$$bo(, altho&gh ba$i"ally the $a'e (eapon a$ in the pre"eding "ent&rie$, be"a'e in"rea$ingly po(erf&l (ith the introd&"tion of the $teel bo(# >hi$ needed 'ore for"e to dra( the $tring ba": to the firing po$ition and therefore it (a$ a 'ore potent (eapon than it$ "o'po$ite bo( "o&nterpart ! i'parting a greater velo"ity to the bolt or )&arrel, and th&$ a greater range, and 'a:ing it "apable of $hooting a heavier 'i$$ile# E$ti'ate$ a$ to the range vary bet(een <00 and //0 yard$ 6; 0 and /00 'eter$8# >o dra( the $tring ba":, $pe"ial devi"e$ (ere re)&ired# >he crane<uin (or:ed on the ra":!and!pinion prin"iple, and the (indla$$ &$ed a $y$te' of p&lley$ to in"rea$e the po(er of the $hooter and enable hi' to p&ll the $tring ba": to the firing po$ition# Altho&gh both $lo(ed the rate of fire of the "ro$$bo(, the "ro$$bo( (a$ $till &$ed exten$ively on the battlefield and at $iege$# >he "ro$$bo( be"a'e very '&"h a $pe"ialty of $oldier$ fro' "ertain area$, notably fro' Cenoa ! altho&gh it i$ &n"lear (hether ICenoe$e "ro$$bo('enJ 'entioned in late 'edieval $o&r"e$ referred to $oldier$ fro' Cenoa alone or (a$ K&$t a "onvenient (ay to refer to 'er"enary "ro$$bo('en# Cenoe$e "ro$$bo('en (ere e$pe"ially val&ed and fre)&ently e'ployed a$ 'er"enarie$ by leader$ fro' all over E&rope# Cro$$bo($ "ontin&ed to be &$ed a$ a (eapon thro&gho&t the fifteenth "ent&ry, altho&gh de"lining in pop&larity# By the early de"ade$ of the $ixteenth "ent&ry, they had be"a'e al'o$t ex"l&$ively a h&nting (eapon# Longbo($ Before be"o'ing fa'o&$ a$ the Engli$h (eapon that $ignifi"antly infl&en"ed the event$ of the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar, the longbo( (a$ a $pe"ialty of the 7el$h and tho$e (ho lived on the 2ar"he$ of England# B&lly the height of an average 'an, the$e for'idable (eapon$ too: great $:ill and $trength to dra( and $hoot# Eviden"e fro' the $:eleton$ of ar"her$ of the fifteenth and $ixteenth "ent&rie$ $ho( di$tin"t "hange$ to the bone $tr&"t&re that long!ter' pra"ti"e and $hooting of bo($ bro&ght abo&t# A&$t ho( po(erf&l the$e bo($ (ere i$ i'po$$ible to a$"ertain, b&t eviden"e fro' the longbo($ fo&nd on the (re": of the Engli$h $hip Mar# +ose (hi"h $an: in -/</, indi"ate$ that their dra( (eight, that i$, the for"e needed to p&ll the $tring ba": to the firing po$ition, (a$ in the order of --0 po&nd$ 6/0
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0.'

:ilogra'$8# 7hether all longbo($ (ere of $i'ilar (eight "annot be :no(n, ho(ever, and it i$ li:ely that longbo( dra( (eight$ 'ight have varied ba$ed on the ability and experien"e of the re$pe"tive ar"her# It i$ al$o e$ti'ated that a f&lly trained longbo('an "o&ld probably $hoot a$ 'any a$ -01-2 arro($ per 'in&te# =o(ever, (hether thi$ rate of fire (a$ ever a"hieved, or, 'ore i'portantly, ever re)&ired, i$ open to )&e$tion# Biring a$ and (hen the ar"her had a $&itable and a"hievable target (a$ probably 'ore nor'al# %o do&bt be"a&$e of it$ in"rea$ed &$e by the 'iddle of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry there (ere o""a$ional $hortage$ of (eapon$ and proKe"tile$# In -;/0 the Bla": *rin"e ordered the arre$t and for"ed labor of all flet"her$ in Che$hire &ntil hi$ $&pply of arro($ "o&ld be repleni$hed# And bet(een -;00 and -;9- the $&pply of bo($ and arro($ in England had de"lined fro' a total of --,000 bo($ and 2;,000 $heave$ of arro($ ! ea"h $heaf holding 2< arro($ ! to no bo($ and only -,000 $heave$ of arro($# By the 'iddle of the fifteenth "ent&ry, it (a$ not a $hortage of ar'$ b&t a $hortage of $:illed ar"her$ that be"a'e the proble'# In -</0 Ed(ard I+ re)&e$ted 20,000 ar"her$ to be rai$ed, b&t had to $ettle for fe(er than -;,000, and in -</0 he de"reed that playing football or other $port$ and a'&$e'ent$ by all 'en bet(een the age$ of -2 and 00 be pro$"ribed and ar"hery pra"ti"e $&b$tit&ted in it$ $tead# B&t nothing "o&ld halt the de"line of longbo( ar"hery in England and by the early $ixteenth "ent&ry the (eapon had largely been repla"ed by g&npo(der (eapon$# ?nli:e "o'po$ite bo($, the longbo( (a$ 'ade of a $ingle pie"e of (ood, &$&ally ye(, altho&gh other $pe"ie$, a$h e$pe"ially, (ere $o'eti'e$ &$ed# D&ring the reign of Ed(ard II 6-;0 1-;2 8, the longbo( (a$ to be 'ade of ye(, either i'ported fro' Spain or gro(n in England, be an average 2 ell$ in length, < th&'b$ thi": in the 'iddle, and fire an arro( a yard long# By a $:illf&l "o'bination of the $ap(ood, (hi"h i$ $trong in ten$ion, and heart(ood, (hi"h i$ "apable of (ith$tanding "o'pre$$ion (itho&t lo$ing flexibility or $trength, the bo( 'a:er (a$ able to 'a:e a bo( that (a$ both po(erf&l and $trong# Bo($tring$ (ere 'ade fro' $trand$ of linen and obvio&$ly ea$ily bro:en, a$ inventorie$ fre)&ently li$t extra $&pplie$ per bo(# >he bo($ re"overed fro' the (re": of the Mar# +ose al$o $ho( that the end$ of the bo(, the no":$ (ere $o'eti'e$ reinfor"ed (ith bone or horn# Arro($ (ere &$&ally 'ade fro' a$h, b&t a variety of other (ood$ "o&ld al$o be &$ed a$ available# >he arro(head (a$ 'ade fro' iron in a large variety of $hape$ ! pre$&'ably $&iting their &$e, altho&gh
0./ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

exa"tly (hat p&rpo$e ea"h $hape (a$ &$ed for i$ not al(ay$ "lear and ha$ been "lo$ely di$"&$$ed and debated in re"ent year$# Larger (inged arro(head$ (ere probably &$ed for h&nting# >he bod:in head, a long thin head, ha$ often been tho&ght to be ar'or pier"ing, b&t re"ent experi'ental (or: ha$ $ho(n that it "annot pier"e ar'or b&t in$tead "&rl$ &p on i'pa"t# >he 'ore li:ely "andidate for the ar'or!pier"ing arro(head i$ a $'all (inged head that ha$ been $ho(n by analy$i$ often to have $teel edge$ and tip# >hi$ $'all, highly $ophi$ti"ated de$ign (o&ld "ertainly be f&lly "apable of pier"ing ar'or# It i$ al$o (orth noting that the$e arro(head$ "o&ld be 'ade in the h&ndred$ of tho&$and$ in a relatively $hort ti'e# Beather$, the flet"hing, or flight, (ere atta"hed (ith gl&e to the rear of the arro( to $tabiliFe it in flight# >here i$ $o'e eviden"e to $ho( that the$e (ere $o'eti'e$ p&t on at an angle $o that the arro( (o&ld rotate abo&t it$ long axi$ in flight, giving the arro( greater a""&ra"y# >he ar"her &$&ally (ore a leather bra"er to prote"t the in$ide of the left ar' fro' the $tring a$ the arro( (a$ loo$ed and al$o had a )&iver in (hi"h to :eep hi$ $&pply of arro($# 7hen in po$ition in the battle line, ar"her$ &$&ally pla"ed their fre$h arro($ either point do(n in the gro&nd in front of the' or el$e $t&": thro&gh their belt ! both ea$y (ay$ to )&i":ly gra$p the next arro(# >he Engli$h 'ade a lot of &$e of longbo('en, e$pe"ially again$t Bran"e in the (ar$ that 'ade &p the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar# Of note (a$ the (ay the Engli$h developed the &$e of ar"her$ in their battle ta"ti"$ over that period and parti"&larly at the battle$ of CrN"y 6-;<08, *oitier$ 6-;/08, and Agin"o&rt 6-<-/8# In ea"h the &$e of the ar"her$ (a$ "riti"al to the Engli$h $&""e$$, and their ta"ti"al &$e ha$ been the $&bKe"t of 'any long and detailed $t&die$ and debate$# E$$entially, the Engli$h &$ed a "o'bination of ar"her$ on the (ing$ of a $olid "entral for'ation of non!ar"her infantry, the 'en!at!ar'$# >raditionally, the arro( I$tor'J &nlea$hed by the Engli$h ar"her$ i$ $een a$ the pri'ary "a&$e of the defeat of the Bren"h for"e$ in the$e and other battle$# B&t thi$ 'ay be far too $i'pli$ti" an interpretation# It i$ diffi"&lt to $ee ho( arro($ fired at long range "o&ld have i'peded the advan"ing ene'y ! prote"ted by ar'or and "harged &p (ith adrenalin for the atta":# 7hat really "o&nted (a$ a "o'bination of the terrain over (hi"h the battle (a$ fo&ght and the fa"t that the Engli$h for"e$ (ere able to $tand in a rea$onably "oherent for'ation (itho&t fleeing# >he terrain over (hi"h the battle$ (ere fo&ght (a$ $&"h that, a$ the Bren"h advan"ed, they (ere f&nneled into an ever! $'aller front, "a&$ing $evere "r&$hing (ithin their ran:$# =arang&ed by the ar"her$, their "harge finally "a'e to a halt
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0.+

at the Engli$h line$ (here, their "harge bro:en &p and di$$ipated, they (ere no 'at"h for the Engli$h 'en!at! ar'$# In the$e parti"&lar battle$, perhap$ 'ore $o at CrN"y than any(here el$e, "redit '&$t al$o be given to the $teadfa$tne$$ of the Engli$h (ho did not t&rn and fly (hen "onfronted by the advan"ing ene'y# It (a$ thi$ 'ore than anything el$e that led to $&""e$$ in 'edieval battle$# Di$r&pting the ene'y line$, (hether atta":er or defender, and "a&$ing pani", alar', and "onf&$ion, (hi"h re$&lted in ro&t, led al'o$t inevitably to tri&'ph# SIECE 7EA*O%S %on!g&npo(der 7eapon$ D&ring the later 2iddle Age$, the gain and lo$$ of territory re'ained of "on$iderable i'portan"e, and in thi$ the $iege (a$ the 'o$t fre)&ently follo(ed $trategy# Indeed, de$pite the fa'e of CrN"y, *oitier$, and Agin"o&rt, the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar "an be $een a$ a (ar of $iege$ rather than battle$# Defending or atta":ing "a$tle$, to(n$, and fortre$$e$ (a$ the pri'ary fo"&$ of 'o$t of the (arfare that too: pla"e# Ideally, a $iege (o&ld "on$i$t of a "o'plete en"ir"le'ent of the ene'y $tronghold, the prevention of any "han"e of re$&pply, the battering do(n of the (all$ in a $trategi" pla"e, follo(ed by it$ overr&n# Of "o&r$e, in reality, atta":er$ rarely had eno&gh troop$ to "o'plete an en"ir"ling po$ition, (all$ "o&ld re$i$t the heavie$t battering, and defender$ p&t &p a $pirited and $to&t defen$e# >he &$&al 'ethod of brea:ing do(n the (all$ of to(n$, "a$tle$, and fortifi"ation$ "ontin&ed to be traditional artillery, pri'arily the "o&nter(eight treb&"het, or 'ining and often, of "o&r$e, both together# Even the ri$e of g&npo(der artillery, e$pe"ially in the fifteenth "ent&ry, (hen large g&n$ (ere being 'ade in $o'e n&'ber$, did not "o'pletely o&$t the treb&"het fro' $iege$ &ntil the later de"ade$ of the fifteenth "ent&ry# C&npo(der 7eapon$ >he 'aKor develop'ent in ar'$ and ar'or of the period (a$ the di$"overy and &$e of g&npo(der and g&npo(der artillery# Altho&gh g&npo(der it$elf i$ no( :no(n to have been a Chine$e invention, it i$ "lear that the &$e of fire ha$ al(ay$ been a 'aKor (eapon to be
0.) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

deployed (herever and (henever po$$ible, and in (hatever po$$ible g&i$e# ?nfort&nately, the 'aterial$ that

'a:e &p all in"endiary devi"e$, in"l&ding g&npo(der, )&i":ly vani$h &pon detonation and deteriorate in long!ter' $torage, 'eaning that (e have little or no eviden"e of it$ hi$tori"al &$e# >he vital ingredient in g&npo(der i$ $altpeter 6pota$$i&' nitrate8, no( :no(n to have been fir$t di$"overed in China aro&nd the year /00 by al"he'i$t$ $ear"hing for the elixir of life# It$ fir$t (arli:e &$e, in the tenth "ent&ry, (a$ a$ part of an infla''able 'ixt&re that, on"e alight, (a$ diffi"&lt, tho&gh not i'po$$ible a$ 'any "onte'porary $o&r"e$ "lai', to exting&i$h# By the -0<0$, it had been di$"overed that 'ixing $altpeter (ith $&lf&r and "har"oal prod&"ed an explo$ive 'aterial# Over the next t(o to three "ent&rie$ the Chine$e developed a be(ildering array of handheld fire devi"e$, fire lan"e$, and bo'b$, and by the t(elfth "ent&ry had developed the fir$t g&n$, tho&gh exa"tly (hen i$ $till di$p&ted# Certainly by the 'iddle of the thirteenth "ent&ry g&npo(der (a$ being &$ed to fire proKe"tile$ at their ene'ie$# A&$t ho( the $e"ret$ of g&npo(der traveled (e$t(ard to E&rope (ill probably never be f&lly :no(n, altho&gh it $ee'$ li:ely that there (a$ not K&$t one ro&te b&t $everal ! via the an"ient trading ro&te :no(n a$ the Sil: 5oad, by traveler$ fro' the 7e$t, by the 2ongol$, or by people$ of the 5&$$ian land$# By (hatever 'ean$, the $e"ret of g&npo(der (a$ :no(n in E&rope by the 'id!thirteenth "ent&ry (hen (riter$ li:e 5oger Ba"on and Albert&$ 2agn&$ de$"ribed it$ effe"t$# =o(ever, it (a$ not &ntil the early de"ade$ of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry that it i$ "ertain that g&n$ had finally arrived# In -;201-;2 there i$ not only the fir$t do"&'entary eviden"e, b&t the fir$t ill&$tration$ of g&n$# >he for'er refer$ to g&n$ 'ade in Bloren"e, (hile the latter i$ "ontained (ithin t(o 'an&$"ript$ 'ade in England and ill&'inated by the $a'e arti$t# Bor the next fifty year$, referen"e$ to g&n$ and their a''&nition are fre)&ent thro&gho&t 'o$t of 7e$tern E&rope, fro' England to Italy and fro' Spain to northern Cer'any, b&t it i$ "lear that their &$e (a$ at a very lo( level ! the g&n$ the'$elve$ (ere $'all and $&pplie$ of $altpeter (ere li'ited and expen$ive# >he t(o (ere inextri"ably lin:ed, of "o&r$e# A&$t (here 7e$tern E&rope obtained it$ $altpeter at thi$ period i$ not :no(n, altho&gh it$ "onte'porary na'e, IChine$e $no(,J (o&ld $&gge$t that it (a$ being i'ported fro' the Ea$t ! the "o$t of tran$port 'a:ing it a high!"o$t l&x&ry prod&"t that only :ing$ and prin"e$ "o&ld afford# Bro' the late fo&rteenth "ent&ry, referen"e$ to larger "annon and $altpeter Iplantation$J in 7e$tern E&rope appear, the t(o probably going hand in hand ! the in!
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0.(

"rea$ing availability of $altpeter and it$ lo(er "o$t $ti'&lating the prod&"tion of larger and larger "annon# Saltpeter, or pota$$i&' nitrate, i$ prod&"ed by the a"tion of ba"teria on ani'al (a$te prod&"t$, pri'arily fe"e$, altho&gh &rine '&$t al$o be added, (hi"h "onvert a''onia $alt$ to nitrate$# >he earth re'oved fro' $table$ and dove"ote$ (a$ a ri"h $o&r"e of ra( 'aterial for the $alpeter'an# It i$ a $lo( pro"e$$, ta:ing fro' one to t(o year$ to obtain good yield$# *ile$ of the ra( 'aterial, "alled $altpeter bed$, together (ith a $o&r"e of "hal:, (ere 'ade and left to Ifer'ent#J >he $altpeter (a$ extra"ted and p&rified fro' the bed by a pro"e$$ of lea"hing o&t (ith (ater, follo(ed by evaporation and "ry$talliFation# Adding (ood a$he$ to "onvert the "al"i&' nitrate to pota$$i&' nitrate (a$ a "r&"ial part of the pro"e$$# Altho&gh (ell &nder$tood today, the 'a:ing of $altpeter in thi$ (ay (a$ diffi"&lt and ti'e!"on$&'ing, 'a:ing it relatively expen$ive# >he prod&"t (a$ al$o liable to be very i'p&re, and po$$ibly fra&d&lently ad&lterated# >he 'euerwerk)uc%s treati$e$ on g&npo(der and g&n$ prod&"ed fro' the early fifteenth "ent&ry, are f&ll of (ay$, ba$ed on ta$te, feel, and the (ay that it b&rn$, to "he": that $altpeter i$ good# C&npo(der, or bla": po(der a$ it (a$ al$o "alled, (a$ 'ade by 'ixing finely po(dered $altpeter, $&lf&r, and "har"oal# >he 'ixt&re (a$ then po&nded together for $everal ho&r$ in a $ta'p 'ill to en$&re that the ingredient$ (ere thoro&ghly "o'bined# >he rate, that i$ ho( fa$t, at (hi"h g&npo(der b&rn$ and the for"e it prod&"e$ on ignition depend on a n&'ber of interrelated fa"tor$ in"l&ding the "o'po$ition of the po(der, ho( '&"h of ea"h of the ingredient$ i$ pre$ent, the 'an&fa"t&ring pro"e$$, and the phy$i"al $iFe of the grain$ of po(der it$elf# >he a'o&nt of ea"h of the "o'ponent$ ! $altpeter, $&lf&r, and "har"oal ! i$ "riti"al, and the a'o&nt of $altpeter i$ 'o$t i'portant# >he late 'edieval g&nner )&i":ly realiFed that the be$t "o'po$ition (a$ (hen $altpeter 'ade &p abo&t / per"ent of the total# >he )&antity of $&lf&r and "har"oal (a$ le$$ i'portant and a "o'po$ition of / per"ent $altpeter, -/ per"ent "har"oal, and -0 per"ent $&lf&r, often abbreviated today a$ /3-/3-0, (a$ di$"overed to be abo&t the be$t proportion$# =o(ever, &$ing le$$ $altpeter in the 'ixt&re and in"rea$ing the a'o&nt$ of $&lf&r and "har"oal, tho&gh it re$&lted in a po(der (hi"h (a$ not a$ $trong, (a$ $o'eti'e$ &$ed a$ it (a$ $afer and 'eant that g&n$ (ere le$$ li:ely to be da'aged (hen fired# >he a"t&al 'an&fa"t&ring pro"e$$ (a$ al$o i'portant, and it (a$ $oon di$"overed that grinding the ingredient$ together for a long ti'e, &p to $everal ho&r$, 'ade a better po(der# At $o'e $tage,
0.MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

tho&gh K&$t (hen i$ $till di$p&ted, it (a$ di$"overed that if the 'ixt&re (a$ (etted (ith vinegar or al"ohol a$ it (a$ being gro&nd, the re$&ltant po(der proved to be 'ore po(erf&l and 'ore reliable than a 'ixt&re that (a$ dry 'ixed# In addition the $iFe of the grain$ of po(der, "alled "orn$, i$ al$o i'portant# S'all grain$ are very good for $'all "aliber (eapon$ $&"h a$ handg&n$, (hile larger "orn$, fro' abo&t -4<1-42 in"h 601-; 'illi'eter$8, (ere be$t in larger g&n$# All the$e fa"tor$ affe"t the (ay g&npo(der 'ixt&re$ explode and they (ere, largely tho&gh not "o'pletely, &nder$tood by the late 'edieval g&nner# >he $t&dy of early "annon and firear'$ i$ 'ade diffi"&lt a$ there i$ no (ay to &nder$tand K&$t (hat a "onte'porary $"ribe 'eant (hen he &$ed a parti"&lar na'e for a g&n# Altho&gh fro' the $ixteenth "ent&ry on the na'e$ of "annon (ere fairly (ell fixed and (ere di"tated by the $iFe of the bore of the pie"e, in the fo&rteenth and fifteenth "ent&rie$ na'e$ of g&n$ do not appear to follo( any ea$ily identifiable $y$te'# C&n$ of (idely differing $iFe, bore, length, and (eight fre)&ently have the $a'e na'e in original $o&r"e$# >hi$ ha$ 'eant that it i$ diffi"&lt, if not i'po$$ible, to be $&re of (hat i$ being referred to and ha$ hindered an &nder$tanding of the develop'ent of g&n$ in thi$ period# Before abo&t -<20 there are fe( na'e$ for artillery# In the B&rg&ndian $o&r"e$, for exa'ple, (hi"h are parti"&larly ri"h and have been (ell $t&died, only t(o na'e$ for artillery are &$ed, bo'bard and canon. D&ring the fifteenth "ent&ry other na'e$ o""&r, in"l&ding coulover"ine veuglaire and crapaudeau. leading to the a$$&'ption that different type$ of g&n$ (ere developed, probably for different p&rpo$e$# >he bo'bard developed a$ a type of g&n in the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, and d&ring the fir$t half of the fifteenth "ent&ry it be"a'e a 'aKor feat&re of 'o$t $iege train$# Altho&gh large and heavy, (eighing &p to -/ or even 20 ton$, they (ere not, a$ 'o$t 'odern hi$torian$ $tate, diffi"&lt to the point of i'po$$ible to 'ove aro&nd# Late 'edieval ar'ie$ of -0,000120,000 'en (ere not that 'obile the'$elve$, and had a rate of 'ove'ent nor'ally in the region of 91-2 'ile$ 6-2120 :ilo'eter$8 a day, and '&"h the $a'e a$ ha$ been "al"&lated for $o'e of the large$t bo'bard$ in the fifteenth "ent&ry# >he$e large g&n$ (ere 'oved aro&nd on $pe"ially reinfor"ed "art$ "apable of ta:ing their enor'o&$ (eight and on "a'paign (ere e$"orted by pioneer$ (ho en$&red that the road (a$ $&itable and that bridge$ (o&ld ta:e the (eight ! tho&gh a""ident$ o""a$ionally happened# On"e at the $iege they (ere ta:en off their "art$ by 'ean$ of "rane$, "alled in the Bren"h $o&r"e$, gins and (ere then 'o&nted (ithin large reinfor"ed fra'e$ of (ood for firing#
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 0..

5ange$ (ere, on the (hole, very $hort, perhap$ in the region of le$$ than 200 yard$ 6-90 'eter$8# >o prote"t the artillery'en (or:ing the pie"e fro' atta":, (ooden hoarding$ and (all$, prefabri"ated and tran$ported to the $iege or 'ade &p on the $pot, (ere $et &p in front and aro&nd the g&n po$ition# 7hether bo'bard$ 'ade a differen"e to the o&t"o'e of $iege$ i$ hard to a$"ertain, altho&gh their "ontin&al &$e and tran$port to $iege operation$ "ertainly $trongly $&gge$t$ that they (ere $een a$ i'portant, even vital, (eapon$# >he larger g&n$ al(ay$ fired $tone $hot, (hi"h, in 'odern te$t$, ha$ been $ho(n to be very effe"tive again$t al'o$t all defen$e$# =o(ever, eviden"e for their &$e and effe"tivene$$ on the battlefield i$, for the early period at lea$t, "ir"&'$tantial# >hey (ere $to":piled by r&ler$ and :ing$ and ta:en on "a'paign$, b&t (ritten $o&r"e$ neither $tate (hat they (ere "apable of nor (hether they 'ade a differen"e to the o&t"o'e$# Bro' the -<20$, other type$ of g&npo(der (eapon$ are noted in a""o&nt$ and inventorie$# In the B&rg&ndian $o&r"e$, for exa'ple, veuglaires $ee' to have been a $horter (eapon (ith a large bore, (hile crapaudeau. (ere long and thin# >hi$ 'irror$ the develop'ent at the end of the fifteenth "ent&ry and the beginning of the $ixteenth "ent&ry of the t(o "la$$e$ of g&n$ that (ent on to do'inate artillery in the $&b$e)&ent three "ent&rie$, the "annon and "&lverin# >he for'er (a$ a $horter large!"aliber (eapon &$ed for battering (all$ and fortifi"ation$, (hile the latter (a$ &$ed for longer!range fire# Both fired iron $hot and (ere, fro' the beginning of the $ixteenth "ent&ry, "a$t fro' a "opper alloy# Bro' the -<20$, handg&n$ (ere being ordered in large )&antitie$ and '&$t have been &$ed exten$ively on the battlefield, altho&gh again there are fe( (ritten $o&r"e$, and only rare gli'p$e$ of the' in the "hroni"le$ of the period# *re$&'ably they a&g'ented the ar"her$ and "ro$$bo('en and (ere probably &$ed in '&"h the $a'e (ay# 7hether they (ere 'ore effe"tive than the$e t(o traditional (eapon$ i$ not an ea$y )&e$tion to an$(er# 7hile the longbo( needed long year$ of pra"ti"e and "on$iderable $:ill to $hoot, the "ro$$bo( (a$ a relatively ea$y (eapon to 'a$ter, and both "o&ld be $hot "on$iderably 'ore )&i":ly and (ere 'ore a""&rate than the early handg&n# >he fa"t that it (a$ loaded by the '&FFle (a$ not the only rea$on for the $peed of fire ! it al$o had to be loaded (ith propellant and proKe"tile, (hile the bo($ had to be loaded (ith only proKe"tile# So'e re"ent experi'ental (or: ha$, ho(ever, indi"ated that the velo"ity of a b&llet (a$

"on$iderably greater than either the "ro$$bo(G$ bolt or the longbo(G$ arro( !
1,, MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

handg&n$ offered a greater range and firepo(er, (hi"h off$et their ina""&ra"y and lo( rate of fire# Altho&gh it i$ "lear that ro&nd $hot (a$ &$ed fro' the introd&"tion of g&npo(der (eapon$, a "o''on for' of a''&nition thro&gho&t the fo&rteenth "ent&ry (ere large arro($, "alled garros. >ho&gh thi$ 'ight, at fir$t, $ee' $trange, it $ho&ld be $een a$ a logi"al exten$ion of the traditional proKe"tile (eapon$ of the period, the "ro$$bo( and the longbo(# Biring at a lo( traKe"tory, too, garros "an be $een a$ highly dangero&$ (eapon$, e$pe"ially again$t $oldier$ $tanding $ho&lder to $ho&lder in den$e for'ation$# D&ring the 2iddle Age$, ho(ever, the 'ain a''&nition for al'o$t all g&n$ (a$ a $tone ball "&t by 'a$on$ &$ing ha''er and "hi$el$# >hey (ere 'ade fro' (hatever $tone (a$ "o''only availableH th&$, 'any B&rg&n!dian referen"e$ 'ention 'arble "annonball$ (hile in $ixteenth!"ent&ry England, ,enti$h rag$tone (a$ &$ed# Conte'porary a""o&nt$ of artillery 'ention the great fre)&en"y that the 'a$onG$ "hi$el$ needed to be $harpened and the &$e of 'o&ld$, (ooden board$ (ith a hole of the "orre"t $iFe "&t in the', to "he": that they (ere the "orre"t $iFe and "o'pletely $pheri"al# Bor $'aller g&n$, pri'arily handg&n$, lead (a$ al$o &$ed for a''&nition "a$t into $&itable 'o&ld$# Altho&gh there are o""a$ional referen"e$ to "a$t!iron a''&nition in the early de"ade$ of the fifteenth "ent&ry, the$e did not be"o'e "o''on &ntil the la$t )&arter of the fifteenth "ent&ry# Ca$t!iron $hot, al'o$t three ti'e$ heavier $iFe!for!$iFe than $tone, i$ noted fro' the early de"ade$ of the fifteenth "ent&ry, b&t )&antitie$ $ee' to have been $'all at fir$t# It (a$ perhap$ not &ntil the -< 0$ that "a$t!iron $hot (a$ prod&"ed and $&pplied in large )&antitie$# >he te"hnology of "a$ting iron into 'o&ld$ (a$ developed in the fifteenth "ent&ry for do'e$ti" i'ple'ent$ and for $hot, b&t it (a$ not &ntil -/<; that it (a$ perfe"ted eno&gh to allo( for the "o''onpla"e 'an&fa"t&re of g&npo(der (eapon$# >he i'pa"t that g&npo(der (eapon$ 'ade on the battlefield and at $iege$ in the fo&rteenth "ent&ry ha$ been )&e$tioned by 'odern hi$torian$, (ho have $&gge$ted that they (ere K&$t a 'ean$ of "reating noi$e and "onf&$ion and (ere not ne"e$$arily effe"tive (eapon$ in their o(n right# =o(ever, their very &$e (o&ld $&gge$t that they (ere $een a$ a &$ef&l addition to the 'ilitary ar$enal and arg&e $trongly that they (ere effe"tive in (hatever role they played# By the final de"ade$ of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry larger g&n$ (ere being prod&"ed, and in the early de"ade$ of the fifteenth "ent&ry, the 'an&fa"t&re of g&npo(der had progre$$ed to the extent that a differentiation (a$ 'ade bet(een po(der$ for $'aller handg&n$ and for larger
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 1,0

pie"e$# Bro' abo&t -<20, there i$ al$o a gro(ing differentiation bet(een type$ of g&n$, (hi"h point$ to their in"rea$ing $ophi$ti"ation and the develop'ent of "annon for $pe"ialiFed &$e$# >he handg&n, for exa'ple, i$ fir$t noted aro&nd -;90# >he d&:e$ of B&rg&ndy, in parti"&lar, ordered "on$iderable )&antitie$ of handg&n$ in the 'iddle de"ade$ of the fifteenth "ent&ry, and it i$ "lear that they (ere exten$ively &$ed by their $oldier$# By the later fifteenth "ent&ry, $o'e r&ler$ had "on$iderable artillery train$, 'o$t notably the :ing$ of Bran"e, the d&:e$ of B&rg&ndy, and the :ing$ of Aragon, b&t it i$ )&e$tionable ho( effe"tive the$e (ere# >(o parti"&lar exa'ple$ $ho( K&$t ho( diffi"&lt it i$ to eval&ate the$e ne( g&npo(der (eapon$# After the death of hi$ father, *hilip the Cood, Charle$, D&:e of B&rg&ndy, e'bar:ed on a "a'paign of "on)&e$t and vengean"e again$t the D&"hy of Lorraine# In re$pon$e to the de"laration of the people there to free the'$elve$ fro' B&rg&ndian "ontrol, Charle$ 'ar"hed (ith hi$ ar'y to bring the' to heel# =e )&i":ly re"apt&red the to(n of %an"y and re$tored hi$ r&le over the d&"hy# =i$ next 'ove (a$ to 'ar"h again$t the S(i$$ (ho had helped the Lorrainer$ in their rebellion# Altho&gh po$$e$$ing one of the 'o$t &p!to!date and n&'ero&$ artillery train$ in E&rope, a$ (ell a$ having the ne"e$$ary f&nd$, Charle$ (a$ re$o&ndingly defeated o&t$ide the $'all to(n of Crand$on in the +a&d, lo$ing virt&ally everything ex"ept the "lothe$ he (a$ (earing at the ti'e# >he re$o&nding $&""e$$ of the S(i$$ (a$ a$ '&"h the re$&lt of $&rpri$e and re$ol&tion on their part, b&t it doe$ 'a:e the point that having $o'e of the be$t e)&ip'ent in E&rope doe$ not g&arantee $&""e$$# And thi$ (a$ not an i$olated "a$e# Le$$ than three 'onth$ later, Charle$ (a$ on"e 'ore $o&ndly defeated o&t$ide the (all$ of 2&rten, again by the S(i$$# In the early day$ of -< , Charle$ had rear'ed and ret&rned to try to reta:e %an"y, lo$t to hi' over the pre"eding 'onth$# In a daring 'ove by the "ityG$ defender$, Charle$G$ for"e$ (ere o&tflan:ed and he hi'$elf (a$ "&t do(n and $lain# In -<.<, ,ing Charle$ +III of Bran"e invaded Italy, ta:ing (ith hi' a $ignifi"ant artillery train# =e $(ept all before hi' on hi$ dra'ati" and $&dden 'ar"h thro&gh the entire length of the "o&ntry, only pa&$ing on rea"hing %aple$# O&r :no(ledge of thi$ $pe"ta"&lar event ha$ been '&"h infl&en"ed by the (ord$ of Bran"e$"o C&i"!"iardini (ho "lai'ed that hi$ $&""e$$ (a$ d&e "o'pletely to the &$e of a ne( type of artillery 'o&nted on 'obile "arriage$ that enabled hi' to $&bd&e to(n after to(n and fortifi"ation after fortifi"ation# A detailed 'odern analy$i$ ha$ $ho(n, ho(ever, that perhap$ thi$ (a$ not )&ite the (hole tr&th#

7hat Charle$ did (a$ to &$e terror

1,1 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

ta"ti"$ to get hi$ o(n (ay# Arriving at the to(n of 2onte San Ciovanni to (hi"h he laid $iege and 'anaged to ta:e by for"e, he then pro"eeded to 'a$$a"re the entire pop&lation ! o$ten$ibly for re$i$ting hi$ approa"h# A$ he then 'ar"hed $o&th, ea"h to(n or fortifi"ation thre( open it$ door$ to hi' ! th&$ $paring the'$elve$ the fate of 2onte San Ciovanni# 7hen he rea"hed %aple$, (here the lo"al for"e$ p&t &p a $pirited defen$e, he had to 'o&nt a prolonged $iege and (a$ event&ally for"ed to retreat, lo$ing "on$iderable n&'ber$ of troop$ to di$ea$e# C&i""iardiniG$ "o''ent$ have infl&en"ed al'o$t every $&b$e)&ent (riter $o that the$e event$ are $till &$ed to prove that a ne( for' of artillery, together (ith 'obile "arriage$, (a$ invented by the Bren"h in the late fifteenth "ent&ry# 7hat he appear$ to have been doing, ho(ever, (a$ p&tting the be$t $pin on event$ that did not refle"t (ell on the fighting )&alitie$ of hi$ Italian "o'patriot$# Bar fro' having ne( for'$ of artillery and "arriage$, Charle$ &$ed a $&perb gra$p of ta"ti"$ and p$y"hologi"al terror to get all hi$ o(n (ay ! &ntil $o'eone $tood &p to hi'#

>=E E%E2D3 >=E O>>O2A% >?5,S

>he Otto'an$ >&r:$ b&r$t onto the $"ene at the very beginning of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry (hen the fo&nder of the "entral A$ia 2inor !dyna$ty, ChaFi `O$'an, &$ing 'ainly fa'ilial for"e$, defeated a '&"h larger ByFantine ar'y at the Battle of Baphae&' in -;0-# ByFantine leader$ had tho&ght little of p&tting do(n (hat they $a( a$ a $i'ple rebellion by a religio&$ly 'otivated 'inority# Over the next -/0 year$ they and, by exten$ion, E&rope (ere to pay deeply for their pre$&'ption# !In -;0<, `O$'c n "apt&red %i"aea and al'o$t too: *hiladelphia, their $iege of the latter rai$ed only (hen the Latin Crand Co'pany in Cree"e "a'e to the aid of the defender$# In -;2., `O$'c nG$ $&""e$$or, Or:hc n beat a ByFantine ar'y led by E'peror Androni"&$ III *alaeolog&$ at the Battle of *ele:anon, and in -;; he "on)&ered %i"o'edia# It (a$ on the$e vi"torie$ that he e$tabli$hed the fir$t Otto'an $tate in (e$tern Anatolia and >hra"e# B&t it (a$ hi$ $on, 2&rc d I, and grand$on, Bc yeF_d I, (ho are "redited (ith adding the large$t a'o&nt of land and 'a:ing the Otto'an >&r:$ a 'ilitary po(er to rival any in the 7e$tern (orld at that ti'e# >hey added Sere$ and De'oti:a in -;0-, 2a"edonia in -; -, Ar'enia in -; /,
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 1,'

Sofia in -;9/, %i$ in -;90, the re$t of B&lgaria in -;.;, Saloni:a and 5&' in -;.<, and Dobr&dKa in -;./# In t(o 'aKor battle$, at ,o$ovo in -;9. and %i"opoli$ in -;.0, Otto'an ar'ie$ "r&$hed 7e$tern opponent$# At ,o$ovo, they defeated a Serbian ar'y, :illing *rin"e LaFar of Serbia, (hile at %i"opoli$, they de$troyed a "r&$ading for"e dra(n fro' England, B&rg&ndy, Bran"e, Cer'any, =&ngary, 7alla"hia, >ran$ylvania, and the >e&toni" ,night$, 'a$$a"ring al'o$t all tho$e "apt&red (itho&t regard for "la$$ or ran:# Only t(i"e did the Otto'an >&r:$ lo$e $ignifi"ant 'ilitary engage'ent$ d&ring thi$ period, at 5ovine in -;./ (hen a =&ngarian and 7alla"hian ar'y defeated the' in battle, b&t (ere &nable to t&rn ba": their Bal:an "a'paign, and at An:ara in -<02 (hen >a'erlane 6>i'&r the La'e8 and hi$ 2ongol$ tro&n"ed the &ntil! then indefatigable for"e in battle and then "apt&red their for'er "apital of B&r$a# A $&""e$$ion "ri$i$ bet(een Bc yeF_d IG$ $on$, SPley'an and 2&$a, halted Otto'an expan$ion for $everal year$, b&t 2&rc d II, (ho r&led fro' -<2- to -</-, "ontin&ed hi$ prede"e$$or$G 'ilitary poli"ie$# Altho&gh $tarting o&t badly, having to brea: off hi$ $iege of Con$tantinople in -<22 be"a&$e of a rebellion by hi$ brother, 2&$tafa, he annihilated =exa'ilion and de$olated the 2orea the follo(ing year# =e too: S'yrna in -<2< and in -<29 defeated the =&ngarian$ on the ?pper Dan&be# In -<;0 he re"apt&red Saloni:a and too: Albania in -<;2# So effe"tive (ere the$e "a'paign$ that in -<<0 *ope E&geni&$ I+ "alled for a "r&$ade again$t the Otto'an >&r:$# >he re$pon$e fro' the 7e$t (a$ le$$ than over(hel'ing, b&t the "all to "r&$ade in$pired a re$pon$e in tho$e (ho (ere defending their land$ again$t the >&r:$# In -<<- +ladi$lav of *oland and =&ngary rai$ed the $iege of BelgradeH the next year the =&ngarian hero, AUno$ =&n!yadi, defeated the Otto'an$ invading >ran$ylvaniaH in -<<; the Albanian$ revolted and regained their independen"eH and in -<<< =&nyadi (on the Battle on 2o&nt ,&novi"a# After thi$ defeat a tr&"e (a$ arranged, b&t (hen it failed three 'onth$ later, the tide t&rned# Late in -<<< 2&rc d II de'oli$hed a "r&$ading ar'y at the battle of +arna, and in -<<9 he defeated =&nyadi at the Se"ond Battle of ,o$ovo, re"overing "ontrol of the Bal:an$,

ex"ept for Albania, and ravaged the 2orea# On ; Bebr&ary -</-, 2&rc d died and (a$ repla"ed by hi$ $on, 2eh'ed II# *erhap$ the 7e$t breathed a $igh of relief, b&t if $o it (a$ pre'at&re# Bor 2eh'ed diligently follo(ed hi$ fatherG$ exa'ple# Indeed, hi$ greate$t a"hieve'ent "a'e early in hi$ reign (hen he "on)&ered the "ity of Con$tantinople in -</;, 'a:ing it the ne( "apital of hi$ e'pire# In -</0 =&nyadi had $o'e revenge (hen he
1,/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

rai$ed the $iege of Belgrade, b&t thi$ (a$ b&t a 'o'entary brea: in the Otto'an $&""e$$e$# So&thea$tern E&rope fell )&i":ly3 Athen$ fell in -</0, Serbia in -</., the 2orea in -<00, >rebiFond in -<0-, =erFegovina in -<0 , ,affa in -< /, and Albania in -< 9# =&nyadiG$ $on, 2atthia$ Corvin&$, did have $o'e $&""e$$e$ ! in -<0; at Aay$"a, and in -< / at Sava"F ! and the ,night$ =o$pitaller $:illf&lly defended their head)&arter$ at 5hode$ in -<90# B&t the Otto'an$ "o&ld not be halted# In the early $ixteenth "ent&ry, SPley'an the 2agnifi"ent added 5hode$, Belgrade, Egypt, B&da, and =&ngary# Only in -/2. (a$ he $topped, (hen the =oly 5o'an E'peror Charle$ + rai$ed the >&r:i$h $iege of +ienna# Conte'porary (riter$ fre)&ently re'ar: on the originality and &ni)&ene$$ of Otto'an >&r:i$h 'ilitary ad'ini$tration, $trategy, ta"ti"$, and e)&ip'ent, at the $a'e ti'e e'pha$iFing the differen"e$ bet(een the Otto'an$ and their ene'ie$# Of "o&r$e, al'o$t all of the$e "hara"teri$ti"$ had prede"e$$or$# B&t one $ho&ld not fa&lt late 'edieval "o''entator$ for ignoring tho$e, e$pe"ially (hen they "o&ld $ee little 'ore than "on$tant vi"torie$ fro' thi$ ne( Ea$tern po(er, vi"torie$ (on indi$"ri'inately again$t ByFantine, E&ropean, or other 2iddle Ea$tern I$la'i" ar'ie$# >he earlie$t Otto'an $oldier$ (ere al'o$t ex"l&$ively hor$e ar"her$# %ot very n&'ero&$, $&"h troop$ (ere ideal for the raiding ta"ti"$ &$ed by `O$'c n and hi$ i''ediate $&""e$$or$# >hey (ere ar'ed (ith bo($ :no(n by thi$ ti'e a$ >&r:i$h bo($ ! de$pite being little different than tho$e "arried by previo&$ non! >&r:i$h hor$e ar"her$ ! "o'po$ite bo($ (ith re"&rved ar'$ that (ere bent for(ard and, in $tringing, (ere p&lled ba": again$t that nat&ral po$ition, thereby giving the bo( it$ balli$ti" po(er# A very $:illed ar"her, (hi"h the$e early Otto'an$ are $aid to have been, "o&ld a""&rately fire $everal arro($ a 'in&te (hile 'oving aro&nd it$ target$# Conte'porarie$ do not re"ord ho( effe"tive the$e arro($ (ere (hen fired at a (ell!ar'ored ene'y, altho&gh again$t &nar'ored opponent$ they '&$t have been )&ite lethal# B&t the po(er of their bo($ 'ay not have been very i'portant to the >&r:$, $&""e$$ being deter'ined 'ore fro' the pani":ed flight of an adver$ary than $&$tained fighting that, even if ending favorably, (o&ld de"rea$e the n&'ber$ of an already depleted 'ilitary for"e# 2o&nted ar"her$ re'ained a "entral part of the Otto'an >&r:i$h for"e &ntil -<00# %o do&bt the dire"t de$"endant$ of Otto'an 'o&nted ar"her$ (ere the akin3is or raider$# Al$o light "avalry, in both ar'$ and ar'or, (hi"h they provided the'$elve$, the raider$ had already appeared in Otto'an ran:$ by the t&rn of the fifteenth "ent&ry# >radi!
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 1,+

tionally the$e troop$ (ere $aid to have "o'e fro' the 5&'elia region of the Bal:an penin$&la, (ith late 'edieval "hroni"ler$ $&gge$ting a &nity that exi$ted beyond the battlefield# De$"ription$ fro' Con$tantine 2ihailovi", (ritten bet(een -</; and -<0;, and Span!do&ne$, (ho$e (or: appeared initially in -/0., indi"ate a pa$toral people $pe"ialiFing in "&ltivating "rop$ and rai$ing "attle and parti"&larly )&i": hor$e$, the latter providing 'o&nt$ for the troop$ rai$ed fro' a'ong the'# >hey $&pple'ented their pa$toral in"o'e (ith booty and $lave$ gained fro' (arfare and raiding, and they (ere e$pe"ially feared along the border$ of Otto'an >&r:i$h land$, (here their r&thle$$ne$$ (a$ legendary# 2ihailovi" depi"t$ the$e raid$ (ith hyperboli" 'etaphor3 R>hey "a'eS li:e torrential rain$ that fall fro' "lo&d$# Bro' the$e $tor'$ "o'e great flood$, &ntil the $trea'$ leave their ban:$ and overflo(, and everything thi$ (ater $tri:e$, it ta:e$, "arrie$ a(ay and 'oreover de$troy$ # # # >h&$ al$o the >&r:i$h 5aider$ do not linger long, b&t (herever they $tri:e, they b&rn, pl&nder, :ill and de$troy everything, $o that for 'any year$ the "o": (ill not "ro( there 6Colin I'ber, T%e >ttoman ,mpire C4DD7CE5D R=o&nd'ill$3 *algrave 2a"'illan, 2002S, p# 20-8# By the$e atta":$ the raider$ (ea:ened potential border defen$e$, th&$ preparing targeted land$ for Otto'an "on)&e$t# Elite Otto'an >&r:i$h "avalry &nit$ (ere provided for by timar!holding lando(ner$# Timars (ere $'all a'o&nt$ of land$, $i'ilar to fief$ in 7e$tern E&rope# >hey, too, generally "ontained a village or gro&p$ of village$, fro' (hi"h a 'o&nted $oldier gained an in"o'e to allo( hi$ f&ll!ti'e 'ilitary $ervi"e# It "o&ld al$o be (ithdra(n fro' the $oldier $ho&ld he fail to appear for 'ilitary $ervi"e, or if he failed to have 'ale heir$ (ho (o&ld "ontin&e the timar2s 'ilitary role after hi$ death# Timar!holding "avalry $ee' to have &$ed

$everal different (eapon$, b&t (ere reno(ned for their $:ill in &$ing $hort $(ord$# >heir $tandard ar'or (a$ a 'ail $hirt and hel'et# >he 'ail ar'or (a$ not a$ heavy a$ $i'ilar 7e$tern ar'or$, nor (a$ it a$ long, "overing only the tor$o# >here (a$ al$o never a 'ove to &$e f&ll!plate ar'or in it$ $tead, altho&gh $o'eti'e$ $'all plate$ of 'etal, both iron and "opper alloy, (ere added to the 'ail# Otto'an hel'et$ (ere very di$tin"tive, $haped li:e a t&rban and fitting lo( aro&nd the head and $o'eti'e$ "&t aro&nd the eye$# Often they (ere )&ite ornate, da'a$"ened or inlaid (ith $ilver and gold# >he$e ar'$ and ar'or (ere to be provided by the timar!holding "avalry'en the'!
1,) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

$elve$, (ith threat$ of de"apitation or a'p&tation if they (ere not &p to $tandard# >hey (ere al$o to provide 'ail hor$e!ar'or# It (a$ not &ntil the reign$ of Or:hc n and 2&rc d I 6-;021-;9.8 that Otto'an ar'ie$ reorganiFed to ta:e better advantage of infantry, and there i$ little do&bt that thi$ (a$ the rea$on for the in"rea$ed 'ilitary $&""e$$ in "apt&ring 'ore land$ and fa"ing ne( ene'ie$# In parti"&lar, 2&rc d I &$ed a 'ixed array of ordinary and elite infantry troop$ and 'o&nted ar"her$ and 'ore traditional "avalry to defeat oppo$ing Serbian$ at the Battle of 2arit$a in -; - and "r&$ader$ at the Battle of %i"opoli$ in -;.0# In both, >&r:i$h infantry ! the fir$t ran:$ "o'po$ed of ordinary $oldier$ and the rear of elite one$ ! (ere &$ed to l&re oppo$ing heavy "avalry into a trap bet(een t(o flan:$ of their o(n lighter, 'ore 'ane&verable "avalry for"e$ (here the no( halted and exha&$ted atta":er$ (ere i''obiliFed and defeated# >he 'o$t irreg&lar infantry $oldier$ (ere the #a#a (ho $erved pri'arily a$ ar'ed laborer$# >hey "o&ld al$o be and often (ere p&t into battle a$ fighting troop$, b&t their $:ill$ (ere, of "o&r$e, li'ited# Above the' (ere the aFa)s literally the Iba"helor$,J (ho had been re"r&ited fro' the pea$antry# >heir $ervi"e (a$ 'o$t often deter'ined by "on$"ription, and al'o$t all fa'ilie$ in the E'pire (ere re)&ired to provide a re"r&it# Both #a#a and the aFa)s "arried traditional infantry (eapon$ ! $pear$ and $(ord$ ! altho&gh $o'e (ere al$o o&tfitted (ith $'all axe$# >ho$e (ho (ere experien"ed h&nter$ "arried bo($ and "o&ld provide non'o&nted ar"hery $&pport (hen needed# After -;90 $o'e aFa)s (ere trained in the &$e of "ro$$bo($# All irreg&lar troop$ "arried $hield$ and $o'e (ere ar'ored in light 'ail and hel'eted# >he 'o$t fa'o&$ Otto'an >&r:i$h infantry (ere the #eni ceri or Kani$$arie$# Aani$$arie$ $ee' not to have exi$ted before the 'iddle of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, and the early &nit$ n&'bered only a fe( h&ndred $oldier$# B&t the$e proved extre'ely effe"tive in (arfare, and $&""e$$ added )&i":ly to their n&'ber$# >heir bravery (a$ reno(ned thro&gho&t E&rope, ByFanti&', and the I$la'i" (orld# At the Battle of An:ara in -<02 they $tood their gro&nd, even tho&gh the re$t of the Otto'an >&r:$ had fled, tho&gh thi$ did not bring vi"tory# =o(ever, at the Battle of +arna in -<<<, d&ring the flight of fello( $oldier$, they prote"ted their $&ltan, 2&rc d II, and then t&rned the battle in their favor# >hey event&ally "apt&red and :illed the =&ngarian :ing +ladi$lav# By the reign of 2eh'ed II the Kani$$arie$ n&'bered nearly /,000 and, by the reign of hi$ $&""e$$or, Bc yeF_d II, 'ore than -0,000#
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 1,(

>he Kani$$arie$ (ere the elite infantry troop$ of the Otto'an >&r:i$h ar'y and they al$o provided a bodyg&ard for the $&ltan$# At ti'e$ thi$ "o&ld (or: again$t the r&ler, ho(ever, a$ 2eh'ed II experien"ed in -<<0 (hen a Kani$$ary rebellion ret&rned hi$ father, 2&rc d, to the throne for a brief ti'e and in -/-2 (hen they for"ed the abdi"ation of Bc yeF _d II# *erhap$ the 'o$t fa'o&$ "hara"teri$ti" of the Kani$$arie$ (a$ their re"r&it'ent# >he legend of "aptive 'ale "hildren, e$pe"ially the $on$ of Chri$tian$, being re)&ired to $erve (ith the Kani$$arie$ 'ay have been $tret"hed by frightened "onte'porarie$ (ho exaggerated the r&thle$$ne$$ of the >&r:$# B&t the "ore of the legend $ee'$ a""&rate# 5ai$ed (ith ar'$ and ar'or, and trained in the art of (arfare, they proved to be $&perb (arrior$, (ho$e "onver$ion to I$la' $trengthened their re$olve and no do&bt added to their 'ilitary effe"tivene$$# >he Kani$$arie$ (ere (ell ar'ed and ar'ored# >heir ar'or and hel'et$ (ere $i'ilar to tho$e "arried by the timar!holding "avalry# Early Kani$$arie$ (ere ar'ed traditionally (ith $pear$ and $(ord$, 'o$tly $aber$, the latter being their prin"ipal (eapon# =o(ever, a$ g&n$ began to be 'ade $'all eno&gh to be handheld, the Kani$$arie$ )&i":ly adopted the', and $oon the t(o be"a'e lin:ed in every "o''entatorG$ (riting$# =o(ever, &nli:e the other &nit$ of the Otto'an ar'y, all of the$e (eapon$ and ar'or (ere provided by a "entral $tore, th&$ g&aranteeing )&ality and ta"ti"al &nity# Before the fir$t )&arter of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry, fortifi"ation$ and (alled to(n$ in ByFanti&' and el$e(here had been $afe fro' Otto'an atta":# =o(ever, (ith greater n&'ber$ of "o'batant$, `O$'c n and hi$ $&""e$$or$ t&rned to $iege a$ another 'ean$ of "on)&e$t# Of "o&r$e, the large n&'ber of (alled to(n$ in

the region ne"e$$itated thi$# Initially, Otto'an $oldier$ atta":ed fortifi"ation$ (itho&t $iege artillery# A$ there (a$ &$&ally no ar'y to provide relief fro' the$e a"tion$, ti'e (a$ not an i$$&e# Det only rarely (ere the Otto'an$ patient eno&gh to a(ait $&rrender fro' $tarvation# In$tead, >&r:i$h leader$ re$orted to a$$a&lt$ again$t fortified $ite$3 $"aling (all$ and gate$ &$ing ladder$, battering the' do(n &$ing ra'$, or 'ining &nder the'# Co'pared (ith E&ropean$, ByFantine$, and other I$la'i" real'$, the Otto'an >&r:$ (ere late in a")&iring and &$ing g&npo(der (eapon$# S&ltan Bc yeF_d I $ee'$ not to have had the' at hi$ $iege of Con$tantinople in -;.01-;. , at lea$t they are not 'entioned by "onte'porary "hroni"ler$ a'ong the artillery pie"e$ pre$ent# In fa"t, Otto'an g&npo(der artillery i$ not 'entioned &ntil -<22, at 2&rc d
1,MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

IIG$ $iege of Con$tantinople, (hen they are re"orded to be large, of Iex"e$$iveJ (eight and "aliber, "on$tr&"ted on $ite, and operated by Cer'an "annoneer$# 7here the$e originated and (hether thi$ (a$ their fir$t a"t&al &$e by Otto'an 'ilitary leader$ i$ a 'y$tery# B&t it i$ "ertainly "lear that they )&i":ly i'pre$$ed the >&r:$, for fro' then on, in al'o$t all $iege$ and 'any battle$, they &$ed large n&'ber$ of g&npo(der (eapon$3 for exa'ple, at the $iege of %ovo Brdo in -<2 , at the battle of ,o$ovo in -<;0, at the $iege and battle of +arna in -<<<, and, 'o$t notably, at the $iege of Con$tantinople in -</;# By the 'iddle of the fifteenth "ent&ry the Otto'an$ (ere b&ilding g&npo(der artillery of all $iFe$, in"l&ding handheld g&n$, b&t they are e$pe"ially fa'o&$ for their "ontin&o&$ &$e of the large$t of the$e, bo'bard$# >he $tory of 2eh'ed IIG$ e'ploy'ent of a =&ngarian na'ed ?rban or Orban to b&ild "annon of very large $iFe for the $iege of Con$tantinople i$ )&ite fa'o&$ and bear$ repeating3 2eh'ed a$:ed hi' if he (a$ able to "a$t a "annon large eno&gh to fire a $hot (hi"h (o&ld 'a:e an i'pre$$ion on the (all$ of the "ity, in $pite of their $trength and thi":ne$$# =e replied, IIf yo& (i$h, I "an "a$t "annon a$ large a$ the $hot (hi"h i$ being $ho(n to 'e no(# I :no( (hat the (all$ of the "ity are li:e# >he $hot of 'y "annon "o&ld red&"e the', and even the (all$ of Babylon it$elfJ I # # # B&ild 'e the "annon,J the S&ltan replied # # # So they $tarted to "olle"t bronFe, and the "raft$'an began to 'a:e the 'o&ld$ for thi$ (or:# >he operation of "a$ting (a$ "o'pleted (ithin three 'onth$, and the re$&lt (a$ a 'on$tro$ity of the 'o$t fearf&l and extraordinary :ind# 62i"hael D&"a$, $#Fantine &istor# in T%e Siege of Constantinople- Seven Contemporar# Accounts tran$# A# 5# 2# Aone$ RA'$terda'3 Adolf 2 =a::ert, -. 2S, 01 28# >he fir$t of the$e bo'bard$ (a$ te$ted in the pre$en"e of the $&ltan and the p&bli", altho&gh pregnant (o'en (ere a$:ed to $tay a(ay $o that they (o&ld not 'i$"arry# >hi$ te$t proved to be extre'ely i'pre$$ive3 In the 'orning the g&npo(der (a$ lit, there (a$ a great r&$h of hot air, and the $hot (a$ driven forth, leaving the "annon (ith a lo&d explo$ion (hi"h filled the air (ith "lo&d$ of $'o:e# >he $o&nd (a$ heard a h&ndred stadia a(ay, and the $hot traveled a tho&$and pa"e$ fro' the point of firing, 'a:ing a hole $ix feet deep at the point (here it landed 62i"hael D&"a$, $#Fantine &istor# in T%e Siege of
THE LATE MIDDLE A"ES& 0',,*0++, 1,.

Constantinople- Seven Contemporar# Accounts tran$# A# 5# 2# Aone$ RA'$terda'3 Adolf 2 =a::ert, -. 2S, 01 28# >hi$ and other g&npo(der (eapon$ of $i'ilar $iFe (ere &$ed (ell into the $ixteenth "ent&ry# >he "apt&re of Con$tantinople in -</; (a$ one of the 'o$t de"i$ive 'ilitary vi"torie$# So'e 'odern hi$torian$ even $ee in it$ fall the end of the 2iddle Age$# 7ith it$ defeat, the ByFantine E'pire, (hi"h dated it$ fo&nding to Con$tantineG$ relo"ation of the 5o'an E'pireG$ "apital to Con$tantinople, the "ity he na'ed after hi'$elf, al$o effe"tively ended# 2eh'ed II "ho$e it al$o to be the "apital of the already va$t Otto'an E'pire# It (o&ld re'ain $&"h for < 0 year$#

Co24l3sio2s
>=E 2IDDLE ACES, a$ defined by 'odern hi$torian$, la$ted for abo&t -,200 year$ ! fro' the fall of the 5o'an E'pire in the fo&rth "ent&ry to aro&nd -/00# Over thi$ va$t period of ti'e there (ere $o'e obvio&$ "hange$ in the e"ono'i"$, politi"$, and $o"iety of 7e$tern E&rope# Chieftain$ be"a'e noble$ and $o'e be"a'e :ing$# Bield rotation and the plo( drove agri"&lt&ral advan"e$ and in"rea$ed prod&"tion of "ereal$ and food$t&ff$# In"rea$ing $pe"ialiFation re$&lted in the gro(th of to(n$ and &rban "enter$ and the develop'ent of an &rban "la$$# Ind&$trial a"tivity and trade bro&ght abo&t f&rther &rbaniFation and in"rea$ed I'iddle "la$$J (ealth# B&t (hile the$e 'o'ento&$ "hange$ (ere $lo(ly laying the fo&ndation$ of the 'odern (orld, the art of (ar re'ained '&"h the $a'e# At lea$t &ntil the end of the 2iddle Age$ and the advent of g&npo(der (eapon$, the pro"e$$ of (inning battle$ and $iege$, and the ar'$ and ar'or &$ed to do $o, did not "hange $ignifi"antly# >hro&gho&t 'o$t of thi$ period (arfare (a$, and largely re'ained, a "onfli"t fo&ght 'an to 'an, (arrior to (arrior# Every

$oldier fa"ed an individ&al opponent, $'elling hi$ breath and $eeing the fear ! or "onfi!den"e ! in hi$ eye$# And largely, the ar'$ ea"h fo&ght (ith (ere the $a'e thro&gho&t the period ! the $(ord, dagger, axe, $pear, and polear'# >hey did not "hange $ignifi"antly thro&gho&t the 2iddle Age$, nor had they "hanged '&"h $in"e the earlie$t "onfli"t$# E$$entially, by the beginning of the 2iddle Age$ the$e traditional (eapon$ (ere already (ell developed# Any f&rther i'prove'ent$ ! in $hape or 'aterial ! "o&ld only be 'inor and $e"ondary to their &$e and effe"tivene$$# And (hile it i$ tr&e that Kavelin$ and arro($ (ere effe"tive at greater di$tan"e the$e, too, (ere al'o$t "o'pletely developed by the early 2iddle Age$# >he spat%a the long $(ord of the 5o'an$, (a$ in e$$en"e $i'ilar to the $(ord$ &$ed thro&gho&t the 2iddle Age$# Of "o&r$e there
100
101 MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

(ere "hange$ b&t the$e (ere relatively 'inor ! "hange$ in length, for exa'ple, or (hether the blade had a $ingle or do&ble edge# In a $i'ilar (ay, the 5o'an gladius "an be $een a$ the pre"&r$or of the 'edieval dagger# A (eapon fre)&ently negle"ted by 'o$t 'edieval 'ilitary hi$torian$, the dagger (a$ a &$ef&l $e"ondary (eapon# Altho&gh it$ for' (a$ very '&"h infl&en"ed by fa$hion, it (a$, and re'ained, ba$i"ally a $tabbing (eapon for &$e at "lo$e )&arter$# >he axe, too, "hanged little thro&gho&t thi$ period# E$$entially a (eapon that developed fro' the "o''on (ood"&tting axe, it, li:e the $(ord and dagger, (a$ little altered thro&gho&t the 2iddle Age$# 2&"h the $a'e "an be $aid of $pear$ and polear'$# >he $pear, e$$entially a $i'ple (eapon ! a long $haft (ith an iron head ! &nder(ent fe(, if any "hange$ d&ring the 2iddle Age$# And (hile polear'$ ! again, a (ooden $haft (ith an iron head or blade ! "er!tainly "hanged in detail and for', it "an be arg&ed that they "hanged little, if at all, over thi$ period# >he bo( $a( perhap$ the greate$t "hange, altho&gh thi$ (a$ 'ore )&antitative than )&alitative ! it$ range and po(er both in"rea$ed, e$pe"ially d&ring the later 2iddle Age$# Even the "ro$$bo(, (hi"h ha$ al'o$t al(ay$ been $een a$ a $pe"ifi"ally I'edievalJ (eapon, had it$ an"ient ante"edent$ (ith the Cree: gastrap%etes or Ibelly!bo(#J 7hile it "hanged little at fir$t, the introd&"tion of the $teel bo( greatly in"rea$ed it$ balli$ti" po(er later in the 2iddle Age$# >he $a'e "an be $aid of ar'or# >hro&gho&t 'o$t of the 2iddle Age$, fro' the beginning of the third "ent&ry to the beginning of the fifteenth "ent&ry, ar'or al(ay$ "on$i$ted of a 'ail $hirt or "oat, (hi"h (a$ a dire"t de$"endant of the 5o'an lori"a ha'ata, a$ (ell a$ a $hield and a hel'et# After -<00, 'ail (a$ )&i":ly repla"ed by plate ar'or, $o that by -</0 al'o$t all ar'or (orn by 7e$tern E&ropean noble$ and elite $oldier$ (a$ plate# At the $a'e ti'e, the $hield be"a'e $'aller and then di$appeared altogether# =el'et$, too, "hanged to 'at"h the effi"ien"y of the ne( plate ar'or# Intrig&ingly tho&gh, fro' the late fifteenth "ent&ry, plate ar'or in"rea$ingly be"a'e a fa$hion $tate'ent, and a very "o$tly one, priFed for it$ ability to $ho( the (ealth and $tat&$ of the (earer even 'ore than hi$ 'ilitary pro(e$$# B&t did 'edieval ar'$ and ar'or deter'ine 'edieval ta"ti"$, or did 'edieval ta"ti"$ deter'ine the ar'$ and ar'orM 7hy (ere there no really $ignifi"ant "hange$ in either &ntil the end of the 2iddle Age$M >he an$(er i$ not ea$y to for'&late, b&t it i$ "lear that "hange in al'o$t every area of life (a$ $lo( and the rea$on$ for "hange are not often "lear to &$ today#
CONCLUSIONS 10'

Both the +i$igothi" and Ea$tern 5o'an troop$ (ho 'et at Adri!anople in AD ; 9 "on$i$ted of three ba$i" for"e$3 infantry, "avalry, and 'i$$ile troop$# >he battle (a$ not de"ided by the $&perior &$e of the$e individ&al troop$ $eparately by the +i$igoth$, b&t by the ta"ti"$ of the ar'y a$ a (hole# At =a$ting$ in -000, tho$e $a'e three 'ilitary for"e$ (ere al$o pre$ent on both the %or'an and the Anglo!Saxon $ide$# Intere$tingly tho&gh, it i$ "o''only per"eived ! even "onte'porarily ! that thi$ (a$ a vi"tory of "avalry over infantry# In fa"t, ,ing =arold Cod(in$on had di$'o&nted hi$ "avalry to Koin (ith hi$ infantry and 'i$$ile troop$, (hile D&:e 7illia' &$ed hi$ in!fantry ! (hi"h (a$ a$ n&'ero&$ a$ hi$ "avalry ! to initiate the atta": of the Anglo!Saxon $hield (all# And hi$ ar"her$ $hot arro($ thro&gho&t the "onfli"t, (ith one parti"&lar arro( &lti'ately de"iding the o&t"o'e of the battle (hen it ended the life of =arold# Binally, at Ag!in"o&rt, in -<-/, (here Engli$h longbo( ar"her$ (ere $o de"i$ive that they (ere i''ortaliFed in one of Sha:e$peareG$ greate$t play$ ! &enr# @ A"t III, S"ene$ ;1< ! it 'ight ea$ily be forgotten that the Engli$h infantry and "avalry (ere al$o pre$ent# B&t they (ere, altho&gh in $'all n&'ber$ be"a&$e 'any had been di$abled by dy$entery# >he "avalry had di$'o&nted and Koined the infantry, and they held the "enter gro&nd (here 'o$t of the hand!to!hand fighting too: pla"e# %or did the Bren"h only have "avalry, $o effe"tively

defeated by the longbo('en, b&t infantry and ar"her$ too, and all (ere defeated on that field# So the three type$ of $oldier$ per$i$ted thro&gho&t the 2iddle Age$# At ti'e$, "hange$ in ta"ti"$ (ere effe"ted and there (ere i'prove'ent$ in leader$hip, training, and the availability of ar'$ and ar'or, b&t their p&rpo$e on the battlefield did not alter $ignifi"antly# Early 'edieval "avalry, even before the advent of the $tirr&p, (ere &$ed to "harge again$t other "avalry, to brea: an infantry line, and to "ha$e a(ay 'i$$ile troop$# >he $tirr&p, of "o&r$e, fa"ilitated thi$ and added the ability to &$e "o&"hed lan"e$, b&t the "avalryG$ p&rpo$e re'ained the $a'e ! to "harge other "avalry, to brea: an infantry line, and to "ha$e a(ay 'i$$ile troop$# 2edieval infantry "o&ld be "la$$ed a$ either heavy ! 'eaning they (ere (earing heavy ar'or ! or light ! 'eaning they (ere 'ore lightly ar'ored or (ere &nar'ored# >he$e divi$ion$ re'ained valid fro' the fall of 5o'e to the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar# =eavy infantry (ere &$&ally experien"ed and profe$$ional, paid to fight in (hatever 'ight be"o'e the Ihotte$tJ part of the battle# Light infantry (ere re"r&ited fro' the pop&la"e at large ! initially by "on$"ription, later by obligation 6(hat ha$ often been "alled fe&dali$'8, and finally by
10/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

indent&re and the pay'ent of (age$# On"e 'ore, tho&gh, the p&rpo$e of 'edieval infantry, both heavy and light, did not "hange# At the beginning of the 2iddle Age$ 'i$$ile troop$ largely &$ed bo($ and arro($, altho&gh $o'e $ling$hot$, Kavelin$, and thro(ing axe$ provided $&pple'entary firepo(er# 7hile the n&'ber of $linger$ and Kavelin thro(er$ de"lined 'ar:edly and axe thro(er$ di$appeared, ar"her$ re'ained the 'o$t pro'inent 'i$$ile troop$ for all 'edieval ar'ie$# >he te"hnology of their (eapon$ "hanged $lightly ! a$ 'entioned above ! b&t it (a$ only (hen the n&'ber$ of ar"her$ the'$elve$ in"rea$ed that their ta"ti"$ "hanged# 7hen Cenoe$e "ro$$bo('en be"a'e available for hire in large n&'ber$, their infl&en"e on the battlefield ! for good or bad ! al$o in"rea$ed# And (hen large n&'ber$ of $:illed Engli$h longbo('en began to be re"r&ited into the Engli$h ar'ie$ of the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar, their i'pa"t on ta"ti"$ be"a'e legendary# Still, no 'atter ho( n&'ero&$, the$e troop$ never re'oved the'$elve$ fro' their 'ilitary p&rpo$e3 they (ere there to $&pple'ent the infantry and "avalry, to provo:e a di$ordered ene'y "avalry or infantry "harge, to fo"&$ that "harge onto the infantry line$, and to "a&$e a ro&t of ene'y light infantry or 'i$$ile troop$# A$ (ith all pre'odern (arfare, 'o$t 'edieval "onfli"t$ too: pla"e not on the battlefield b&t at $iege$# Battle$ (ere ri$:y and often did not a""o'pli$h '&"h, (herea$ $iege$ re$&lted in the "apt&re of "itie$ and fortifi"ation$# B&t $iege$ (ere al$o ti'e!"on$&'ing and "o$tly endeavor$, and a $&""e$$f&l o&t"o'e for the be$ieger$ generally 'eant that they had to $tarve the inhabitant$ into $&b'i$$ion, find $o'eone in$ide the be$ieged lo"ation (ho (a$ (illing to betray hi$ neighbor$, or lo$e a large n&'ber of $oldier$ in an atte'pt to "on)&er the $ite by for"e# >rying to $tarve o&t the inhabitant$ or "a&$e one of the' to t&rn traitor greatly lengthened the ti'e it too: to bring abo&t a $&""e$$f&l $iege, $o it (a$ not &n&$&al for a 'edieval $iege to la$t for 'ore than a year or longer# >h&$, general$ often tried to de"rea$e the ti'e by atte'pting to go over, &nder, or thro&gh the fortifi"ation$# S&"h an"ient be$ieging te"hni)&e$ a$ &$ing ladder$ or $iege to(er$ to "li'b over the (all$, 'ine$ to (ea:en the earth &nder the (all$, or battering ra'$ and "atap&lt$ to bla$t thro&gh the (all$ proved to be the $a'e te"hni)&e$ that proved effe"tive in the 2iddle Age$# >he te"hnology of ladder$, $iege to(er$, and battering ra'$ "hanged only very $lightly, if at allH altho&gh tre!b&"het$, both tra"tion and "o&nter(eight, (ere 'ar:edly different than their "atap&lt pre"&r$or$, the idea of &$ing 'a"hine!driven balli$ti" for"e to thro( proKe"tile$ into and over fortifi"ation$ (a$ not#
CONCLUSIONS 10+

7hile develop'ent$ in 'edieval ar'$ and ar'or (ere relatively 'inor, there (ere of "o&r$e "hange$, altho&gh it i$ perhap$ $&rpri$ing K&$t ho( $lo( the$e (ere in "o'ing and the length of ti'e they too: to have a (ide$pread effe"t# Det it i$ (orth noting that "hange (a$ not a $i'ple 'atter and $ho&ld never be $een in a $i'ple, deter'ini$ti" (ay ! i'prove'ent$ (ere not al(ay$ adopted and innate "on$ervati$' and re$i$tan"e to "hange (ere al(ay$ very potent for"e$# D&ring the later 2iddle Age$, ho(ever, it i$ "lear that there (ere t(o area$ in (hi"h "hange$ did have a $ignifi"ant and (ide$pread effe"t# >he fir$t (a$ the ri$e in i'portan"e of infantry for"e$# >he vi"torie$ of the Ble'ing$ at Co&rtrai 6-;028, the S"ot$ at Ban!no":b&rn 6-;-<8, and the S(i$$ Confederate for"e$ at 2orgarten 6-;-/8, (here 'a$$ed foot $oldier$ fighting together proved they "o&ld be a de"i$ive for"e on the battlefield, $hoo: the (hole of E&rope and initiated (ide$pread, altho&gh $lo( to &$, "hange$ in ta"ti"$# >he $e"ond area (a$ the "hange$ that affe"ted ar'$ and ar'or# Of the$e, the develop'ent of g&npo(der and g&npo(der (eapon$, e$pe"ially fro' aro&nd -<00, and the develop'ent$ in the iron ind&$try at abo&t the $a'e ti'e (ere "ertainly the 'o$t i'portant# >he latter led to greater prod&"tion "apa"ity and greater "ontrol of )&ality, e$pe"ially in the prod&"tion of $teel, and therefore in the prod&"tion of plate ar'or# >he$e develop'ent$ (ere to provide the ba$i$ for (arfare fro' then into the early

'odern period#

ILLUSTRATIONS
ILLUSTRATIONS 10.

LATE ROMAN TETRARCHY Allan T. Ao%lGArt Images for College Teac%ing >he tetrar"hy 6literally Ir&le of fo&rJ8 led the 5o'an E'pire fro' 2.; to ;-;# E$tabli$hed by E'peror Dio"letian to $hare the re$pon$ibilitie$ of govern'ent for the E'pire and to prepare the next leader$ for r&le, it "o&ld not $&rvive the belli"o$e Kealo&$ie$ of it$ $e"ond generation, (ith Con$tantine the $&rviving e'peror# >hi$ $tat&e, "arved aro&nd the ti'e, depi"t$ the &nity of the then pea"ef&l fo&r leader$# A$ they (ere al$o 'ilitary leader$, they are dre$$ed in lor!i"a $eg'entata ar'or, a bronFe brea$tplate fro' (hi"h bronFe $trip$ de$"end in a $:irt of t(o "onne"ted layer$ to the :nee$# >he $ho&lder$ and &pper ar'$ are "overed (ith three layer$ of bronFe $trip$# 6Layering aid$ in the 'ove'ent of the ar'$ and lo(er tor$o#8 An &ndergar'ent to (hi"h thi$ ar'or 'ay be "onne"ted "an be $een on the ar'$ and $lightly belo( the $:irt# >heir $"abbarded (eapon$ are $patha$, long $(ord$ e$pe"ially pop&lar a'ong 5o'an "avalry, altho&gh the long hilt$ 'ay al$o indi"ate that they "o&ld be gra$ped by t(o hand$ and &$ed for fighting (hen the $oldier had di$'o&nted# C&rrently, the $tat&e i$ o&t$ide the Ba$ili"a of San 2ar"o, bro&ght there fro' Con$tantinople by the +enetian Bo&rth Cr&$ader$ after their $a": of that "ity in -20<#
11, ILLUSTRATIONS

LATE ROMAN "ENERAL STILICHO Alinari $asilica di San !iovanni $attista MonFa Ital#GT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# Stili"ho 6"a# ;/.1<0.8, the $on of a +andal father and a 5o'an 'other, ro$e thro&gh the 5o'an 'ilitary ran:$ to lead the Ea$tern 5o'an ar'y at the Battle of Brigid&$ in ;.<, (hi"h pla"ed >heodo$i&$ I on the throne of the la$t &nited 5o'an E'pire# After hi$ death a year later, Stili"ho led the ar'ie$ of >heodo$i&$G$ $on, =onori&$, a$ 7e$tern 5o'an E'peror, a po$ition he held &ntil he fell o&t of favor and (a$ exe"&ted in <0.# In thi$ $&perb "onte'porary ivory Stili"ho appear$ (ith hi$ (ife, Serena, and $on, E&"heri&$# =e i$ ar'ed (ith a long $pear 6perhap$ feet or 2#2 'eter$, depending on hi$ height8 (ith a long, $harp head# A $"abbarded $(ord (ith a (ell!for'ed hilt i$ h&ng fro' t(o belt$ aro&nd hi$ (ai$t# =e i$ &nar'ored b&t "arrie$ a large, oblong $hield "overed (ith $"ale$, perhap$ 'etal plate$# >he $hield ha$ a $harp, "oni"al, fl&ted bo$$, the only other de"oration being t(o &nidentified b&$t$#
ILLUSTRATIONS 110

LATE ROMAN EMPEROR THEODOSIUS I OR 5USTINIAN

/ouvre Museum (arisG!iraudonGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# >he Barberini Ivory, generally dated to the $ixth "ent&ry, i$ half of a ByFantine dipty"h, the "enterpie"e of (hi"h portray$ an e'peror ! indi"ated by hi$ "ro(n ! tho&ght to be either >heodo$i&$ I or A&$tinian# >he e'peror i$ 'o&nted on a $trong hor$e, and he (ear$ a lori"a $eg'entata, (ith a $olid bronFe tor$o plate and a $:irt and $ho&lder ar'or of t(o layer$ of bronFe $trip$# =e (ear$ no other ar'or and "arrie$ no (eapon$# Of e)&al intere$t to the $t&dy of ar'$ and ar'or i$ the $oldier depi"ted on the right $ide of the e'peror# =e (ear$ the $a'e ar'or a$ the e'peror, altho&gh hi$ $ho&lder ar'or appear$ to be a $olid plate ! the e'perorG$ i$ hidden# =e al$o (ear$ a long $(ord in a $"abbard atta"hed to hi$ left $ide#
111 ILLUSTRATIONS

EMPEROR 5USTINIAN AND HIS COURT

Arc%ivo Iconografico S.A.GCor)is >hi$ K&$tifiably fa'o&$ 'o$ai" of the Ea$tern 5o'an 6or ByFantine8 E'peror A&$tinian 6<921/0/8 (a$ pla"ed on the (all of the Ba$ili"a of San +itale in 5avenna $hortly after hi$ "apt&re of (hat had been the "apital of O$trogothi" Italy in /<0# In it A&$tinian i$ flan:ed by "lergy ! in"l&ding 2axi'ian, Bi$hop of 5avenna ! govern'ent offi"ial$, and $oldier$# Bo&r of the $oldier$ "arry $pear$ (ith large iron head$, altho&gh they $ee' not to be too long a$ none are $ho(n rea"hing the gro&nd# Only one of the $oldier$ i$ "learly $een to be (earing ar'or, a 'ail $hirt "overing the tor$o and $ho&lder$# B&t it i$ hi$ $hield that do'inate$ the 'o$ai"3 a large oblong $hield "olorf&lly de"orated (ith the Cree: letter$ "hi and rho, $y'boliFing IChri$t the $hepherd,J pla"ed fir$t on the $hield$ and banner$ of 5o'an $oldier$ by Con$tantine at the Battle of 2ilvian Bridge in ;-2# =o(ever, a $e"ond $hield, only partially vi$ible, i$ "olored differently and 'ay not "ontain the $a'e $y'bol#
ILLUSTRATIONS 11'

ROMAN "LADIUS
1ational Museums of ScotlandGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# Bro' the fir$t "ent&ry BC to the fifth "ent&ry AD all 5o'an infantry $oldier$ "arried a gladi&$# Clo$ing for hand!to! hand "o'bat, on"e he had thro(n hi$ pila, the $oldier dre( hi$ gladi&$ fro' it$ $"abbard# >hi$ fine exa'ple of a gladi&$ i$ fro' the end of the fir$t "ent&ry AD and (a$ ex"avated at %e($tead near 2elro$e, S"otland# It $ho($ a $harp!tipped $hort $(ord (ith t(o edge$, indi"ating a (eapon that "o&ld be &$ed either for $la$hing or thr&$ting at an ene'y# A long tang i$ the only $&rviving part of a hilt that (o&ld have been "o'fortable b&t probably not de"orated# It i$ "&rrently held in the %ational 2&$e&'$ of S"otland, Edinb&rgh#
11/ ILLUSTRATIONS

ROMAN 6ALLISTA
AlinariGArt +esource Altho&gh the Cree:$ 'ay have invented the tor$ion "atap&lt, or balli$ta, it i$ perhap$ the 5o'an$ (ho &$ed it 'o$t $&""e$$f&lly in (arfare# *o(er (a$ $&pplied to the proKe"tile of the balli$ta by t(o bo( ar'$ an"hored in $pring$ 'ade of rope and $ine( and (o&nd tightly together# >he$e (ere then lo":ed into pla"e by 'etal (a$her$ and "overed (ith a 'etal "a$ing to prote"t it fro' in"le'ent (eather# A $ine( bo($tring (a$ $panned bet(een the t(o bo( ar'$# >hi$ apparat&$ (a$ 'o&nted on a bed to (hi"h (ere atta"hed a $lider to fa"ilitate firing, a (in"h to (ithdra( the $tring, a rat"het to hold the $tring in pla"e (hile loading the proKe"tile, and a trigger to di$"harge the proKe"tile# Larger balli$tae (ere 'o$t often &$ed in $iege (arfare, b&t $'aller "heiroballi$tae$, li:e the one portrayed here on >raKanG$ Col&'n in 5o'e, (ere 'ore 'obile and "o&ld be &$ed on the battlefield a$ (ell a$ at $iege# >hi$ "ol&'n, "elebrating the vi"torie$ of E'peror >raKan again$t the Da"ian$, (a$ ere"ted in AD --;, b&t there (ere fe( "hange$ bet(een the balli$ta depi"ted on the lo(er right of thi$ i'age and the 5o'an "atap&lt of the fo&rth and fifth "ent&rie$#
ILLUSTRATIONS 11+

6AR6ARIAN FI"HTIN" A ROMAN LE"IONARY

/aurosG!iraudon /ouvre (aris 'ranceGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# >he 5o'an$ and Cer'ani" barbarian$ had fo&ght frontier engage'ent$ for 'any "ent&rie$ before the Coth$ "ro$$ed the Dan&be 5iver and invaded the E'pire# Before thi$ the 5o'an$ fo&ght the barbarian$ in their land$# In thi$ bea&tif&lly "arved relief fro' the $e"ond "ent&ry AD ! "&rrently in the Lo&vre 2&$e&' ! a 5o'an legionary fight$ a barbarian $oldier in the latterG$ village, a$ repre$ented by the ho&$e in the ba":gro&nd# >he barbarian (ear$ no ar'or and (ield$ a thi": $(ord (ith a large po''el and a thi": b&t $'all "ro$$ g&ard# >he 5o'an $oldier (ear$ the lori"a $)&a'ata, ar'or 'ade of a large n&'ber of 'etalli" $"ale$ atta"hed to ea"h other by leather la"e$ and to an &ndergar'ent by linen thread# =i$ hel'et i$ 'ade fro' a bronFe bo(l that "over$ the head and lo(er ne": b&t i$ "&t o&t for the ear$, a thi": de"orated bro( ri$ing to a point above hi$ no$e, and hinged "hee:!pie"e$ that (o&ld have been tied together (ith leather la"e$ &nder hi$ "hin# A hor$ehair "re$t 'ay have $ho(n ran: or &nit# Be"a&$e the relief i$ bro:en, the (eapon of the legionary "annot be deter'ined#
11) ILLUSTRATIONS

6AR6ARIAN HORSEMAN
'oto Mar)urgGArt +esource Conte'porary depi"tion$ of barbarian $oldier$ are rare# >hi$ grave $tele (a$ fo&nd in =ornha&$en, Cer'any, and ha$ been dated fro' the fo&rth to the $eventh "ent&ry# >he $tele $ho($ a barbarian "avalry $oldier, probably a Bran: ! a$ he i$ portrayed (earing long hair, a $y'bol of nobility a'ong that barbarian tribe# =e (ear$ a hel'et (ith large "hee:! pie"e$ and a di$tin"t na$al# 2o$t li:ely it i$ a $pangenhel', altho&gh thi$ "annot be deter'ined fro' the (eathered $"&lpt&re# A de"orated $hield i$ al$o "learly portrayed, large, ro&nd, and (ith a di$tin"t bo$$ and ri' ! probably iron# Body ar'or i$ not depi"ted, altho&gh the de"orated gar'ent on the thigh 'ay indi"ate that he i$ (earing ar'or $i'ilar to the lor!i"a $eg'entata# >(o (eapon$ are vi$ible# >he $oldier hold$ a $pear (ith a long, (ide, and thi": head in hi$ right hand# A $(ord i$ atta"hed to the $oldierG$ left $ideH the $"abbard ha$ a "lear ri' and "hape# >he grave $tele i$ "&rrently in the Lande$'&$e&', =alle, Cer'any#
ILLUSTRATIONS 11(

MEROVIN"IAN HELMET
Mus?e *aup%inois !reno)le 'ranceG/aurosG!iraudonGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# De$pite their obvio&$ expen$e, 'o$t barbarian $oldier$ (ore hel'et$, 'any differing in "on$tr&"tion fro' tho$e (orn by 5o'an$# >hi$ 'arvelo&$ 2erovingian hel'et i$ tho&ght to be fro' the $eventh "ent&ry and i$ "&rrently in the 2&$Ne Da&phinoi$ in Crenoble, Bran"e# It i$ a $pangenhel', "on$i$ting of an iron "ap 'ade of a de"orated, gilded 'etal band en"ir"ling the head atta"hed by rivet$ to $ix 'etal band$ flayed at the botto' and ri$ing to a "ir"&lar 'etal pie"e at it$ pea:# Covering the $pa"e$ bet(een the$e band$ are iron plate$ that are al$o atta"hed by rivet$# >(o hinged 'etal pie"e$ de$"end fro' the lo(er band to prote"t the "hee:$H there are hole$ in the$e and in the ba": of the hel'et for atta"hing 'ail prote"tion for the ne": and lo(er fa"e# >he de"oration indi"ate$ that thi$ (a$ li:ely the hel'et of an elite or noble $oldier#
11ILLUSTRATIONS

NYDAM WEAPONS CACHE

/andesmuseum fur @or" und 'ru%gesc%ic%te Aiel !erman#GT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# >hi$ "a"he of barbarian (eapon$ (a$ ex"avated fro' the %yda' bog o&t$ide S"hle$(ig, Cer'any, by Conrad Engelhardt bet(een -9/. and -90; near t(o inta"t "lin:er!b&ilt boat$, one 'ade of oa: and one of pine# =o(ever, they 'ay not have been dire"tly "onne"ted# >he bog $erved a$ a rit&al b&rial $pot for I$poil$ of (ar,J trophie$ of ar'$, ar'or, and other ite'$ ta:en fro' defeated foe$# >hey date fro' a$ early a$ the late third "ent&ry, altho&gh ho( late they go "annot be deter'ined# It i$ tho&ght that they (ere pre!Chri$tian# >he "a"he "ontain$ a large n&'ber of $(ord$, $pearhead$, axe$, and arro(head$, all (ell pre$erved by the bog# All (eapon$ are iron, b&t the bog al$o pre$erved $o'e (ooden arro( and $pear $haft$, a$ (ell a$ the (ood of $o'e $hield$#
ILLUSTRATIONS 11.

6AR6ARIAN SPEAR
Trustees of T%e $ritis% Museum M H M, CIE6 8"J.6IC A""ording to "onte'porary $o&r"e$, the barbarian $pear (a$ &$ed fro' hor$eba": a$ a lan"e, for "lo$e "o'bat a$ a thr&$ting (eapon, and, (hen thro(n, a$ a Kavelin# Con$e)&ently, 'any different type$ of early 'edieval $pearhead$ have been fo&nd, of varying $iFe$ and (eight$# >hi$ artifa"t, "&rrently held in the Briti$h Library, (a$ fo&nd

in Creat Che$terford, E$$ex, b&ried (ith an early Anglo!Saxon (arrior (ho$e grave ha$ been dated to the $ixth "ent&ry# It i$ &n&$&al in that it "ontain$ an inlaid orna'ent, probably indi"ating that the (arrior (ith (ho' it (a$ b&ried (a$ of the nobility or the elite#
1', ILLUSTRATIONS

SWORD ORNAMENTS FROM THE TREASURE OF CHILDERIC I

$i)liot%B<ue 1ationale (aris 'ranceGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# Childeri" I (a$ the 2erovingian :ing of the Salian Bran:$ fro' </ &ntil "a# <9-# A $trong 'ilitary leader, d&ring hi$ reign he added '&"h territory to hi$ :ingdo'# 7hen he died he (a$ b&ried at hi$ "apital, >o&rnai, in a ri"h grave that (a$ opened in -0/;# Bo&nd a'ong the heap$ of trea$!&re ! (hi"h in"l&ded a golden bra"elet, Ke(el$ of gold and "loi$onnN ena'el (ith garnet$, gold "oin$, a gold b&llG$ head, 'ore than ;00 golden bee$, and a ring (ith the in$"ription IChilderi"i regi$J 6of Childeri" the ,ing8 ! (ere t(o ri"hly de"orated $(ord$, a $patha and a $eax# 6?nfort&nately, '&"h of thi$ (a$ de$troyed in the early nineteenth "ent&ry#8 >he hilt$ and $"abbard$ of both $(ord$ (ere de"orated (ith gold inlay and "loi$onnN# *i"t&red here are the hilt and $"abbard 'etal of the $patha, "&rrently held in the BibliothV)&e %ationale in *ari$#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1'0

6AR6ARIAN SWORDS
Mus?e des $eau."Arts et d2Arc%?ologie Tro#es 'ranceG!iraudonG T%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# >he $(ord (a$ the "lo$e!"o'bat (eapon of "hoi"e for al'o$t all barbarian $oldier$, both "avalry and infantry# 7hile the 5o'an$ preferred the $hort gladi&$, (hi"h (a$ &$ed pri'arily for thr&$ting, the barbarian$ "ho$e the longer $patha, (hi"h (a$ both a $la$hing and a thr&$ting (eapon# A$ "an be $een in the$e 2erovingian Bran:i$h $(ord$, "&rrently fo&nd in the 2&$Ne de$ Bea&x!Art$ et dGAr"hNologie, in >roye$, Bran"e, they (ere (ell!'ade iron (eapon$, (hi"h often had de"orated grip$ of (ood and leather, and $o'eti'e$, a$ in the$e exa'ple$, of bronFe#
1'1 ILLUSTRATIONS

6AR6ARIAN SEA7
&I(GArt +esourceG$ritis% Museum /ondon A $eax or $"ra'a$ax, a $ingle!edged $(ord (ith a $harp point, (a$ pop&lar a'ong barbarian $oldier$ of all tribe$ d&ring the early 2iddle Age$# Shorter than a t(o!edged $(ord of the period, they (ere &$ed for "lo$e "o'bat bet(een infantry $oldier$# >hi$ $(ord, fro' ninth! or tenth!"ent&ry England, i$ not only fa'o&$ a$ an ex)&i$ite exa'ple of a $eax, b&t al$o be"a&$e it i$ the only artifa"t bearing the "o'plete Anglo!Saxon r&ni" alphabet# Another in$"ription bear$ the (ord IBeagnoth,J (hi"h 'ay indi"ate the na'e of the o(ner or 'a:er#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1''

MEROVIN"IAN FRANCISCA

Trustees of T%e $ritis% Museum >he fran"i$"a (a$ a (idely &$ed barbarian thro(ing axeH $&"h artifa"t$ have been fo&nd thro&gho&t E&rope# 7ith a heavy head and $hort handle, the fran"i$"a (a$ &$&ally thro(n by the (arrior before "lo$ing in for hand!to!hand "o'bat (ith $(ord, $pear, or another fran"i$"a# >hi$ parti"&lar head of a fran"i$"a, 2erovingian Bran:i$h and dated to the $eventh "ent&ry, i$ ex"eptional in that it i$ inlaid (ith $ilver, (hi"h 'ay denote o(ner$hip by an elite or noble $oldier# It (a$ fo&nd in the area of %e&(ied, 5hineland!*alatinate, Cer'any, and i$ "&rrently in the Briti$h 2&$e&' 62 d 2E -.0-, /!/, -8#
1'/ ILLUSTRATIONS

SUTTON HOO HELMET

$ritis% MuseumGArt +esource >hi$ i$ a 'odern re"on$tr&"tion of the extraordinary hel'et fo&nd in the S&tton =oo $hip b&rial# Dating fro' the early $eventh "ent&ry it i$ one of only fo&r hel'et$ fro' the Anglo!Saxon period# >he de"oration in"l&de$ interla"ing, ani'al orna'ent$, and heroi" $"ene$, 'otif$ that (ere "o''on in the Cer'ani" (orld at thi$ ti'e# One $"ene $ho($ t(o (arrior$, (earing horned hel'et$ and holding $hort $(ord$ and do(n!t&rned $pear$# Another $ho($ a 'o&nted (arrior tra'pling a fallen ene'y, a the'e handed do(n fro' the 5o'an E'pire# >he fa"e 'a$: i$ the 'o$t re'ar:able feat&re of the hel'et3 it ha$ eye $o":et$, eyebro($, and a no$e, (hi"h ha$ t(o $'all hole$ "&t in it to allo( the (earer to breathe freely# >he no$e, eyebro($, and dragon 'a:e &p a great bird (ith o&t$tret"hed (ing$ that flie$ on the hel'et rather li:e the bird of prey on the $hield# Altho&gh it belonged to a :ing of Ea$t Anglia, it "a'e originally fro' S(eden and (a$ probably abo&t -00 year$ old (hen it (a$ b&ried#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1'+

SUTTON HOO SHIELD

Trustees of T%e $ritis% Museum All barbarian $oldier$ "arried a $hield# Shield$ "o&ld be ea$ily "on$tr&"ted fro' hard (ood $lat$ held together by gl&e, a 'etal ri', and probably a leather "over# A$ eviden"ed in thi$ repli"a of the $hield fo&nd in the S&tton =oo b&rial, an Anglo!Saxon $hield (a$ ro&nd (ith a 'etal ri', reinfor"ed fre)&ently by t(o $iFe$ of 'etal pie"e$ "la'ped aro&nd the ri' ! $ix (ide and t(elve narro(# A large, ro&nd, and thi": 'etal bo$$ pla"ed in the "enter of the $hield an"hored a leather grip that ha$ no( di$appeared, a$ ha$ the (ood of the $hield, tho&ght to be li'e(ood# >hat thi$ (a$ the $hield of an elite (arrior i$ $&gge$ted by the (ell!"arved Ke(eled de"oration$ of an eagle and a dragon#
1') ILLUSTRATIONS

THE TRIUMPH OF VIRTUE OVER EVIL Museo 1aFionale del $argello 'lorence Ital#GT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# Charle'agneG$ e'pire "ontained arti$an$ (ho (ere e$pe"ially adept at ivory "arving$# >he$e, altho&gh $'all, $ho( great detail# >hi$, the lo(er half of an ivory "arving of the >ri&'ph of +irt&e over Evil, i$ fro' A'bronay Abbey and (a$ 'ade in the ninth "ent&ry# It depi"t$ +irt&e a$ a Car!olingian $oldier# =e i$ dre$$ed in the 'ail byrnie re)&ired to be (orn by all Carolin!gian $oldier$ to prote"t hi$ tor$o, &pper ar'$, and groin# =e (ear$ no hel'et b&t "arrie$ the re)&ired "ir"&lar and "on"ave $hield, (ith a large, heavy bo$$ and de"oration a$ $een in $everal other "onte'porary ill&$tration$# =i$ (eapon i$ a (ooden $pear, it$ long tapering iron $pearhead re$ting on the ne": of hi$ "aptive, Evil# >hi$ ivory i$ "&rrently ho&$ed in the 2&$eo %aFionale del Bargello of Bloren"e, Italy#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1'(

THE COURT OF CHARLES THE 6ALD $i)liot%B<ue 1ationale (aris 'ranceGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# Charle'agneG$ e'pire $tayed inta"t thro&gh the reign of hi$ $on, Lo&i$ the *io&$ 69-<19<08, after (hi"h it (a$ divided a'ong hi$ three grand$on$, Lothair, Lo&i$ Ithe Cer'an,J and Charle$ Ithe Bald#J Ea"h r&led a part of the e'pire a$ it$ :ing# Charle$ the BaldG$ real' in 7e$t Bran"ia en"o'pa$$ed '&"h of 'odern Bran"e# In thi$ depi"tion of Charle$G$ "o&rt ! painted "a# 9<;19/- ! he re"eive$ a Bible fro' Abbot +ivian and the 'on:$ of Saint!2artin de >o&r$# >(o $oldier$ attend hi'# >heir hel'et$ "on$i$t of a $hallo( $:&ll "ap fitting "lo$ely to the head and flaring o&t above the level of ear$ in a (ide bri', (hi"h "overed the ne": and (a$ t&rned &p in the front# It i$ diffi"&lt to :no( the p&rpo$e of thi$ bri', &nle$$ it (a$ p&rely for fa$hion# ?nfort&nately, no artifa"t exi$t$ to te$t thi$ theory or to deter'ine ho( a Carolingian hel'et (a$ "on$tr&"ted# >he $oldier$ al$o "arry $pear$ "hara"teri$ti" of their ti'e# =o(ever, their ar'or, altho&gh prote"ting the $a'e part$ of the body a$ the traditional Carolingian byrnie, doe$ not appear to be 'ail b&t plate, li:ely bronFe, and i'itative of the $tyle of 5o'an ar'or#
1'ILLUSTRATIONS

EARLY NINTH8CENTURY CAROLIN"IAN SOLDIERS $i)liot%B<ue 1ationale (aris 'ranceGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# One of the 'o$t i'portant Carolingian 'an&$"ript$ i$ the ?tre"ht *$alter 'ade at 5ei'$ bet(een 9-0 and 9;/ and "&rrently held at the ?niver$ity of ?tre"ht Library ! hen"e it$ na'e# It$ parti"&lar val&e i$ that it "ontain$ n&'ero&$ pi"t&re$ of everyday life, altho&gh dra(n (ith (hat $o'e have "alled an &nrefined hand# >he $oldier$ depi"ted in thi$ later "opy are fro' the Carolingian period, altho&gh they are 'eant to ill&$trate a Bibli"al p$al'# >here i$ no fighting, altho&gh the infantry in the "enter left of the ill&$tration are ta&nting their indeter'inate ene'y by rai$ing their (eapon$, $&gge$ting that they are anxio&$ for "o'bat# In$tead, both infantry and "avalry are pi"t&red on the 'ar"h or at re$t# Al'o$t all "arry long $pear$ and lan"e$, (ith a $ingle, po$$ibly re"&rved bo( held by a $oldier at the front of the ta&nting infantry# 2any troop$ "an be $een (earing Carolingian!$tyle hel'et$, di$ting&i$hable by the large pea:ed bri'$# So'e infantry and "avalry $oldier$ al$o "arry $hield$, t(o of (hi"h are depi"ted fro' the in$ide (here their "arrier$ have their left forear' looped thro&gh a thong (hile holding a grip an"hored to the bo$$ on the o&t$ide of the $hield# >(o or three di$tin"tively $haped &nit banner$ are al$o portrayed#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1'.

SIE"E OF A FORTIFIED TOWN $i)liot%B<ue 1ationale (aris 'ranceGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar#

>hi$ depi"tion of a be$ieged Bibli"al $ite i$ "opied fro' the ?tre"ht *$alter# Altho&gh the $iFe of the ill&$tration 'a:e$ it diffi"&lt to deter'ine detail$ of ar'$ and ar'or, it ni"ely $ho($ ho( the$e (ere &$ed in 'ilitary "onfli"t# Spear$ are "arried at re$t by $oldier$ in$ide the "ity, b&t "avalry &$e the $pear$ overhand (hen atta":ing# >he $pear$ lying on the gro&nd 'ay indi"ate that $o'e (ere thro(n, altho&gh at lea$t one hor$e! 'an &$e$ the (eapon to thr&$t do(n at the infantry $oldier belo( hi'# S(ord$ are al$o &$ed, a$ $la$hing (eapon$ by the "avalry and thr&$ting (eapon$ by the infantry# >he only di$tin"tive prote"tion $ho(n i$ the $hield, ro&nd and "onvex in $hape, (ith a large bo$$ that ri$e$ o&t of the $hield to a point# Shield$ are &$ed by both infantry and "avalry#
1/, ILLUSTRATIONS

CAROLIN"IAN CAVALRY Time H /ife (icturesG!ett# Images Charle'agneG$ ar'y ha$ been "hara"teriFed thro&gho&t hi$tory by it$ "avalry# Altho&gh al(ay$ $'aller in n&'ber than the infantry, the Carolingian "avalry do'inated the battlefield# >hi$ "onte'porary ill&$tration, fro' the late ninth! "ent&ry Colden *$alter held in the library of the Saint!Call 2ona$tery 6Saint!Callen!Stift$bibliothe:, 2S 228, S(itFerland, i$ the be$t depi"tion of the$e $oldier$ and their ar'$ and ar'or# >he 'en in the lo(er half of the ill&'ination all (ear the 'ail byrnie to prote"t their tor$o, &pper ar'$, and thigh$# >heir head$ are prote"ted by traditional Carolingian hel'et$, (ith their di$tin"tive (ide bri', &ni)&e in $hape and $tyle# And they "arry a long lan"e, it$ head $haped li:e the I=oly Lan"e,J ex"ept for the lead hor$e'an (ho "arrie$ a banner in the $hape of a fi$h or dragon, (hi"h 'ay be the &nitG$ $y'bol# >he "avalry pi"t&red in the top half of the ill&'ination (ear hel'et$ and "arry lan"e$ $i'ilar to tho$e of the lo(er (arrior$, b&t they are not (earing byrnie$, (hi"h 'ay indi"ate that they are a light "avalry &nit (hile their "o&nterpart$ are heavy "avalry# =o(ever, (hat i$ perhap$ 'o$t i'portant i$ the depi"tion of $tirr&p$ on all the $addle$, a relatively ne( invention that "annot be $een 'ore "learly than here#
SPECIFICATIONS 1/0

CAROLIN"IAN SIE"E
Top%amGT%e Image Works >hi$ late ninth!"ent&ry ill&'ination of a Bibli"al $iege by Aoab fo&nd in the Colden *$alter 6no( held in the library of the Saint!Call 2ona$tery in S(itFerland RSaint!Callen!Stift$bibliothe:, 2S 22S8 bea&tif&lly depi"t$ all the ar'$ and ar'or &$ed by Car!olingian $oldier$# Both infantry and "avalry are portrayed, altho&gh there i$ little di$tin"tion in their ar'$ or ar'or# All (ear the Carolingian 'ail byrnie, 'ade of $everal tho&$and interlin:ed 'etal "ir"le$# >hi$ ar'or, $o highly val&ed by Charle'agne that he forbade it$ $ale o&t$ide hi$ e'pire, on pain of death, prote"ted the $oldier$G tor$o, &pper ar'$, groin, and thigh$# All (ear the Carolingian hel'et, it$ very di$tin"tive (ide bri' ri$ing to a pea: in the front# Al$o depi"ted are $everal large, ro&nd $hield$, their "onvex $hape, large and prono&n"ed bo$$, and traditional de"oration are "learly $een on the one held by a $oldier in the be$ieged to(n at the top of the ill&$tration# A n&'ber of (eapon$ are al$o $ho(n3 lan"e$ &$ed by "avalryH $pear$ &$ed by infantry ! (ho thr&$t the' (ith t(o hand$H long $(ord$ (ielded by both "avalry and infantry, b&t al$o (orn by the infantry &$ing lan"e$H and a bo( $&rpri$ingly fired only by a 'o&nted ar"her and not by any of the be$ieged $oldier$ a$ i$ "o''on in 'any 'edieval $iege $"ene$# A banner different fro' tho$e $een in other Carolingian ill&$tration$ i$ "arried by a "avalry $oldier in the &pper $iege# Binally, $tirr&p$ "an be "learly $een de$"ending fro' the hor$e$G $addle$#
1/1 ILLUSTRATIONS

THE 9HOLY LANCE: @ienna Aunst%istorisc%es Museum 9DJ9G645 Called the ISpear of De$tiny,J thi$ $pearhead (a$ on"e tho&ght to be the =oly Lan"e that Longin&$ &$ed to pier"e the $ide of Ae$&$ Chri$t (hile he h&ng on the "ro$$, th&$ 'a:ing it one of the greate$t reli"$ of all Chri$tendo'# It i$ not# It i$, in fa"t, the $ole $&rviving Carolingian $pearhead, dating fro' at lea$t the reign of Otto I 6.;01. ;8# It ha$ the "hara"teri$ti" thin tapered for' (ith t(o "ro$$!(ing proKe"tion$ at the ba$e# >he$e proKe"tion$ 'ay have been added to prevent the blade fro' penetrating a body too deeply# >hi$ $pearhead i$ iron b&t $heathed in a gold "over (ith the in$"ription ILan"e and %ail of the Lord#J >hi$ (a$ added by Charle$ I+, =oly 5o'an E'peror, in -;/0 on top of a $ilver $heath, (hi"h had been pla"ed there in -09; by E'peror =enry I+# 7hen both $heath$ (ere re'oved in 200; it

(a$ di$"overed that the $pearhead (a$ bro:en in t(o and "ontained a f&rther reli" bo&nd in the "enter#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1/'

ELEVENTH8CENTURY INFANTRY $i)liot%B<ue 1ationale (aris 'ranceGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# Dating fro' the eleventh "ent&ry, thi$ ill&'ination frag'ent fro' the Life of St# A&bin of Anger$ 6+ie de Saint A&bin dGAnger$8 i$ one of the be$t ill&$tration$ of a "onte'porary infantry &nit# >he &nit "on$i$t$ of t(enty!fo&r infantry $oldier$ and one offi"er# >he ar'or of the "o''on $oldier$ i$ diffi"&lt to di$ting&i$h, altho&gh they $ee' to be "lothed in $o'e tor$o ar'or (ith $leeve$ that end at the (ri$t in band$# >hey al$o $ee' to be (earing ar'or to "over the :nee$# >(o :ite!$haped $hield$ are vi$ible, altho&gh the top$ of other$ "an be $een f&rther ba": in the &nit, indi"ating that at lea$t $o'e, if not all, of the$e $oldier$ had $hield$# All the infantry $oldier$ are ar'ed (ith $pear$, ro&ghly $ix feet 6t(o 'eter$8 in height, (ith the $pearhead$ $i'ilar to the extant Carolingian I=oly Lan"e#J >(o al$o (ear $(ord$# >he better!e)&ipped offi"er (ear$ a Carolingian 'ail byrnie to "over hi$ tor$o, groin, and &pper ar'$, b&t he doe$ not appear to be (earing ar'or on hi$ :nee$# =i$ na$al hel'et i$ atta"hed to a 'ail "oif that hang$ to hi$ $ho&lder$, prote"ting hi$ ne":# A :ite!$haped $hield i$ $l&ng aro&nd hi$ ba": by a leather "ord, and he i$ ar'ed (ith a $pear and $(ord li:e tho$e "arried by hi$ $oldier$#
1// ILLUSTRATIONS

SIE"E AND COM6AT OF AN"LO8SA7ON SOLDIERS

$ritis% /i)rar# In thi$ ill&'ination fro' the early eleventh!"ent&ry =arley *$alter 6Briti$h 2&$e&', =arley 2S 00;, f# / v8, prod&"ed at Chri$t Ch&r"h in Canterb&ry, England, $oldier$ fight both in a battle and at $iege# Altho&gh 'eant to ill&$trate a Bibli"al $"ene, tho$e fighting "arry "onte'porary Anglo!Saxon ar'$ and $hield$# >he $hield$ are both ro&nd ! &$ed by the be$ieger$ ! and :ite!$haped ! &$ed by the be$ieged# >he $hield held by the (arrior on the far left ni"ely $ho($ it$ ro&nd and deep "on"ave $hape# >he large iron bo$$ and thi": ri' are al$o "lear, a$ are the $hieldG$ de$ign$, (hi"h 'ay in fa"t repre$ent reinfor"ing rib$# >he 'etal ri'$ and bo$$e$ of the :ite!$haped $hield$ are al$o vi$ible, altho&gh the $hield$ the'$elve$ $ee' to be $'aller than tho$e depi"ted in the $a#eu. Tapestr# later in the "ent&ry# Both $pear$ and $(ord$ are (ielded# >he $pear$ are long, (ith long and thin head$ ! al'o$t indi$ting&i$hable in $iFe fro' the $haft$ ! and are &$ed $olely a$ thr&$ting (eapon$# >he $(ord$ are long and )&ite thi":, tapering fro' the "ro$$ g&ard$ to a ro&nded pointH large po''el$ are al$o "learly vi$ible# One of the $(ordbearer$ (ear$ a $"abbard atta"hed to hi$ (ai$t by a belt# >he $oldier$ do not (ear ar'or or hel'et$#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1/+

COPPER"ATE HELMET Top%am GT%e Image Works >hi$ hel'et, (hi"h (a$ fo&nd in Dor:, England, date$ fro' the eighth "ent&ry# It i$ Anglo!Saxon in origin and 'ay have been hidden deliberately# On the bra$$ band a"ro$$ the "re$t of the iron hel'et i$ an in$"ription in Latin that identifie$ the o(ner a$ O$here and in"l&de$ a $hort prayer invo:ing CodG$ prote"tion# It ha$ t(o deep "&rving "hee:!pie"e$ and a "&rtain of 'ail to prote"t the ne":# It i$ o(ned by the Dor:$hire Ar"haeologi"al >r&$t and i$ "&rrently on di$play in the Dor: Ca$tle 2&$e&'#
1/) ILLUSTRATIONS

A SEVENTH8CENTURY SPANISH VERSION OF THE TAKIN" OF 5ERUSALEM 6Y NE6UCHADRE;;AR Museu *iocesa d2=rgell /a Seu d2=rgell SpainG/aurosG !iraudonGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# In thi$ tenth!"ent&ry Spani$h 'an&$"ript ill&'ination portraying the Bibli"al "apt&re of Aer&$ale' by %eb&"hadreFFar, $everal $oldier$ on both $ide$ of the "onfli"t are di$played# All are ar'ed in the $a'e (ay# >hi$ i$ different fro' 'o$t 'edieval depi"tion$ of $i'ilar Bibli"al a""o&nt$, (hi"h &$&ally $ho( the I$raelite$ a$ Chri$tian$ and the Babylonian$ a$ 2&$li'$# >here i$ no vi$ible body ar'or on the $oldier$, altho&gh it 'ay be hidden &nder their "lothe$# All b&t the ar"her$ "arry $'all, ro&nd $hield$, :no(n a$ b&":ler$# >he $oldier$ "arry three (eapon$3 a long $pear, (ith a di$tin"t $pearhead, only (ielded by the infantryH $(ord$, &$ed by infantry, "avalry, and a$ an exe"&tionerG$ (eapon, that are longer than other "onte'porary $(ord$H and bo($, fired by the be$ieger$ fro' hor$eba": and by the be$ieged fro' the (all$ of the di$tin"tly 2&$li' fortifi"ation ! probably an atte'pt by the arti$t to di$play a fortified 2iddle Ea$tern to(n# >he very odd $tyle of hor$e ar"hery $ho&ld not be ta:en a$ literal, ho(everH in$tead, it probably $ho($ the inade)&a"y of an arti$t atte'pting to paint a three!di'en$ional a"tion before the &$e of per$pe"tive# 7hile (ielding a $(ord one "avalry $oldier al$o "arrie$ a banner, holding it (ith the $a'e hand he &$e$ to hold the rein$ of hi$ hor$e# ?nfort&nately, the $iFe of the ill&'ination prohibit$ one to deter'ine any detail$ of the (eapon$#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1/(

PROCESSION TO VALHALLA 6Y DEAD VIKIN" WARRIORS Werner 'ormanGTop'otoGT%e Image Works Death in battle en$&red an eternity in +alhalla for a pre!Chri$tian +i:ing (arrior, (here he (o&ld "ontin&e to fight daily 'o": battle$ on the plain$ of A$gard in anti"ipation of a$$i$ting Odin in hi$ final "onfli"t (ith the giant$# At night, he (o&ld fea$t on boar and drin: 'ead (ith other "elebrated $oldier$, dr&n:enly telling their (ar $torie$# >hi$ (a$ heaven for a $oldier in the 'ilitari$ti" "&lt&re of the +i:ing$, and a $oldierG$ greate$t fear (a$ that he (o&ld other(i$e end &p in the '&"h 'ore boring =el# On thi$ f&nerary pi"t&re $tone fo&nd on the i$land of Cotland, off the "oa$t of S(eden, and dated to early +i:ing age, a pro"e$$ion of dead $oldier$ 'a:e$ it$ (ay to +alhalla# Altho&gh '&"h of the detail ha$ been lo$t to "ent&rie$ of (eathering, the hel'et$ of the$e $oldier$ "an be di$ting&i$hed, (ith their na$al g&ard$ and pea:ed "ap$# So'e $ee' al$o to be "arrying $hield$# S(ord$ are $"abbarded at their (ai$t$# A 'o&nted (arrior ! perhap$ their val:yrie g&ide ! ride$ before the'# =e 6or $he if it i$ a val:yrie8 (ear$ a hel'et $i'ilar to tho$e (orn by the other $oldier$ and "arrie$ a '&"h 'ore "learly vi$ible de"orated ro&nd $hield#
1/ILLUSTRATIONS

VIKIN" SWORDS& STIRRUP& AND SPEARHEAD

1ationalmuseet Copen%agen *enmarkGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# >he $pearhead, $tirr&p, and $(ord$ pi"t&red here are "&rrently fo&nd in the %ational!'&$eet of Copenhagen, Den'ar:# >hey date fro' the +i:ing period and (ere ex"avated fro' different lo"ation$# >he t(o $(ord$ are $i'ilar in type and "on$tr&"tion, altho&gh one ha$ a 'ore de"orated "ro$$ g&ard and po''el# >he blade$ are pattern!(elded iron, 'ade by b&ilding the' &p fro' 'any $'aller pie"e$ of iron (elded together, t(i$ted, and (or:ed in $&"h a (ay that the re$&ltant $&rfa"e of the blade exhibited a vi$ible pattern of (ave$, ripple$, or herringbone de$ign$# >he $pearhead i$ long, flat, and thi": at the ro&nded end near the $o":et, tapering to a $harp point# A reinfor"ing ridge r&n$ do(n the "enter of the blade fro' the point to the $o":et# >he $ingle $tirr&p i$ heavy, large, and (ell "rafted, '&"h better 'ade than el$e(here in E&rope at the $a'e ti'e, $ho(ing ! (ith the (eapon$ ! the 'etal!(or:ing $:ill$ for (hi"h the +i:ing$ (ere $o (ell :no(n#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1/.

VIKIN" SWORDS
/i)rar# of Congress +i:ing (arrior$ too: K&$tifiable pride in their $(ord$# >hey (ere expen$ive and (ell 'ade, $o'e "rafted by $'ith$ (ho $igned their (or: do(n the 'iddle of the blade# >hey (ere 'ade fro' iron (elded together and then t(i$ted and re'ade, and then t(i$ted and re'ade again, over and over &ntil the $tronge$t blade (a$ a"hieved# >he re$&lting de$ign$ gave the pro"e$$ it$ na'e3 Ipattern!(elding#J Al$o di$tin"tive (ere the grip$ of the$e $(ord$H the po''el$ and "ro$$ g&ard$ (ere often de"orated and $o'eti'e$ inlaid (ith $ilver, a$ "an be $een in the$e three exa'ple$ fro' the ?niver!$itetet$ Old$:a'ling in O$lo, %or(ay#
1+, ILLUSTRATIONS

VIKIN" WEAPONS
Museum of /ondonGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# S"andinavian $hip$ bro&ght (arrior$ to England for "lo$e to three "ent&rie$, fro' 9 to -09/, b&t 'any al$o bro&ght "oloni$t$ (ho (ere attra"ted by EnglandG$ ri"h agri"&lt&ral and fi$hing potential# 2o$t of the$e $ettled in the north and ea$t, b&t London al$o $ee'$ to have been a $ite for to&ri$', a$ (ell a$ raid$# >hi$ i$ "onfir'ed by the$e (eapon$, fo&nd &nder London Bridge in the >ha'e$ 5iver and no( lo"ated at the 2&$e&' of London# >he iron $pearhead$ are long, narro(, and dia'ond!$haped rather than flat# >hey al$o "ontain (ing proKe"tion$ at the ba$e $i'ilar to early Carolin!gian $pearhead$# >he iron axe!head$, fro' IDani$h axe$J or Ibroad axe$,J are triang&lar in $hape and )&ite heavy (ith a $harp "&tting edge# >he n&'ber$ of $pear! and axe!head$ in thi$ and other "olle"tion$ indi"ate the pop&larity of the$e (eapon$ for +i:ing$#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1+0

VIKIN" SHIELD
Top%amGT%e Image Works A$ "an be $een in thi$ artifa"t re"overed fro' a $hip b&rial, the +i:ing $hield (a$ ro&nd and 'ade of (ooden $lat$, held together by an iron ri' and probably a hard leather "overing# >he grip on the in$ide of the $hield (a$ an"hored by a thi": and heavy iron bo$$# +i:ing $hield$ (ere often de"orated (ith ani'al$ and fa&na, altho&gh any $&"h de"oration$ on thi$ $hield have di$appeared# >he ro&nd $hape of the +i:ing $hield allo(ed for ea$y atta"h'ent to the $ide$ of their $hip$, in"rea$ing the height of the g&n(ale$ and therefore adding prote"tion to the ro(er$#
1+1 ILLUSTRATIONS

THE 6ATTLE OF HASTIN"S IN THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY Art Arc%iveGCor)is >he $a#eu. Tapestr# 6"a# -0908 i$ &ndo&btedly the be$t pi"torial $o&r"e of infor'ation abo&t ar'$ and ar'or in the eleventh "ent&ry# >he infantry in thi$ part of the tape$try, Anglo!Saxon$, are $ho(n $tanding $ho&lder to $ho&lder and &$ing their long :ite!$haped $hield$ to for' a $hield (all for added prote"tion# Both they and the %or'an "avalry "harging the' are ar'ed (ith $pear$# So'e of the $pear$ are thro(n (hile other$ appear to be thr&$t overar'# >he $oldier$ all (ear 'ail $hirt$ de$"ending to the :nee$ and elbo($, 'ail "oif$, and $i'ple "oni"al hel'et$ (ith na$al$#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1+'

BAYEAUX TAPESTRY CAVALRY& INFANTRY& AND ARCHERS ,ric% /essingGArt +esource ,ing =aroldG$ Anglo!Saxon ar'y i$ fier"ely atta":ed at the Battle of =a$ting$ 6-0008 in a detail fro' the $a#eu. Tapestr#. =aroldG$ opponent$, the %or'an "avalry, are $ho(n (earing long 'ail $hirt$ and "oni"al hel'et$# >hey are ar'ed (ith $pear$, altho&gh $o'e are al$o $ho(n (ielding a $(ord or a "l&b of $o'e $ort# >he :ite!$haped $hield$ are held by an internal leather $trap# >he $addle ha$ a high front 6the po''el8 and ba": 6the "antle8, and the rider$G $tirr&p$ are long# >he hor$e$ do not (ear any ar'or or other prote"tion# >he Anglo!Saxon infantry are o&tfitted (ith ar'or, hel'et$, and $hield$ that are $i'ilar to tho$e of the %or'an$ and are fighting (ith $(ord$, axe$, $pear$, and Kavelin$# >he lo(er 'argin of thi$ part of the tape$try $ho($ &nar!'ored ar"her$ (ith long bo($ and arro($ (ith large barbed head$# It i$ not :no(n (hether the$e repre$ent Anglo!Saxon or %or'an ar"her$#
1+/ ILLUSTRATIONS

TRANSPORTIN" ARMS AND ARMOR IN THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY

,ric% /essingGArt +esource 7illia' of %or'andy had to tran$port to England not only the ar'y b&t al$o all of it$ e)&ip'ent# >he $a#eu. Tapestr# portray$ 'ail ar'or, hel'et$, $(ord$, and $pear$, together (ith food and drin:, all en ro&te to England# >he $)&are ne": opening of the ar'or $ho($ that it (a$ lined (ith (hat appear$ to be textile#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1++

NORMAN KNI"HT
SnarkGArt +esource >hi$ 'o&nted :night depi"ted on a tape$try that on"e h&ng in Baldi$hol Ch&r"h, %or(ay, (ear$ the "hara"teri$ti" long 'ail $hirt and na$al hel'et of the eleventh and t(elfth "ent&rie$# =e "arrie$ a :ite!$haped $hield and i$ ar'ed (ith a $pear# =e ride$ (ith long leather $tirr&p$ in the typi"al $traight!legged fa$hion of the 'edieval hor$e'an# >he tape$try, repre$enting the 'onth of 2ay, i$ "&rrently in the ,&n$tin!d&$tri'&$eet, O$lo, %or(ay#
1+) ILLUSTRATIONS

NASAL HELM
Aunst &istorisc%es Museum >he "o''on hel'et of the eleventh and t(elfth "ent&rie$ (a$ a $i'ple "oni"al $hape (ith a long proKe"tion, the na$al, to prote"t the no$e# Altho&gh ill&$tration$ appear to $ho( that the$e hel'et$ (ere 'ade fro' $everal pie"e$, li:e the earlier Anglo!Saxon and +i:ing hel'et$, thi$ very rare $&rvival i$ 'ade fro' a $ingle pie"e of iron# It i$ no( held in the 7apen &nd 5&$t:a''er, ,&n$t!hi$tori$"he 2&$e&', +ienna, A <-#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1+(

RE"IN REMAKES SI"URD<S SWORD

T%e Art Arc%iveG>ldsaksammlung >sloG*agli >rti >he Sig&rd4Siegfried legend relate$ ho( 5e!gin forge$ a $(ord for Sig&rd, (hi"h he then &$e$ to $lay the dragon, Bafnir, and "apt&re the dragonG$ trea$&re# 7hile "oo:ing the heart of Bafnir, Sig&rd ta$te$ the dragonG$ blood and gain$ the po(er to &nder$tand the bird$, (hi"h tell hi' that 5egin plan$ to :ill hi' and ta:e the trea$&re# Sig&rd $lay$ 5egin in$tead# On thi$ t(elfth!"ent&ry (ooden panel fro' the Sete$dale Ch&r"h in %or(ay, 5egin forge$ Sig&rdG$ $(ord in hi$ $'ithy# After heating the $(ord in hi$ forge, (hile an a$$i$tant p&'p$ the bello($ to in"rea$e the heat, 5egin ha''er$ o&t the $(ord on an anvil#
1+ILLUSTRATIONS

SAINT MAURICE ON HORSE6ACK

,ric% /essingGArt +esource >hi$ $ilver "a$:et fro' the >rea$&ry of the Abbey of Saint!2a&ri"e in S(itFerland $ho($ Saint 2a&ri"e a$ a 'edieval :night in 'ail ar'or of abo&t --/0# =e i$ (earing a na$al hel'et and "arrying a long :ite! $haped $hield# A pennon i$ atta"hed to hi$ lan"e# Both pennon and $hield are de"orated (ith a "ro$$ identifying 2a&ri"e a$ a "r&$ader#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1+.

KNEELIN" CRUSADER KNI"HT &I(GArt +esource >hi$ K&$tly fa'o&$ i'age fro' the 7e$t'in$ter *$alter depi"t$ a :night of abo&t -- /1-200 6Briti$h Library, 5oyal 2 A, EEII, f# 2208# =e (ear$ a $&r"oat over hi$ 'ail "oat (ith long $leeve$ that extend to prote"t the ba":$ of hi$ hand$# =i$ leg$ are prote"ted (ith 'ailH the 'ail on hi$ lo(er leg$ i$ tied at the ba": and extend$ to "over hi$ feet# =e al$o (ear$ $i'ple pri": $p&r$# =i$ head i$ prote"ted (ith a 'ail "oif fa$tened by a flap $e"&red to hi$ left# >o the &pper right i$ hi$ great hel', held for hi' by hi$ lady# =i$ $(ord i$ do&ble edged, taper$ to a $harp point, and ha$ a $i'ple di$" po''el and "ro$$ g&ard$# It i$ en"a$ed in a $"abbard hanging fro' hi$ belt# A pennon i$ atta"hed to hi$ lan"e belo( the $pearhead# >he pennon and hi$ $&r"oat indi"ate that he i$ a "r&$ader#
1), ILLUSTRATIONS

WAR ELEPHANT FROM A MEDIEVAL 6ESTIARY

$ritis% /i)rar# &arle# MS 685C f. 9 /ondonGT%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# >hi$ fanta$ti" i'age of an ar'ed elephant, fro' abo&t -2;01-2<0, $ho($ 'any of the (eapon$ of the thirteenth "ent&ry# At the far right a 'an i$ $ho(n (ith a $ling loaded (ith $tone $hot, (hile other $oldier$ are ar'ed (ith axe$, longbo($, and "ro$$bo($# >here are a variety of different hel'et$, in"l&ding the great hel', altho&gh 'o$t are of the $i'ple, open :ettle hat type# All are ar'ed in 'ail ar'or, and the driver "arrie$ a triang&lar $hield that "over$ hi$ head and 'o$t of hi$ tor$o# >hi$ ill&'ination "o'e$ fro' a be$tiary 'ade in England, po$$ibly Sali$b&ry#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1)0

MAIL8CLAD KNI"HTS AND MOUNTED ARCHER FROM THE CHANSON D<ASPREMONT

$ritis% /i)rar# /ansdowne MS 89J f. CD >hi$ ill&$tration fro' the Chan$on dGA$pre!'ont 6-22/1-2/08 $ho($ a 'o&nted ar"her (ith hi$ bo( and )&iver at hi$ $ide into (hi"h he i$ rea"hing (ith hi$ right hand# All the $oldier$ are "lad in 'ail fro' head to toe and are (earing $&r"oat$# >hey are fighting (ith "o&"hed lan"e$ and $(ord$ and are &$ing the $'aller heater $hield#
1)1 ILLUSTRATIONS

KNI"HTS WITH COUCHED LANCES ON A TWELFTH8CENTURY CHESS PIECE

,ric% /essingGArt +esource >he$e t(o :night$ are $ho(n on an ivory "he$$ pie"e of abo&t --<0# >hey are probably (earing long 'ail "oat$, altho&gh the "arving $&gge$t$ that their ar'or i$ 'ade of $"ale$# >he $:&ll$ of their na$al hel'et$ are 'ade fro' fo&r plate$ Koined together, in$tead of a $ingle pie"e# >heir long, :ite! $haped $hield$ are "&rved to fit aro&nd the body for extra prote"tion and are $&pported by a $trap that goe$ over the $ho&lder# >hey are fighting (ith "o&"hed lan"e$ and are o&tfitted (ith long $tirr&p$ and $i'ple pri": $p&r$# C&rrently in the Lo&vre 2&$e&', *ari$#

ILLUSTRATIONS

1)'

SWORD& CA. 01+,*0'',

Trustees of T%e $ritis% Museum Bo&nd in the 5iver 7itha' in Lin"oln$hire, England, thi$ $(ord ha$ the "hara"teri$ti" tapering do&ble!edged blade, $i'ple "ro$$ g&ard, and di$" po''el of the period# >he hilt, (hi"h (o&ld have "overed the tang, the exten$ion of the blade bet(een the "ro$$ g&ard and the po''el, i$ 'i$$ing#
1)/ ILLUSTRATIONS

DAVID DEFEATIN" THE PHILISTINES FROM THE MOR"AN PICTURE 6I6LE

T%e (ierpont Morgan /i)rar#GArt +esource >hi$ 'iniat&re, 'ade in Bran"e in abo&t -2/0, $ho($ David defeating the *hili$tine$# >he 'o&nted :night$ (ear 'ail ar'or and great hel'$ or :ettle hat$H 'o$t are al$o (earing long $&r"oat$# >he :night$ are $ho(n "harging (ith their

lan"e$ "o&"hed or (ielding a long, tapered, do&ble!edged $(ord# Shield$ are no( $horter than the long :ite!$haped $hield pop&lar in the previo&$ t(o "ent&rie$# >hi$ bea&tif&lly ill&$trated 'an&$"ript, on"e :no(n a$ the 2a"ieKo($:i Bible, i$ no( in the *ierpont 2organ Library in %e( Dor: City 62S 2#0;9, f# ;.8#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1)+

DAVID DEFEATS THE SYRIANS FROM THE MOR"AN PICTURE 6I6LE

1ew Kork Cit# T%e (ierpont Morgan /i)rar# MS M.E49 f. 6DGArt +esource >hi$ 'iniat&re, fro' the for'er 2a!"ieKo($:i Bible ! no( "alled the 2organ *i"t&re Bible ! (a$ prod&"ed in Bran"e in abo&t -2/0, and depi"t$ ,ing David defeating the Syrian$# >he 'o&nted :night$ are in f&ll "harge (ith "o&"hed lan"e and $(ord, b&t the infantry $oldier$ to the right are $"aling the (all$ of a to(n &$ing ladder$ (hile another $oldier i$ atta":ing the gate (ith a pi":axe# All $oldier$ are (earing 'ail that "over$ the entire tor$o, ar'$, and leg$, in"l&ding the hand$ and feet# Several different hel'et$ are $ho(n, in"l&ding great hel'$ on the "avalry and :ettle hat hel'et$ on the infantry#
1)) ILLUSTRATIONS

6RASS OF SIR 5OHN D<A6ERNON THE ELDER

Stoke d2A)ernon C%urc% Surre# ,ngland >he ar'or of Sir Aohn dGAbernon, fro' hi$ 'on&'ental bra$$ of -2 , i$ predo'inantly 'ail fro' hi$ head ! the "oif ! to hi$ feet# =o(ever, hi$ :nee$ are prote"ted (ith plate ar'or ! po$$ibly 'ade fro' cuir )oulli and not fro' iron# =i$ $hield i$ no( the '&"h $horter type rather than the long :ite $hape of earlier# =i$ $(ord i$ long and taper$ do(n it$ length#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1)(

THE SIE"E OF ACRE& 00.0 /i)rar# of Congress >hi$ 'iniat&re of an atta": on a "a$tle $ho($ the "hara"teri$ti" $iege ta"ti"$ of the "r&$ading period# On the lo(er left i$ a $i'ple "o&nter(eight treb&"het loaded (ith a ro&nd $tone ball# >he $oldier$ to the right are digging a 'ine &nder the "a$tle (all$ &$ing pi":axe$# Defender$ are $ho(n $hooting longbo($# All $oldier$ on both $ide$ (ear 'ail ar'or "overed by $&r"oat$ of $ingle "olor (itho&t heraldry# >he ill&'ination i$ $aid to depi"t the $iege of A"re and i$ "&rrently ho&$ed in the BibliothV)&e 5oyale de Br&xelle$#
1)ILLUSTRATIONS

ASSYRIANS AT THE SIE"E OF 5ERUSALEM ,ric% /essingGArt +esource >hi$ ill&'ination fro' the Silo$ Apo"alyp$e 6Briti$h Library, Add# 2S --0./, f# -02v8 depi"t$ the Bo&r =or$e'en of the Apo"alyp$e ! Ba'ine, *lag&e, 7ar, and Death ! repre$ented by fo&r "avalry $oldier$ 6li:ely Spani$h 2&$li'$8 riding "olorf&l hor$e$# 7hile one rider i$ holding a $et of $"ale$, t(o are brandi$hing long tapering $(ord$ and one ha$ a re"&rved bo( ar'ed (ith an arro(# All are (earing long 'ail "oat$ that appear to be edged (ith de"orative border$# >he Silo$ Apo"alyp$e i$ a "o''entary on the Boo: of 5evelation by Beat&$ of LiNbana and (a$ (ritten in --0. in Silo$, Spain#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1).

MEDIEVAL MUSLIM HORSEMEN

$ritis% /i)rar# Add. MS C99EE f. C6Da >hi$ fo&rteenth!"ent&ry 'an&$"ript ill&'ination $ho($ fo&r 2&$li' hor$e'en "arrying $(ord$ and $'all "ir"&lar $hield$# >heir $(ord$ are $lightly "&rved and have $i'ple "ro$$ hilt$# >he hor$e'en have al$o looped the rein$ aro&nd their right ar'$ leaving the' free to (ield their $(ord$#
1(, ILLUSTRATIONS

KNI"HTS AND INFANTRY AT THE 6ATTLE OF 6ANNOCK6URN

$ritis% /i)rar# MS Add. 68E9J f. 6DGT%e Art Arc%ive >hi$ early fo&rteenth!"ent&ry 'an&$"ript ill&'ination $ho($ a (ide range of both $oldier$ and ar'$ and ar'or# At the top, "avalry, (earing 'ail ar'or and plate hel'et$, fight on hor$eba":# >heir (eapon$ in"l&de $(ord$, axe$ of vario&$ $hape$, dagger$, and lan"e$# At the top "enter one "avalry $oldier (ield$ a $(ord "alled a fal"hion# >he hor$e$ are &nar'ored and are K&$t (earing "loth trapper$# In the lo(er $"ene the infantry fight (ith $(ord$, axe$, polear'$, and bo($ and arro($# 7hile $o'e of the$e $oldier$ (ear 'ail, 'o$t are &nar'ored ex"ept for a hel'et# >he t(o $oldier$ to the left of "enter fight (ith a $'all ro&nd $hield "alled a b&":ler# >hi$ ill&$tration i$ fro' the =ol:ha' Bible *i"t&re Boo:#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1(0

THE CAPTURE OF DAMIETTA Arc%ivo Iconografico S.A. GCor)is >hi$ 'iniat&re, fro' a 'an&$"ript held in the Bibliothe)&e de lGAr$enal in *ari$, date$ to the end of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry and $ho($ ho( ar'or had developed# >he $oldier$ are (earing plate ar'or on their ar'$ and leg$ and, altho&gh it i$ &n"lear (hat they are (earing on their tor$o$, one 'an on the left appear$ to be (earing a brea$tplate# Ea"h al$o (ear$ a hel'et, 'ainly a ba$"inet or a :ettle hat, (ith a 'ail "oif or "ollar# 7eapon$ in"l&de the tapered $tabbing $(ord (ith di$" po''el and $i'ple "ro$$ g&ard, the rondel dagger, an axe, and a variety of polear'$#
1(1 ILLUSTRATIONS

6ERTRAND DU "UESCLIN<S CAPTURE OF PESTIEN CASTLE $ritis% /i)rar# Kates T%ompson 45 f. 5C G&I(GT%e Image Works Dating to abo&t -<00, thi$ ill&$tration $ho($ $oldier$ (earing 'ail and plate ar'or# >he fig&re$ in the 'iddle are (earing leg harne$$e$ and vi$ored ba$"inet$# >he defender$ are (earing $i'ilar ar'or and are ar'ed (ith "ro$$bo($ and $pear$# It i$ not "lear if they are (earing brea$tplate$ a$ the tor$o$ are ob$"&red by fabri" "overing$# >he atta":er$ are &$ing longbo($ and are ar'ed (ith $pear$ and $(ord$# 7hile 'o$t are (earing ba$"inet$, (ith or (itho&t vi$or$, $o'e are (earing :ettle hat$# >he $"ene "elebrate$ Bertrand D& C&e$"linG$ "apt&re of *e$tien Ca$tle in -;0< and i$ fo&nd in C&!velierG$ ILife of Bertrand D& C&e$"lin#J
ILLUSTRATIONS 1('

6ATTLE OF A"INCOURT Stapleton CollectionGCor)is >hi$ fine fifteenth!"ent&ry 'an&$"ript ill&$! (ith the longbo( and the $(ord# >he tration of the Battle of Agin"o&rt $ho($ a 'o&nted :night$ al$o (ear brigandine$ b&t (ide range of ar'or and (eapon$# 2o$t of (ith ar'or on their ar'$ and leg$# All are the foot $oldier$ are (earing brigandine$, a$ $ho(n (earing $i'ple hel'et$, $allet$ or $ho(n by the pattern of rivet$ on the fabri", :ettle hat$# and poleyn$ on their :nee$# >hey are ar'ed
1(/ ILLUSTRATIONS

6ATTLE OF SAN ROMANO

,ric% /essingGArt +esource >hi$ fa'o&$ pi"t&re by *aolo ?"ello 6-;. 1-< /8 $ho($ the "ondottiere %i"!"olo da >olentino leading the Blorentine for"e$ again$t Siena at the Battle of San 5o'ano in -<;2# >he :night$ are (earing "o'plete plate ar'or of the very late$t fa$hion# 2o$t are ar'ed (ith lan"e$, altho&gh on the right a :night i$ fighting (ith a (ar ha''er# %ote that the hor$e$ are "o'pletely &nprote"ted# %ational Callery, London#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1(+

6RASS OF SIR 5OHN D<A6ERNON THE YOUN"ER

Stoke d2A)ernon C%urc% Surre# ,ngland >hi$ 'on&'ental bra$$ of the :night Sir Aohn dGAbernon the Do&nger 6"a# -;2 8 $ho($ the ar'or of that ti'e# It "on$i$t$ of a "o'bination of both 'ail and plate ar'or# ?nder Sir AohnG$ $&r"oat he i$ (earing a "oat of plate$ and a 'ail ha&bergeon ! both "an be $een at the front# =i$ ar'$ and leg$ are "overed in 'ail and f&rther prote"ted at the front by the addition of $i'ple Ig&tter!$hapedJ defen$e$# =i$ ba$"inet i$ very ro&nded, and hi$ ne": and $ho&lder$ are prote"ted by 'ail# =i$ long $(ord ha$ an al'o$t parallel!$ided blade and i$ $e"&red to hi$ (ai$t belt# Co'pare thi$ to the bra$$ of Aohn dGAbernon the Elder, of /0 year$ earlier, (ho i$ predo'inantly (earing 'ail (ith only very $'all plate defen$e$#
1() ILLUSTRATIONS

FOURTEENTH8CENTURY MILANESE ARMOR ,ric% /essingGArt +esource >hi$ very rare early ar'or (a$ 'ade for a 'e'ber of the 2at$"h fa'ily and date$ fro' aro&nd -;.0# >he brea$tplate i$, &n&$&ally, 'ade fro' $'all plate$ and i$ very ro&nded, (hile the ar'or for the ar'$ i$ of $i'ple $hape# All the pie"e$ of ar'or are edged (ith a "opper alloy border# >he hel'et, a ba$"inet, i$ "o'plete (ith it$ vi$or and aventail, (hi"h i$ atta"hed to the hel'et by 'ean$ of vervelles.
ILLUSTRATIONS 1((

ARMOR FOR MAN AND HORSE& CA. 0/-,

+o#al Armouries II.4 and @I.48I " Trustees of t%e +o#al Armouries >hi$ "o'plete ar'or for 'an and hor$e i$ "o'po$ed of pie"e$ 'ade by different ar'orer$ (or:ing in $o&th Cer'any in the late fifteenth "ent&ry# It $ho($ K&$t (hat the f&lly ar'ored :night (a$ (earing at the ti'e ar'or had rea"hed the very pea: of it$ develop'ent# =e i$ (earing a $allet and i$ "o'pletely en"a$ed in plate fro' head to foot ! a veritable I:night in $hining ar'or#J =i$ hor$e i$ al$o ar'ored in a plate $haffron and barding#
1(ILLUSTRATIONS

"REAT HELM CA. 0'+,*0'(+ +o#al Armouries I @.EDD " Trustees of t%e +o#al Armouries >hi$ extre'ely rare great hel' ! only t(o other$ are :no(n to $&rvive ! (a$ po$$ibly 'ade in England# >hi$ type of hel'et (a$ very pop&lar on the battlefield &ntil the end of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry b&t (a$ then often &$ed for Ko&$ting after that# >he "ro$$!$haped hole$ at the lo(er edge of the hel'et (ere for the atta"h'ent of a toggle!ended "hain by (hi"h the hel'et (a$ $e"&red to the brea$tplate# >he edge$ of the $ight, for'ed bet(een the edge$ of t(o of the plate$, are t&rned o&t to pre$ent a glan"ing $&rfa"e to t&rn blo($ a(ay fro' the eye$#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1(.

6ASCINET WITH VISOR

+o#al Armouries I@.68D " Trustees of t%e +o#al Armouries >hi$ very fine ba$"inet (ith vi$or and 'ail aventail (a$ 'ade in north Italy bet(een -;90 and -<00 and i$ very "hara"teri$ti" of the period# >he vi$or i$ ni"ely hinged and "o&ld be open d&ring "onfli"t to aid breathing or "o''&ni"ation# >he engraved "opper!alloy border aro&nd the vi$or i$ a rare $&rvival# >he aventail i$ $e"&red to the lo(er edge of the hel'et by 'ean$ of a leather $trip that fit$ over peg$, vervelles thro&gh (hi"h a "ord i$ threaded#
1-, ILLUSTRATIONS

THE ALTARPIECE OF ST. VINCENT OF SARA"OSSA !iraudonGArt +esource >he t(o fig&re$ on either $ide of St# +in"ent of Sarago$$a are (earing brigandine$, a$ $ho(n by the pattern of rivet$ "overing the ri"h fabri"# >he brigandine$ open at the front and are $e"&red together by la"e$ and point$# >he fig&re to the left i$ al$o (earing 'ail at the lo(er (ai$t and $ho&lder$ a$ (ell a$ plate ar'or on hi$ thigh$, :nee$, and elbo($# >he altarpie"e of (hi"h thi$ i$ a detail (a$ painted by %&no Con"alve$ or ConFa!lveF "a# -<./ and i$ no( in the %ational 2&$e&' of An"ient Art, Li$bon, *ort&gal#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1-0

SIE"E OF ROUEN FROM THE 6EAUCHAMP PSALTER $ritis% /i)rar# Cotton MS Lulius , I @ f. CIGT%e Art Arc%ive >hi$ $"ene fro' the pageant of the life of 5i"hard Bea&"ha'p, Earl of 7ar(i": 6-;9.1-<;.8, prod&"ed in abo&t -<9/, $ho($ the $iege of Caen in -<-9# At the botto' right three "ro$$bo('en, only (earing $allet$ and no other ar'or, are $hooting fro' behind the prote"tion of large $hield$, pavi$e$, propped &p on a $ingle leg# >he $hip at the botto' left i$ ar'ed (ith artillery, and the (all$ of the "ity are being bo'barded by a large bree"h!loading "annon# >he $oldier behind the "annon i$ holding the po(der "ha'ber in hi$ left hand#
1-1 ILLUSTRATIONS

FEDERI"O DA MONTEFELTRO T%e $ridgeman Art /i)rar# >hi$ -< 2 portrait of Bederigo da 2ontefel!tro, D&:e of ?rbino, $ho($ hi' (earing a $&perb &p!to!the!'in&te Italian ar'or that "over$ hi' fro' head to foot# =i$ hel'et and ga&ntlet$ are on the floor in front of hi'# A fringe of 'ail (ith a bra$$ border "an be $een belo( hi$ ar'or# =i$ $(ord i$ h&ng fro' hi$ (ai$t by an elaborate $et of $trap$, (hi"h en$&red that it (a$ held in $&"h a (ay that it "o&ld be ea$ily dra(n (ith hi$ right hand# >hi$ fa'o&$ painting, by *iero della Bran"e$"a, i$ a detail fro' the Brera Altarpie"e and i$ no( in the *ina!"ote"a di Brera, 2ilan, Italy#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1-'

FIFTEENTH8CENTURY SWORD Trustees of t%e ArmouriesG&eritage"ImagesGT%e Image Works >hi$ i$ a very "hara"teri$ti" I:nightlyJ $(ord of abo&t -<00# >he do&ble!edged blade i$ (ide at the hilt and taper$ $harply to the point, 'a:ing it a good (eapon for both $tabbing and $la$hing# >he hilt i$ very $i'ple, "on$i$ting of a $i'ple di$" po''el and "ro$$ g&ard# 5oyal Ar'o&rie$, IE#;09;#
1-/ ILLUSTRATIONS

CIN=UEDEA AND 6AR6UT

ScalaGArt +esource On the right i$ a "in)&edea (ith it$ "hara"teri$ti" (ide blade and hilt# >he hel'et i$ a type "alled a barb&t and i$ very "hara"teri$ti" of the Italian ar'orer$# Both date fro' the $e"ond half of the fifteenth "ent&ry and are fro' the 2&$eo *oldi *eFFoli, 2ilan, Italy#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1-+

WAR HAMMER
Trustees of t%e +o#al Armouries A (ar ha''er of the late fifteenth "ent&ry of a type &$ed exten$ively by 'o&nted :night$ a$ a $e"ondary (eapon# Shaped rather li:e a ha''er, one $ide i$ a $i'ple Iha''er headJ (hile the other i$ longer and pointed for greater effe"tivene$$ a$ a pier"ing (eapon# 7ar ha''er$ (ere often atta"hed to the (ri$t by a leather $trap fa$tened to the end of the handle, leaving the hand free &ntil the ha''er (a$ needed#
1-) ILLUSTRATIONS

FIFTEENTH8CENTURY LON"6OWS $ritis% /i)rar# +o#al CE !. @III f. C9I G&I(GT%e Image Works >(o ar'ie$ fa"e ea"h other in battle fro' a Ble'i$h 'an&$"ript of Cae$arG$ =i$torie$ 6"a# -< ;8# >he front line$ "on$i$t of ar"her$ ar'ed (ith longbo($# All are (earing "o'plete plate ar'or (ith vi$ored $al!let$ and "loth!"overed &pper brea$tplate$# A&$t behind the ar"her$ are the "avalry, 'o&nted on &nar'ored hor$e$, (ith "o&"hed lan"e$# >hey are (earing ar'or $i'ilar to that of the ar"her$, b&t they are al$o (earing great ba$"inet$ and (ooden $hield$ are prote"ting their left $ho&lder$# Behind the "avalry, to the left, the 'a$$ed infantry are (earing ar'or and are ar'ed (ith polear'$# >o the far left one $oldier ha$ a handg&n to hi$ $ho&lder#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1-(

THE EARLY CANNON OF THE SECRETIS SECRETORUM $ritis% /i)rar# Add. MS 68E9D f. 66v >hi$ i$ one of the earlie$t depi"tion$ of "annon, fro' -;201-;2 , and it $ho($ a large va$eli:e barrel lying on a table# >he "annon i$ loaded (ith an arro( proKe"tile, (hi"h (a$ "o''on thro&gho&t the fo&rteenth "ent&ry# One of the fo&r $oldier$ at the left i$ firing the g&n, (hile all appear to be $hielding their fa"e$ fro' the bla$t#
1-ILLUSTRATIONS

MONS ME"
Courtes# +o)ert *. Smit% >hi$ K&$tifiably fa'o&$ "annon, :no(n a$ 2on$ 2eg, (a$ 'ade in -<<. for *hilip the Cood, D&:e of B&rg&ndy, in the (or:$hop of Aehan Ca'bier, a (ell!:no(n ar'$ 'a:er and dealer in 2on$, no( in pre$ent!day Belgi&'# It i$ 'ade fro' long $tave$ of iron bo&nd (ith iron ring$ in '&"h the $a'e (ay (ooden barrel$ are $till 'ade# Of a type "alled a bo'bard, it fired a $tone ball of abo&t 29/ po&nd$ 6-;0 :g8 and (a$ &$ed in $iege$ to brea: do(n and $hatter (all$# >he$e h&ge g&n$ (ere &$ed fro' the fir$t de"ade$ of the fifteenth "ent&ry b&t fro' abo&t -< / (ere repla"ed by $'aller "a$t bronFe "annon firing iron "annon ball$#
ILLUSTRATIONS 1-.

KUMLA FRESCO DEPICTIN" LATE MEDIEVAL WEAPONRY Courtes# +o)ert *. Smit% =andg&n$ (ere &$ed fro' the very early day$ of g&npo(der in the fo&rteenth "ent&ry# >hi$ fre$"o, dating fro' the end of the fifteenth "ent&ry, in the ,&'la Ch&r"h in S(eden, $ho($ that handg&n$ (ere &$ed along$ide all the other proKe"tile (eapon$, e$pe"ially the longbo(# >he handg&nner on the left i$, &nli:e the other $oldier$, not (earing any ar'or# =i$ (eapon i$ a $i'ple iron t&be (ith a long exten$ion at the rear (hi"h $erve$ a$ the Ihandle#J
1., ILLUSTRATIONS

OTTOMAN 5ANISSARY
Alinari Arc%ivesGT%e Image Works >hi$ very fine pen dra(ing (a$ prod&"ed in abo&t -< .1-<9- by the +enetian arti$t Centile Bellini, (ho (or:ed at the Otto'an "o&rt in I$tanb&l# >he fig&re (ear$ the "hara"teri$ti" tall hat of the Kani$$arie$, the "ra": troop$ of the Otto'an ar'y# =i$ $(ord ha$ the "hara"teri$ti" "&rved hilt (ith a $i'ple "ro$$ g&ard# At hi$ left (ai$t i$ hi$ re"&rved bo(, and hi$ )&iver of arro($ hang$ to hi$ right#

"LOSSARY
Ailette$3 5e"tang&lar plate$, probably 'ade fro' cuir )oulli, atta"hed to the $ho&lder$ of a :night and proKe"ting &p(ard$, bearing hi$ ar'$ or other identifying feat&re$# A:eton3 *added &ndergar'ent (orn beneath the ha&ber:# Al'ain Collar3 *late ar'or for the top of the $ho&lder$ and ne": (hi"h (hen Koined together added prote"tion to that area of the body# Angon- An early 'edieval light $pear or Kavelin generally thro(n at an opponent before "lo$ing in for an atta":# Antenna!*o''el3 A dagger po''el (hi"h "&rved a(ay fro' the grip# Ar'et3 >ype of hel'et (ith large "hee:!pie"e$ atta"hed by hinge$ to the lo(er edge of the bo(l of the hel'et that 'et &nder the "hin# Arro(3 7ooden $haft (ith an iron head on one end and a flight 6feather$8 on the other to be $hot fro' a bo(# Aventail3 2ail defen$e atta"hed to the lo(er edge of a hel'et, &$&ally a ba$"inet, draping over the $ho&lder$# Axe3 A (eapon (ith a thi": iron head ! one edge of (hi"h (a$ $harpened ! atta"hed to a (ooden $haft# It "o&ld have a long $haft (ith a large triang&lar!$haped head or it "o&ld be $'all (ith a $hort head# So'e type$ of $'aller!$hafted axe$ (ere 'eant to be thro(n (hile other$, both long and $hort, (ere &$ed in one or t(o hand$ a$ a "lo$e "o'bat (eapon# Ba":plate3 Ar'or defen$e for the ba":# Al'o$t al(ay$ &$ed (ith a brea$tplate# Balli$ta3 An an"ient tor$ion "atap&lt &$ed by both Cree:$ and 5o'an$ (hi"h &$ed tightly (o&nd $pring$ 'ade of $ine( and rope to an"hor bo( $tave$# >hey fired either large bolt$ or $tone ball$ fro' a thi": $tring $tret"hed bet(een the t(o $tave$ and dra(n ba": by a (in"hed tiller# Ballo": Dagger3 >ype of $hort dagger, &$&ally (ith a blade of triang&lar $e"tion# At the lo(er part of the handle (ere

t(o lobe$ fro' (hi"h the dagger derive$ it$ phalli" na'e# Bard3 Co'plete hor$e ar'or# Ba$"inet3 >ype of hel'et introd&"ed aro&nd -;00 "on$i$ting of a "oni"al bo(l often rai$ed to a pea: on the top of the head# D&ring the follo(ing
1.0
1.1 "LOSSARY

three "ent&rie$ $everal type$ of ba$"inet developed, differing $lightly in $hape b&t all open fa"ed, altho&gh &$&ally fitted (ith a 'ovable and re'ovable vi$or# Ba$elard3 >ype of dagger very "o''on fro' -;/0 &ntil the late fifteenth "ent&ry# >heir hilt$ have a very "hara"teri$ti" for' (ith "ro$$ pie"e$ at both the g&ard and po''el end$, giving it the $hape of an I=J or a "apital IIJ on it$ $ide# >he$e "ro$$ pie"e$ "an be of e)&al length and )&ite $'all, b&t the typi"al ba$elard ha$ a "ro$$ pie"e at the g&ard $lightly longer than that at the po''el# $esagew- S'all "ir"&lar plate of iron atta"hed to the front of ar'or (hi"h h&ng do(n and prote"ted the ar'pit# Bevor3 *art of a hel'et (hi"h prote"ted the lo(er fa"e# It "o&ld be atta"hed to the hel'et bo(l or $eparated fro' the hel'et it$elf and atta"hed to it (ith a leather $trap and b&":le# Bill3 >ype of polear' "o''only &$ed thro&gho&t E&rope d&ring the later 'edieval period# Altho&gh there (ere "on$iderable variation$ in it$ for', it generally "on$i$ted of a for(ard!fa"ing hoo: (ith one or 'ore $pi:e$ proKe"ting fro' the rear and4or front# =o(ever, other, 'ore "o'plex type$ (ere developed, for exa'ple, the Wels% )ill and the roncone# Bod:in3 >ype of arro(head (hi"h (a$ long and very $'all in "ro$$ $e"tion $i'ilar to a bod:in needle# Bolt3 Short, thi": arro( fired by a "ro$$bo( or balli$ta# Bo'bard3 >ype of "annon (hi"h, altho&gh $o'e(hat &ndefined in the early period, "a'e to denote a "annon of very large $iFe that fired a $tone ball# Bo$$3 Cir"&lar, b&lbo&$ ele'ent fixed to the front of a $hield (hi"h (a$ often atta"hed thro&gh the $hield to the grip# >hey (ere &$&ally 'ade of iron# Bo(3 ?$ed to fire arro($ ! "on$i$ting of a $pringy, ela$ti" $haft to the end$ of (hi"h a $tring (a$ atta"hed# >he "o''one$t type$ (ere the longbo( and the "o'po$ite bo(# Bra"er3 A defen$e to prote"t the inner ar' fro' the $tring (hen $hooting a bo(# Bra"er$ "o&ld be 'ade of a variety of 'aterial in"l&ding leather, bone, or cuir )oulli# BraFil %&t *o''el3 >he po''el of a $(ord (hi"h in $hape re$e'bled the o&ter $hape of a braFil n&t# Brea$tplate3 Ar'or to prote"t the front of the "he$t# ?$&ally, tho&gh not al(ay$, (orn (ith a ba":plate, the t(o together "alled the "&ira$$# Brigandine3 Ar'or for the &pper body "on$i$ting of overlapping $'all iron plate$ ! &$&ally (ith a prote"tive "oating of tin ! riveted to the in$ide of a fabri" Ka":et# B&":ler3 A type of $'all ro&nd $hield held in the left hand and &$ed e$pe"ially (hen fighting (ith the $(ord# B&ffe3 A $eparate defen$e for the fa"e &$&ally (orn (ith a b&rgonet# $uffet- Large $e'i"ir"&lar padded "&$hion fitted a"ro$$ the front of the hor$e and (orn (ith a $haffron and f&ll "apari$on#
"LOSSARY 1.'

B&rgonet3 >ype of open!fa"ed hel'et $i'ilar to the "lo$e hel'et, b&t, in$tead of a vi$or "overing the fa"e, left the front open# A $'all pea: above the eye$ K&tted for(ard adding prote"tion for the', and hinged "hee:!pie"e$, tied together (ith a "ord beneath the "hin, prote"ted the $ide$ of the fa"e# A b&rgonet "o&ld al$o be (orn (ith a b&ffe for extra prote"tion for the fa"e# B&tted 5ing$3 5ing$ to for' 'ail ar'or (here the end$ of the ring$ (ere not "onne"ted one to another b&t (ere $i'ply b&tted &p "lo$e and not Koined# Byrnie3 2ail ar'or (orn by Carolingian $oldier$ that extended fro' the ne": to the thigh$ or :nee$# It (a$ (orn fairly loo$e (ith $hort $leeve$ rea"hing to the 'id!ar' or elbo(# Cannon 6canon in Bren"h83 C&npo(der (eapon$ larger than tho$e (hi"h "o&ld be held in the hand$# Cannon$ ranged fro' $'all pie"e$ firing $hot of 9 o&n"e$ to extre'ely large artillery pie"e$ firing $tone$ (eighing ;00 or 'ore po&nd$# Capari$on3 A large flo(ing "loth "overing the hor$e (hi"h, e$pe"ially later in the 2iddle Age$, (a$ e'blaFoned (ith the riderG$ "olor$ or ar'$# Carolingian =el'et3 =el'et open on the fa"e and "hee:$ (orn by "ontinental E&ropean $oldier$ bet(een the eighth and tenth "ent&rie$# It had a fairly $hallo( $:&ll fitted "lo$ely to the head and flared o&t K&$t above the level of ear$ to for' a bri', narro( at the $ide$ b&t 'ore prono&n"ed over the ba": of the head to prote"t the ne":, and t&rned $lightly &p(ard at the front# Catap&lt3 Ceneri" na'e for proKe"tile!firing $iege 'a"hine$, (hi"h in"l&ded balli$tae, onagers, and treb&"het$#

Cervelli?re- A $i'ple "oni"al hel'et of 'ore ro&nded for' than the earlier na$al hel'et# >he cervelli?re be"a'e "o''on by abo&t -;00# Chape3 A prote"tive "overing, &$&ally 'ade fro' 'etal, for the tip of a $"abbard to :eep the point of a $(ord or dagger fro' pier"ing it# Cha&$$e$3 2ail defen$e$ for the leg$# C%eiro)allistra- $'aller, 'ore portable ver$ion of the an"ient Cree: or 5o'an balli$ta# Cin)&edea3 A type of dagger 6literally Ifive finger$J8 (ith a very broad flat blade, tapering evenly fro' the hilt to the point, (ith either a $trong 'edial ridge or fl&ting to add $trength to the blade# Clo$e =el'et3 >he )&inte$$ential :nightG$ head prote"tion of the $ixteenth "ent&ry# It "on$i$t$ of a bo(l "overing the top of the head, b&t extended do(n ro&nd the ba": of the head and ne":# >he vi$or, &$&ally for'ed of three $eparate plate$, (a$ hinged at the $ide$ and "o&ld be lifted (hen needed# Slot$ for $ighting and breathing (ere provided# Cl&b3 Any for' of hafted (eapon (ith a heavy head (hi"h "an be &$ed to hit an opponentH &$&ally a (eapon of the poorer "la$$ of $oldier# Coat of *late$3 A textile or leather "oat developed by the late thirteenth "ent&ry to the in$ide of (hi"h $'all iron plate$ (ere atta"hed# It$ exa"t
1./ "LOSSARY

for' and "on$tr&"tion i$ not al(ay$ "lear in arti$ti" repre$entation$ a$ it i$ often hidden by the $&r"oat (hi"h (a$ (orn over it# Coif3 2ail ar'or (orn over the head# Co'po$ite Bo(3 A type of bo( 'ade fro' horn, bone, and $ine( (hi"h &tiliFed the different propertie$ of ea"h to prod&"e a very $pringy and $trong bo( $tave# Cor$elet3 A ter' &$ed, 'ainly after -/00, for ar'or (orn by the infantry and the light "avalry "on$i$ting of a "ollar, brea$tplate, ba":plate, ta$!$et$, va'bra"e$, and ga&ntlet$ (ith an open hel'et, &$&ally a b&rgonet# Co&"hed Lan"e3 >he 'ethod of holding the lan"e on hor$eba": in (hi"h the lan"e (a$ held in the hand and the rear (a$ t&":ed &nderneath the ar'# It (a$ &$ed by the "avalry to add the i'pet&$ of both the hor$e and it$ rider to deliver a $ho": blo( to the ene'y# Coulverine 6Culverin83 D&ring the fifteenth "ent&ry a type of handg&n# Later, fro' the early $ixteenth "ent&ry, the Engli$h tran$lation of the na'e, culverin, identified a "annon firing an -9!po&nd $hot# Co&nter(eight >reb&"het3 A "atap&lt $i'ilar in de$ign to the tra"tion tre!b&"het b&t (ith a $&b$tit&tion for the p&lling rope$ of a fixed "o&nter(eight, &$&ally a box filled (ith $tone$, $and, or $o'e other heavy body, (hi"h provided the po(er to di$"harge the proKe"tile# Co&ter3 Ar'or defen$e for the elbo(# Crane<uin- A loading devi"e (or:ing on the ra": and pinion prin"iple &$ed for dra(ing the $tring ba": on a very po(erf&l $teel "ro$$bo(# Crapadeau.- A $'all "annon pop&lar in fifteenth!"ent&ry Bran"e and B&rg&ndy# Cre$t3 A fa'ily e'ble' often 'olded in three di'en$ion$ and (orn atop the hel'et a$ a 'ean$ of identifi"ation# Crinet3 Ar'or for the hor$e$G head$# Cro$$ C&ard3 >he bar "ro$$ing the lo(er end of the hilt of a $(ord (hi"h prevent$ an opponentG$ $(ord $liding &p oneG$ blade onto the hand# Cro$$bo(3 >he "ro$$bo( (a$ a 'e"hani"al bo( ba$i"ally "on$tr&"ted a$ a $'all bo( atta"hed to a $to": (hi"h provided a groove for the bolt and handle# >he bo($tring (a$ held in pla"e on the handle ready for relea$e by a trigger 'e"hani$'# *robably de$"ended fro' the an"ient Cree: gastrap%retes 6or Ibelly!bo(J8, the "ro$$bo( (a$ pop&lar in (e$tern E&rope fro' the eleventh "ent&ry &ntil the end of the 2iddle Age$# Cr&pper3 *late defen$e for the rear of a hor$e# C&dgel3 See Clu)# Cuir $oulli- Leather (hi"h ha$ been $oftened and 'olded into $hape# C&ira$$3 >he brea$tplate and ba":plate together# Dagger3 A bladed (eapon $horter than a $(ord and &$&ally (ielded in the left hand 'eant for $tabbing in very "lo$e fighting# Da'a$"&$ or Da'a$"ene Blade3 A $(ord blade 'ade fro' pie"e$ of iron expertly (elded together $o that the final prod&"t appear$ to have a
"LOSSARY 1.+

(atered effe"t# It i$ not :no(n (hether the (ord Ida'a$"eneJ derived fro' the lo"ation IDa'a$"&$J or vi"e ver$a# Di$" *o''el3 A for' of $(ord or dagger po''el in the $hape of a di$" or (heel# Eared Dagger3 A highly de"orated dagger "hara"teriFed by a di$"!$haped g&ard and t(o di$"$ at the po''el li:e ear$#

Et"hing3 A for' of de"oration &$&ally in iron or $teel# >he $&rfa"e (a$ fir$t "overed in a re$i$tant layer (ith the re)&ired pattern $"rat"hed into the $&rfa"e# >he pie"e (a$ then p&t into an a"id or et"hant bath (ith the &nprote"ted area$ eaten a(ay revealing the pattern on the $&rfa"e# Bal"hion3 A $hort $(ord (ith a very broad, "&rved, $ingle!edged blade, $haped $i'ilar to a 'odern 'a"hete# Ba&ld3 A $eparate plate, or $o'eti'e$ t(o or three plate$, riveted to the lo(er edge of the brea$tplate or pla":art, $o'eti'e$ "alled a $:irt# Blan"hard3 Ar'or for the $ide of a hor$e# Blanged =ead3 2a"e head (ith $harpened or d&lled flange$ (rapped aro&nd it# Bra'ea3 Early Cer'ani" $pear (ith a $hort and narro( blade that "o&ld be thro(n or (ielded in "lo$e "o'bat# 'rancisca- Early 'edieval axe e$pe"ially favored by the Bran:$ that (a$ pri'arily &$ed a$ a 'i$$ile (eapon# !adling- A $'all de"oration atta"hed to the :n&":le plate of a ga&ntlet, the 'o$t fa'o&$ being the leopard$ on the ga&ntlet$ belonging to Ed(ard the Bla": *rin"e# Ca'be$on3 >rying to pin do(n K&$t (hat a ga'be$on (a$ i$ "onf&$ing a$ both it and the ter' aketon $ee' to have been &$ed indi$"ri'inately for gar'ent$ (orn both over and &nder the ha&ber:# =o(ever, it i$ li:ely that it refer$ to a gar'ent (orn over the 'ail $hirt, rather li:e the $&r"oat# Ca'boi$ed C&i$$e$3 *added thigh defen$e$, (hi"h $tart to appear in the later thirteenth "ent&ry# Carnit&re3 A $&it of ar'or $&pplied (ith additional plate$, over 00 in very elaborate garnit&re$, (hi"h "o&ld be added or ex"hanged (ith other pie"e$ of ar'or for different type$ of (arfare and 'artial ga'e$, i#e#, vario&$ for'$ of to&rna'ent, foot "o'bat, fighting on hor$eba":# !arros- See $olt# !astrap%retes- An"ient Cree: Ibelly!bo(J that probably in$pired the 'edieval "ro$$bo(# Ca&ntlet3 *late ar'or to prote"t the hand that be"a'e pop&lar after the end of the thirteenth "ent&ry# Cilding3 De"orating the $&rfa"e of a (eapon or ar'or (ith gold# !ladius- 5o'an $hort $(ord (ith a blade 'ade of iron and a grip of bronFe!"overed (ood, bone, or ivory# Claive3 A type of polear', the long blade of (hi"h had a "onvex front edge and a $traight ba":#
1.) "LOSSARY

Coat$!Boot Lever3 A $i'ple 'e"hani"al devi"e for $panning 6dra(ing ba": the $tring8 of a "ro$$bo(, "on$i$ting of t(o interlo":ing fra'e$ pivoted abo&t their end$# !oedendag- A $i'ple polear' favored by the &rban 'ilitia$ of the $o&thern Lo( Co&ntrie$ d&ring the fo&rteenth "ent&ry (hi"h (a$ ba$i"ally a heavy!headed "l&b to (hi"h iron $pi:e$ (ere atta"hed# Corget3 *late ar'or to prote"t the ne": and "hin# Creat Ba$"inet3 A for' of ba$"inet, fitted (ith plate$ re$e'bling the aven!tail, and &$ed pri'arily for Ko&$ting# Creat Cro$$bo(3 A large 'o&nted "ro$$bo( &$ed a$ a $iege engine or a$ a defen$e again$t $iege$# Creat =el'3 A type of hel'et of fairly $i'ple "ylindri"al $hape (ith a flat top and $ight and breathing hole$ "&t into the front# It (a$ (orn over the 'ail "oif and an ar'ing "ap, altho&gh it had it$ o(n padded lining and a "hin $trap# Creave3 *late ar'or to prote"t the lo(er leg$# Cree: Bire3 An enig'ati" 'aterial, the di$"overy of (hi"h in the early eighth "ent&ry ha$ al(ay$ been attrib&ted to a Cree: na'ed ,alini:o$# >he ByFantine Cree: fire i$ no( $&gge$ted to have been a lo(!boiling!point di$tillate of a nat&ral depo$it $i'ilar to 'odern ga$oline, altho&gh it$ exa"t "o'po$ition i$ ob$"&re# >he early &$er$ of the (eapon for"ed the fl&id &nder pre$$&re o&t of a $i'ple p&'p devi"e over an open fla'e igniting it ! rather li:e a 'odern fla'ethro(er# Later on, in the t(elfth "ent&ry, another 'aterial na'ed Cree: fire began to be &$ed by 2&$li' for"e$ in the "r&$ade$# >hi$ (a$ not the li)&id of the ByFantine$ b&t a 'ixt&re of fla''able 'aterial$ $&"h a$ tar!li:e $&b$tan"e$, g&'$, and re$in$ 'ixed (ith $&lf&r and other "he'i"al$# It (a$ pa":ed in "era'i" pot$ or $'all (ooden "ontainer$ and either thro(n by hand or fro' a treb&"het# Crip3 >he part of the $(ord or dagger (hi"h i$ a"t&ally IgrippedJ by the hand# C&ard3 >he bar$ that 'a:e &p the grip of a $(ord# It "an "on$i$t of a$ little a$ a $ingle "&rved bar ro&nd the hand to a "o'plex of 'any bar$, al'o$t for'ing a "age, a$ on 'any later rapier$# !uisarme- A type of polear' (ith an extre'ely long, axe!$haped head# C&npo(der3 A 'ixt&re of $&lf&r, "har"oal, and $altpeter (hi"h, (hen "onfined in a barrel, explode$# It i$ a "o'plex 'aterial (hi"h (a$ &$ed in 'any (ay$, for ro":et$ and fire(or:$, a$ an in"endiary, a$ (ell a$ in "annon and firear'$, to propel proKe"tile$# =alberd3 A type of $taff (eapon "o'bining the $pear (ith the long, t(o!handed axe# At fir$t it "on$i$ted of a fairly broad blade (ith a $pi:e proKe"ting fro' the top $e"&red to the end of a long pole ! aro&nd 0 feet 62 'eter$8 in length# D&ring the fifteenth "ent&ry, an extra $pi:e (a$ added to the axe portion of the head 'a:ing it an even 'ore for'idable (eapon#

"LOSSARY

1.(

=a''er3 A (eapon "on$i$ting of a $hort handle, 'ade of (ood or $teel, (ith a head li:e a ha''er# =andg&n3 A g&npo(der (eapon (hi"h "o&ld be "arried and &$ed in the hand$, &$&ally "on$i$ting of a barrel $et into a (ooden $to":# In the 'edieval period the ar)&eb&$ (a$ the "o''on type, fired by 'ean$ of a handheld 'at"h, b&t later lo":$ (ere developed a$ the trigger 'e"hani$'3 $naplo":, $napha&n"e, flintlo":, et"# =a&bergeon3 A ha&ber: $hortened at the $ide$ that be"a'e pop&lar after -2/0# =a&ber:3 A 'ail $hirt (hi"h "overed the tor$o and ar'$ extending to K&$t above the elbo(# =eater Shield3 A $'aller triang&lar!$haped $hield that repla"ed the :ite $hield in the thirteenth "ent&ry# =el'et$3 >he ar'or to "over and prote"t the head# =el'et$ "a'e in 'any for'$3 the :ettle hat, ba$"inet, b&rgonet, "lo$e hel'et, great hel', et"# =eraldry3 E$$entially &$ed a$ an identifier for gro&p$ of 'edieval $oldier$, it event&ally "a'e to indi"ate the fa'ily of the noble$ leading the$e for"e$# =eraldry appeared on $hield$, $&r"oat$, ga'be$on$, and banner$# =ilt3 >he part of the $(ord (hi"h i$ gra$ped in the hand# Inlay3 >he filling of et"hing$ in blade$, hilt$, and $"abbard$ (ith pre"io&$ 'etal$ ! gold, $ilver, and bronFe ! a$ a 'ean$ of de"oration# Aa":3 A type of body ar'or "on$i$ting of $'all re"tang&lar iron plate$, $lightly larger than an in"h $)&are (ith a hole in their "enter, (hi"h (ere la"ed bet(een t(o layer$ of fabri" (ith $tring, giving the' a "hara"teri$ti" )&ilted appearan"e# Aavelin3 A type of $pear, aro&nd 01. feet 621; 'eter$8 long (ith a $'all leaf!$haped head, intended to be thro(n at an opponent# ,ettle =at3 A type of hel'et for'ed by a "lo$e!fitting bo(l (ith a (ide, flat bri'# ,ite Shield or ,ite!Shaped Shield3 A long $hield, extending fro' the (ai$t to the :nee$ and $haped li:e a triang&lar :ite# It (a$ &$&ally "&rved a"ro$$ it$ (idth to fit the body and (a$ held by a leather $trap at the ba":# Alappvisier- A type of vi$or for the ba$"inet, (hi"h, at fir$t, (a$ ro&nded and pivoted at the $ide$ of the $:&ll altho&gh, later, (a$ atta"hed to the "enter of the fa"e opening# La'ellar Ar'or3 See Scale Armor# Lan"e3 A long $pear &$ed by the "avalry# It (a$ &$&ally "o&"hed, held &nder the ar' to "arry the i'pet&$ of both 'an and hor$e into a target, and a$ $&"h $tr&": ene'y for"e$ a$ a $ho": (eapon# Lan"e 5e$t3 A $hort proKe"tion on the right $ide of a brea$tplate fro' (hi"h the :night "o&ld 'ore ea$ily 'anip&late hi$ lan"e# Leaf!$haped Blade3 A blade $haped li:e a leaf ! (ide in the "enter and tapering both ba": and front#
1."LOSSARY

Longbo(3 A type of bo( 'ade fro' a $ingle pie"e of (ood "aref&lly $ele"ted to be $pringy and re$ilient# ?$&ally abo&t 2 'eter$ long and &$ed e$pe"ially by Engli$h and 7el$h ar"her$, be"o'ing one of the 'o$t i'portant (eapon$ of the =&ndred Dear$ 7ar# Long$(ord3 A $(ord e$pe"ially favored by early 'edieval barbarian $oldier$ &$&ally of $i'ple broad $hape# >he$e $(ord$ "o&ld be $ingle or do&ble edged (ith a ro&nded point 'ade for $la$hing and "&tting rather than thr&$ting# Lori"a =a'ata3 5o'an ar'or "on$tr&"ted of 'etal ring$, a$ 'any a$ ;/,000 to <0,000, (hi"h had been either p&n"hed o&t of $heet 'etal or 'ade of (ire# Lori"a Seg'entata3 >he 'o$t pop&lar 5o'an ar'or, it (a$ a "&ira$$ 'ade of $ix or $even thi": horiFontal bronFe $trip$ atta"hed by hoo:$ and b&":le$ onto a leather &ndergar'ent to "over the lo(er "he$t and $to'a"h area to belo( the (ai$t# >he $ho&lder$ (ere "overed (ith $everal "&rved $trip$ of bronFe $e"&red to a pair of front and ba": 'etal plate$ atta"hed to t(o $et$ of horiFontal $trip$ prote"ting the lo(er part of the body# Lori"a S)&a'ata3 5o'an $"ale ar'or 'ade of a large n&'ber of 'etalli" pie"e$, 'ea$&ring abo&t 0#0 in"he$ 6-#/ "enti'eter$8 long and 0#/ in"he$ 6-#; "enti'eter$8 (ide, atta"hed to ea"h other by leather la"e$ and affixed to a linen &ndergar'ent by linen thread# 2ail Ar'or3 Ar'or 'ade fro' $'all ring$ of iron Koined together in a (ay $o that ea"h ring i$ lin:ed thro&gh fo&r other$# >he ring$ (ere 'ade either by for'ing (ire into ring$ and riveting their end$ together or by p&n"hing o&t ring$ fro' $olid 'etal# >o 'a:e a pie"e of ar'or 'any tho&$and$ of ring$ (ere needed, and $haping (a$ a"hieved by in"rea$ing or de"rea$ing the n&'ber$ of ro($, rather li:e in :nitting# 2ail and *late Ar'or3 A type of ar'or, &$ed ex"l&$ively in the Ea$t, prod&"ed by Koining $'all iron or $teel plate$ together &$ing ro($ of ring$# 2angonel or 2angan&'3 A rotating bea' $iege engine &$ed by the 2erovingian Bran:$ to defend *ari$ by thro(ing h&ge $tone$ again$t the +i:ing$, $i'ilar to the later 'edieval treb&"het# 2orion3 A late for' of :ettle hat (ith a tall $:&ll and a narro( bri' &$&ally fitted (ith "hee:!pie"e$ (hi"h (ere tied together &nder the "hin#

2&ffler3 >he exten$ion of the $leeve$ of the 'ail $hirt to "over the ba":$ of the hand$, for'ing $o!"alled '&ffler$, a fa$hion (hi"h la$ted &ntil the early year$ of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry# %a$al3 An exten$ion fro' the front "enter of a hel'et to "over the no$e (hi"h (a$ e$pe"ially "o''on in the eleventh and t(elfth "ent&rie$# >nager- A 5o'an "atap&lt (hi"h &$ed a $ingle horiFontal $pring and one ar' $(inging &p(ard# At the end of the $ingle ar' (a$ a $ling in (hi"h a 'i$$ile, &$&ally a $tone ball, (a$ pla"ed for la&n"hing# >he trigger (a$ a pie"e of rope &$ed to an"hor the ar' ready for loading (hi"h (a$ 'o&nted on t(o large and heavy horiFontal bea'$#
"LOSSARY 1..

*arti$an3 A later type of $taff (eapon, &$ed thro&gho&t E&rope fro' abo&t -/00, (ith a long, flat blade tapering to a point, rather li:e an elongated $pear# *attern!7elding3 A 'ean$ of 'a:ing $(ord$ by b&ilding &p the blade of a (eapon fro' 'any $'aller pie"e$ of iron (hi"h (ere then (elded together, t(i$ted and (or:ed in $&"h a (ay that the re$&ltant $&rfa"e of the blade exhibited a di$"ernible and vi$ible pattern a:in to (ave$ or ripple$ or $o'e(hat li:e (oven pattern$, e$pe"ially herringbone (or:# *a&ldron3 *late ar'or to "over the $ho&lder$# *avi$e3 Large ro&ghly re"tang&lar $hield$ of varying $iFe$ developed in the thirteenth "ent&ry and &$ed 'ainly to prote"t "ro$$bo('en, ar"her$, and handg&nner$# 7hen $et on the gro&nd, often in long ro($, ar"her$ "o&ld either $hoot fro' behind the' or &$e the' a$ a prote"tion bet(een $hot$# *erriVre3 See Traction Tre)uc%et# *etrobole3 An Avero!Slavi" "atap&lt, literally 'eaning Iro": thro(er,J po$$ibly indi"ating that it (a$ a tra"tion treb&"het# *eytral3 Ar'or "overing the front of the hor$e# *ig!Ba"ed Ba$"inet3 A tall for' of the ba$"inet (ith a point at the rear and a vi$or pivoted at the $ide$ (hi"h be"a'e very pop&lar thro&gho&t E&rope fro' abo&t -;90# Altho&gh "alled a pig!fa"ed ba$"inet by 'odern $"holar$, the ter' visored )ascinet (a$ "o''on at the ti'e# *i:e3 A type of very long $pear, aro&nd -0 feet 6/ 'eter$8 long (ith a $'all iron head &$ed by the infantry, typi"ally in large organiFed for'ation$# (ilum- A heavy $pear &$ed both for thr&$ting and for thro(ing# (ila had a leaf!$haped iron head, 21; feet 6001.0 "enti'eter$8 long, e'bedded in or $o":eted onto a (ooden $haft (ith a $hort iron $pi:e at the rear# *la":art3 A brea$tplate for the lo(er tor$o &$ed e$pe"ially by the Italian ar'orer$ of the fifteenth "ent&ry, (ho $pe"ialiFed in 'a:ing it fro' t(o plate$, pla"ed one on top of the other# It (a$ often fitted (ith a $:irt, or fa&ld# *late Ar'or3 A ter' to differentiate 'ail ar'or fro' that 'ade fro' large plate$ of iron or $teel# *olear'3 A general na'e for a (eapon in (hi"h an iron or $teel head (a$ atta"hed to the end of a long (ooden pole or $haft# ?$ed by the infantry, polear'$ too: 'any for'$ over the 'edieval period# *oleyn$3 *late ar'or to prote"t the :nee$# *oll *late3 *late ar'or to prote"t the top of a hor$eG$ head and &$&ally atta"hed to the "rinet or ne": defen$e# *ollaxe3 A type of $taff (eapon, &$&ally abo&t / feet long, "on$i$ting of a (ooden $haft, often reinfor"ed (ith iron band$, to the end of (hi"h i$ atta"hed an iron or $teel head in the $hape of a ha''erhead often (ith one $ide re"tang&lar (hile the other i$ pointed# ?$ed for fighting on foot, e$pe"ially in the to&rna'ent "alled the Ifoot "o'bat#J
',, "LOSSARY

*o''el3 >he b&tton at the top of the $(ord (hi"h $e"&re$ the hilt to the blade and (hi"h al$o prevent$ the hand fro' $liding off the grip# It "an ta:e 'any for'$, for exa'ple the braFil n&t and di$"# *o&rpoint3 A type of )&ilted textile defen$e (hi"h began to be (orn in the $e"ond half of the t(elfth "ent&ry, altho&gh it$ exa"t p&rpo$e and &$e are $o'e(hat diffi"&lt to a$"ertain# e&arrel3 >he Iarro(J fired by a "ro$$bo(# It (a$ $horter and thi":er than the arro( $hot by a bo(# e&illon3 Another ter' for the "ro$$ g&ard, the tran$ver$e bar at the top of a $(ord or dagger blade# e&illon Dagger3 A type of dagger (ith )&illon$ (hi"h fir$t developed aro&nd the 'iddle of the thirteenth "ent&ry# Later ver$ion$ had g&ard$ re$e'bling the )&illon$ of $(ord$, and indeed 'o$t often loo: li:e $'aller ver$ion$ of "onte'porary $(ord$# 5e"&rved Bo(3 See Composite $ow# 5iveted 5ing$3 See Mail Armor# +oncone- A type of bill, developed in Italy, (hi"h had a long $traight blade ending in a $'aller "&rved hoo: (ith both top and ba":(ard!fa"ing $pi:e$# 5ondel Dagger3 A type of dagger, introd&"ed aro&nd -;00 and in (ide$pread &$e all over (e$tern E&rope fro' the 'iddle of the fo&rteenth "ent&ry (hi"h (a$ 'o$t often $lender and elegant in for'# It$ na'e (a$ derived fro' the di$"$ of either (ood or 'etal at either end of the grip#

Sabaton3 *late ar'or for the foot# Saddle3 >he $eat, $e"&red to the ba": of a hor$e, on (hi"h the rider $it$# Sallet3 A type of hel'et developed early in the fifteenth "ent&ry that "lo$ely fitted to the front of the head and for'ed into a long ItailJ at the rear (hi"h "overed the ne":# >he front (a$ "&t o&t aro&nd the fa"e and "lo$ed (ith a vi$or fa$tened to the $ide$ of the hel'et $:&ll (hi"h "o&ld be lifted to provide extra ventilation# A $lit bet(een the top of the vi$or and the hel'et bo(l provided vi$ion (hen the vi$or (a$ do(n# S"abbard3 A prote"tive $heath for the $(ord &$&ally 'ade fro' leather, or (ood, or (ood "overed in leather# It$ tip (a$ prote"ted by the "hape# S"ale Ar'or3 Ar'or 'ade of a large n&'ber of 'etalli" $"ale$ atta"hed to ea"h other by la"e$ and affixed to an &ndergar'ent# S"&t&'3 A large oblong $hield, favored by the 5o'an$, that (a$ "on$tr&"ted fro' layer$ of (ood, &$&ally three, gl&ed together# Ea"h layer (a$ 'ade of $trip$, (ith the o&ter pie"e$ laid horiFontally and the inner pie"e laid verti"ally, and the (hole "overed in "anva$ and "alf hide# A long (ooden bo$$ ran the entire length of the $hield and an"hored the hold on the in$ide# Seax or S"ra'a$ax3 A light, $hort, $ingle!edged $(ord favored by barbarian $oldier$ in the early 2iddle Age$# Shaffron3 Ar'or "overing the front of the hor$eG$ head (hi"h "o&ld be &$ed on it$ o(n or atta"hed to a poll plate and a "rinet#
"LOSSARY ',0

Shield3 A defen$e held in the left hand to prote"t the body (hen fighting# It (a$ &$&ally 'ade fro' (ood, "overed in leather, and $o'eti'e$ reinfor"ed (ith iron band$# Shield$ ranged fro' the $'all b&":ler &$ed in $(ord fighting to the large :ite!$haped $hield$ of the eleventh and t(elfth "ent&rie$ to the very large pavi$e$ of the thirteenth to fifteenth "ent&rie$# S:&ll!plate or S:&ll Cap3 A $i'ple hel'et "overing K&$t the top of the head# Sling3 A 'i$$ile (eapon "on$i$ting of a length of $tring (ith a (ide po&"h in the "enter# >he t(o end$ (ere held in one hand and the $ling, (ith a $hot in the po&"h, (a$ t(irled aro&nd the head and relea$ed# Altho&gh $tone$ (ere the 'ain a''&nition, $ling$ al$o thre( firepot$ and other in"endiarie$# Solid 5ing$3 See Mail Armor# Spangenhel'3 A type of hel'et "on$i$ting of a (ide band en"ir"ling the head to (hi"h t(o narro( band$ (ere atta"hed ! one fro' front to ba":, the other fro' $ide to $ide# >he re$&lting triang&lar!$haped $pa"e$ (ere then filled (ith 'etal or horn# A na$al extended do(n fro' the front of the en"ir"ling band to "over the no$e# Spat%a- A long and thi": 5o'an $(ord that (a$ pri'arily &$ed by "avalry# Spa&dler3 *late ar'or to "over K&$t the top$ of the $ho&lder$ (hi"h (a$ '&"h $i'pler and $'aller than a pa&ldron# Spear3 *erhap$ the 'o$t (idely &$ed (eapon in the pre!'odern (orld, the $pear (a$ a rod of (ood (ith a $harpened head, 'ade of 'etal d&ring the 2iddle Age$# It "o&ld be $horter and lighter ! a Kavelin ! or longer and heavier ! a lan"e or pi:e ! all of (hi"h "o&ld be thr&$t or thro(n# Springald3 Altho&gh it i$ &n"ertain (hat type of "atap&lt thi$ (a$ before the thirteenth "ent&ry, in the later 2iddle Age$ it be"a'e a type of great "ro$$bo( (here the bo( (a$ 'ade in t(o halve$ atta"hed to either $ide of a (ooden fra'e by 'ean$ of a t(i$ted and ten$ioned $:ein of hor$e hair, a $tring atta"hed to the o&ter end$ of the t(o bo($# Staff 7eapon3 See (olearm# Stirr&p3 A devi"e atta"hed to a leather $trap and hanging do(n on ea"h $ide of a hor$eG$ $addle (here a rider "an pla"e hi$ feet# >he $tirr&p 'ade a "o&"hed lan"e and 'o&nted $ho": "o'bat po$$ible# Stop!5ib3 A bar of iron riveted to the brea$tplate K&$t belo( the ne": (hi"h a"ted a$ a $top if the (earer (a$ hit by a (eapon# >he$e (ere "o''on on ar'or &ntil abo&t -</0# S&bar'ali$3 A 5o'an gar'ent (orn &nder ar'or# S&r"oat3 A long textile gar'ent (orn over ar'or fro' the 'iddle of the t(elfth "ent&ry and often "arrying the heraldry of the (earerG$ leader# S(ord3 A (eapon "on$i$ting of an iron or $teel blade (ith either one or both $ide$ $harpened# >he hilt (a$ fitted over an exten$ion of the blade, the tang, and the (hole fa$tened together (ith the po''el# >ang3 See Sword#
',1 "LOSSARY

>a$$et3 *late ar'or to prote"t the top$ of the leg$ and &$&ally atta"hed to the lo(er edge of the brea$tplate# >hora"o'a"h&$3 A 5o'an gar'ent (orn &nder ar'or# >or$ion Catap&lt3 See $allista# >ra"tion >reb&"het3 A 'edieval "atap&lt "on$i$ting of an ar' $et &ne)&ally on t(o &pright $&pport$, to the $horter end of (hi"h (a$ $e"&red 'any length$ of rope (ith the other end "ontaining a $ling for the proKe"tile# 7hen the rope$ (ere

p&lled do(n, the ar' $(&ng abo&t it$ pivot, la&n"hing the proKe"tile# >rapper3 Ar'or to prote"t the hor$e, "overing it fro' the head do(n to the :nee$, and 'ade either fro' 'ail or fro' plate$# >&r:i$h Bo(3 See Composite $ow# +a'bra"e3 *late ar'or prote"ting the ar'# +a'plate3 A di$" of iron atta"hed to the rear of the lan"e (hi"h prote"ted the hand# @ervelles- S'all iron peg$ (ith tran$ver$e hole$ atta"hed to the lo(er edge of a ba$"inet and over (hi"h the aventail (a$ $e"&red to the hel'et# @euglaire- A na'e for a 'edi&'!$iFed type of "annon, &$ed e$pe"ially in Bran"e, B&rg&ndy, and the =oly 5o'an E'pire# +i$or3 >he part of a hel'et "overing the fa"e (hi"h (a$ &$&ally 'ovable, $o that (hen not needed it "o&ld be p&$hed &p o&t of the (ay, allo(ing the (earer to breathe and "o''&ni"ate 'ore ea$ily# +i$ored Ba$"inet3 A type of ba$"inet (ith a vi$or# 7el$h Bill3 A type of bill (ith a long $lender "&rved blade and a right!angle $pi:e# 7indla$$3 A devi"e for p&lling ba": the $tring of a "ro$$bo( &$ing a $y$te' of p&lley$ to enable the $hooter to p&ll the $tring of a 'ore po(erf&l bo( ba": to the firing po$ition#

6I6LIO"RAPHY
CE%E5AL 2ilitary =i$tory
Ba"hra"h, David S# +eligion and t%e Conduct of War c.4DD"c.CJC5. 7ood!bridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, 200;# Barber, 5i"hard# T%e Anig%t and C%ivalr#. 2nd ed# 7oodbridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, -. /# Bennett, 2atthe(, Ai' Bradb&ry, ,elly De+rie$, Iain Di":ie, and *hylli$ Ae$ti"e# 'ig%ting Tec%ni<ues of t%e Medieval World- ,<uipment Com)at Skills and Tactics. %e( Dor:3 >ho'a$ D&nne Boo:$, 200/# Bradb&ry, Ai'# T%e Medieval Siege. 7oodbridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, -..2# Conta'ine, *hilippe# War in t%e Middle Ages. >ran$lated by 2# Aone$# Oxford3 Ba$il Bla":(ell, -.9<# De+rie$, ,elly# A Cumulative $i)liograp%# of Medieval Militar# &istor# and Tec%nolog#. Leiden, >he %etherland$3 Brill, 2002H =pdate. Leiden, >he %etherland$3 Brill, 200/# De+rie$, ,elly# Medieval Militar# Tec%nolog#. *eterboro&gh, ?,3 Broadvie( *re$$, -..2# De+rie$, ,elly, 2artin Do&gherty, Iain Di":ie, *hylli$ C# Ae$ti"e, and Chri$!ter Aorgen$en# $attles of t%e Medieval World CDDD7C5DD- 'rom &astings to Constantinople. %e( Dor:3 Barne$ and %oble Boo:$, 2000# =aldon, Aohn# Warfare State and Societ# in t%e $#Fantine World 5E57CJD6. London3 ?CL *re$$, -...# =ooper, %i"hola$, and 2atthe( Bennett# T%e Cam)ridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare- T%e Middle Ages. Ca'bridge3 Ca'bridge ?niver$ity *re$$, -..0# ,een, 2a&ri"e# C%ivalr#. %e( =aven, C>3 Dale ?niver$ity *re$$, -.9<# Lot, Berdinand# /2art militaire et les arm?es au mo#en"Mge en ,urope et dans le proc%e orient. 2 vol$# *ari$3 *ayot, -.<0# %i"hol$on, =elen# Medieval Warfare- T%eor# and (ractice of War in ,urope 4DD7C5DD. =o&nd'ill$, ?,3 *algrave 2a"'illan, 200<#
','
',/ 6I6LIO"RAPHY

%i"olle, David# Medieval Warfare Source $ook. +ol# -, Warfare in Western C%ristendom. +ol# 2, C%ristian ,urope and its 1eig%)ors. London3 Bro":!ha'pton *re$$, -../1-..0# O'an, Sir Charle$ 7# C# A &istor# of t%e Art of War in t%e Middle Ages. 2 vol$# London3 2eth&en, -.2<# 5eprint, London3 Creenhill Boo:$, -..9# *orter, *a'ela# Medieval Warfare in Manuscripts. London3 >he Briti$h Library, 2000# *re$t(i"h, 2i"hael# Armies and Warfare in t%e Middle Ages- T%e ,nglis% ,.perience. %e( =aven, C>3 Dale ?niver$ity *re$$, -..0# +erbr&ggen A# B# T%e Art of Warfare in Western ,urope *uring t%e Middle Ages from t%e ,ig%t% Centur# to C46D. 2nd ed# >ran$lated by S# 7illard and 5# 7# So&thern# 7oodbridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, -.. # Ar'$ and Ar'or Al', Ao$ef# ,uropean Cross)ows- A Surve#. >ran$lated by =# Bartlett 7ell$# Edited by C# 2# 7il$on# London3 >r&$tee$ of the 5oyal Ar'o&rie$, -..<# Blair, Cla&de# ,uropean Armour- circa CDEE to circa C8DD. London3 B# ># Bat$ford, -./9# Bradb&ry, Ai'# T%e Medieval Arc%er. %e( Dor:3 St# 2artinG$ *re$$, -.9/#

Clar:, Aohn, ed# T%e Medieval &orse and Its ,<uipment c.CC5D7c.C65D. London3 =er 2aKe$tyG$ Stationery Offi"e, -../# Davi$, 5# =# C# T%e Medieval War%orse- >rigin *evelopment and +edevelopment. London3 >ha'e$ and =&d$on, -.9.# D&fty, A# 5# ,uropean Swords and *aggers in t%e Tower of /ondon. London3 =er 2aKe$tyG$ Stationery Offi"e, -.09# Edge, David, and Aohn 2ile$ *addo":# Arms and Armour of t%e Medieval Anig%t. London3 Sat&rn Boo:$, -..0# ffo&l:e$, Charle$# T%e Armourer and &is Craft from t%e NIt% to t%e N@t% Centur#. London3 2eth&en, -.-2# 5eprint, %e( Dor:3 Dover *&bli"ation$, -.99# Liebel, Aean# Springalds and !reat Cross)ows. >ran$lated by A&liet +ale# Leed$, ?,3 5oyal Ar'o&rie$, -..9# 2ann, Aa'e$# ,uropean Arms and Armour. 2 vol$# London3 >r&$tee$ of the 7alla"e Colle"tion, -.02# %or'an, A# +# B# T%e Medieval Soldier. %e( Dor:3 Barne$ and %oble Boo:$, -. -# %or'an, A# +# B#, and Don *ottinger# ,nglis% Weapons and Warfare 66I7CEED. Engle(ood Cliff$, %A3 *renti"e!=all, -. .# Oa:e$hott, E(art# +ecords of t%e Medieval Sword. 7oodbridge, ?,3 Boydell *re$$, -..-# Oa:e$hott, E(art# T%e Sword in t%e Age of C%ivalr#. -.0<# 5eprint, 7ood!bridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, -..<#
6I6LIO"RAPHY ',+

*eter$on, =arold L# *aggers and 'ig%ting Anives of t%e Western World from t%e Stone Age till CIDD. London3 =erbert Aen:in$, -.09# 5eid, 7illia'# T%e /ore of Arms- A Concise &istor# of Weaponr#. %e( Dor:3 Ba"t$ on Bile *&bli"ation$, -. 0# Stri":land, 2atthe(, and 5obert =ardy# T%e !reat War)ow- 'rom &astings to t%e 2ary 5o$e# Stro&d, ?,3 S&tton *&bli$hing, 200/# >ara$$&:, Leonid, and Cla&de Blair, ed$# T%e Complete ,nc#clopedia of Arms and Weapons. %e( Dor:3 BonanFa Boo:$, -. .# >ro$o, 2ario# /e armi in asta- delle fanterie europee (CDDD7 C5DD). %ovara, Italy3 I$tit&to Ceographi"o de Ago$tini, -.99#

>=E EA5LD 2IDDLE ACES 2ilitary =i$tory

Ba"hra"h, Bernard S# T%e Anatom# of a /ittle War- A *iplomatic and Militar# &istor# of t%e !undovald Affair (5E97 59E). Bo&lder, CO3 7e$tvie( *re$$, -..<# Ba"hra"h, Bernard S# Merovingian Militar# >rganiFation 69C785C. 2inneapoli$3 ?niver$ity of 2inne$ota *re$$, -. 2# Collin$, 5oger# T%e Ara) Con<uest of Spain 8CD78I8. Oxford3 Bla":(ell, -.9.# Elton, =&gh# Warfare in +oman ,urope A* 45D76J5. Oxford3 Oxford ?niver$ity *re$$, -..0# Berrill, Arther# T%e 'all of t%e +oman ,mpire- A Militar# ,.planation. London3 >ha'e$ and =&d$on, -.90# =al$all, C&y# Warfare and Societ# in t%e $ar)arian West 65D7IDD. 7arfare and =i$tory# London3 5o&tledge, 200;# =eather, *eter# T%e 'all of t%e +oman ,mpire- A 1ew &istor# of +ome and t%e $ar)arians. Oxford3 Oxford ?niver$ity *re$$, 2000# 7ard!*er:in$, Bryan# T%e 'all of +ome and t%e ,nd of CiviliFation. Oxford3 Oxford ?niver$ity *re$$, 200/# 7hitby, 2i"hael# +ome at War A* JI47EIE. E$$ential =i$torie$# London3 O$prey, 2002# Ar'$ and Ar'or Br&"e!2itford, 5&pert# T%e Sutton"&oo S%ip"$urial. +ol# 2, Arms Armour and +egalia. London3 Briti$h 2&$e&' *&bli"ation$ Ltd#, -. 9# David$on, =ilda Elli$# T%e Sword in Anglo"Sa.on ,ngland- Its Arc%aeolog# and /iterature. -.02# 5eprint, 7oodbridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, -..<#
',) 6I6LIO"RAPHY

Di":in$on, >ania, B# S# A# =Yr:e, and =einri"h =Yr:e# ,arl# Anglo"Sa.on S%ields. London3 >he So"iety of Anti)&arie$ of London, -..2# 5obin$on, =# 5&$$ell# T%e Armour of Imperial +ome. London3 Ar'$ and Ar'o&r *re$$, -. /# Siddorn, A# ,i'# @iking Weapons and Warfare. Stro&d, ?,3 >e'p&$ *&bli$hing, 2000# Stephen$on, I# *# T%e Anglo"Sa.on S%ield. Stro&d, ?,3 >e'p&$ *&bli$hing, 2002# Stephen$on, I# *# +oman Infantr# ,<uipment- T%e /ater ,mpire. Stro&d, ?,3 >e'p&$ *&bli$hing, -...# S(anton, 2# A# T%e Spear%eads of t%e Anglo"Sa.on Settlements. London3 >he 5oyal Ar"haeologi"al In$tit&te, -. ;# ?nder(ood, 5i"hard# Anglo"Sa.on Weapons and Warfare. Stro&d, ?,3 >e'!p&$ *&bli$hing, -...#

>=E CA5OLI%CIA% *E5IOD 2ilitary =i$tory

Ba"hra"h, Bernard S# ,arl# Carolingian Warfare- (relude to ,mpire. *hiladelphia3 ?niver$ity of *enn$ylvania *re$$, 200-# Bo(l&$, Charle$ 5# T%e $attle of /ec%feld and its Aftermat% August I55- T%e ,nd of t%e Age of Migrations in t%e /atin West. Alder$hot, ?,3 A$h!gate, 2000# Collin$, 5oger# C%arlemagne. >oronto3 ?niver$ity of >oronto *re$$, -..9# Boote, *eter C#, and David 2# 7il$on# T%e @iking Ac%ievement. London3 Sidg(i": and Aa":$on, -. 0# Borte, Angelo, 5i"hard Ora', and Brederi": *eder$en# @iking ,mpires. Ca'bridge3 Ca'bridge ?niver$ity *re$$, 200/# Coldberg, Eri" A# Struggle for ,mpire- Aings%ip and Conflict =nder /ouis t%e !erman 9C8798E. Itha"a, %D3 Cornell ?niver$ity *re$$, 2000# =ay(ood, Aohn# T%e (enguin Atlas of t%e @ikings. =ar'ond$(orth, ?,3 *eng&in, -../# Aone$, C(yn# A &istor# of t%e @ikings. Oxford3 Oxford ?niver$ity *re$$, -.09# Sa(yer, *eter# Aings and @ikings- Scandinavia and ,urope A* 8DD7CCDD. London3 2eth&en, -.92# Sa(yer, *eter, ed# T%e >.ford &istor# of t%e @ikings. Oxford3 Oxford ?niver$ity *re$$, 200-# Ar'$ and Ar'or Co&pland, Si'on# ICarolingian Ar'$ and Ar'or in the %inth Cent&ry#J @iator 2- 6-..083 2.1/0#
6I6LIO"RAPHY ',(

*eir"e, Ian# Swords of t%e @iking Age. 7oodbridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, 2002# >(eddle, Do'ini"# T%e Anglian &elmet from CE7JJ Coppergate. 2 vol$# Dor:, ?,3 Dor: Ar"haeologi"al >r&$t, -..2#

>=E C5?SADES 2ilitary =i$tory

A$bridge, >ho'a$# T%e 'irst Crusade- A 1ew &istor#. Oxford3 Oxford ?niver$ity *re$$, 200<# Barber, 2al"ol'# T%e 1ew Anig%t%ood- A &istor# of t%e >rder of t%e Temple. Ca'bridge3 Ca'bridge ?niver$ity *re$$, -..<# Beeler, Aohn# Warfare in ,ngland CDEE7CC9I. Itha"a, %D3 Cornell ?niver$ity *re$$, -.00# Bradb&ry, Ai'# T%e $attle of &astings. Stro&d, ?,3 S&tton *&bli$hing, -..9# Bradb&ry, Ai'# Step%en and Mat%ilda- T%e Civil War of CC4I754. Stro&d, ?,3 Alan S&tton *&bli$hing, -..0# Chri$tian$en, Eri"# T%e 1ort%ern Crusades. 2nd ed# =ar'ond$(orth, ?,3 *eng&in Boo:$, -.. # Do&gla$, David C# William t%e Con<ueror. Ber:eley and Lo$ Angele$3 ?niver$ity of California *re$$, -.0<# D&by, Ceorge$# T%e /egend of $ouvines- War +eligion and Culture in t%e Middle Ages. >ran$lated by Catherine >ihanyi# Ber:eley and Lo$ Angele$3 ?niver$ity of California *re$$, -..0# Bran"e, Aohn# T%e Crusades and t%e ,.pansion of Cat%olic C%ristendom CDDD7C8C6. London3 5o&tledge, 200/# Bran"e, Aohn# @ictor# in t%e ,ast- A Militar# &istor# of t%e 'irst Crusade. Ca'bridge3 Ca'bridge ?niver$ity *re$$, -..<# Bran"e, Aohn# Western Warfare in t%e Age of t%e Crusades CDDD7C4DD. Itha"a, %D3 Cornell ?niver$ity *re$$, -...# Cillingha', Aohn# +ic%ard I. %e( =aven, C>3 Dale ?niver$ity *re$$, -...# =illenbrand, Carole# T%e Crusades- Islamic (erspectives. %e( Dor:3 5o&t!ledge, 2000# =olt, *# 2# T%e Age of t%e Crusades- T%e 1ear ,ast from t%e ,levent% Centur# to C5C8. London3 Long'an, -.90# Aordan, 7illia' Che$ter# /ouis IN and t%e C%allenge of t%e Crusade- A Stud# in +ulers%ip. *rin"eton, %A3 *rin"eton ?niver$ity *re$$, -. .# Lo&d, C# A# T%e Age of +o)ert !uiscard- Sout%ern Ital# and t%e 1orman Con<uest. =arlo(, ?,3 *ear$on Ed&"ation, 2000# Lyon$, 2al"ol' Ca'eron, and D# E# *# Aa":$on# Saladin- T%e (olitics of t%e &ol# War. Ca'bridge3 Ca'bridge ?niver$ity *re$$, -.92#
',6I6LIO"RAPHY

2adden, >ho'a$ B# A Concise &istor# of t%e Crusades. 2nd ed# Lanha', 2D3 5o('an and Littlefield, 200/# 2ar$hall, Chri$topher# Warfare in t%e /atin ,ast CCIJ7CJIC. Ca'bridge3 Ca'bridge ?niver$ity *re$$, -..2# 2ayer, =an$ Eberhard# T%e Crusades. Oxford3 Oxford ?niver$ity *re$$, -. 2# 2orillo, Stephen# Warfare under t%e Anglo"1orman Aings CDEE7CC45. 7oodbridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, -..<# %i"hol$on, =elen# T%e Anig%ts &ospitaller. 7oodbridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, 200-# OGCallaghan, Ao$eph B# +econ<uest and Crusade in Medieval Spain. *hiladelphia3 ?niver$ity of *enn$ylvania *re$$, 200;# *o(ell, Aa'e$ 2# Anatom# of a Crusade CJC47CJJC. *hiladelphia3 ?niver$ity of *enn$ylvania *re$$, -..0#

e&eller, Donald E#, and >ho'a$ B# 2adden# T%e 'ourt% Crusade- T%e Con<uest of Constantinople CJDC7CJD6. 2nd ed# *hiladelphia3 ?niver$ity of *enn$ylvania *re$$, -.. # 5i"hard, Aean# T%e Crusades c.CD8C7c.CJIC. Ca'bridge3 Ca'bridge ?niver$ity *re$$, -...# 5iley!S'ith, Aonathan# T%e 'irst Crusaders CDI57CC4C. Ca'bridge3 Ca'bridge ?niver$ity *re$$, -.. # 5&n"i'an, Steven# A &istor# of t%e Crusades. ; vol$# %e( Dor:3 =arper and 5o( *&bli$her$, -.0<1-.0 # Se(ard, De$'ond# T%e Monks of War- T%e Militar# +eligious >rders. London3 Eyre 2eth&en, -. 2# S'ail, 5# C# Crusading Warfare (CDI87CCI4). Ca'bridge3 Ca'bridge ?niver$ity *re$$, -./0# Strayer, Ao$eph 5# T%e Al)igensian Crusades. Ann Arbor3 >he ?niver$ity of 2i"higan *re$$, -. -# Stri":land, 2atthe(# War and C%ivalr#- T%e Conduct and (erception of War in ,ngland and 1ormand# CDEE7CJC8. Ca'bridge3 Ca'bridge ?niver$ity *re$$, -..0# ?rban, 7illia' =# T%e Teutonic Anig%ts- A Militar# &istor#. London3 Creenhill Boo:$, 200;#

Ar'$ and Ar'or

=oyland, 5obert C#, and Brian Cil'o&r, ed# Medieval Islamic Swords and Swordmaking- Aindi2s Treatise :>n Swords and t%eir Ainds; (,dition Translation and Commentar#). Oxford3 Cibb 2e'orial >r&$t, 2000# 2ann, Aa'e$# IAr'$ and Ar'o&r#J In T%e $a#eu. Tapestr#- A Compre%ensive Surve# 2nd ed# Edited by B# Stenton, /010.# London3 *haidon, -./ #
6I6LIO"RAPHY ',.

%i"olle, David C# Arms and Armour of t%e Crusading ,ra CD5D7C45D. 2 vol$# 7hite *lain$, %D3 ,ra&$ International *&bli"ation$, -.99# 5oger$, 5# /atin Siege Warfare in t%e Twelft% Centur#. Oxford3 Clarendon *re$$, -..2#

>=E LA>E 2IDDLE ACES 2ilitary =i$tory

All'and, Chri$topher# &enr# @. Ber:eley and Lo$ Angele$3 ?niver$ity of California *re$$, -..2# All'and, Chri$topher# T%e &undred Kears War- ,ngland and 'rance at War c. C4DD7c. C65D. Ca'bridge3 Ca'bridge ?niver$ity *re$$, -.99# Ar'$trong, *ete# $annock)urn C4C6- +o)ert $ruce2s !reat @ictor#. London3 O$prey, 2002# Atiya, AFiF S&ryal# T%e Crusade of 1icopolis. London3 2eth&en and Co#, -.;<# Ayton, Andre(, and *hilip *re$ton, ed$# T%e $attle of Cr?c# C46E. 7ood!bridge, ?,3 Boydell, 200/# Babinger, BranF# Me%med t%e Con<ueror and &is Time. >ran$lated by 5alph 2anhei'# Edited by 7illia' C# =i":'an# *rin"eton, %A3 *rin"eton ?niver$ity *re$$, -. 9# Barber, 5i"hard# ,dward (rince of Wales and A<uitaine- A $iograp%# of t%e $lack (rince. -. 9# 5eprint, 7oodbridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, -..0# Bart&$i$, 2ar: C# T%e /ate $#Fantine Arm#- Arms and Societ# CJD67C654. *hiladelphia3 ?niver$ity of *enn$ylvania *re$$, -..2# B&rne, Alfred =# T%e Agincourt War- A Militar# &istor# of t%e /atter (art of t%e &undred Kears War from C4EI to C654. London3 Eyre and Spotti$!(oode, -./0# B&rne, Alfred =# T%e Crec# War- A Militar# &istor# of t%e &undred Kears War from C448 to t%e (eace of $retign# C4ED. London3 Eyre and Spotti$!(oode, -.//# Conta'ine, *hilippe# !uerre ?tat et soci?t? O la fin du mo#en Mge- Ptudes sur les arm?es des rois de 'rance C4487 C6I6. *ari$3 2o&ton, -. 2# C&rry, Anne# Agincourt- A 1ew &istor#. Stro&d, ?,3 >e'p&$ *&bli$hing, 200/# De+rie$, ,elly# Infantr# Warfare in t%e ,arl# 'ourteent% Centur#- *iscipline Tactics and Tec%nolog#. 7oodbridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, -..0# De+rie$, ,elly# Loan of Arc- A Militar# /eader. Stro&d, ?,3 S&tton *&bli$hing, -...# Bo(ler, ,enneth# T%e Age of t%e (lantagenet and t%e @alois- T%e Struggle for Supremac# C4J97C6I9. %e( Dor:3 C# *# *&tna'G$ Son$, -.0 # Cood'an, Anthony# T%e Wars of t%e +oses- Militar# Activit# and ,nglis% Societ# C65J7I8. London3 5o&tledge and ,egan *a&l, -.9-#
'0, 6I6LIO"RAPHY

Cood'an, Anthony# T%e Wars of t%e +oses- T%e Soldiers2 ,.perience. Stro&d3 >e'p&$ *&bli$hing, 200/# Creen, David# T%e $attle of (oitiers C45E. Stro&d3 >e'p&$ *&bli$hing, 2002# =e(itt, =# A# T%e $lack (rince2s ,.pedition of C4557C458. 2an"he$ter, ?,3 2an"he$ter ?niver$ity *re$$, -./9# 5eprint, London3 *en and S(ord, 200<# =e(itt, =# A# T%e >rganiFation of War =nder ,dward III C4497EJ. %e( Dor:3 2an"he$ter ?niver$ity *re$$, -.00#

5eprint, London3 *en and S(ord, 200<# =o&$ley, %or'an# T%e /ater Crusades CJ867C59D- 'rom /#ons to AlcaFar. Oxford3 Oxford ?niver$ity *re$$, -..2# I'ber, Colin# T%e >ttoman ,mpire C4DD7CE5D. =o&nd'ill$, ?,3 *algrave 2a"'illan, 2002# L&"a$, =enry Stephen# T%e /ow Countries and t%e &undred Kears2 War C4JE7C468. Ann Arbor3 ?niver$ity of 2i"higan *re$$, -.2.# 2allett, 2i"hael# Mercenaries and t%eir Masters- Warfare in +enaissance Ital#. >oto(a, %A3 5o('an and Littlefield, -. <# %i"hol$on, 5anald# ,dward III and t%e Scots- T%e 'ormative Kears of a Militar# Career C4J87C445. Oxford3 Oxford ?niver$ity *re$$, -.0/# *erroy, Edo&ard# T%e &undred Kears War. >ran$lated by 7# B# 7ell$# %e( Dor:3 Oxford ?niver$ity *re$$, -./-# 5oger$, Clifford A# War Cruel and S%arp- ,nglis% Strateg# under ,dward III C4J87C4ED. 7oodbridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, 2000# 5&n"i'an, Steven# T%e 'all of Constantinople C654. Ca'bridge3 Ca'bridge ?niver$ity *re$$, -.0/# 5&$$ell, *# E# T%e ,nglis% Intervention in Spain and (ortugal in t%e Time of ,dward III and +ic%ard II. Oxford3 Clarendon *re$$, -.//# S&'ption, Aonathan# T%e &undred Kears War- Trial )# $attle. *hiladelphia3 ?niver$ity of *enn$ylvania *re$$, -..-# S&'ption, Aonathan# T%e &undred Kears War- Trial )# 'ire. London3 Baber and Baber, -...# +ale, 2al"ol'# War and C%ivalr#- Warfare and Aristocratic Culture in ,ngland 'rance and $urgund# at t%e ,nd of t%e Middle Ages. Athen$3 ?niver$ity of Ceorgia *re$$, -.9-# Ar'$ and Ar'or Caier, Cla&de# /2industrie et le commerce des armes dans les anciennes prin"cipaut?s )elges du NIIIme O la fin du N@me siBcle. *ari$3 So"iNtN dGEdition ILe$ Belle$ Lettre$,J -. ;# =all, Bert S# Weapons and Warfare in +enaissance ,urope- !unpowder Tec%nolog# and Tactics. Balti'ore, 2D3 >he Aohn$ =op:in$ ?niver$ity *re$$, -.. #
6I6LIO"RAPHY '00

,ar"he$:i, 7alter A#, Ar#, and >ho' 5i"hard$on# T%e Medieval Armour from +%odes. Leed$, ?,3 5oyal Ar'o&rie$ and =iggin$ Ar'o&ry 2&$e&', 2000# ,elly, Aa":# !unpowder- Alc%em# $om)ards and (#rotec%nics- T%e &istor# of t%e ,.plosive t%at C%anged t%e World. %e( Dor:3 Ba$i" Boo:$, 200<# 2ann, Aa'e$ C# A 'urt%er Account of t%e Armour (reserved in t%e Sanctuar# of t%e Madonna della !raFie. London3 So"iety of Anti)&arie$ of London, -.;9# 2ann, Aa'e$ C# I>he San"t&ary of the 2adonna delle CraFie 7ith %ote$ on the Evol&tion of Italian Ar'o&r D&ring the Bifteenth Cent&ry#J Ar"c%aeologia 90 6-.;083 -- 1-<2# *faffenbi"hler, 2atthia$# Medieval Craftsmen- Armourers. >oronto3 ?niver$ity of >oronto *re$$, -..2# S'ith, 5obert D#, and 5&th 5hyna$ Bro(n# Mons Meg and &er Sisters. London3 >r&$tee$ of the 5oyal Ar'o&rie$, -.9.# S'ith, 5obert Do&gla$, and ,elly De+rie$# T%e Artiller# of t%e *ukes of $urgund# C4E47C688. 7oodbridge, ?,3 >he Boydell *re$$, 200/# >horde'ann, Bengt# Armour from t%e $attle of Wis)# C4EC. Sto":hol'3 Al')&i$t d 7i:$ell$ Bo:try":eri, -.;.# 5eprint, ?nion City, CA3 Chivalry Boo:$helf, 200-# >rapp, O#, and 2# S"alini# T%e Armour# of t%e Castle of C%ur)urg. 2nd ed# Ch&rb&rg3 2agn&$, -../# 7ald'an, Aohn# &afted Weapons in Medieval and +enaissance ,urope- T%e ,volution of ,uropean Staff Weapons )etween CJDD and CE5D. Leiden, >he %etherland$3 Brill, 200/# 7illia'$, Alan# T%e Anig%t and t%e $last 'urnace- A &istor# of t%e Metallurg# of Armour in t%e Middle Ages and t%e ,arl# Modern (eriod. Leiden, >he %etherland$3 Brill, 200;#

INDE7
Aa"hen, 9< `Ab&!al!=a$an, -021-0; A"re, -02, -00, -0., -<; Adder 90, 9 Adhe'ar 6bi$hop of Le *&y8, .. Adolf of %a$$a&, -/9 Adrian I+, --;, --<

Adrianople 6=adrianople8, <, /, ;;, 2-; Advan"e'ent, 'ilitary, 9 Aethelred II, 0., 0 Aethelred 6:ing of the 7e$$ex8, 0 Aethel$tan, ,ing, 0. Aeti&$, /10, Afri"a, 0, . Agathia$, 29, 2. Agin"o&rt, -<9, - 0, -.<, -./, 2-; Agnadello, -0. Agri"&lt&ral flail, -;; Ailette$, - < Ai$t&lf, ;. A:eton, -20, -29 Akin3is 65aider$8, 20<120/ Alan$, <, / Alari", < Albania, 20;, 20< Albanian$, -00, 20; Albergio da Barbiano, -0/ Albert I of =ab$b&rg, -/9, -/. Albert II, -00 Albert of A&$tria, -/., -0Albigen$ian$, -0. Al"&in, 0/ Aldhel', ;9 Ale'anni, <, 0, -0, <; Aleppo, -0;, -0<, -09 Alexander III, --<, --/ Alexander Sever&$, 2 Alexander the Creat, <2 Alexi&$ I Co'en&$, .9, .., -00, -0Alfon$o + of Aragon, -/ Alfon$o EI 6:ing of Ca$tile8, -0; Alfred the Creat, 0 109, 0., 9< AlK&barota, -02, - 0 Al'ain "ollar, - . Alpine Ca&l, 0 Alpine pa$$e$, --; Alp$, --2, --<, --/ Al$a"e, 0/, -/A'broi$e, --0 A'ien$, 9< A''ian&$ 2ar"ellin&$, <, 2-, 2/, <2, <<, </, <0 A''&nition, -; 1-;9, -.-, -.0, -..1200 Anagni, >reaty of, --/ Andal&$ian 2&$li'$, <. Andre( II 6:ing of =&ngary8, -09 Androni"&$ III *alaeolog&$, 202 Anger$, -0 Angevin$, -/0, -/ Anghiara, Battle of, -/< Angle$, <, 0, --1-2, ;<, ;0 Anglo! B&rg&ndian allian"e, -<.1-/0 T%e Anglo"Sa.on C%ronicle 00, 0.1 0, 92
'0'
'0/ INDE7

Anglo!Saxon$, -2, -<1-/, 2., ;<1;/, ;0, ;91;., <0, 0/1 0, 9<, .<, 2-; Anglo!S"andinavia lang&age, 09 Angons 2. Ani'al "ar"a$$e$, -; AnKo&, ---, --9, -/0, -/ An:ara, Battle of, 200 Annales +egni 'rancorum <. Antio"h, ., .., -001-0-, -02, -0<, -00, -0. Ant(erp, 9; Ap&lia, .0, .; A)&itaine, /0, /., 00, 0-, ---, --9, -<0, -< , -/0 A)&itaine, Co&nt$ of, 0< A)&itanian$, <. Arab 2&$li'$, -0 Arabian hor$e$, .21.; Arab$, ., -9, .0 Aragon, -/2, -/ , -0-1-02, -0;, 20Aragone$e, -/ Aragone$e!Ca$tilian 7ar, -00 Ar"h of Sever&$, 2< Ar"her$, ;;, ;0, </1<0, -2/, -20, -0/, -00, -.;, -.<, 20<, 200, 2-;, 2-< Ar'agna"$, -< 1-<9, -<91-<., -<. Ar'enia, 2, -0<, 202 Ar'et, - , - . Ar'or de"oration of, -90, 20/ to&rna'ent$ and, - 0, -9-1-92, -9; (eight of, -9- See also Ar'$ and ar'or Ar'or, hor$e, 0, -291-2., - 2, -921-9;, 200 Ar'orer$, - 01Ar'$ and ar'or, 2<120, ; 1;., ;9, <0, 2--, 2-2, 2-/ of barbarian$, 201<0 of Carolingian$, //1/0, -19- d&ring Cr&$ade$, --., -2-1-20, -201-;. of :night$, - 2, - <1- /, - . d&ring 2iddle Age$, early, -91<0 d&ring 2iddle Age$, late, - 21202 of 2&$li'$, -<01-<of Otto'an >&r:$, 20/1200, 20 120. of 5o'an E'pire, -9120 of +i:ing$, 90199 Ar'$ ind&$trie$, ;9 Arn&lf 6:ing of the Ea$t Bran:$8, 0210;, 0/, 9< Ar)&e$, -<<, -09 Arra$, -/0 Arro( I$tor',J -.< Arro(head$, 22 Arro($, 2 , /0, -2/, -;/, -.;1-.<, 200, 2-< Ar$&f, Battle of, -00, -0., --9 Artevelde, Aa"ob van, -09 Artevelde, *hilip van, -09 Arth&r, ,ing, --, 9 Artillery train$, - -1- 2, 20- Artoi$, -/- Q$", -2 A$hdo(n, 9< A$ia 2inor, .9, -00, -0., 202 A$$yrian E'pire, - Athenian Bran:$, -0. Athen$, 20< Atheri"h, <0 Attila, /10, < A&g$b&rg, - 0 A&ray, Battle of, -<0 A&relian (all, 21; A&$ti, -0- A&$tra$ia, -0 A&$tria, <., -00, -09, -/-, -/., -00, -0- A&$trian$, -00, -0., -.0 Avaro!Slav$, <;1<< Avar$, <., /-1/2, 90, .2 Avignon, -/- Axe$, ;21;;, ., -2/, - 0, -9., -.0, 200, 2--, 2-2, 2-< Ayy&bid dyna$ty, -0< AFa)s 200 Ba"on, 5oger, -.0 Ba"trian hor$e, .21.; Baghdad, -09
INDE7 '0+

Baha al!Din, -0/ Bald(in 6"o&nt of =aina&lt8, ./ Bald(in I+ Ithe Leper,J -0< Bald(in of Bo&illon, -02 Bald(in the Iron Ar' 6"o&nt of Blander$8, 0-, 9/190 Baleari" I$land$, 9; Bali$tae, <-1<2 Bal:an penin$&la, 20/ Bal:an$, 2, --0, 20; Balli$ta, -;9 Ballo": dagger,

-90 Balti" Cr&$ade$, -0.# See also Cr&$ade$ Balti" land$, 92, --0 Banno":b&rn, Battle of, -0., 2-/ Baphae&', Battle of, 202 Barbarian$, xi, -1-2, <1/, 0, 19, -0 ar'$ and ar'or of, 201<0 =&n$ and, <<1</, < 'ilitary organiFation of, -;, -< $iege (eapon$ of, <;1<< See also individual tri)es Bar"elona, /- Bardi, -// Baronial revolt$, --0 Ba$"inet, -2 , - <, - 0, - 9 Ba$e "a'p$, +i:ing, 9; Ba$el, -90 Ba$elard$, -901-9 Ba$)&e$, /Battering ra'$, <-, 90, 2-< Battle!axe$, -2/ I>he Battle of 2aldon,J ;91;., <0 Bavaria, 0/, --;, -/9 $a#eu. Tapestr#, .;, -221-20, -2 , -291-2., -2.1-;0, -;2, -;0 BayeFid I, 202120;, 20 BayeFid II, 200, 20 BaFa, Battle of, -0; Bea&fort, =enry, -0Bede, -2 Beir&t, -02 Belgi&', -0, <. Belgrade, 20;, 20< Beli$ari&$, . Benevento, Battle of, --9 Benty Crange =el'et, -22 $eowulf -/, ;9 Berber$, -9 Bern, -/., -00 Bernard of Clairva&x, -02 $esagews - < Bill, -.Bio"o""a, Battle of, -0. Bi$"onti, A'brogio, -0/ Bla": Death, -</, -/ , -0; Bla": C&elf$, --/ Bla": po(der# See C&npo(der Bloi$, .. Boabdil 6"aliph of Cranada8, -02, -0; Bod:in arro(head, 22, -.< $oga ;<1;/ Bohe'ia, -/ , -/91-/., -0Bohe'ian$, -00, -0Bohe'ond C&i$"ard 6:ing of Antio"h8, .., -0-1-02 Bologna, -/<, -00 Bo'bard$, - -, - 2, -.91-.., 209 Bo'b$, -.0 Bongarten, =anne:in, -0/ Booty, -0<, -0/ Borani, 2 Boro&ghbridge, Battle of, - 0 Bo&illon, .., -02 Bo&rgthNrolde, Battle of, --9 Bo&$a$, << Bo&vine$, ---, --9 Bo($, 2-122, ;;1;/, </1<0, /0, .190, -2/, -20, -<-, - 2, 200, 2-2, 2-<# See also Cro$$bo($H Longbo($ Bra""io da 2ontone, -/2 BraFil n&t po''el, -;2 Brea$tplate$, 22, 20, ; , - /, - , - 91- . BrN'&le, Battle of, --0, --9 Breohtri", ,ing, 00 Bre$"ia, - 0 Bre$"ian$, --/ BrNtigny, >reaty of, -<0 Breton$, 02, -<9
'0) INDE7

Brigandine, -90 Britannia, 2, 0, --1-2 Briti$h I$le$, /., 0 , 09, 0. Brittany, /., 9;, .;, -< Br&geoi$, -09 Br&ge$, -<<, -/0, -0 , -9. B&":ler, <0 B&da, 20< B&de$, Sylve$tre, -0/

B&ffet, -9; B&lgaria, 20; B&lgarian$, /. B&llet$, velo"ity of, -..1200# See also A''&nition B&rgonet, - . B&rg&ndian$, <, 0, -<;, -< , -<9, -<.1-/0, -/01-/-, -00, -00, - -, - 2, -.9, -.., 200, 20- B&rg&ndy, -0, 0/, 9<, -/0, -/-, -00, -00, - -, - 2, 20-, 20; B&rial$, of $(ord$, ;- B&r$a, 20; Byrnie$, //, ; ByFantine$, x, ., -0, ;<, <<, 9-, .0, .;, . , .9, -;<, -;., 202, 20<, 20. ByFanti&', ;, ;2, -, 92, .., -0 , --0, -; , 20 Ca)allero --. CadiF, 9; Caen, - Cae$area, -02, -09 Cairo, -0< Calabria, .0 Calai$, -</, -<0, -< , -<9, -/0, -00 Ca'paldino, Battle of, --/ Cannon$, ix, - -, - /, -.0, -.9, -.., 209 Canterb&ry Cathedral, - / Capari$on, -2., -92, -9; Capetian dyna$ty, 0< Capitulare Missorum // Capit&lary of Aa"hen, //, 90 Caprona, Battle of, --/ Captain$, -0/ Carinthia, 0/ Carlo'an 6brother of *ippin III8, /0 Carolingian$, -2, -9, ;-, ;9 ar'$ and ar'or of, //1/0, -19fall of, /910/ hi$tory of, <.1/; 'ilitary organiFation of, /;1 0 'ilitary $trategy and ta"ti"$ of, /01/9 $iege (eapon$ of, 9019+i:ing$ and, 92199 Ca$$el, Battle$ of, --9, -09 Ca$t!iron "annon, ix Ca$t!iron $hot, 200 Castellum -< Ca$tile, -<0, -0-1-02, -02, -0; Ca$tilian$, -< , -00 Ca$tle$, -02, - 0 Ca$tra"ane, Ca$tr&""io, -0/ Catalonia, 02 Catap&lt$, 2-< Catherine 6da&ghter of Charle$ +I8, -<. Catholi" Ch&r"h, ./1. , -09 "ro$$bo( and, -;0 to&rna'ent$ and, -201-2-, -;- Cavalry of Carolingian$, //1/ , -1 2, /1 0 of "r&$ade$, --0, --9, --.1-20, -;0 feigned retreat and, .< heavy, ;0 of =&n$, </1<0 of 2iddle Age$, early, ;/1; of 2iddle Age$, late, -00, -0.1- 0, -90, -9<, 20<, 20/1200, 20 'ilitary p&rpo$e of, 2-; of %or'an$, .21.< of 5o'an$, <1/

of Saladin, -;.1-<0, -</1-<0 See also =or$e$ Cavalry "harge, .< Cave painting$, x Cele$tine III, -0 Celti"$, -- Central A$ia, ; Cere$ole, Battle of, -0. Cerignola, Battle of, -0. Cervelli?re -20, -2 , - <
INDE7 '0(

Ce$arini, A&liano, -0- Ce$ena, -// Chalon$, Battle of, /10, < Char"oal, -.0, -. Charente 5iver, 9; Charle'agne, x1xi, --, - , <.1/;, /., -1 2, 92, 9<, .2, .9, -/. bo($ and, 90 death of, <., /9, 0/ de$"ription of, 2 a$ =oly 5o'an E'peror, /0, /; 'ilitary organiFation of, /;1 0 'ilitary $trategy and ta"ti"$ of, /01/9 $&""e$$or$ to, /910/ Charle$, Da&phin, -<. Charle$ 6d&:e of B&rg&ndy8, 20- Charle$ II of AnKo&, -/0 Charle$ III, -/ Charle$ I +, -<;, -/9 Charle$ +, -<0, -< , 20< Charle$ +I, -< , -<., -09 Charle$ +II, -<., -/01-/- Charle$ +III, 20-1202 Charle$ 2artel, --, -9, <., /0, // Charle$ of %avarre, -< Charle$ of *roven"e, 0- Charle$ 6$on of Charle'agne8, /9 Charle$ the Bald, 0010-, 02, 9< Charle$ the Bold, -/0, -/-, -00, -00, - 2 Charle$ the Bat, 02, 9< Charle$ the Si'ple, 02, 9/190, .2 Charro&x, ./ Cha&"er, Ceoffrey, -99 C%eiro)allistae <2 Che$hire, 0., -.; C%evalier --. C%evauc%?e -</1-<0 Childeri", -0, ;-, ;; ChildrenG$ Cr&$ade, -09# See also Cr&$ade$ China, ;, -, -;<, -; , -./, -.0 Chivalry, -2- Chri$tian "onver$ion, /0, /-, /2, 00, 09 of +i:ing$, 90 Chri$tianity, -0, -/, -0 , -0. Chri$tian$, . 1.9, -0;, -00, -09, -<-, -02, -0; Ch&rb&rg Ca$tle, - / Cin)&edea, -99 Cio'pi 5evolt, -// Civil (ar, --0 inheritan"e, -0 Civitate, Battle of, .0, .;, .< Clairva&x, -02 Cla&dian, </ Cle'ent +I, -/9 Clo$e hel'et$, - .# See also =el'et$ Clovi$, -0, - Cl&b$, -2<, -;21-;;, -.0 Cn&t 6$on of Svein =arald$$on8, 0, 9/, 90 Coat ar'or, -2 , 2-2 Coat$ of plate$, - ;1- < Code of Ervig, ;0 Coif, -2;, -2 Cola di 5ienFo, -/0 ColoniFation, by +i:ing$, 9<19/ Col&'na fa'ily, -/0 Co'nena, Anna, -;<1-;/, -;0 Co'pa"t$ of *rag&e, -0- Co'piVgne, -/0, - Conan of Brittany, .; CondN, 9< Condottieri, --0, -/-1-/2, -/;1-/<, -//, -/ , -0/ Coni"al hel'et$, -2 1-29# See also =el'et$ Conrad 6d&:e of OYhringen8, --2 Conrad I 6d&:e of Bran"onia8, 0; Conrad III, -0;, --2 Conrad of Landa&, -0/ Conrois -- Con$"ription, 2-; Consta)ularium -- Con$tan"e, >reaty of, --/, -00 Con$tantine, ;, ;0, 20. Con$tantinople, ;, , ., .9, -00, -0 , -0., --<, -/2, - -, 20;, 20 , 209120. Contra"tor$, 'ilitary, -0<
'0INDE7

Coppergate hel'et$, /, 9 , -22# See also =el'et$ Corniv&$, 2atthia$, 20< Corn$, of g&npo(der, -.9 Cor$elet, -90 Co&"hed lan"e$, 2-; Co&levrine, - 2, -.. Couloverines - -, - 2, -.9 Co&n"il of Ba$el, -0- Co&n"il of Cler'ont, .9, .. Co&n"il of Con$tan"e, -00 Co&nter(eight treb&"het, -; , 2-<# See also >reb&"het Courtau. - 2 Co&rtrai, Battle of, 9<, --., -<<, -09, -0., -9., -.0, 2-/ Co&ter$, - ; Crane<uin -.2 Crane$, -.9 Crapaudeau. - -, -.9, -.. CrN"y, Battle of, -</, -<0, -<9, -00, -0., - 0, -.<, -./ Crinet, -92, -9; Cro$$ g&ard, -;-, -;2 Cro$$bo('en, -;0, -0/, -00, -.2, 2-< Cro$$bo($, -;<1-;0, -;9, - 0, - 2, -.2, -.., 200, 2-2# See also Bo($ Cr&"ifix, .. Cr&pper, -92 Cr&$ade6$8, xi, ./1-0., -<;, -<<, -001-0-, 20; ar'$ and ar'or d&ring, --., -2-1-20, -201-;. Balti", -0. ChildrenG$, -09 Bir$t, ..1-02, -20 Bo&rth, -0 1-09 :night$ and, --.1-2'ilitary organiFation d&ring, --

'ilitary $trategy d&ring, --01--. 'ilitary ta"ti"$ d&ring, --01--., -2/ Saladin and, -;.1-<Se"ond, -021-00, -/2 >hird, -0;, -00, --9 C&dgel$, -;21-;; Cuir )oulli -2., -92 C&ira$$, - . C&i$$e$, - /, - , - . Cyne(&lf, 9 Cypr&$, -0< Da"ia 6'odern 5o'ania8, 2 Dagger$, -., 2-, ;2, /0, ., -;2, - 0, - 2, -901-99, -9., 2--, 2-2 DGAlbarno, 2ontreal, -0/ Dal'atia, -/; Da'a$"ene blade, -<01-<- Da'a$"&$, -0;, -0<, -09, -;9, -<01-<- Danegeld, 0., 0 Danela(, 09, 0., 9< Dane$, 0 , 0.1 0, 9<, 9/, -<; Dani$h Creat Ar'y, 0 Dan&be 5iver, - *e )ello (arisiaco 6>he Atta": on *ari$8 6Abbo of Saint!Cer'ain!de$!*rN$8, 90 De la Salle, Bertrand, -0/ *e +e)us $elicis 2/ De"oration of ar'or, -90, 20/ of hor$e ar'or, -9; DeG2edi"i, Ci&liano, -/<1-// DeG2edi"i, LorenFo, -// De'oti:a, 202 Den'ar:, 0 , 09, 0., 92, 90, .-# See also S"andinaviaH +i:ing$ De$trier, .21.; Dibalt&', <1/ Didier, /2 Dio"letian, ;/, ;0, ; Dit"he$, - 0 IDivine rightJ to r&le, --0 Dobr&dKa, 20; Donar Oa:, /- Dordogne 5iver, 9; Dragolen, - , ;0 Droge 6bi$hop of >ero&anne8, ./ D& C&e$"lin, Bertrand, -<01-< , -02, -0/ D&"hy of Lorraine, 20- D&geni&$ I+, 20; D&pplin 2oor, Battle of, - 0
INDE7 '0.

D&ra E&ropo$, 22, 2; *urendal 9 D&&r$tede, 9; Dyle, battle of the, 9< Eadred, 0. Ead(ig, 0. Eared dagger, -9 1-99 Ea$tern 5o'an E'pire, /, ., 2 , </ Ebora"&', 09 Pc%elle -Ede$$a, -02, -0; Edgar, 0. Edington, 0 , 9< Ed'&nd, 0. Ed&"ation, gentle'enG$, -9/ Ed(ard I, ---, -- 1--9 Ed(ard II, ---, -.; Ed(ard III, -<;1-<0, -< , -00 Ed(ard I+, -.; Ed(ard the Bla": *rin"e, -<0, -< , -02, - /, -.; Ed(ard the Confe$$or, 9/, .- Ed(ard Ithe Elder,J 0. Ed(ard Ithe 2artyr,J 0. ,gil2s Sata 90199 Egypt, 0, ., -0;, -0<, -09, -0., -<<, 20< Egyptian$, . 1.9, -0-, -0;1-0<, -0. Eleanor of A)&itaine, ---, -/0 El$loo, 9< El$ter, --9 E'peror$, 2 :,ngins ; - - England, xi, <1 /, 92, 9;, 9<, 9/, 9., .-, -00, -0.1--2, --0, -22, -;-, -00, -0., - 0, -99, -.;, -.0, 200, 20; Anglo!Saxon, 0/1 0 "hri$tianiFation of, -/ =&ndred Dear$ 7ar and, -<;1-/0 Englefield, 0 , 9< Engli$h, ;9, -20, -<;, -00, -0., - 0, - -1- 2, -.<1-./, 2-;, 2-< Engli$h Channel, 0/, --- Enri)&e I+ of Ca$tile, -0; Enri)&e of >ra$ta'ara, -<0, -02 Ervig, ;. E$plN"hin, >r&"e of, -</ E$)&ire$, -0<1-0/ E&geni&$ I+, -/0 Eve$ha', Battle of, --9 ,.cali)ur 9 Exeter, 9< Exeter riddle$, ;9 BaenFa, -// Bal:ir:, Battle of, --9 Baroe I$land$, 09, 92, 9< Bata'id Egyptian$, . 1.9, -0-, -0;1-0< Ba&ld, -

Beather$, -.< 'ect)uc% 6>alhoffer8, -9/ Beigned retreat, .< Ben"ing boo:$, -9/ Berdinand of Aragon, -02, -0;, -00 Berrante 6$on of Alfon$o the 2agnifi"ent8, -/ Berrara, -/2, -/< Be&dal Age, vii Be&dali$', -;, /<, -, 2-; 'euerwerk)uc%s -. 'ief"rente -0< Bire, -;., -./, -.0# See also In"endiarie$ Bire lan"e$, -.0 Birear'$, -.9 Birepot$, -.- Bir$t Cr&$ade, ..1-02, -20# See also Cr&$ade$ Blail, agri"&lt&ral, -;; Blan"hard$, -92 Blander$, .., -00, -0 , -09 Blander$, Co&nt$ of, 0< Ble'ing$, -<<, -00, -09, -0., -9., -.0, 2-/ Blet"hing, -.< Blight, -.< Blooding, - 0 Bloren"e, --/, -/-, -/2, -/;, -/<, -//, -/0, -00, -.0 Blorentine$, --/, -/;, -/<, -//, -9< 'oederati -, ;, 20
'1, INDE7

Bootball, -.; Bornovo, Battle of, -0. Bortifi"ation$, -<, <-, <2, 9<, --9, -02, 20 Bo&r!horned $addle, ;0 Bo&rth Cr&$ade, -0 1-09# See also Cr&$ade$ 'ramen 29 Bran"e, xi, /, -0, <., /., 0;, 0<, 9;, 9<, .., -0;, -00, --01--2, --0, --9, -;0, -0<, -00, -09, -0., - 0, -99, -.<, 20-, 20; =&ndred Dear$ 7ar and, -<;1-/0 Bran"ia, /-, 9; 'rancisca ;21;; Bran"o!B&rg&ndian $tr&ggle, -<9 Bran"onia, 0; Bran:$, 2, <, 0, .1--, - 1-9, 2 129, 2.1;0, ;21;<, ;0, ;9, <;, 0210<, -, 9019- Brederi": I Barbaro$$a, -00, --21--/ Brederi": II, -09, --/, --9, -/ , -/9, -/. Bree Co'panie$, -<0, -0/ Bren"h, -<;, -00, -09, -0., - -, -9., -.<1-./, -.9, 202, 2-; Bri$ian$, 92, -0. Br&ili, -/; B&ll bard, -9; B&ll!plate ar'or, - 0, - B&ll!plate harne$$, - 2, -.0 Cadling$, - / CaleaFFo, Cian 6d&:e of 2ilan8, -/< Calilee, La:e of 6La:e >iberia$8, -0/ Ca'be$on, -20, -29 Ca'boi$ed "&i$$e$, -29 Canelon, /Carigliano, Battle of, -0. Caronne 5iver, 9; !arros 200 Ca$"ony, ---, --2, --9, -;0, -< , -<9, -/0 !astrap%retes 6belly bo(8, -;<, 2-2 Ca&l, 2, 0, ., --, 22, </ Ca&ntlet$, - <, - /, - , - . Cavere, Battle of, - Cei$'ar, /Cenoa, -;0, -/-, -/2, -/<, -.2 Cenoe$e, -00, -0 , -<<, -00, -.2, 2-< Ceorge, Saint, -0Cerard of 5idfort 6Crand 2a$ter of the >e'plar$8, -0< Cer'an nationali$', -0. Cer'an *ea$antG$ 5evolt, -09 !ermania 6>a"it&$8, - Cer'ani" tribe$, -12, 0, 19, 2., ;0# See also individual tri)es Cer'ano!Celti" lang&age, 09 Cer'an$, -12, 29, ; , .;, .9, --21--/, -<;, -00, -0., - 2 Cer'any, <., 0/, -0;, -00, ---, --2, --;, --<, -/0, -/., - 0, - , - 9, -9;, -90, -99, -.0, 20; Chafi)i, Abd ar 5ah'an al!, -9 Chent, 9<, -/0, -0 , -09 Chentenaar rebel$, - - Chibelline$, --/,

-/-, -/< Cibraltar, 9;, -0; !ins -.9 !ladius -.120, 2-, 2 , ;0, 2-2 Claive, -;;, -.- Clar&$, -00 Coat$!foot lever, -;/ Codfrey of Bo&illon, .., -02 Cod(in, .- !oedendag -.0, -.- Colden B&ll, -/9 Cfllhei', Battle of, -/9 Corget, - . Coth$, 2, ;, ., 20, <21<; Crain$, of g&npo(der, -.9 Cranada, -02, -0;, -00 Crand$on, Battle of, -00, -0., 20- Creat hel', -20 Creave$, 2/, - <, - /, - , - . Cree"e, 2, . , 202 Cree: Ch&r"h, -0 Cree: fire, 9-, -;0, -;. Cree: I$land$, . Cree:$, <-1<2
INDE7 '10

Creenland, 92, 9< Cregory of >o&r$, - Cregory +II, .0 Cri'oald, -0 C&elf$, --/, -/-, -/< C&i""iardini, Bran"e$"o, 20-1202 C&i$ar'e, -;; C&nner$, -0/, -00 C&npo(der 6bla": po(der8, -;0, -;., -./1-.9, 2-/ di$"overy of, -./1-.0 grain $iFe and, -.9 'an&fa"t&re of, -. 1-.9, 200120- C&npo(der (eapon$, vii1viii, - 01- 2, -.0, -. , -.9, 20 120., 2--, 2-/ i'pa"t of, 200120'an&fa"t&re of, 200 See also individual weapons0 7eapon$ C&ntra', - , ;0 C&y of L&$ignan, -0<1-0/ C&F'Un el B&eno, -0; =ab$b&rg$, -/ 1-/9, -/. =ab$b&rg fa'ily, -/. =adrian I, /2, /; =adrianople# See Adrianople =adrianG$ 7all, --, -/, 00 =ae$ten, 0 =agia Sophia, 9< =agiographie$, -2 =aifa, -09 =aina&lt, ./ =alberd$, 9 , -9-, -.0, -.=alidon =ill, Battle of, - 0 =andg&n$, - 2, -..1200, 200120-, 20 # See also 7eapon$ =an$eati" Leag&e, -0 &a<ue)usses - 2 =arald Binehair, 0. =arald =ardrada, 9/, 90, .-1.2 =arfle&r, -<9 =arold Cod(in$on, .-1.2, .<, -0., --9, 2-; =arold I, 9/ =artha"n&t, 9/ =a$ting$, Battle of, .2, .;, -0., --9, -20, -;-, 2-; =a$ting$, Sir =&gh, -0< =attin, Battle of, -0; =a&bergeon, - <, - / =a&ber:$, -22, -29, - < =a&teville brother$, 9.1.0 =a(:(ood, Sir Aohn, -//, -0/ =eater $hield, -2.1-;0 =eavy "avalry, ;0# See also Cavalry =eavy infantry, 2-;, 2-<# See also Infantry =eight$ of +y$ehrad, -00 =el', - < =el'et$, 2212;, 20, ; , ;.1<0, //, <1 /, 9019 , -221-2;, -2<, -2/, -20, -2 1-29, -<0, - <, - 0, - 1- 9, - ., 20/, 20 , 2-2 in$"ription$ on, / See also Ar'or =el'$"h'ied, LorenF, - 9 =el'$"h'ied dyna$ty, - 0 =engi$t, -2 =enry 6d&:e of Saxony8, 0; =enry I, 0;, .0, --0, ---, --9 =enry II, ---, --. =enry III, --01--- =enry I+, .0, --;, --9 =enry of L&xe'bo&rg, -/9 =enry the Lion 6d&:e of Saxony8, --; =enry +, -< , -<9, -<., -0<, -00, - - &enr# @ 6Sha:e$peare8, 2-; =enry +I, -0 , -<., -/0 =er&li, 2 =erFegovina, 20< =exa'ilion, 20; =igh!Cothi" $tyle, of ar'or, - 9 =ilt$, ;- =olland, <. =oly Land, xi "on)&e$t of, . 1-0. =oly 5o'an E'pire, xi, --2, --;, --0, -/ , -/9, -/., -00, -00, -0 , -0. =oly 7ar, .0 =o'er, <- =or$a, -2
'11 INDE7

=or$e ar'or, 0, -291-2., - 2, -921-9;, 200 =or$e breeding, .21.; =or$e$, <1/, ;0, ; , <<, <01< , -, /1 0, .21.;, -2/, - 0# See also Cavalry =or$e$hoe$, 0 =&gh Capet 6d&:e of the Bran:$8, 0< =&gh of +er'andoi$, .. =&ndred Dear$ 7ar, --2, -;0, -<;1-/0, -/2, -//, -00, -09, - 0, -.2, -.<,

-./, 2-;, 2-< =&ngarian$, xi, /., 0<10/, ./, 20; =&ngary, < , -09, -0., --0, -/;, -/ , -/., 20;, 20<, 200 =&n$, ;1<, /10, 0, , ., -0, ;<, ;0, <<1< =&nyadi, AUno$, 20;120< =&$, Aan, -00, -0- =&$$ite$, -001-0Iberia, --0, -<;, -02, -0;, -00 I"eland, 92, 9< I'ola, -/< In"endiarie$, -; , -;., -.-, -./1-.0 Indent&re$, -0<1-0/, -0 , 2-< India, Infantry of Carolingian$, //, /01/ of "r&$ade$, -heavy, 2-;, 2-< light, 2-;12-< of 2iddle Age$, late, -0.1- 0, - .1-90, -9.1-.-, 2-/ 'ilitary p&rpo$e of, 2-;12-< of %or'an$, .;, .<1./ of 5o'an$, <1/ Inheritan"e "ivil (ar, -0 Inheritan"e pra"ti"e, 9 Inno"ent III, -0 1-09 Inn$br&":, - 0 In$"ription$ hel'et, / $(ord, 9 Inve$tit&re Controver$y, --; Ireland, /., 09, 92, 9;, 9< Ir'engard, 00 Iron ind&$try, 2-/ Iron $pi:e$, -.0 Irreg&lar (eapon$, -;21-;; I$abella 6da&ghter of Charle$ +I8, -< I$abella 6'other of Charle$ I+8, -<< I$abella of Ca$tile, -02, -0;, -00 I$idore of Seville, ;2 I$la'i" $ilver 'ar:et, 9/ I$le of >hanet, 0. I$tria, -/; Italian State$, xi Italian$, .0, .;, --2, -<;, -/-1-/2, -00, 202 Italy, ., -01- , ;<, < , <., /2, /;, /., 0-, 92, 9;, .;, . , -09, --21--0, -; , -/-1-/ , -0/, -0 , -0., - /, - 0, - , - 9, - ., -9;, -90, -99, -.-, -.0, 20Aa":, -90 Aa")&erie revolt, -09 Aaffa, Battle of, -00 Aan NiX:a, -0Aani$$arie$ (#eni ceri) 200120 Aapan, Aavelin thro(er$, 2-< Aavelin$, -., 2-< Aay$"a, 20< Aer&$ale', .9, .., -0-, -02, -0;, -0/, -00, -09, -- , -20 Aoan of Ar", -<.1-/0, - - Aoanna I, -/ Aoanna II, -/ Ao^o of *ort&gal, -02, -0; Aohn 6ar"hbi$hop of >he$$aloni:i8, <; Aohn 6brother of 5i"hard the Lionheart8, --0, ---, -</ Aohn II, -<0 Aohn of Antio"h, 2- Aohn of Bohe'ia, -/9 Aohn of Ca&nt, -0< Aohn of Sali$b&ry, -2- Aohn the Bearle$$, -< 1-<9, -/0 Aohn EEII, -/9
INDE7 '1'

Aordane$, <

Ao&$ting, -201-2-, -9A&an I of Ca$tile, -02, -0; A&bail, -02 A&dith of Bavaria, 00 A&li&$ Cae$ar, 22, 2< A&$tinian, . A&te$, --, -2 A&tland penin$&la, -,affa, 20< ,alini:o$, 9,ent, -2 ,enti$h rag$tone, 200 ,ephi$$o$, Battle of, -0. ,era:, Ca$tle of, -0< ,ettle hat, -20, -2 1-29, - <, - 0, - , - 9, - . ,idney dagger, -90 ,ingdo' of %aple$, -/0 ,ingdo' of Si"ily, --/ I,night in $hining ar'or,J - ; ,night$, vii, --.1-2-, -;0 ar'$ and ar'or of, - 2, - <1- /, - . 'ilitary re"r&it'ent of, -0<1-0/ to&rna'ent ar'or of, -9-1-92# See also >o&rna'ent$ (o'en and, -2- ,night$, >e&toni", -02, -0., -<;, 20; ,night$ =o$pitaller, -02, -00, 20< ,night$ >e'plar, -02, -00, -<< ,nolle$, 5obert, -0/ ,orea, - ,o$ovo, 20;, 209 ,&rd$, -0; ,&tnU =ora, Battle of, -0La =ig&era, Battle of, -0; Ladder$, 2-< Ladi$la$, -/ La'ellar ar'or, <0 Lan"e of Longin&$, -00 Lan"e$, -., ;01; , , --., -20, -2.1-;-, -<-, - 2, -9-, -9<, 2-; Landlord$, /<1// Lando(ner$, 9, /<1// Landriano, Battle of, -0. Land$h&t, - 0 Laon, -0 Latin Crand Co'pany, 202 Latin ,ingdo', -/2 LaFar 6prin"e of Serbia8, 20; Le *&y, Bi$hop of, .. Leag&e of Bologna, -/< Le"hfeld, Battle of, 0/ Legnano, Battle of, --/, --9 Leo III, /0, /; Leo IE, .0, .; Legn, -02 Leopold I of =ab$b&rg 6d&:e of A&$tria8, -/. Leopold III 6d&:e of A&$tria8, -00 Leopold +I, -00, -09 Lepanto, -0. Le(e$, Battle of, --9 Le(i$ of Bavaria, -/9 Le(i$ of =&ngary, -/ LiVge, -00, -0. Light infantry, 2-;, 2-<# See also Infantry Lin"oln, Battle of, --9 Linde$farne, 00, 92 Li$bon, 9;, -; Livonia, -0. Livonian$, -<; Loire 5iver, 9;, -<91-<. Lo'bard Leag&e, --<, --/ Lo'bard$, ., -01- , ;., <., /2 Lo'bardy, 0/, --< London, 0., -0. /ong 90, 9 Long $pear, -.0 Longbo('en, -00, -.<, 2-;, 2-< Longbo($, 90, -;0, - 0, - 2, -.21-./, -..# See also Bo($ Long$(ord, 1 9 Lord$, /<1// Lori"a ha'ata ar'or, 2<12/, ;9, 2-2 Lori"a $eg'entata ar'or, 2<, 2/ Lori"a $)&a'ata ar'or, 2<, 2/, ;9
'1/ INDE7

Lorraine, -/0, -/-, -/ , 20Lorraine, D&:e of, -00

Lot 5iver, 9; Lothair II, --2 Lothar II, 0Lothar 6$on of Lo&i$ the *io&$8, 00, 0Lo&i$ 6d&:e of OrlNan$8, -< Lo&i$ II, 0-, 02, -/ Lo&i$ IE, -09, -<< Lo&i$ of AnKo&, -/ Lo&i$ of 2ale, -0 Lo&i$ the Child 6L&d(ig the Child8, 0210;, 0< Lo&i$ the Bat, 02 Lo&i$ the Cer'an, 00, 02, 9< Lo&i$ the *io&$, /9100, .9 Lo&i$ the Sta''erer, 02 Lo&i$ +, 0< Lo&i$ +I, --0 Lo&i$ +II of Bran"e, -0; Lo&i$ EI, -/0, -/- Lo&vain, 9< Lo( Co&ntrie$, xi, 9;, 9<, ./, ---, -<<, -</, -<9, -/0, -0 , - -, - 2, - 0 Lo(er Lorraine, .. Loyalty, 9 L&ana, -0; L&""a, -/-, -/< L&"ena, -02 L&"erne, -00 L&d(ig the Child# See Lo&i$ the Child L&na, 9; L&xe'bo&rg, -/9, -/. 2a"edonia, 202 2a"e$, --., -20, -2<, -<-, -99 2agna Carta, --0 2agn&$, Albert&$, -.0 2agyar$, 0<10/ 2ail ar'or, 2/, 20, ;91;., <0, ;1 <, 90, 99, -2;, -2/, -20, -<0# See also Ar'or 2ail "oif, -2<, -<0, - < I2ail order,J - 0 2ail $hirt$, -22, -2;, -2<, -20, -2 , -29, - 2, - ., 20/, 2-2 2ail trapper, -2., -92 2aine, .0, -/0 2aKordo'o$ 6'ayor$ of the pala"e8, -0 2aldon, Battle of, 0. 2alta, -0. 2alvern *riory Ch&r"h, -99 2anfredi, Ettore, -0/ 2angonel$, 92ant&a, -/-, -/2 2an&el I Co'nen&$, -0< 2anFi:ert, Battle of, .9, --9 2ar"he$ of England, -.2 2ar"hfield, / 2arignano, Battle of, -0. 2arit$a, Battle of, 200 2arne 5iver, 9; 2ar$eille$, /. 2artin +, -00 2ary 6da&ghter of Charle$ the Bold8, -/-, -00 Mar# +ose 6Engli$h $hip8, -.2, -.; 2a$ada, <- 2a$on$, 200 2a$$ prod&"tion, of ar'or, - 0 2athilda 6da&ghter of =enry I8, --0, --- 2axi'ilian I, -/-, -00, - 9 2axi'ilian $tyle, of ar'or, - 9 2ea&x, -<. 2e""a, -0< 2edi"i fa'ily, -/< 2edina, -0< 2editerranean, 9;, -; 2eh'ed II, - -, 20;, 200, 20 , 209, 20. 2elee$, -;0 2el&n, 02en!at!ar'$, -0<1-0/ 2er"enarie$, /, -;0, -/-1-/2, -0/1-0 , -.- 2er"ia, 00 2erovingian$, -01--, -2, - , -9, ;0 2e$opota'ia, 2 2etF, -00 2e&$e 5iver, 9; 2i"hael +III *alaeolog&$, -0 2iddle Age$, definition of, 2-INDE7 '1+

2iddle Age$, early ar'$ and ar'or d&ring, -91<0 hi$tory of, -1-2 =&n$ and, <<1< 'ilitary organiFation d&ring, -;1-0 'ilitary $trategy and ta"ti"$ d&ring, -01-9 $iege (eapon$ d&ring, <-1<< 2iddle Age$, late ar'$ and ar'or d&ring, - 21202 hi$tory of, -<;1-0; infantry (eapon$ d&ring, -9.1-.'ilitary organiFation d&ring, -0;1-09 'ilitary $trategy and ta"ti"$ d&ring, -0.1- 2 'i$$ile (eapon$ d&ring, -.-1-./ $iege (eapon$ d&ring, -./1202 2iddle Ea$t, xi, -, 9/, . 1.9, -00, -09, -0., -;., -<0, -/2, 20< 2ihailovi", Con$tantine, 20/ 2ilan, --;, --<, -/-, -/2, -/;, -/<, - 0 2ilan, d&:e$ of, - 0 2ilane$e, --;, --/, -/;, -/< Miles --. 2ilitary a$$e'bly, / 2ilitary "o''&ni"ation, / 2ilitary organiFation# See OrganiFation, 'ilitary 2ilitary re"r&it'ent# See 5e"r&it'ent, 'ilitary 2ilitary 5evol&tion, - 2ilitary $trategy# See Strategy, 'ilitary 2ilitary ta"ti"$# See >a"ti"$, 'ilitary 2ilitia, -< 2ilvian Bridge, Battle of, ;0 2ining, <-, -./, 2-< 2i$$aglia fa'ily, - 0 2i$$ile troop$, 2-;, 2-< 2i$$ile (eapon$, -.-1-./ 2itten$, - , - . 2obile "arriage$, 202 2ona$terie$, 9; 2ongolian relea$e, 2- 2ongolian$, <01< 2ongol$, ;, -09, -.0, 20; 2on$!en!*NvVle, Battle of, -09, -0. 2ontiperti, Battle of, --/, -9< 2onte San Ciovanni, 202 2ontrNale, Ca$tle of, -0< 2onFa, -/; 2orale, -20 2oravia, 0/ 2oravian$, -00 2orea, 20;, 20< 2orgarten, Battle of, -/., -00 2oro""an$, -9 2oro""o, 9; 2orte'er, Battle of, .0 2ortgarten, Battle of, -.0, 2-/ 2o&nt ,&novi"a, Battle of, 20; 2&ha''ed III, -02 2&ha''ed IE, -02 2&ha''ed +, -02 2&ha''ed +I, -02 2&ha''ed +III, -02 2&ha''ed E, -02 2&ha''ed EI, -02 2&ha''ed EII, -0; 2Phldorf, Battle of, -/9 2&rad I, 202120;, 200 2&rad II, 20;, 200, 20 1209 2&rten, Battle of, -00, -0., 202&$a, 20;

2&$li'$, xi, --, -9, /-, /., 0-, .;, . 1.9, -00, -0-, -0;, -0<, -00, -09, -22, -20, -;<, -; , -;.1-<-, -<;, -/2, -/ , -0-1-02, -0; ar'$ and ar'or of, -<01-<%Yfel$, Battle of, -00 %ailed hor$e$hoe$, 0 %UKera, Battle of, -<0 %an"y, Battle of, -/-, -00, -0., 20%ante$, 9; %aple$, -/2, -/<, -/ , 20-, 202 %apoleon Bonaparte, 0; %arrative hi$torie$, -2 %a$r, -02 %a$$a&, -/9 %avarre, -<
'1) INDE7

%avarre$e, -<0 %egotiation, - 0 %e:&r, 9; %e['e":y\ Brod, -0%eopolitan$, -/ %e&$$, Siege of, - 2 %e&$tria, -0 %evilleG$ Cro$$, Battle of, -0. %i"aea, -00, 202 %i"hola$ II, .0 %i"o'edia, 202 %i"opoli$, Battle of, -0., --., 20;, 200 %i$, 20; %obility, 9, -< %oir'o&tier, 9; %or'andy, 9<, 9/190, .-, .2, .;, .., --0, --9, -22, -</, -<9, -/0, - - %or'andy, d&:e$ of, 0<, .2 %or'an$, 9.1.2, . , -2/, -20, 2-; 'ilitary organiFation and ta"ti"$ of, .21./ %orth Afri"a, ., </, 92, -0., -<< %orth A'eri"a, 92 %orth Sea, -, 0/ %orthallerton, Battle of, --0, --9 %or(ay, 0 , 09, 0., 92, 90, .-1.2# See also S"andinaviaH +i:ing$ %or(egian$, -<; %ot:er the Sta''erer, 2 %otre Da'e Cathedral, /2 %ovara, Battle of, -0. %&r!ad!Din, -0;, -0< %&re'berg, - 0 Obligation, 'ilitary, 9, -;1-/, -- 1--9, 2-; Odoa"ar the O$trogoth, < Offa, 00 OffaG$ Dy:e, 00 Olaf III, 9/, 90 Olaf >ryggva$on, 0. >nagers <2 Orban 6?rban8, 209 Orderi" +itali$, --9 OrganiFation, 'ilitary of Anglo!Saxon$, 0/1 0 of barbarian$, -;, -< of Carolingian$, /;1 0 d&ring the "r&$ade$, -d&ring 2iddle Age$, early, -;1-0 d&ring 2iddle Age$, late, -0;1-09 of %or'an$, .21./ of 5o'an E'pire, -;1-0 See also 5e"r&it'ent, 'ilitary Or:han, 202, 200 Or:ney I$land$, 09 OrlNan$, Siege of 6</-8 /, -0

OrlNan$, Siege of 6-<291-<2.8, -< , -<. O$here, / `O$'an, ChaFi, 202, 20<, 20 O$trogothi" Italy, x O$trogoth$, <, /10, ., -0, - , 20, ;<, ;9, <-, </ Otto I+, --Otto I the Creat, 0/ Otto'an E'pire, 20. Otto'an >&r:$, -0., -<;, -< , -/2, - -, 202120. ar'$ and ar'or of, 20/1200, 20 120. 'ilitary $trategy and ta"ti"$ of, 200120 O&ltreKo&rdain, -0< *ad&a, --<, -/;, -/< *alatinate, the, -/91-/. *a'plona, /*apal State$, -/0 *ari$, 0-, 90, 9;, 9<, -<9 *ari$, >reaty of, -< *ar'a, --9 *artible inheritan"e, 9, -*arti$an, -.*a$ton, Sir Aohn, - 0 *attern!(elded $(ord$, 9 *a&l the Dea"on, -01*a&ldron$, (avesarii -9;, -9< *avia, /2, /9, 0/, -/;, -/<, -0., - 0, -9; *avi$e$, -9;1-9< *aFFi 7ar, -/; *ea"e of Cod, ./1.0, .
INDE7 '1(

*ea"e of Lodi, -/< *ea$ant revolt$, -09 *edro I Ithe Cr&el,J -<0, -02 *ele:anon, Battle of, 202 *en$ion$, 'ilitary, -0<1-0/, -0 (erriBre -; *er$ia, -, -09 *er$ian$, . *er&gia, -/2 *er&FFi, -// *e$aro, -/2 *eter Bartholo'e(, -00 *eter the =er'it, .. *etrobole$, <; *eytral, -92 *hiladelphia, 202 *hilip I, .. *hilip II, <2, -00, --9, -<< *hilip I+, -<<, -09 *hilip the Cood, -/0, - -, 20-

*hilip +I, -<<, -</, -<0 *i"ardy, -/*ig!fa"ed ba$"inet, - 0 *ilgri'$, . , .9 (ilum -91-., ;0 *ippin I, -0, --, 00 *ippin II, -01--, 0010*ippin III 6the Short8, --, - , -9, <., /0, / *ippin of A)&itaine, 0- *ippin 6$on of Charle'agne8, /9 *ippin 6$on of Lo&i$ the *io&$8, 00 *i$a, 9;, -/<, -// *i$an$, -00 *i$toia, -/< *la":art, *late ar'or, -29, -2., - 2, - ;, 2-2, 2-/ *oe:e, Siege of, - - *ointo&, --- *oitier$, --, - 1-9, -<0, -<9, - 0, -.<, -./ *oland, 20; *olear'$, 2--, 2-2 *oleaxe$, 0, -9-, -9. *oleyn$, - ;, - <, - /, - , - 9, - . *o''el, -;-, -;2 *onthie&, ---, -</, -<0 *ope$, -/0 (opolo grosso revolt, -// *op&lar revolt$, -0 1-09 *or"aro, Stefano, -/0 *ort&gal, -0-1-02, -0; *ort&g&e$e, -<; *ota$$i&' nitrate# See Saltpeter *o&rpoint, -29 *ri": $p&r$, -2/ *ri'ogenit&re inheritan"e, 9 *ro"opi&$, ;2, <21<; *rofe$$ional $oldier$, -<, -0, ./1. , 2-; *roKe"tile$, -; 1-;9 *ro:op, Andre(, -0*rovenbe, 0/, -00 *r&$$ia, -0. *r&$$ian$, -<; *$y"hologi"al terror, 202 *yrenee$, -e&adr&ple!vaned tribolate arro(head$, 22 e&arrel$, -;/ e&illon dagger$, -90 e&ilted gar'et$, -20, -29, - . 5aider$, 20<120/ 5an$o'$, -0< 5avenna, ., -0. 5ay'ond dGAg&ilier$, -05ay'ond of Saint!Cille$ 6:ing of >ripoli8, .., -0-, -02, -0<1-0/ 5ayna&ld of ChWtillon, -0<, -0/ 5ebellion$, -0 1-09 5e"r&it'ent, 'ilitary, 9, -;1-<, /<1//, -0;1-09, 20 , 2-;12-<# See also OrganiFation, 'ilitary 5e"&rved bo(, 90# See also Bo($ 5ed Sea, -0< 5efor'ation, -0. 5ei'$, Ar"hbi$hop of, 0< 5einer (ith the Long %e": 6d&:e of Brabant8, 9/190
'1INDE7

5eligio&$ "onver$ion# See Conver$ion, religio&$ 5enN II of AnKo&, -/ 5hN, 9; 5hei'$, .9

5hine 5iver, -, 9; 5hineland, 2 5hode$, 20< 5hone delta, 9; 5i"hard I the Lionheart, -00, ---, --9 5i"hard II, -< 5i"hard 6d&:e of Dor:8, -/0 5i'ini, -/2 5ing$, of 'ail, ;1 < 5ip&arian Bran:$, -0 +itter --. 5obert 6"o&nt of Blander$8, .. 5obert 6d&:e of %or'andyH $on of 7illia' the Con)&eror8, .., --0 5obert 6father of 7illia' the Con)&eror8, .; 5obert C&i$"ard, .0, .. 5obert of AnKo&, -/01-/ 5obert of 5hei'$, .9 5obert the 2agnifi"ent, .0 5o""a$e""a, Battle of, -/ 5oger of =ovedon, --. 5oland, <., 9 5ollo, 9<, .2 5o'agna, -// 5o'an E'pire, x1xi ar'$ and ar'or of, -9120 hi$tory of, -1-2 =&n$ and, <<1</, < 'ilitary organiFation of, -;1-0 'ilitary $trategy and ta"ti"$ of, -01-9 $iege (eapon$ of, <-1<< 5o'ania, -5o'an$, -12, ;, <, /, 0, .1-0, -2, -/0, 2-;# See also 5o'an E'pire 5o'e, ;, 0, , ., 2 , <-, /;, 9;, --;, -;<, -/<, -/0, 2-5o'&l&$ A&g&$t&l&$, < 5on"evalle$, Battle of, <., /+oncone -.5ondel dagger, -90 5ondelle, 2artin, - 0 5o$ebe:e, Battle of, -09 5o&en, -/0, - 5o&$illon, 9; 5ovine, 20; 5&dolf of =ab$b&rg, -/ 1-/9 5&dolf 6$on of 5&dolf of =ab$b&rg8, -/9 5&', 20; 5&'elia, 20/ 5&ni" graffiti, of +i:ing$, 9;19< 5&pert II of the *alatinate 65&pert of 7ittel$ba"h8, -/91-/. 5&$$ia, 2, 92, 9< 5&$$ian$, -<;, -.0 SaaF, Battle of, -00 Sabaton$, - <, - , - 9, - . Saber$, 20 SaGd al!2&$taGin, -02 Saddle$, ;0, 0, -2/, -9-

Saharan De$ert, Saint!Cer'ain!de$!*rN$, Abbo of, 90 Saladin, -0;1-00, -;.1-<Sallet, - 1- 9 Saloni:a, 20; Saltpeter 6pota$$i&' nitrate8, -;., -.0, -. Sa'ietta, -09 Sa$$anian *er$ian$, 2, ;0 Sa&di penin$&la, -0. Sava"F, 20< Saxon$, 2, <, 0, -0, --1-2, ;<, ;0, <., /01/-, /2 Saxony, --, 0;, 0/, 9<, --; S"abbard$, -., 20, ;- S"ale ar'or, 2/, ;9, <0, < S"aling ladder$, <-, 90 S"andinavia, xi, -/, <1 /, 92, --0, -2;# See also individual countries0 +i:ing$ S"andinavian$, 001 0 S"heldt 5iver, 9; S"hendelbe:e, - - S"h(yF, -/.
INDE7 '1.

S"otland, 09, 0., 9;, 9<, --0 S"ot$, -2, -/, 00, -<;, -00, -0., 2-/ S"ra'a$ax, ;Seax, ;Se"ond Lateran Co&n"il, -;0 Seine 5iver, -0, /., 9; SelK&: >&r:$, . 1.9, -00, -0-, -02, -0; Se'inara, -0. Se'pa"h, Battle of, -/.1-00 Serbia, 20;, 20< Serbian$, 20;, 200 Ser"hio, -/< Sere$, 202 Serpentines - 2 SforFa, Alle$andro 6'a$ter of *e$aro8, -/2 SforFa, Bran"e$"o 6d&:e of 2ilan8, -/2, -/;1-/< SforFa, 2&""io Attendolo, -/2, -/;1-/< Shaffron, -2., -92, -9; Sha:e$peare, 2-; Shetland I$land$, 09, 92, 9< Shield (all, .<1./, -2;, -20 Shield$, 2212;, 2;12<, ; 1;9, ;., <0, //, 0, 90, -2;1-2<, -2/, -20, -2., -<0, -9-, -9;, 200, 2-2 Shir:&h, -0; Si"ilian$, .; Si"ily, 9.1.0, .0, .;, . , --<, -; , -/0 Sidon, -02 Sidoni&$ Appolinari$, 2 129 Siege 'a"hine$, -<, 9019-, -;0 Siege to(er$, 2-< Siege (eapon$, <-1<<, -;01-;9 of barbarian$, <;1<< of Carolingian$, 9019- d&ring 2iddle Age$, early, <-1<< d&ring 2iddle Age$, late, -./1202 of 5o'an E'pire, <-1<< See also 7eapon$ Siege$, /9, --9, - 01- 2, -./, -.., 2--, 2-< Siena, --/, -/Siene$e, --/ Sigi$'&nd of L&xe'bo&rg 6:ing of =&ngary8, -/., -00, -0Sig'&nd of >yrol, - 9 Sil: 5oad, -.0 Si'on de 2ontfort, ---, --9 Sinister -.

Sixt&$ I+, -// Slav$, 0/, 90, -00 Slinger$, 2-< Sling$, 22, 2 , ., -;<, -.Sling$hot$, 2-< Sl&y$, Battle of, -<< S'yrna, 20; Sofia, 20; Soi$$on$, -0 Soldier$, paid, --0, -0;, 2-;, 2-<# See also 5e"r&it'ent, 'ilitary Soldier$, profe$$ional, -<, -0, ./1. , 2-;# See also 5e"r&it'ent, 'ilitary So''e 5iver, 9; T%e Song of +oland /- So&tha'pton, 0. So&thern Italy, 9.1.0# See also Italy Spain, xi, /, 0, --, -0, ;;, </, <., /-, 9;, . , -< , - 0, -9 , -.;, -.0 Spando&ne$, 20/ Spagenhel', ;.1<0, /, -29 Spani$h, -9, -<;, -00 Spani$h 2ar"h, 02 Spani$h recon<uista -0-1-0; Spat%a 2012-, 2 , ;0, ;-, 2--12-2 Spa&dler, - 9 Spear$, -91-., 2 , 291;0, ;9, </, 01 , 90, 9 , --., -2<1-2/, -20, -2.1-;0, -.0, 200, 20 , 2--, 2-2 Spi:e$, -.0 Springald, -;0, -;9 Sp&r$, -2/ S)&ire$, -20, -0<1-0/ St# 2ar:G$ Ba$ili"a, 9< Staff (eapon$, -;;, - 0, - 2, -9.1-.- Sta'ford Bridge, Battle of, .-, --9 Standard, Battle of the, --0 Starvation, <-, - 0, - -, 2-< Steel bo($, - 2, -.2# See also Bo($ Steel prod&"tion, 2-/
'', INDE7

Stephen 6"o&nt of Bloi$H $on!in!la( of 7illia' the Con)&eror8, .. Stephen 6nephe( of =enry I8, --0, --- Steppe ponie$, <0 SterF, Albert, -0/ Stili"ho, / Stirr&p$, ;0, -, 0, 2-; Stone$, -; 1-;9, -.-, 200 Strategy, 'ilitary of Carolingian$, /01/9 d&ring the "r&$ade$, --01--. d&ring 2iddle Age$, early, -01-9 d&ring 2iddle Age$, late, -0.1 - 2 of Otto'an >&r:$, 200120 of 5o'an E'pire, -01-9 Strath"lyde, 0. Stribo, -0- Su)armalis 2/ S&b"ontra"tor$, 'ilitary, -0< S&do'er, Battle of, -00 S&evi, < S&ffol:, Earl of, -<9 SPley'an the 2agnifi"ent, 20;, 20< S&lf&r, -.0, -. S&r"oat$, -20, -2 , -29, - ; S&tton =oo, ;-, ;.1<0 Svein E$trid$on of Den'ar:, .- Svein =arald$$on 6IBor:beardJ8, -2, 0., 0, 9/, 90 S(abia, 0/ S(eden, 92, 90# See also S"andinaviaH +i:ing$ S(ede$, -<; S(i$$, -<;, -/.1-00, -00, -00, -0., -.01-.-, 20- S(i$$!B&rg&ndian 7ar, -00, -0. S(i$$ "anton$, -0 S(i$$ Confederate$, 2-/ S(i$$ Confederation, -/.1 -00 S(itFerland, 0, <., -/0, -/., -00, -00, -90 S(ord6$8, -.12-, 2-, 2 , ;01;2, ;01; , ;9, </, //1/0, 1 9, 90, 9 , --., -20, -2<, -2/, -20, -;-1-;2, -<01-<-, - 0, - 2, -9<1-9/, -99, -9., 200, 20 , 2--12-2 b&rial of, ;in$"ription$, 9 a$ $y'bol, 9 training, -9/ S(ord$'ith$, ;- Sy'bol, $(ord a$, 9 Synod of Charro&x, ./ Syria, 2, 22, .9, -0<, -09 >aborite$, -0>a"it&$, -, 2912., ;0, ; , ;9 >a"ti"$, 'ilitary, 2-2, 2-;, 2-<, 2-/ of Carolingian$, /01/9 d&ring "r&$ade$, --01--., -2/ d&ring 2iddle Age$, early, -01-9 d&ring 2iddle Age$, late, -0.1- 2 of %or'an$, .21./ of Otto'an >&r:$, 200120 of 5o'an E'pire, -01-9 >aglia"oFFo, Battle of, --9 Tales of Art%ur and &is Anig%ts of t%e +ound Ta)le -2>alhoffer, =an$, -9/ >a'erlane 6>i'&r the La'e8, 20; >an"red 6nephe( of Bohe'ond C&i$"ard8, .. >angier, -0;

>arto&$, -02 >a$$et$, >a$$ilo 6d&:e of Bavaria8, /-1/2 >e'ple of Solo'on, -0>ero&anne, ./ >ertry, Battle of, ->e&toni" ,night$, -02, -0., -<;, 20; >heodo$i&$ II, ;0 >he$$aloni:i, <;1<< >high defen$e$, -29 T%oracomac%us 2/, ;9 >horolf, 90199 >hra"e, ;, 202 >hro(ing axe$, 2-<# See also Axe$ >hro(ing 'a"hine$, 9019>hr&$ting $pear$, 9 # See also Spear$ >h&ringia, 0/ >iberia$, -0/
INDE7 ''0

>i:rit, -0; Timar!holding "avalry, 20/1200, 20 Timars 20/1200 >in"hebrai, Battle of, --0 >olbia" 6'odern OPlpi"h8, -0 >or$ion "atap&lt$, <-1<2 >otila, ;9 >o&lo&$e, .. >o&relle$, -<. >o&rnai, -0, ;-, -<<, -</ >o&rna'ent$, -201-2-, -;01-;ar'or and, - 0, -9-1-92, -9; hor$e ar'or and, -921-9; >o&r$, - 1-9, <; >o(er of London, -<0 >o(n (all$, - 0 >o(ton, Battle of, -9. >ra"tion treb&"het, 9019-, -; , 2-<# See also >reb&"het >raining, -20, -;0, -;- >ran$ylvania, 20; >rapper$, -92 >ra$ta'ara, -<0 >rea"hery, <-, - 0, - >rea$&ry of Aa"hen, 2 >rebiFond, 20< >reb&"het, 9019-, -;01-; , -;9, - 2, -./, 2-< >riple!vaned tribolate arro(head, 22 >ripoli, -02, -0<, -00, -0. >roKan hor$e, <- >roy, <>roye$, >reaty of, -<. >r&"e of E$plN"hin, -</ >r&"e of Cod, .01. >&r:ey, -09 >&r:$# See Otto'an >&r:$H SelK&: >&r:$ >yre, -02 ?lri"h von Lie"hten$tein, -20 ?nter(alden, -/. ?pper "annon, - 9 ?pper Dan&be, 20; ?rban II, .91.., -0- ?rban 6Orban8, 209 ?rban rebellion$, -0 1-09 ?rbino, -/2 ?ri, -/. ]$ti, -0- ?tra)&i$t$, -0- ?tre"ht, 9; +al!V$!D&ne$, Battle of, .0 +alai$, -00 +alen"e, 9; +alen$, ;1< +alentinian III, +alerian, 2 +aleri&$ *ri'&$, 20 +a'bra"e$, +andal$, <, /, 0, , ., 20, ;<, ;0, ; , ;9, </ +arangian C&ard, 90

+araville, Battle of, .0 +arna, Battle of, 20;, 200, 209 +a&d, 20+egeti&$ 5enat&$, Balvi&$, 2-, 22, 2/120, </ +endel!$tyle hel'et$, ;.1<0# See also =el'et$ +enetian$, -0 , -/; +eni"e, 9<, -0 , --<, -/-, -/21-/;, -/< +eni"e, >reaty of, --/ +erd&n >reaty, 00, 0- +er'andoi$, .. +erne&il, Battle of, - 0 +erona, --<, -/; @ervelles - 0 @euglaires - -, -.9, -.. +eFelay, -0 +i"enFa, --<, -/; +ienna, -0., 20< +i:ing$, xi, -2, -/, ;-, /., 0-, 0<, 001 0, 90, ./ ar'$ and ar'or of, 90199 ba$e "a'p$ of, 9; Chri$tian "onver$ion of, 90# See also Conver$ion, religio&$ "oloniFation by, 9<19/ end of raid$ of, 9/190 raid$ of, 9219/ r&ni" graffiti of, 9;19<
''1 INDE7

+i$by, Battle of, - ;, -9. +i$"onti, Donnina, -// +i$"onti, Bilippo 2aria 6d&:e of 2ilan8, -/< +i$igothi" Spain, x +i$igoth$, ;1<, /10, -0, -0, - , 20, ;0, ;;1;<, ;0, ; 1;9, ;., </, 2-; +it:o( =ill, Battle of, -00 +ladi$lav 6:ing of =&ngary8, 200 +ladi$lav of *oland, 20; +ortigern, -2 +o&lon, -0 Wagen)urgs -07agon fortre$$e$, - 0 7ale$, 09 7alla"e Colle"tion, -9. 7alla"hia, 20; 7alla"hian$, 20; 7alter the *ennile$$, .. Walt%eri ;0 7ar =a''er$, -991-9. 7ar indent&re$, -0<1-0/, -0 7ar of Chioggia, -/2 7ar of Berrara, -/; 7ar of Si"ilian +e$per$, -/0 7ar of the Eight Saint$, -/< 7ar of the *&bli" 7eal, -/0 7ar of the 5o$e$, -<;, -/0, -0. 7ar of the Si"ilian +e$per$, -/7ar of the >(o *edro$, -<0, -02 7arfare rea$on$ for, ix te"hnology and, ix 7arrior, -; 7ar(i": $haffron, -92 7eapon$ of 'a$$ de$tr&"tion 672D$8, viii 7el$h, -2, -/, 00, -.7el$h 2ar"he$, -;0 7en"e$la$ II of Bohe'ia, -/91-/. 7ergild 6'an!pri"e8, -; 7erner of ?r$lingen, -0/

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A6OUT THE AUTHORS

,ELLD DE+5IES i$ profe$$or of hi$tory at Loyola College in 2aryland and ha$ 'o$t re"ently (ritten T%e Artiller# of t%e *ukes of $urgund# C4E47C688 620008 (ith 5obert Do&gla$ S'ith# =i$ other boo:$ in"l&de3 Medieval Militar# Tec%nolog# 6-..28H Infantr# Warfare in t%e ,arl# 'ourteent% Centur#- *iscipline Tactics and Tec%nolog# 6-..08H T%e 1orwegian Invasion of ,ngland in CDEE 6-...8H Loan of Arc- A Militar# /eader 6-...8H A Cumulative $i)liograp%# of Medieval Militar# &istor# and Tec%nolog# 62002H &pdate 200/8H and !uns and Men in Medieval ,urope CJDD7C5DDStudies in Militar# &istor# and Tec%nolog# 620028# =e al$o edited the Engli$h tran$lation of A#B# +erbr&ggenG$ *e slag der guldensporen- $i3drage tot de gesc%iedenis van @laanderens vri3%eidsoorlog CJI87C4D5# In addition, he i$ the a&thor of 'ore than /0 arti"le$ on 'ilitary hi$tory and the hi$tory of te"hnology# =e "&rrently edit$ the Lournal of Medieval Militar# &istor# and i$ the Serie$ Editor for the =i$tory of 7arfare $erie$ of Brill *&bli$hing# 5OBE5> D# S2I>= i$ an Independent 2&$e&' Con$&ltant (ho for'erly (or:ed at the 5oyal Ar'o&rie$ 2&$e&' in Leed$, 7e$t Dor:$hire, ?,# =i$ boo:$ in"l&de3 T%e Artiller# of t%e *ukes of $urgund# C4E47C688 62000 (ith ,elly De+rie$8H $om)ards- Mons Meg and &er Sisters 6-.9. (ith 5&th 5hyna$ Bro(n8H &eav# Metal- ,uropese %arnassen in %et viFierG'ocus on ,uropean Armour 6200<8H and $oemQQ CDDD 3aar )uskruit 620008# =e ha$ al$o edited $ritis% 1aval Armaments 6-.9.8 and Make All Sure- T%e Conservation and +estoration of Arms and Armour 620008# In addition he i$ the a&thor of arti"le$ on "on$ervation and the early hi$tory of artillery and g&npo(der# =e "&rrently edit$ the Lournal of t%e >rdnance Societ#.
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