Computing and Informatics Class Notes for AMIE By Vinayak Ashok Bharadi Local Area Networks For historical

reasons the industry refers to nearly e!ery type of network as an "area network#" $he most commonly%discussed categories of computer networks include the following % & Local Area Network 'LAN( & )ide Area Network ')AN( & Metropolitan Area Network 'MAN( & *torage Area Network '*AN( & *ystem Area Network '*AN( & *er!er Area Network '*AN( & *mall Area Network '*AN( & +ersonal Area Network '+AN( & ,esk Area Network ',AN( & Controller Area Network 'CAN( & Cluster Area Network 'CAN( LANs and )ANs were the original fla!ors of network design# $he concept of "area" made good sense at this time -ecause a key distinction -etween a LAN and a )AN in!ol!es the physical distance that the network spans# A third category the MAN also fit into this scheme as it too is centered on a distance% -ased concept# As technology impro!ed new types of networks appeared on the scene# $hese too -ecame known as !arious types of "area networks" for consistency.s sake although distance no longer pro!ed a useful differentiator# LAN Basics A LAN connects network de!ices o!er a relati!ely short distance# A networked office -uilding school or home usually contains a single LAN though sometimes one -uilding will contain a few small LANs and occasionally a LAN will span a group of near-y -uildings# In I+ networking one can concei!e of a LAN as a single I+ su-net 'though this is not necessarily true in practice(# Besides operating in a limited space LANs include se!eral other distincti!e features# LANs are typically owned controlled and managed -y a single person or organi/ation# $hey also use certain specific connecti!ity technologies primarily Ethernet and $oken 0ing# )AN Basics As the term implies a wide%area network spans a large physical distance# A )AN like the Internet spans most of the world1 A )AN is a geographically%dispered collection of LANs# A network de!ice called a router connects LANs to a )AN# In I+ networking the router maintains -oth a LAN address and a )AN address# )ANs differ from LANs in se!eral important ways# Like the Internet most )ANs are not owned -y any one organi/ation -ut rather e2ist under collecti!e or

distri-uted ownership and management# )ANs use technology like A$M Frame 0elay and 3#45 for connecti!ity# LANs and )ANs at 6ome 6ome networkers with ca-le modem or ,*L ser!ice already ha!e encountered LANs and )ANs in practice though they may not ha!e noticed# A ca-le7,*L router like those in the Linksys family 8oin the home LAN to the )AN link maintained -y one.s I*+# $he I*+ pro!ides a )AN I+ address used -y the router and all of the computers on the home network use pri!ate LAN addresses# 9n a home network like many LANs all computers can communicate directly with each other -ut they must go through a central gateway location to reach de!ices outside of their local area# )hat A-out MAN *AN +AN ,AN and CAN: Future articles will descri-e the many other types of area networks in more detail# After LANs and )ANs one will most commonly encounter the following three network designs; A Metropolitan Area Network connects an area larger than a LAN -ut smaller than a )AN such as a city with dedicated or high%performance hardware# <=> A *torage Area Network connects ser!ers to data storage de!ices through a technology like Fi-re Channel# <4> A *ystem Area Network connects high%performance computers with high%speed connections in a cluster configuration# Conclusion $o the uninitiated LANs )ANs and the other area network acroymns appear to -e 8ust more alpha-et soup in a technology industry already drowning in terminology# $he names of these networks are not nearly as important as the technologies used to construct them howe!er# A person can use the categori/ations as a learning tool to -etter understand concepts like su-nets gateways and routers# Bus ring star and other types of network topology In networking the term "topology" refers to the layout of connected de!ices on a network# $his article introduces the standard topologies of computer networking# $opology in Network ,esign 9ne can think of a topology as a network.s !irtual shape or structure# $his shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of the de!ices on the network# For e2ample the computers on a home LAN may -e arranged in a circle in a family room -ut it would -e highly unlikely to find an actual ring topology there# Network topologies are categori/ed into the following -asic types; & -us & ring & star & tree & mesh

More comple2 networks can -e -uilt as hy-rids of two or more of the a-o!e -asic topologies# Bus $opology Bus networks 'not to -e confused with the system -us of a computer( use a common -ack-one to connect all de!ices# A single ca-le the -ack-one functions as a shared communication medium that de!ices attach or tap into with an interface connector# A de!ice wanting to communicate with another de!ice on the network sends a -roadcast message onto the wire that all other de!ices see -ut only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message# Ethernet -us topologies are relati!ely easy to install and don.t re?uire much ca-ling compared to the alternati!es# =@Base%4 '"$hinNet"( and =@Base%5 '"$hickNet"( -oth were popular Ethernet ca-ling options many years ago for -us topologies# 6owe!er -us networks work -est with a limited num-er of de!ices# If more than a few do/en computers are added to a network -us performance pro-lems will likely result# In addition if the -ack-one ca-le fails the entire network effecti!ely -ecomes unusa-le# 0ing $opology In a ring network e!ery de!ice has e2actly two neigh-ors for communication purposes# All messages tra!el through a ring in the same direction 'either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"(# A failure in any ca-le or de!ice -reaks the loop and can take down the entire network# $o implement a ring network one typically uses F,,I *9NE$ or $oken 0ing technology# 0ing topologies are found in some office -uildings or school campuses# *tar $opology Many home networks use the star topology# A star network features a central connection point called a "hu-" that may -e a hu- switch or router# ,e!ices typically connect to the hu- with Anshielded $wisted +air 'A$+( Ethernet# Compared to the -us topology a star network generally re?uires more ca-le -ut a failure in any star network ca-le will only take down one computer.s network access and not the entire LAN# 'If the hu- fails howe!er the entire network also fails#( $ree $opology $ree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a -us# In its simplest form only hu- de!ices connect directly to the tree -us and each hu- functions as the "root" of a tree of de!ices# $his -us7star hy-rid approach supports future e2panda-ility of the network much -etter than a -us 'limited in the num-er of de!ices due to the -roadcast traffic it generates( or a star 'limited -y the num-er of hu- connection points( alone# Mesh $opology Mesh topologies in!ol!e the concept of routes# Anlike each of the pre!ious topologies messages sent on a mesh network can take any of se!eral possi-le paths from source to destination# '0ecall that e!en in a ring although two ca-le paths e2ist messages can only tra!el in one direction#( *ome )ANs like the Internet employ mesh routing#

*ummary $opologies remain an important part of network design theory# Bou can pro-a-ly -uild a home or small -usiness network without understanding the difference -etween a -us design and a star design -ut understanding the concepts -ehind these gi!es you a deeper understanding of important elements like hu-s -roadcasts and routes Internet protocol suite Internet protocol suite Layer +rotocols 5# Application ,N* $L*7**L $F$+ F$+ 6$$+ IMA+C I0C +9+D *I+ *M$+ *NM+ **6 $ELNE$ 0$+ E C# $ransport $C+ A,+ 0*V+ ,CC+ *C$+ E D# Network I+ 'I+!C I+!F( ICM+ IGM+ A0+ 0A0+ E 4# ,ata link Ethernet )i%Fi +++ F,,I A$M Frame 0elay G+0* Bluetooth E =# +hysical Modems I*,N *9NE$7*,6 0*4D4 A*B Ethernet physical layer )i% Fi G*M Bluetooth E $he Internet protocol suite is the set of communications protocols that implement the protocol stack on which the Internet and most commercial networks run# It is sometimes called the $C+7I+ protocol suite after the two most important protocols in it; the $ransmission Control +rotocol '$C+( and the Internet +rotocol 'I+( which were also the first two defined# $he Internet protocol suite H like many protocol suites H can -e !iewed as a set of layers each layer sol!es a set of pro-lems in!ol!ing the transmission of data and pro!ides a well%defined ser!ice to the upper layer protocols -ased on using ser!ices from some lower layers# Apper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more a-stract data relying on lower layer protocols to translate data into forms that can e!entually -e physically transmitted# $he original $C+7I+ reference model consisted of four layers -ut has e!ol!ed into a fi!e layer model# $he 9*I model descri-es a fi2ed se!en layer stack for networking protocols# Comparisons -etween the 9*I model and $C+7I+ can gi!e further insight into the significance of the components of the I+ suite -ut can also cause confusion since the definition of the layers are slightly different# 6istory $he Internet protocol suite came from work done -y ,A0+A in the early =IJ@s# After -uilding the pioneering A0+ANE$ ,A0+A started work on a num-er of other data transmission technologies# In =IJ4 0o-ert E# Kahn was hired at the ,A0+A Information +rocessing $echnology 9ffice where he worked on -oth satellite packet networks and ground%-ased radio packet networks and

recogni/ed the !alue of -eing a-le to communicate across them# In the spring of =IJD Vinton Cerf the de!eloper of the e2isting A0+ANE$ Network Control +rogram 'NC+( protocol 8oined Kahn to work on open%architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the ne2t protocol for the A0+ANE$# By the summer of =IJD Kahn and Cerf had soon worked out a fundamental reformulation where the differences -etween network protocols were hidden -y using a common internetwork protocol and instead of the network -eing responsi-le for relia-ility as in the A0+ANE$ the hosts -ecame responsi-le# 'Cerf credits 6u-ert Limmerman and Louis +ou/in <designer of the CBCLA,E* network> with important influences on this design#( )ith the role of the network reduced to the -are minimum it -ecame possi-le to 8oin almost any networks together no matter what their characteristics were there-y sol!ing Kahn.s initial pro-lem# '9ne popular saying has it that $C+7I+ the e!entual product of Cerf and Kahn.s work will run o!er "two tin cans and a string" and it has in fact -een implemented using homing pigeons#( A computer called a gateway 'later changed to router to a!oid confusion with other types of gateway( is pro!ided with an interface to each network and forwards packets -ack and forth -etween them# $he idea was worked out in more detailed form -y Cerf.s networking research group at *tanford in the =IJDMJC period# '$he early networking work at 3ero2 +A0C which produced the +A0C Ani!ersal +acket protocol suite much of which was contemporaneous was also a significant technical influenceN people mo!ed -etween the two#( ,A0+A then contracted with BBN $echnologies *tanford Ani!ersity and the Ani!ersity College London to de!elop operational !ersions of the protocol on different hardware platforms# Four !ersions were de!eloped; $C+ != $C+ !4 a split into $C+ !D and I+ !D in the spring of =IJO and then sta-ility with $C+7I+ !C H the standard protocol still in use on the Internet today# In =IJ5 a two%network $C+7I+ communications test was performed -etween *tanford and Ani!ersity College London 'ACL(# In No!em-er =IJJ a three% network $C+7I+ test was conducted -etween the A#*# AK and Norway# Between =IJO and =IOD se!eral other $C+7I+ prototypes were de!eloped at multiple research centres# A full switcho!er to $C+7I+ on the A0+ANE$ took place Panuary = =IOD#<=> In March =IO4 <4> the A* ,epartment of ,efense made $C+7I+ the standard for all military computer networking# In =IO5 the Internet Architecture Board held a three day workshop on $C+7I+ for the computer industry attended -y 45@ !endor representati!es helping populari/e the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use#

9n No!em-er I 4@@5 Kahn and Cerf were presented with the +residential Medal of Freedom for their contri-ution to American culture#<D> Layers in the Internet protocol suite stack I+ suite stack showing the physical network connection of two hosts !ia two routers and the corresponding layers used at each hop *ample encapsulation of data within a A,+ datagram within an I+ packet $he I+ suite uses encapsulation to pro!ide a-straction of protocols and ser!ices# Generally a protocol at a higher le!el uses a protocol at a lower le!el to help accomplish its aims# $he Internet protocol stack can -e roughly fitted to the four layers of the original $C+7I+ model; ,N* $F$+ $L*7**L F$+ 6$$+ IMA+ I0C NN$+ +9+D *I+ *M$+ *NM+ **6 $ELNE$ EC69 Bit$orrent 0$+ +N0+ rlogin EN0+ E C# Application 0outing protocols like BG+ and 0I+ which for a !ariety of reasons run o!er $C+ and A,+ respecti!ely may also -e considered part of the application or network layer# $C+ A,+ ,CC+ *C$+ IL 0A,+ E D# $ransport 0outing protocols like 9*+F which run o!er I+ may also -e considered part of the transport or network layer# ICM+ and IGM+ run o!er I+ may -e considered part of the network layer# I+ 'I+!C I+!F( 4# Internet A0+ and 0A0+ operate underneath I+ -ut a-o!e the link layer so they -elong somewhere in -etween# =# Network access Ethernet )i%Fi $oken ring +++ *LI+ F,,I A$M Frame 0elay *M,* E In many modern te2t-ooks this model has e!ol!ed into the fi!e layer $C+7I+ model where the Network access layer is splitted into a ,ata link layer on top of a +hysical layer and the Internet layer is called Network layer# Implementations $oday most commercial operating systems include and install the $C+7I+ stack -y default# For most users there is no need to look for implementations# $C+7I+ is included in all commercial Ani2 systems Mac 9* 3 and all free%software Ani2%

like systems such as Linu2 distri-utions and B*, systems as well as Microsoft )indows# Ani?ue implementations include Lightweight $C+7I+ an open source stack designed for em-edded systems and KAIQ N9* a stack and associated protocols for amateur packet radio systems and personal computers connected !ia serial lines# Karnaugh map $he Karnaugh map also known as a Veitch diagram 'K%map or KV%map for short( is a tool to facilitate management of Boolean alge-raic e2pressions# A Karnaugh map is uni?ue in that only one !aria-le changes !alue -etween s?uares in other words the rows and columns are ordered according to the principles of Gray code# 6istory and nomenclature $he Karnaugh map was in!ented in =I5D -y Maurice Karnaugh a telecommunications engineer at Bell La-s# Asage in -oolean logic Normally e2tensi!e calculations are re?uired to o-tain the minimal e2pression of a Boolean function -ut one can use a Karnaugh map instead# +ro-lem sol!ing uses & Karnaugh maps make use of the human -rain.s e2cellent pattern%matching capa-ility to decide which terms should -e com-ined to get the simplest e2pression# & K%maps permit the rapid identification and elimination of potential race ha/ards something that -oolean e?uations alone cannot do# & A Karnaugh map is an e2cellent aid for simplification of up to si2 !aria-les -ut with more !aria-les it -ecomes hard e!en for our -rain to discern optimal patterns# & For pro-lems in!ol!ing more than si2 !aria-les sol!ing the -oolean e2pressions is more preferred than the Karnaugh map# Karnaugh maps also help teach a-out Boolean functions and minimi/ation# +roperties A mapping of minterms on a Karnaugh map# $he arrows indicate which s?uares can -e thought of as "switched" 'rather than -eing in a normal se?uential order(# A Karnaugh map may ha!e any num-er of !aria-les -ut usually works -est when there are only a few % -etween 4 and F for e2ample# Each !aria-le contri-utes two possi-ilities to each possi-ility of e!ery other !aria-le in the system# Karnaugh maps are organi/ed so that all the possi-ilities of the system are arranged in a grid form and -etween two ad8acent -o2es only one !aria-le can change !alue# $his is what allows it to reduce ha/ards#

)hen using a Karnaugh map to deri!e a minimi/ed function one "co!ers" the ones on the map -y rectangular "co!erings" that contain a num-er of -o2es e?ual to a power of 4 'for e2ample C -o2es in a line C -o2es in a s?uare O -o2es in a rectangle etc(# 9nce a person has co!ered the ones that person can produce a term of a sum of products -y finding the !aria-les that do not change throughout the entire co!ering and taking a = to mean that !aria-le and a @ as the complement of that !aria-le# ,oing this for e!ery co!ering gi!es you a matching function# 9ne can also use /eros to deri!e a minimi/ed function# $he procedure is identical to the procedure for ones e2cept that each term is a term in a product of sums % and a = means the compliment of the !aria-le while @ means the !aria-le non% complimented#

Each s?uare in a Karnaugh map corresponds to a minterm 'and ma2term(# $he picture to the right shows the location of each minterm on the map# E2ample Consider the following function; f'A B C ,( R E'C O I =@ == =4 =C =5( $he !alues inside E tell us which rows ha!e output =# $his function has this truth ta-le; S A B C , f'A B C ,( @@@@@@ =@@@=@ 4@@=@@ D@@==@ C@=@@= 5@=@=@ F@==@@ J@===@ O=@@@= I=@@== =@ = @ = @ = == = @ = = =

=4 = = @ @ = =D = = @ = @ =C = = = @ = =5 = = = = = $he input !aria-les can -e com-ined in =F different ways so our Karnaugh map has to ha!e =F positions# $he most con!enient way to arrange this is in a C2C grid#

$he -inary digits in the map represent the function.s output for any gi!en com-ination of inputs# )e write @ in the upper leftmost corner of the map -ecause f R @ when A R @ B R @ C R = , R @# *imilarly we mark the -ottom right corner as = -ecause A R = B R @ C R @ , R @ gi!es f R =# Note that the !alues are ordered in a Gray code so that precisely one !aria-le flips -etween any pair of ad8acent cells# After the Karnaugh map has -een constructed our ne2t task is to find the minimal terms to use in the final e2pression# $hese terms are found -y encircling groups of =.s in the map# $he encirclings must -e rectangular and must ha!e an area that is a positi!e power of two 'i#e# 4 C O E(# $he rectangles should -e as large as possi-le without containing any @.s# $he optimal encirclings in this map are marked -y the green red and -lue lines# For each of these encirclings we find those !aria-les that ha!e the same state in each of the fields in the encircling# For the first encircling 'the red one( we find that; & $he !aria-le A maintains the same state '=( in the whole encircling therefore it should -e included in the term for the red encircling# & Varia-le B does not maintain the same state 'it shifts from = to @( and should therefore -e e2cluded# & C does not change; it is always =# & , changes# $hus the first term in the Boolean e2pression is AC# For the green encircling we see that A and B maintain the same state -ut C and , change# B is @ and has to -e negated -efore it can -e included# $hus the second term is AB.# In the same way the -lue rectangle gi!es the term BC.,. and so the whole e2pression is; AC T ABUT BCU,U# $he grid is toroidally connected which means that the rectangles can wrap around edges so AB,U is a !alid term although not part of the minimal set# $he in!erse of a function is sol!ed in the same way -y encircling the @.s instead#

In a Karnaugh map with n !aria-les a Boolean term mentioning k of them will ha!e a corresponding rectangle of area 4n%k# Karnaugh maps also allow easy minimi/ations of functions whose truth ta-les include "don.t care" conditions 'that is sets of inputs for which the designer doesn.t care what the output is( -ecause "don.t care" conditions can -e included in a ring to make it larger -ut do not ha!e to -e ringed# $hey are usually indicated on the map with a hyphen7dash in place of the num-er# $he !alue can -e a "@ " "= " or the hyphen7dash73 depending on if one can use the "@" or "=" to simplify the KM more# If the "don.t cares" don.t help you simplify the KM more then use the hyphen7dash73# 0ace ha/ards Karnaugh maps are useful for detecting and eliminating race ha/ards# $hey are !ery easy to spot using a Karnaugh map -ecause a race condition may e2ist when mo!ing -etween any pair of ad8acent -ut dis8ointed regions circled on the map# & In the a-o!e e2ample a potential race condition e2ists when C and , are -oth @ A is a = and B changes from a @ to a = 'mo!ing from the green state to the -lue state(# For this case the output is defined to remain unchanged at = -ut -ecause this transition is not co!ered -y a specific term in the e?uation a potential for a glitch 'a momentary transition of the output to @( e2ists# & A harder possi-le glitch to spot is if , was @ and A and B were -oth = with C changing from @ to =# In this case the glitch wraps around from the -ottom of the map to the top of the map# )hether these glitches do occur depends on the physical nature of the implementation and whether we need to worry a-out it depends on the application# In this case an additional term of TA,. would eliminate the potential race ha/ard -ridging -etween the green and -lue output states or -lue and red output states# $he term is redundant in terms of the static logic of the system -ut such redundant terms are often needed to assure race%free dynamic performance# )hen not to use K%maps $he diagram -ecomes cluttered and hard to interpret if there are more than four !aria-les on an a2is# $his argues against the use of Karnaugh maps for e2pressions with more than si2 !aria-les# For such e2pressions the Quine% McCluskey algorithm also called the method of prime implicants should -e used# $his algorithm generally finds most of the optimal solutions ?uickly and easily -ut selecting the final prime implicants 'after the essential ones are chosen( may

still re?uire a -rute force approach to get the optimal com-ination 'though this is generally far simpler than trying to -rute force the entire pro-lem(# Logic gate A logic gate performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output# $he logic normally performed is Boolean logic and is most commonly found in digital circuits# Logic gates are primarily implemented electronically using diodes or transistors -ut can also -e constructed using electromagnetic relays fluidics optical or e!en mechanical elements# Logic le!els A Boolean logical input or output always takes one of two logic le!els# $hese logic le!els can go -y many names including; on 7 off high '6( 7 low 'L( one '=( 7 /ero '@( true '$( 7 false 'F( positi!e 7 negati!e positi!e 7 ground open circuit 7 close circuit potential difference 7 no difference yes 7 no# For consistency the names = and @ will -e used -elow# Logic gates A logic gate takes one or more logic%le!el inputs and produces a single logic%le!el output# Because the output is also a logic le!el an output of one logic gate can connect to the input of one or more other logic gates# $wo outputs cannot -e connected together howe!er as they may -e attempting to produce different logic !alues# In electronic logic gates this would cause a short circuit# In electronic logic a logic le!el is represented -y a certain !oltage 'which depends on the type of electronic logic in use(# Each logic gate re?uires power so that it can source and sink currents to achie!e the correct output !oltage# In logic circuit diagrams the power is not shown -ut in a full electronic schematic power connections are re?uired# Background $he simplest form of electronic logic is diode logic# $his allows AN, and 90 gates to -e -uilt -ut not in!erters and so is an incomplete form of logic# $o -uild a complete logic system !al!es or transistors can -e used# $he simplest family of logic gates using -ipolar transistors is called resistor%transistor logic or 0$L# Anlike diode logic gates 0$L gates can -e cascaded indefinitely to produce more comple2 logic functions# $hese gates were used in early integrated circuits# For higher speed the resistors used in 0$L were replaced -y diodes leading to diode%transistor logic or ,$L# It was then disco!ered that one transistor could do the 8o- of two diodes in the space of one diode so transistor% transistor logic or $$L was created# In some types of chip to reduce si/e and power consumption still further the -ipolar transistors were replaced with complementary field% effect transistors 'M9*FE$s( resulting in complementary metal%o2ide% semiconductor 'CM9*( logic#

For small%scale logic designers now use prefa-ricated logic gates from families of de!ices such as the $$L JC@@ series in!ented -y $e2as Instruments and the CM9* C@@@ series in!ented -y 0CA and their more recent descendants# $hese de!ices usually contain transistors with multiple emitters used to implement the AN, function which are not a!aila-le as separate components# Increasingly these fi2ed%function logic gates are -eing replaced -y programma-le logic de!ices which allow designers to pack a huge num-er of mi2ed logic gates into a single integrated circuit# $he field%programma-le nature of programma-le logic de!ices such as F+GAs has remo!ed the .hard. property of hardwareN it is now possi-le to change the logic design of a hardware system -y reprogramming some of its components thus allowing the features or function of a hardware implementation of a logic system to -e changed# Electronic logic gates differ significantly from their relay%and%switch e?ui!alents# $hey are much faster consume much less power and are much smaller 'all -y a factor of a million or more in most cases(# Also there is a fundamental structural difference# $he switch circuit creates a continuous metallic path for current to flow 'in either direction( -etween its input and its output# $he semiconductor logic gate on the other hand acts as a high%gain !oltage amplifier which sinks a tiny current at its input and produces a low% impedance !oltage at its output# It is not possi-le for current to flow -etween the output and the input of a semiconductor logic gate# Another important ad!antage of standardised semiconductor logic gates such as the JC@@ and C@@@ families is that they are cascada-le# $his means that the output of one gate can -e wired to the inputs of one or se!eral other gates and so on ad infinitum ena-ling the construction of circuits of ar-itrary comple2ity without re?uiring the designer to understand the internal workings of the gates# In practice the output of one gate can only dri!e a finite num-er of inputs to other gates a num-er called the .fanout limit. -ut this limit is rarely reached in the newer CM9* logic circuits as compared to $$L circuits# Also there is always a delay called the .propagation delay. from a change in input of a gate to the corresponding change in its output# )hen gates are cascaded the total propagation delay is appro2imately the sum of the indi!idual delays an effect which can -ecome a pro-lem in high%speed circuits# Electronic logic le!els $he two logic le!els in -inary logic circuits are represented -y two !oltage ranges "low" and "high"# Each technology has its own re?uirements for the !oltages used to represent the two logic le!els to ensure that the output of any de!ice can relia-ly dri!e the input of the ne2t de!ice# Asually two non% o!erlapping !oltage ranges one for each le!el are defined# $he difference -etween the high and low le!els ranges from @#J !olts in Emitter coupled logic to around 4O !olts in relay logic# Logic gates and hardware

NAN, and N90 logic gates are the two pillars of logic in that all other types of Boolean logic gates 'i#e# AN, 90 N9$ 390 3N90( can -e created from a suita-le network of 8ust NAN, or 8ust N90 gate's(# $hey can -e -uilt from relays or transistors or any other technology that can create an in!erter and a two% input AN, or 90 gate# 6ence the NAN, and N90 gates are called the uni!ersal gates# For an input of 4 !aria-les there are =F possi-le -oolean alge-ra outputs# $hese =F outputs are enumerated -elow with the appropriate function or logic gate for the C possi-le com-inations of A and B# Note that not all outputs ha!e a corresponding function or logic gate although those that do not can -e produced -y com-inations of those that can# A@@== IN+A$ B@=@= @@@@@ A AN, B @ @ @ = @@=@ A@@== @=@@ B@=@= A 390 B @ = = @ A 90 B @ = = = A N90 B = @ @ @ A 3N90 B = @ @ = 9A$+A$ N9$ B = @ = @ =@== N9$ A = = @ @ ==@= A NAN, B = = = @ =====

Logic gates are a !ital part of many digital circuits and as such e!ery kind is a!aila-le as an IC# For e2amples see the C@@@ series of CM9* logic chips or the J@@ series# *ym-ols $here are two sets of sym-ols in common use -oth now defined -y AN*I7IEEE *td I=% =IOC and its supplement AN*I7IEEE *td I=a%=II=# $he "distincti!e shape" set -ased on traditional schematics is used for simple drawings and is ?uicker to draw -y hand# It is sometimes unofficially descri-ed as "military" reflecting its origin if not its modern usage# $he "rectangular shape" set -ased on IEC F@F=J% =4 has rectangular outlines for all types of gate and allows representation of a much wider range of de!ices than is possi-le with the traditional sym-ols# $he IEC.s system has -een adopted -y other standards such as EN F@F=J%=4;=III in Europe and B* EN F@F=J%=4;=III in the Anited Kingdom# $ype ,istincti!e shape 0ectangular shape Boolean alge-ra -etween A V B $ruth ta-le AN, IN+A$ 9A$+A$ A B A AN, B @ @ @ @ = @ = @ @ === 90 ATB IN+A$ 9A$+A$ A B A 90 B @ @ @ @ = = = @ = = = = N9$ IN+A$ 9A$+A$ A N9$ A @ = = @ In electronics a N9$ gate is more commonly called an in!erter# $he circle on the sym-ol is called a -u--le and is generally used in circuit diagrams to indicate an in!erted input or output# NAN, IN+A$ 9A$+A$ A B A NAN, B @ @ = @ = = = @ = = = @ N90 IN+A$ 9A$+A$ A B A N90 B @ @ = @ = @ = @ @ = = @ In practice the cheapest gate to manufacture is usually the NAN, gate# Additionally Charles +eirce showed that NAN, gates alone 'as well as N90 gates alone( can -e used to reproduce all the other logic gates#

*ym-olically a NAN, gate can also -e shown using the 90 shape with -u--les on its inputs and a N90 gate can -e shown as an AN, gate with -u--les on its inputs# $his reflects the e?ui!alency due to ,e Morgans law -ut it also allows a diagram to -e read more easily or a circuit to -e mapped onto a!aila-le physical gates in packages easily since any circuit node that has -u--les at -oth ends can -e replaced -y a simple -u--le% less connection and a suita-le change of gate# If the NAN, is drawn as 90 with input -u--les and a N90 as AN, with input -u--les this gate su-stitution occurs automatically in the diagram 'effecti!ely -u--les "cancel"(# $his is commonly seen in real logic diagrams % thus the reader must not get into the ha-it of associating the shapes e2clusi!ely as 90 or AN, shapes -ut also take into account the -u--les at -oth inputs and outputs in order to determine the "true" logic function indicated# $wo more gates are the e2clusi!e%90 or 390 function and its in!erse e2clusi!e% N90 or 3N90# $he two input E2clusi!e%90 is true only when the two input !alues are different false if they are e?ual regardless of the !alue# If there are more than two inputs the gate generates a true at its output if the num-er of trues at its input is odd '<=>(# In practice these gates are -uilt from com-inations of simpler logic gates# 390 IN+A$ 9A$+A$ A B A 390 B @ @ @ @ = = = @ = = = @ 3N90 IN+A$ 9A$+A$ A B A 3N90 B @ @ = @ = @ = @ @ = = =

$he JC@@ chip containing four NAN,s# $he two additional contacts supply power 'T5 V( and connect the ground# ,eMorgan e?ui!alent sym-ols By use of ,e Morgan.s theorem an AN, gate can -e turned into an 90 gate -y in!erting the sense of the logic at its inputs and outputs# $his leads to a separate set of sym-ols with in!erted inputs and the opposite core sym-ol# $hese sym-ols can make circuit diagrams for circuits using acti!e low signals much clearer and help to show accidental connection of an acti!e high output to an acti!e low input or !ice%!ersa# *torage of -its 0elated to the concept of logic gates 'and also -uilt from them( is the idea of storing a -it of information# $he gates discussed up to here cannot store a !alue; when the inputs change the outputs immediately react# It is possi-le to make a storage element either through a capacitor 'which stores charge due to its physical properties( or -y feed-ack# Connecting the output of a gate to the input causes it to -e put through the logic again and choosing the feed-ack correctly allows it to -e preser!ed or modified through the use of other inputs# A set of

gates arranged in this fashion is known as a "latch" and more complicated designs that utilise clocks 'signals that oscillate with a known period( and change only on the rising edge are called edge%triggered "flip%flops"# $he com-ination of multiple flip%flops in parallel to store a multiple%-it !alue is known as a register# $hese registers or capacitor%-ased circuits are known as computer memory# $hey !ary in performance -ased on factors of speed comple2ity and relia-ility of storage and many different types of designs are used -ased on the application# $hree%state logic gates A tristate -uffer can -e thought of as a switch# If B is on the switch is closed# If B is off the switch is open# Main article; $ri%state -uffer $hree%state or D%state logic gates ha!e three states of the output; high '6( low 'L( and high%impedance 'L(# $he high%impedance state plays no role in the logic which remains strictly -inary# $hese de!ices are used on -uses to allow multiple chips to send data# A group of three%states dri!ing a line with a suita-le control circuit is -asically e?ui!alent to a multiple2er which may -e physically distri-uted o!er separate de!ices or plug%in cards# .$ri%state. a widely%used synonym of .three%state. is a trademark of the National *emiconductor Corporation# Miscellaneous Logic circuits include such de!ices as multiple2ers registers arithmetic logic units 'ALAs( and computer memory all the way up through complete microprocessors which can contain more than a =@@ million gates# In practice the gates are made from field effect transistors 'FE$s( particularly metal%o2ide% semiconductor FE$s 'M9*FE$s(# In re!ersi-le logic $offoli gates are used# 6istory and de!elopment $he earliest logic gates were made mechanically# Charles Ba--age around =ODJ de!ised the Analytical Engine# 6is logic gates relied on mechanical gearing to perform operations# Electromagnetic relays were later used for logic gates# In =OI= Almon *trowger patented a de!ice containing a logic gate switch circuit 'A#*# +atent @CCJI=O(# *trowger.s patent was not in widespread use until the =I4@s# *tarting in =OIO Nikola $esla filed for patents of de!ices containing logic gate circuits 'see List of $esla patents(# E!entually !acuum tu-es replaced relays for logic operations# Lee ,e Forest.s modification in =I@J of the Fleming !al!e can -e used as AN, logic gate# Claude E# *hannon introduced the use of Boolean alge-ra in the analysis and design of switching circuits in =IDJ# )alther Bothe in!entor of the coincidence circuit got part of the =I5C No-el +ri/e in physics for the first modern electronic AN, gate in =I4C# Acti!e research is taking place in molecular logic gates#

Common Basic Logic ICs CM9* $$L Function C@@= JC@4 Quad two%input N90 gate C@== JC@@ Quad two%input NAN, gate C@CI JC@C 6e2 N9$ gate 'in!erting -uffer( C@J@ JCOF Quad two%Input 390 gate C@J= JCD4 Quad two%input 90 gate C@JJ JC4FF Quad two%input 3N90 gate C@O= JC@O Quad two%input AN, gate For more CM9* logic ICs including gates with more than two inputs see C@@@ series# Adders 'electronics( In electronics an adder is a de!ice which will perform the addition * of two num-ers# In computing the adder is part of the ALA and some ALAs contain multiple adders# Although adders can -e constructed for many numerical representations such as Binary% coded decimal or e2cess%D the most common adders operate on -inary num-ers# In cases where two.s complement is -eing used to represent negati!e num-ers it is tri!ial to modify an adder into an adder% su-tracter# For single -it adders there are two general types# A half adder has two inputs generally la-elled A and B and two outputs the sum * and carry output Co# * is the two%-it 2or of A and B and Co is the two%-it and of A and B# Essentially the output of a half adder is the two%-it arithmetic sum of two one%-it num-ers with Co -eing the most significant of these two outputs# $he other type of single -it adder is the full adder which is like a half adder -ut takes an additional input carry Ci# A full adder can -e constructed from two half adders -y connecting A and B to the input of one half adder connecting the sum from that to an input to the second adder connecting Ci to the other input and or the two carry outputs# E?ui!alently * could -e made the three%-it 2or of A B and Ci and Co could -e made the three%-it ma8ority function of A B and Ci# $he output of the full adder is the two% -it arithmetic sum of three one%-it num-ers# $he purpose of the carry input on the full%adder is to allow multiple full%adders to -e chained together with the carry output of one adder connected to the carry input of the ne2t most significant adder# $he carry is said to ripple down the carry lines of this sort of adder gi!ing it the name ripple carry adder#

6alf adder 6alf adder circuit diagram A half adder is a logical circuit that performs an addition operation on two -inary digits# $he half adder produces a sum and a carry !alue which are -oth -inary digits# Following is the logic ta-le for a half adder; Input 9utput ABC* @@@@ @=@= =@@= ===@ Full adder Full adder circuit diagram A T B T CarryIn R *um T Carry9ut A full adder is a logical circuit that performs an addition operation on three -inary digits# $he full adder produces a sum and carry !alue which are -oth -inary digits# It can -e com-ined with other full adders 'see -elow( or work on its own# Input 9utput A B Ci Co * @@@@@ @@=@= @=@@= @===@ =@@@= =@==@ ==@=@ ===== Note that the final 90 gate -efore the carry%out output may -e replaced -y an 390 gate without altering the resulting logic# $his is -ecause the only discrepancy -etween 90 and 390 gates occurs when -oth inputs are =N for the

adder shown here one can check this is ne!er possi-le# Asing only two types of gates is con!enient if one desires to implement the adder directly using common IC chips# 9nes. complement Alternati!ely a system known as ones. complement can -e used to represent negati!e num-ers# $he ones. complement form of a -inary num-er is the -itwise N9$ applied to it H the complement of its positi!e counterpart# Like sign%and% magnitude representation ones. complement has two representations of @; @@@@@@@@ 'T@( and ======== 'W@(# As an e2ample the ones. complement form of @@=@=@== 'CD( -ecomes ==@=@=@@ 'WCD(# $he range of signed num-ers using ones. complement in a con!entional eight%-it -yte is W=4J=@ to T=4J=@# $o add two num-ers represented in this system one does a con!entional -inary addition -ut it is then necessary to add any resulting carry -ack into the resulting sum# $o see why this is necessary consider the case of the addition of W= '=======@( to T4 '@@@@@@=@(# $he -inary addition alone gi!es @@@@@@@@H not the correct answer1 9nly when the carry is added -ack in does the correct result '@@@@@@@=( appear# $his numeric representation system was common in older computersN the +,+%= and ANIVAC ==@@744@@ series among many others used ones.%complement arithmetic# 'A remark on terminology; $he system is referred to as "ones. complement" -ecause the negation of 2 is formed -y su-tracting 2 from a long string of ones# $wo.s complement arithmetic on the other hand forms the negation of 2 -y su-tracting 2 from a single large power of two#<=>( $wo.s complement $wo.s complement is the most popular method of representing signed integers in computer science# It is also an operation of negation 'con!erting positi!e to negati!e num-ers or !ice !ersa( in computers which represent negati!e num-ers using two.s complement# Its use is u-i?uitous today -ecause it doesn.t re?uire the addition and su-traction circuitry to e2amine the signs of the operands to determine whether to add or su-tract making it -oth simpler to implement and capa-le of easily handling higher precision arithmetic# Also @ has only a single representation o-!iating the su-tleties associated with negati!e /ero 'which e2ists in one.s complement(# sign -it @ = = = = = = = R =4J @ @ @ @ @ @ = @ R 4 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ = R = @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ R @ = = = = = = = = R W= = = = = = = = @ R W4 = @ @ @ @ @ @ = R W=4J = @ @ @ @ @ @ @ R W=4O O%-it two.s complement integers E2planation $wo.s complement ,ecimal @@@= = @@@@ @ ==== W= ===@ W4 ==@= WD ==@@ WC $wo.s complement using a C%-it integer

$wo.s complement represents signed integers -y counting -ackwards and wrapping around# $he -oundary -etween positi!e and negati!e num-ers may theoretically -e anywhere 'as long as you check for it(# For con!enience all num-ers whose left% most -it is = are considered negati!e# $he largest num-er representa-le this way with C -its is @=== 'J( and the smallest num-er is =@@@ '%O(# $o understand its usefulness for computers consider the following# Adding @@== 'D( to ==== '%=( results in the seemingly%incorrect =@@=@# 6owe!er ignoring the 5th -it 'from the right( as we did when we counted -ackwards gi!es us the actual answer @@=@ '4(# Ignoring the 5th -it will work in all cases 'although you ha!e to do the aforementioned o!erflow checks when eg @=@@ is added to @=@@(# $hus a circuit designed for addition can handle negati!e operands without also including a circuit capa-le of su-traction 'and a circuit which switches -etween the two -ased on the sign(# Moreo!er -y this method an addition circuit can e!en perform su-tractions if you con!ert the necessary operand into the "counting%-ackwards" form# $he procedure for doing so is called taking the two.s complement 'which admittedly re?uires either an e2tra cycle or its own adder circuit(# Lastly a !ery important reason for utili/ing two.s complement representation is that it would -e considera-ly more comple2 to create a su-traction circuit which would take @@@= % @@=@ and gi!e =@@= 'ie %@@=( than it is to make one that returns ====# ',oing the former means you ha!e to check the sign then check if there will -e a sign re!ersal then possi-ly rearrange the num-ers and finally su-tract# ,oing the latter means you simply su-tract pretending there.s an e2tra left%most -it hiding somewhere#( In an n%-it -inary num-er the most significant -it is usually the 4nW=s place# But in the two.s complement representation its place !alue is negatedN it -ecomes the W4nW=s place and is called the sign -it# If the sign -it is @ the !alue is positi!eN if it is = the !alue is negati!e# $o negate a two.s complement num-er in!ert all the -its then add = to the result# If all -its are = the !alue is W=# If the sign -it is = -ut the rest of the -its are @ the !alue is the most negati!e num-er W4nW= for an n%-it num-er# $he a-solute !alue of the most negati!e num-er cannot -e represented with the same num-er of -its -ecause it is greater than the most positi!e num-er that two.s complement num-er -y e2actly =# A two.s complement O%-it -inary numeral can represent e!ery integer in the range W=4O to T=4J# If the sign -it is @ then the largest !alue that can -e stored in the remaining se!en -its is 4J W = or =4J# Asing two.s complement to represent negati!e num-ers allows only one representation of /ero and to ha!e effecti!e addition and su-traction while still ha!ing the most significant -it as the sign -it#

Calculating two.s complement In finding the two.s complement of a -inary num-er the -its are in!erted or "flipped" -y using the -itwise N9$ operationN the !alue of = is then added to the resulting !alue# Bit o!erflow is ignored which is the normal case with /ero# For e2ample -eginning with the signed O%-it -inary representation of the decimal !alue 5; @@@@ @=@= '5( $he first -it is @ so the !alue represented is indeed a positi!e 5# $o con!ert to W5 in two.s complement notation the -its are in!ertedN @ -ecomes = and = -ecomes @; ==== =@=@ At this point the numeral is the ones. complement of the decimal !alue 5# $o o-tain the two.s complement = is added to the result gi!ing; ==== =@== '%5( $he result is a signed -inary numeral representing the decimal !alue W5 in two.s complement form# $he most significant -it is = so the !alue is negati!e# $he two.s complement of a negati!e num-er is the corresponding positi!e !alue# For e2ample in!erting the -its of W5 'a-o!e( gi!es; @@@@ @=@@ And adding one gi!es the final !alue; @@@@ @=@= '5( $he decimal !alue of a two.s complement -inary num-er is calculated -y taking the !alue of the most significant -it where the !alue is negati!e when the -it is one and adding to it the !alues for each power of two where there is a one# E2ample; ==== =@== 'W5( R W=4O T FC T D4 T =F T O T @ T 4 T = R 'W4XJ T 4XF T ###( R W5 Note that the two.s complement of /ero is /ero; in!erting gi!es all ones and adding one changes the ones -ack to /eros 'the o!erflow is ignored(# Also the two.s complement of the most negati!e num-er representa-le 'e#g# a one as the sign -it and all other -its /ero( is itself# $his happens -ecause the most negati!e num-er.s "positi!e counterpart" is occupied -y "@" which gets classed as a positi!e num-er in this argument# 6ence there appears to -e an .e2tra. negati!e num-er#

A more formal definition of two.s complement negati!e num-er 'denoted -y NY in this e2ample( is deri!ed from the e?uation N Y R 4 W N n where N is the corresponding positi!e num-er and n is the num-er of -its in the representation# For e2ample to find the C -it representation of %5; N '-ase =@( R 5 therefore N '-ase 4( R @=@= n R C 6ence; N Y R 4 W N R <4 >-ase4 W @=@= R =@@@@ W @=@= R =@== n C N#B# Bou can also think of the e?uation as -eing entirely in -ase =@ con!erting to -ase 4 at the end e#g#; N Y R 4 W N R 4 W 5 R <==>-ase=@ R <=@==>-ase4 n C 9-!iously "NY ### R ==" isn.t strictly true -ut as long as you interpret the e?uals sign as "is represented -y" it is perfectly accepta-le to think of two.s complements in this fashion# Ne!ertheless a shortcut e2ists when con!erting a -inary num-er in two.s complement form# @@== ==@@ Con!erting from right to left copy all the /eros until the first = is reached# Copy down that one and then flip the remaining -its# $his will allow you to con!ert to two.s complement without first con!erting to one.s complement and adding = to the result# $he two.s complemented form of the num-er a-o!e in this case is; ==@@ @=@@ *ign e2tension ,ecimal C%-it two.s complement O%-it two.s complement 5 @=@= @@@@ @=@= %D ==@= ==== ==@= sign%-it repetition in C and O%-it integers )hen turning a two.s complement num-er with a certain num-er of -its into one with more -its 'e#g# when copying from a = -yte !aria-le to a two -yte !aria-le( the sign -it must -e repeated in all the e2tra -its# *ome processors ha!e instructions to do this in a single instruction# 9n other processors a conditional must -e used followed with code to set the rele!ant -its or -ytes# *imilarly when a two.s complement num-er is shifted to the right the sign -it must -e maintained# 6owe!er when shifted to the left a @ is shifted in# $hese rules preser!e the common semantics that left shifts multiply the num-er -y two and right shifts di!ide the num-er -y two# Both shifting and dou-ling the precision are important for some multiplication algorithms# Note that unlike addition and su-traction precision e2tension and right shifting are done differently for signed !s unsigned num-ers#

$he weird num-er )ith only one e2ception when we start with any num-er in two.s complement representation if we flip all the -its and add = we get the two.s complement representation of the negati!e of that num-er# Negati!e =4 -ecomes positi!e =4 positi!e 5 -ecomes negati!e 5 /ero -ecomes /ero etc# W=4O =@@@ @@@@ in!ert -its @=== ==== add one =@@@ @@@@ $he two.s complement of %=4O results in the same O%-it -inary num-er# $he most negati!e num-er in two.s complement is sometimes called "the weird num-er" -ecause it is the only e2ception# $he two.s complement of the minimum num-er in the range will not ha!e the desired effect of negating the num-er# For e2ample the two.s complement of %=4O results in the same -inary num-er# $his is -ecause a positi!e !alue of =4O cannot -e represented with an O%-it signed -inary numeral# Note that this is detected as an o!erflow condition since there was a carry into -ut not out of the sign -it# Although the num-er is weird it is a !alid num-er# All arithmetic operations work with it -oth as an operand and 'unless there was an o!erflow( a result# )hy it works $he 4n possi-le !alues of n -its actually form a ring of e?ui!alence classes namely the integers modulo 4n L7'4n(L# Each class represents a set Z8 T k4n [ k is an integer\ for some integer 8 @ ] 8 ] 4n W =# $here are 4n such sets and addition and multiplication are well%defined on them# If the classes are taken to represent the num-ers @ to 4n W = and o!erflow ignored then these are the unsigned integers# But each of these num-ers is e?ui!alent to itself minus 4n# *o the classes could -e understood to represent W4nW= to 4nW= W = -y su-tracting 4n from half of them 'specifically <4nW= 4nW=>(# For e2ample with eight -its the unsigned -ytes are @ to 455# *u-tracting 45F from the top half '=4O to 455( yields the signed -ytes W=4O to =4J# $he relationship to two.s complement is realised -y noting that 45F R 455 T = and '455 W 2( is the ones. complement of 2# ,ecimal $wo.s complement =4J @=== ==== FC @=@@ @@@@ = @@@@ @@@= @ @@@@ @@@@ %= ==== ==== %FC ==@@ @@@@ %=4J =@@@ @@@= %=4O =@@@ @@@@ *ome special num-ers to note E2ample WI5 modulo 45F is e?ui!alent to =F= since

WI5 T 45F R WI5 T 455 T = R 455 W I5 T = R =F@ T = R =F= ==== ==== 455 W @=@= ==== W I5 RRRRRRRRRRR RRRRR =@=@ @@@@ 'ones. complement( =F@ T = T = RRRRRRRRRRR RRRRR =@=@ @@@= 'two.s complement( =F= Arithmetic operations Addition Adding two.s complement num-ers re?uires no special processing if the operands ha!e opposite signs; the sign of the result is determined automatically# For e2ample adding =5 and %5; ===== === 'carry( @@@@ ==== '=5( T ==== =@== '%5( RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR @@@@ =@=@ '=@( $his process depends upon restricting to O -its of precisionN a carry to the 'none2istent( Ith most significant -it is ignored resulting in the arithmetically correct result of =@# $he last two -its of the carry row 'reading right%to%left( contain !ital information; whether the calculation resulted in an arithmetic o!erflow a num-er too large for the -inary system to represent 'in this case greater than O -its(# An o!erflow condition e2ists when a carry 'an e2tra =( is generated into -ut not out of the far left sign -it or out of -ut not into the sign -it# As mentioned a-o!e the sign -it is the leftmost -it of the result# In other terms if the last two carry -its 'the ones on the far left of the top row in these e2amples( are -oth =.s or @.s the result is !alidN if the last two carry -its are "= @" or "@ =" a sign o!erflow has occurred# Con!eniently an 390 operation on these two -its can ?uickly determine if an o!erflow condition e2ists# As an e2ample consider the C% -it addition of J and D; @=== 'carry( @=== 'J( T @@== 'D( RRRRRRRRRRRRR =@=@ 'WF( in!alid1 In this case the far left two 'M*B( carry -its are "@=" which means there was a two.s complement addition o!erflow# $hat is ten is outside the permitted range of WO to J# *u-traction Computers usually use the method of complements to implement su-traction# But although using complements for su-traction is related to using complements for representing signed num-ers they are independentN direct su-traction works with two.s complement num-ers as well# Like addition the ad!antage of using two.s complement is the elimination of e2amining the signs of the operands to determine if addition or su-traction is needed# For e2ample su-tracting %5 from =5 is really adding 5 to =5 -ut this is hidden -y the two.s complement representation;

====@ @@@ '-orrow( @@@@ ==== '=5( W ==== =@== 'W5( RRRRRRRRRRR @@@= @=@@ '4@( 9!erflow is detected the same way as for addition -y e2amining the two leftmost 'most significant( -its of the -orrowsN o!erflow occurred if they are different# Another e2ample is a su-traction operation where the result is negati!e; =5 W D5 R W4@; ===@@ @@@ '-orrow( @@@@ ==== '=5( W @@=@ @@== 'D5( RRRRRRRRRRR ===@ ==@@ 'W4@( Multiplication $he product of two n%-it num-ers can potentially ha!e 4n -its# If the precision of the two two.s complement operands is dou-led -efore the multiplication direct multiplication 'discarding any e2cess -its -eyond that precision( will pro!ide the correct result# For e2ample take 5 ^ WF R WD@# First the precision is e2tended from C -its to O# $hen the num-ers are multiplied discarding the -its -eyond O 'shown -y .2.(; @@@@@=@= '5( ^ =====@=@ 'WF( RRRRRRRRR @ 'WD@( =@= @ =@= =@= =@= 2@= 22= RRRRRRRRR 22===@@@=@

$his is !ery inefficientN -y dou-ling the precision ahead of time all additions must -e dou-le%precision and at least twice as many partial products are needed than for the more efficient algorithms actually implemented in computers# *ome multiplication algorithms are designed for two.s complement nota-ly Booth.s algorithm# Methods for multiplying sign%magnitude num-ers don.t work with two.s complement num-ers without adaptation# $here isn.t usually a pro-lem when the multiplicand 'the one -eing repeatedly added to form the product( is negati!eN the issue is setting the initial -its of the product correctly when the multiplier is negati!e# $wo methods for adapting algorithms to handle two.s complement num-ers are common; & First check to see if the multiplier is negati!e# If so negate 'i#e# take the two.s complement of( -oth operands -efore multiplying# $he multiplier will then -e positi!e so the algorithm will work# And since -oth operands are negated the result will still ha!e the correct sign# & *u-tract the partial product resulting from the sign -it instead of adding it like the other partial products# As an e2ample of the second method take the common add%and%shift algorithm for multiplication# Instead of shifting partial products to the left as is done with pencil and paper the accumulated product is shifted right into a second register that will e!entually hold the least significant half of the product# *ince the least significant -its are not changed once they are calculated the additions can -e

single precision accumulating in the register that will e!entually hold the most significant half of the product# In the following e2ample again multiplying 5 -y WF the two registers are separated -y "["; @=@= '5( ^=@=@ 'WF( RRRR[RRRR @@@@[@@@@ 'first partial product 'rightmost -it is @(( @@@@[@@@@ 'shift right( @=@=[@@@@ 'add second partial product 'ne2t -it is =(( @@=@[=@@@ 'shift right( @@=@[=@@@ 'add third partial product; @ so no change( @@@=[@=@@ 'shift right( ==@@[@=@@ 'su-tract last partial product since it.s from sign -it( ===@[@@=@ 'shift right preser!ing sign -it gi!ing the final answer WD@( Memory hierarchy $he hierarchical arrangement of storage in current computer architectures is called the memory hierarchy# It is designed to take ad!antage of memory locality in computer programs# Each le!el of the hierarchy is of higher speed and lower latency and is of smaller si/e than lower le!els# Most modern C+As are so fast that for most program workloads the locality of reference of memory accesses and the efficiency of the caching and memory transfer -etween different le!els of the hierarchy is the practical limitation on processing speed# As a result the C+A spends much of its time idling waiting for memory I79 to complete# $he memory hierarchy in most computers is as follows; & +rocessor registers M fastest possi-le access 'usually = C+A cycle( only hundreds of -ytes in si/e & Le!el = 'L=( cache M often accessed in 8ust a few cycles usually tens of kilo-ytes & Le!el 4 'L4( cache M higher latency than L= -y 4^ to =@^ often 5=4 KiB or more & Le!el D 'LD( cache M 'optional( higher latency than L4 often se!eral MiB & Main memory ',0AM( M may take hundreds of cycles -ut can -e multiple giga-ytes# Access times may not -e uniform in the case of a NAMA machine# & ,isk storage M hundreds of thousands of cycles latency -ut !ery large & $ertiary storage M tape optical disk ')90M( Virtual memory $he memory pages of the !irtual address space seen -y the process may reside non% contiguously in primary or e!en secondary storage# Virtual memory or !irtual memory addressing is a memory management techni?ue used -y computer operating systems more common in multitasking 9*es wherein non% contiguous memory is presented to a software 'aka process( as contiguous memory# $his contiguous memory is referred to as the !irtual address space# Virtual memory addressing is typically used in paged memory systems# $his in turn is often com-ined with memory swapping 'also known as anonymous memory paging( where-y memory pages stored in primary storage are written

to secondary storage 'often to a swap file or swap partition( thus freeing faster primary storage for other processes to use# In technical terms !irtual memory allows software to run in a memory address space whose si/e and addressing are not necessarily tied to the computer.s physical memory# $o properly implement !irtual memory the C+A 'or a de!ice attached to it( must pro!ide a way for the operating system to map !irtual memory to physical memory and for it to detect when an address is re?uired that does not currently relate to main memory so that the needed data can -e swapped in# )hile it would certainly -e possi-le to pro!ide !irtual memory without the C+A.s assistance it would essentially re?uire emulating a C+A that did pro!ide the needed features# Background Most computers possess four kinds of memory; registers in the C+A C+A caches 'generally some kind of static 0AM( -oth inside and ad8acent to the C+A main memory 'generally dynamic 0AM( which the C+A can read and write to directly and reasona-ly ?uicklyN and disk storage which is much slower -ut much larger# C+A register use is generally handled -y the compiler 'and if preempti!e multitasking is in use swapped -y the operating system on conte2t switches( and this isn.t a huge -urden as they are small in num-er and data doesn.t generally stay in them !ery long# $he decision of when to use cache and when to use main memory is generally dealt with -y hardware so generally -oth are regarded together -y the programmer as simply physical memory# Many applications re?uire access to more information 'code as well as data( than can -e stored in physical memory# $his is especially true when the operating system allows multiple processes7applications to run seemingly in parallel# $he o-!ious response to the pro-lem of the ma2imum si/e of the physical memory -eing less than that re?uired for all running programs is for the application to keep some of its information on the disk and mo!e it -ack and forth to physical memory as needed -ut there are a num-er of ways to do this# 9ne option is for the application software itself to -e responsi-le -oth for deciding which information is to -e kept where and also for mo!ing it -ack and forth# $he programmer would do this -y determining which sections of the program 'and also its data( were mutually e2clusi!e and then arranging for loading and unloading the appropriate sections from physical memory as needed# $he disad!antage of this approach is that each application.s programmer must spend time and effort on designing implementing and de-ugging this mechanism instead of focusing on his or her applicationN this hampers programmers. efficiency# Also if any programmer could truly choose which of their items of data to store in the physical memory at any one time they could easily conflict with the decisions made -y another programmer who also wanted to use all the a!aila-le physical memory at that point#

Another option is to store some form of handles to data rather than direct pointers and let the 9* deal with swapping the data associated with those handles -etween the swap area and physical memory as needed# $his works -ut has a couple of pro-lems namely that it complicates application code that it re?uires applications to play nice 'they generally need the power to lock the data into physical memory to actually work on it( and that it stops the languages standard li-rary doing its own su-allocations inside large -locks from the 9* to impro!e performance# $he -est known e2ample of this kind of arrangement is pro-a-ly the =F%-it !ersions of )indows# $he modern solution is to use !irtual memory in which a com-ination of special hardware and operating system software makes use of -oth kinds of memory to make it look as if the computer has a much larger main memory than it actually does and to lay that space out differently at will# It does this in a way that is in!isi-le to the rest of the software running on the computer# It usually pro!ides the a-ility to simulate a main memory of almost any si/e 'In practice there.s a limit imposed on this -y the si/e of the addresses# For a D4%-it system the total si/e of the !irtual memory can -e 4D4 or appro2imately C giga-ytes# For the newer FC%-it chips and operating systems that use FC or CO -it addresses this can -e much higher# Many operating systems do not allow the entire address space to -e used -y applications to simplify kernel access to application memory -ut this is not a hard design re?uirement#( Virtual memory makes the 8o- of the application programmer much simpler# No matter how much memory the application needs it can act as if it has access to a main memory of that si/e and can place its data where!er in that !irtual space that it likes# $he programmer can also completely ignore the need to manage the mo!ing of data -ack and forth -etween the different kinds of memory# $hat said if the programmer cares a-out performance when working with large !olumes of data he needs to minimise the num-er of near-y -locks -eing accessed in order to a!oid unnecessary swapping# <edit> +aging Virtual memory is usually '-ut not necessarily( implemented using paging# In paging the low order -its of the -inary representation of the !irtual address are preser!ed and used directly as the low order -its of the actual physical addressN the high order -its are treated as a key to one or more address translation ta-les which pro!ide the high order -its of the actual physical address# For this reason a range of consecuti!e addresses in the !irtual address space whose si/e is a power of two will -e translated in a corresponding range of consecuti!e physical addresses# $he memory referenced -y such a range is called a page# $he page si/e is typically in the range of 5=4 to O=I4 -ytes 'with CK currently -eing !ery common( though page si/es of C mega-ytes or larger may -e used for special purposes# 'Asing the same or a related mechanism contiguous regions of !irtual memory larger than a page are often mappa-le to contiguous physical memory for purposes other than !irtuali/ation such as setting access and caching control -its#(

$he operating system stores the address translation ta-les the mappings from !irtual to physical page num-ers in a data structure known as a page ta-le# If a page that is marked as una!aila-le 'perhaps -ecause it is not present in physical memory -ut instead is in the swap area( when the C+A tries to reference a memory location in that page the MMA responds -y raising an e2ception 'commonly called a page fault( with the C+A which then 8umps to a routine in the operating system# If the page is in the swap area this routine in!okes an operation called a page swap to -ring in the re?uired page# $he page swap operation in!ol!es a series of steps# First it selects a page in memory for e2ample a page that has not -een recently accessed and 'prefera-ly( has not -een modified since it was last read from disk or the swap area# '*ee page replacement algorithms for details#( If the page has -een modified the process writes the modified page to the swap area# $he ne2t step in the process is to read in the information in the needed page 'the page corresponding to the !irtual address the original program was trying to reference when the e2ception occurred( from the swap file# )hen the page has -een read in the ta-les for translating !irtual addresses to physical addresses are updated to reflect the re!ised contents of the physical memory# 9nce the page swap completes it e2its and the program is restarted and continues on as if nothing had happened returning to the point in the program that caused the e2ception# It is also possi-le that a !irtual page was marked as una!aila-le -ecause the page was ne!er pre!iously allocated# In such cases a page of physical memory is allocated and filled with /eros the page ta-le is modified to descri-e it and the program is restarted as a-o!e# ,etails $he translation from !irtual to physical addresses is implemented -y an MMA 'Memory Management Anit(# $his may -e either a module of the C+A or an au2iliary closely coupled chip# $he operating system is responsi-le for deciding which parts of the program.s simulated main memory are kept in physical memory# $he operating system also maintains the translation ta-les which pro!ide the mappings -etween !irtual and physical addresses for use -y the MMA# Finally when a !irtual memory e2ception occurs the operating system is responsi-le for allocating an area of physical memory to hold the missing information 'and possi-ly in the process pushing something else out to disk( -ringing the rele!ant information in from the disk updating the translation ta-les and finally resuming e2ecution of the software that incurred the !irtual memory e2ception# In most computers these translation ta-les are stored in physical memory# $herefore a !irtual memory reference might actually in!ol!e two or more physical memory references; one or more to retrie!e the needed address

translation from the page ta-les and a final one to actually do the memory reference# $o minimi/e the performance penalty of address translation most modern C+As include an on%chip MMA and maintain a ta-le of recently used !irtual%to%physical translations called a $ranslation Lookaside Buffer or $LB# Addresses with entries in the $LB re?uire no additional memory references 'and therefore time( to translate 6owe!er the $LB can only maintain a fi2ed num-er of mappings -etween !irtual and physical addressesN when the needed translation is not resident in the $LB action will ha!e to -e taken to load it in# 9n some processors this is performed entirely in hardwareN the MMA has to do additional memory references to load the re?uired translations from the translation ta-les -ut no other action is needed# In other processors assistance from the operating system is neededN an e2ception is raised and on this e2ception the operating system replaces one of the entries in the $LB with an entry from the translation ta-le and the instruction which made the original memory reference is restarted# $he hardware that supports !irtual memory almost always supports memory protection mechanisms as well# $he MMA may ha!e the a-ility to !ary its operation according to the type of memory reference 'for read write or e2ecution( as well as the pri!ilege mode of the C+A at the time the memory reference was made# $his allows the operating system to protect its own code and data 'such as the translation ta-les used for !irtual memory( from corruption -y an erroneous application program and to protect application programs from each other and 'to some e2tent( from themsel!es 'e#g# -y pre!enting writes to areas of memory which contain code( 6istory Before the de!elopment of the !irtual memory techni?ue programmers in the =IC@s and =I5@s had to manage two%le!el storage 'main memory or 0AM and secondary memory in the form of hard disks or earlier magnetic drums( directly# Virtual memory was de!eloped in appro2imately =I5I % =IF4 at the Ani!ersity of Manchester for the Atlas Computer completed in =IF4# 6owe!er Frit/%0udolf G_ntsch one of Germany.s pioneering computer scientists and later the de!eloper of the $elefunken $0 CC@ mainframe claims to ha!e in!ented the concept in his doctoral dissertation Logischer Entwurf eines digitalen 0echenger`tes mit mehreren asynchron laufenden $rommeln und automatischem *chnellspeicher-etrie- 'Logic Concept of a ,igital Computing ,e!ice with Multiple Asynchronous ,rum *torage and Automatic Fast Memory Mode( in =I5J# In =IF= Burroughs released the B5@@@ the first commercial computer with !irtual memory#

Like many technologies in the history of computing !irtual memory was not accepted without challenge# Before it could -e regarded as a sta-le entity many models e2periments and theories had to -e de!eloped to o!ercome the numerous pro-lems with !irtual memory# *peciali/ed hardware had to -e de!eloped that would take a "!irtual" address and translate it into an actual physical address in memory 'secondary or primary(# *ome worried that this process would -e e2pensi!e hard to -uild and take too much processor power to do the address translation#<citation needed> By =IFI the de-ates o!er !irtual memory for commercial computers were o!er<citation needed># An IBM research team lead -y ,a!id *ayre showed that the !irtual memory o!erlay system worked consistently -etter than the -est manual%controlled systems# +ossi-ly the first minicomputer to introduce !irtual memory was the Norwegian N90,%= minicomputer# ,uring the =IJ@s other minicomputer models such as VA3 models running VM* implemented !irtual memories# Virtual memory was introduced to the 2OF architecture with the protected mode of the Intel O@4OF processor# At first it was done with segment swapping which -ecomes inefficent as segments get larger# )ith the Intel O@DOF comes support for paging which lay under segmentation# $he page fault e2ception could -e chained with other e2ceptions without causing a dou-le fault# Compilers A diagram of the operation of a typical multi%language multi%target compiler# A compiler is a computer program 'or set of programs( that translates te2t written in a computer language 'the source language( into another computer language 'the target language(# $he original se?uence is usually called the source code and the output called o-8ect code# Commonly the output has a form suita-le for processing -y other programs 'e#g# a linker( -ut it may -e a human reada-le te2t file# $he most common reason for wanting to translate source code is to create an e2ecuta-le program# $he name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high le!el language to a lower le!el language 'e#g# assem-ly language or machine language(# A program that translates from a low le!el language to a higher le!el one is a decompiler# A program that translates -etween high%le!el languages is usually called a language translator source to source translator or language con!erter# A language rewriter is usually a program that translates the form of e2pressions without a change of language# A compiler is likely to perform many or all of the following operations; le2ing preprocessing parsing semantic analysis code optimi/ations and code Linker

Figure of the linking process where o-8ect files and static li-raries are assem-led into a new li-rary or e2ecuta-le# In computer science a linker or link editor is a program that takes one or more o-8ects generated -y compilers and assem-les them into a single e2ecuta-le program# In IBM mainframe en!ironments such as 9*7DF@ this program is known as a linkage editor# '9n Ani2 !ariants the term loader is often used as a synonym for linker# Because this usage -lurs the distinction -etween the compile%time process and the run% time process this article will use linking for the former and loading for the latter#( $he o-8ects are program modules containing machine code and information for the linker# $his information comes mainly in the form of sym-ol definitions which come in two !arieties; & ,efined or e2ported sym-ols are functions or !aria-les that are present in the module represented -y the o-8ect and which should -e a!aila-le for use -y other modules# & Andefined or imported sym-ols are functions or !aria-les that are called or referenced -y this o-8ect -ut not internally defined# In short the linker.s 8o- is to resol!e references to undefined sym-ols -y finding out which other o-8ect defines a sym-ol in ?uestion and replacing placeholders with the sym-ol.s address# Linkers can take o-8ects from a collection called a li-rary# *ome linkers do not include the whole li-rary in the outputN they only include its sym-ols that are referenced from other o-8ect files or li-raries# Li-raries for di!erse purposes e2ist and one or more system li-raries are usually linked in -y default# $he linker also takes care of arranging the o-8ects in a program.s address space# $his may in!ol!e relocating code that assumes a specific -ase address to another -ase# *ince a compiler seldom knows where an o-8ect will reside it often assumes a fi2ed -ase location 'for e2ample /ero(# 0elocating machine code may in!ol!e re%targeting of a-solute 8umps loads and stores# $he e2ecuta-le output -y the linker may need another relocation pass when it is finally loaded into memory '8ust -efore e2ecution(# 9n hardware offering !irtual memory this is usually omitted thoughHe!ery program is put into its own address space so there is no conflict e!en if all programs load at the same -ase address# Assem-ler $ypically a modern assem-ler creates o-8ect code -y translating assem-ly instruction mnemonics into opcodes and -y resol!ing sym-olic names for memory locations and other entities# $he use of sym-olic references is a key feature of assem-lers sa!ing tedious calculations and manual address updates after program modifications# Most assem-lers also include macro facilities for

performing te2tual su-stitution H e#g# to generate common short se?uences of instructions to run inline instead of in a su-routine# Assem-lers are generally simpler to write than compilers for high%le!el languages and ha!e -een a!aila-le since the =I5@s# '$he first assem-lers in the early days of computers were a -reakthrough for a generation of tired programmers#( Modern assem-lers especially for 0I*C -ased architectures such as MI+* *un *+A0C and 6+ +A%0I*C optimi/e instruction scheduling to e2ploit the C+A pipeline efficiently# More sophisticated 6igh%le!el assem-lers pro!ide language a-stractions such as; & Ad!anced control structures & 6igh%le!el procedure7function declarations and in!ocations & 6igh%le!el a-stract data types including structures7records unions classes and sets & *ophisticated macro processing Note that in normal professional usage the term assem-ler is often used am-iguously; It is fre?uently used to refer to an assem-ly language itself rather than to the assem-ler utility# $hus; "C+7CM* was written in *7DF@ assem-ler" as opposed to "A*M%6 was a widely%used *7DJ@ assem-ler#"

$he C Compilation Model )e will -riefly highlight key features of the C Compilation model here#

$he +reprocessor )e will study this part of the compilation process in greater detail later 'Chapter =D# 6owe!er we need some -asic information for some C programs# $he +reprocessor accepts source code as input and is responsi-le for & remo!ing comments & interpreting special preprocessor directi!es denoted -y S# For e2ample & Sinclude %% includes contents of a named file# Files usually called header files# e#g o Sinclude amath#hb %% standard li-rary maths file# o Sinclude astdio#hb %% standard li-rary I79 file & Sdefine %% defines a sym-olic name or constant# Macro su-stitution# o Sdefine MA3cA00ABc*ILE =@@ C Compiler $he C compiler translates source to assem-ly code# $he source code is recei!ed from the preprocessor# Assem-ler

$he assem-ler creates o-8ect code# 9n a ANI3 system you may see files with a #o suffi2 '#9BP on M*,9*( to indicate o-8ect code files#