SOLARIS POWER

BE (ELECTRONICS) PROJECT REPORT

Prepared By

TAIMUR MUSHARRAF 05B-001-EE

HARIS IDREES 05B-003-EE

BABAR KHAN 05B-030-EE

SHOUKAT ALI IZHAR 05B-033-EE

BATCH -2005(B)

Project Advisor

Associate Prof. RAZA JAFRI

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

USMAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

HAMDARD UNIVERSITY
  

We dedicate this book to our parents...

  

“A pessimist sees the difficulty in every opportunity;

An optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty”.

Winston Churchill
  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank Mr. Musharraf H. Javed (CEO – TIE Hi-Tech)

for his tremendous motivation, support and technical assistance without this

project would not have been possible.

We would also like to express our gratitude to Mr. Raza Jafri (Associate

Professor & Internal Advisor) for his help and guidance throughout the

project.

In addition we would also like to acknowledge the help of Mr. Waseem

Zeeshan (Assistant Professor) for his help in the initial distribution and the

phase division of the project, Ms. Tabassum Waheed (Assistant Professor)

for her help in the literary support and Mr. Salman Jafri (Assistant

Professor) for his guidance in programming.

  

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................1

Solaris Power ...............................................................................................................................2
Solar Power Plants…...………………………………………………………………………….3

Objective & Feasibility...……..…………………………………………………………………6

1.1 Block Diagram & Description ...........................................................................................8

CHAPTER 2: Project Design & Implementation ..............................................................11
Module Explanation ...................................................................................................................12
2.1 Tracker .............................................................................................................................12
2.2 Charge Controller Board ..................................................................................................14
2.2.1 Modified Charge Controller Board ...........................................................................17
2.2.2 PV Regulator .............................................................................................................23
2.2.3 AC Charger ...............................................................................................................27
2.3 Inverter .............................................................................................................................28
2.3.1 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 30
2.3.2 Block Diagram ..........................................................................................................30
2.3.3 PWM Control Circuit ................................................................................................32
2.3.4 H-Bridge....................................................................................................................38
2.3.5 Half Bridge Converter ...............................................................................................40
2.3.5.3 Ferrite Core Transformer ...................................................................................46
2.3.6 Modified Sine-wave Inverter ....................................................................................54
CHAPTER 3: Accessories .......................................................................................................58
3.1 Battery ..............................................................................................................................59
3.2 Photo Voltaic Cells ..........................................................................................................61
3.3 Display Panel ...................................................................................................................63
3.4 PIC Microcontroller .........................................................................................................64
CHAPTER 4: Fabrication & Performance Evaluation ...................................................67
Summary & Summation.............................................................................................................68
4.1 Final Designs & Pictures..................................................................................................59
4.2 Performance Charts ..........................................................................................................70
4.2.1 Tracker ......................................................................................................................70
4.2.2 PV Regulator .............................................................................................................70
4.2.3 Battery Charge Monitoring Board.............................................................................70
4.2.4 Inverter ......................................................................................................................71
  
4.3 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................71
4.4 Cost Analysis ...................................................................................................................72
APPENDIX A: Firmware ........................................................................................................73
APPENDIX B: Transformer Core Datasheets ...................................................................80
APPENDIX C: Test Points & Troubleshooting .................................................................86
APPENDIX D: Software and Instruments ..........................................................................87
APPENDIX E: References ......................................................................................................88
 CHAPTER: 1 

INTRODUCTION 
  

• Overview of Solar Energy 

•  Current projects of the world 

• Objective of the Solaris Power 

• General description 
 -2- 
CHAPTER 1

Solaris Power

Based on the current scenario presented by the rise in global energy consumption, we

have to face the fact that there is not enough oil in this world left to continue to support

our needs...eventually, our supply will stop and following it, the grinding halt of the

world's economy. Fossil fuels are becoming costly and people are worried as our nation

is so dependent on everyone else, but ourselves. Solar energy is becoming more and more

common as a means to power things that normally run off of electricity. Alternative

energy is starting to become more prominent now, and environmental concern is no

longer for the environmental conservationists. People are starting to wake up and see that

our planet is slowly being destroyed by pollution and lack of responsibility. Prime

examples are the introduction of the fuel cell, solar energy generators, hybrid cars etc.

Future Uses of Solar Energy:

The sun holds a very prominent place in the history of human development, numerous

examples of its precedence in the minds of those before us is evidence of it, even today

this is proving to be the case as of all the sources of renewable energy available to

mankind in its pursuit of a sustainable future, solar power is a pivotal one. Plentiful, free

and absolutely clean, the main challenge to fully tap its huge potential is to harness and

distribute it. We have made considerable progress with solar power, but future uses of

solar energy will be spawned by innovations still to come. At present, solar power is used

in three main ways, that is, to heat air, water and space. Photovoltaic cells are also one of

the most popular forms whereby sun energy is converted into power. According to the

U.S. Department of Energy’s Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy arm, there will

be more breakthroughs in new materials, cell designs, and novel approaches to product

development in photovoltaic research and development. Future uses of solar energy could
 -3- 
include our mode of transportation and even clothing, which will be equipped to produce

clean, safe electric power.

In the future, use of solar energy will be ubiquitous because concentrating solar power

will be fully competitive with conventional power-generating technologies within a

decade. “Concentrating solar power, or solar thermal electricity, could harness enough of

the sun's energy to provide large-scale, domestically secure, and environmentally friendly

electricity”.

Solar Power Plants:

There are several solar power plants in the Mojave Desert in the US, which supply power

to the electricity grid. Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) is the name given to

nine solar power plants in the Mojave Desert which were built in the 1980s. These plants

have a combined capacity of 354 megawatts (MW) making them the largest solar power

installation in the world.

Solar One and Solar Two (Solar Towers):

Solar towers use many large, computer controlled, sun

tracking mirrors (heliostats) to focus the suns energy on a

receiver located at the top of a tower. A heat transfer fluid, usually molten nitrate salt, is

heated in the receiver and used either to drive a turbine/generator to produce electricity or

to provide high temperature thermal heat. The molten salt can be used to store the

thermal energy for producing electricity at night or during cloudy weather. The U.S.

Department of Energy, and a consortium of U.S. utilities and industry, built the first two

large-scale, demonstration solar power towers in the desert near Barstow, CA.
 -4- 
Solar One operated

successfully from

1982 to 1988,

proving that power

towers perform

efficiently to produce

utility-scale power

from sunlight. The

Solar One plant used water/steam as the heat-transfer fluid in the receiver; this presented

several problems in terms of storage and continuous turbine operation. To address these

problems, Solar One was upgraded to Solar Two, which operated from 1996 to 1999.

Both systems had the capacity to produce 10 MW of power.

The unique feature of Solar Two was its use of molten salt to capture and store the sun's

heat. The very hot salt was stored and used when needed to produce steam to drive a

turbine/generator that produces electricity. The system operated smoothly through

intermittent clouds and continued generating electricity long into the night.

Solar Electricity Generating Systems:

The trough systems predominate among today's

commercial solar power plants. Nine trough power plants,

called Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS), were

built in the 1980s in the Mojave Desert near Barstow by

the Israeli company Luz Industries. These plants have a combined capacity of 354 MW

making them the largest solar power installation in the world. Today they generate

enough electricity to meet the power needs of approximately 500,000 people.

 -5- 

Sketch of a Parabolic Trough Collector system

Trough systems convert the heat from the sun into electricity. Because of their parabolic

shape, trough collectors can focus the sun at 30-60 times its normal intensity on a

receiver pipe located along the focal line of the trough. Synthetic oil circulates through

the pipe and captures this heat, reaching temperatures of 390 °C (735 °F). The hot oil is

pumped to a generating station and routed through a heat exchanger to produce steam.

Finally, electricity is produced in a conventional steam turbine. The SEGS plants are

configured as hybrids to operate on natural gas on cloudy days or after dark, and natural

gas provides 25% of the total output.

Solar Technology in Pakistan:

Although solar technology has been in operation since the 1980’s however, it has only

come to light in Pakistan in recent years.

Even now its use is only limited to Solar Heaters and DC to DC power generation.
 -6- 
Objective:

This project has aimed to utilize all available technologies regarding the implementation

of solar power as well as those applied in inverters to produce a fully autonomous

electrical charging system catering to the energy consumption requirements of industries

as well as homes.

The implementation of this project was sought because the current technology available

in Pakistan is Solar DC to DC power conversion whose primary limitation is the

alteration of the appliances operating on AC power. The vendors have designed the new

equipment for the utilization of this converted DC to DC energy.

Therefore, our goal was to devise a system which does not require the alteration of the

appliances installed. Another subsequent advantage of our project is that no such system

exists in Pakistan.

Feasibility:

It provides electricity when and where power is most limited and most expensive, which

is a highly valuable and strategic contribution. Solar electricity mitigates the risk of fuel-

price volatility and improves grid reliability.

While many of the costs of fossil fuels are well known, others (pollution related health

problems, environmental degradation, the impact on national security from relying on

foreign energy sources) are indirect and difficult to calculate. These are traditionally

external to the pricing system, and are thus often referred to as externalities. A corrective

pricing mechanism, such as a carbon tax, could lead to renewable energy, such as solar

thermal power, becoming cheaper to the consumer than fossil fuel based energy.
 -  
-7-
Also solarr thermal poower plants can generallly be built in a few yeears becausee solar plantts

are built almost

a entiirely with modular,
m reeadily availlable materrials. In con
ntrast, manny

types of conventiona
c al power prrojects, especially coal and nucleear plants, require lonng

lead timess.

The feasibbility of suuch a system

m in Pakistan is apprropriate as displayed by
b statisticaal

survey shoown below:

From the above pi-cchart one caan see thatt there is no

n share of solar energ
gy in poweer

generationn sector of Pakistan.

P
 -8- 
1.1 Block Diagram:

Figure 1.1

3D CAD Layout of the system:

Figure 1.2
 -  
-9-
A descripttion of the critical
c compponents of the
t project is
i provided below:

1.1.1 Photto-Voltaic Array:

A

Thhe photovooltaic (PV)) power technologyy uses

semiconduuctor cells (Wafers),, generally

y several square

centimeterrs in size. From the solid-state physics pooint of

view, the cell is basiccally a largee area p-n diode

d with the
t junctionn positioned
d close to thhe

top surface. The cell converts thhe sunlight into direct current elecctricity. Num
merous cellls

are assembbled

in a module to generaate required power.

1.1.2 Traccker:

It perform
ms the solar tracking
t of PV modulee to increasee the efficienncy of the system.
s

1.1.3 Safeety & Comb

biner Circu
uit:

Thhe pure DC electricity from the ph

hoto-voltaicc panels is

fed into the combiiner circuitt which ass the nam

me implies

combines all of the photo-voltaicc electricity

y. It also connsists on a

safety circcuit which safeguards from

f overloaad and overr current pottential cond
ditions.

1.1.4 Charge Controoller:

Thhe charge coontroller orr regulator is a significcant piece

of equipm
ment utilizedd in this prooject; it is needed
n to prevent
p the

overcharging of the batteries which

w can be hazarddous. Also
 -10- 
proper chaarging preveents any dam
mage to thee batteries annd hence inncreases the battery lifee.

There are two typess of chargee controllerrs being used in this

project aree:

(a) DC-D
DC charger (PV
( Regulaator), used when
w electrricity from

the PV pannels is availlable.

(b) AC-D
DC chargeer, used when
w photto-voltaic energy
e is

unavailablle (due to atmospheric

a c conditionss), in the case of whichh AC mainss supply will

be used.

1.1.5 Batttery Bank:

Thhe battery baank consistts of severall batteries, depending

d

on the typpe of voltagge and curreent ratings will be useed to store

DC energyy. Also theey will suppply this storred DC pow

wer to the

inverter.

1.1.6 Inveerter:

Thhe power inverter

i is the heart of this syystem. It

consists onn a DC-AC

C converter circuit whiich convertss the DC

voltages supplied
s byy the batterries into AC electricitty which

will be utiilizable for the electriccal appliancces. And forr this projecct the Invertter would be
b

capable off providing output loadd up to 1KV

VA.

1.1.7 Disp
play Panel:

Thhe display panel consists on a liquid cryystal displaay,

showing meters,
m charrging source selection,, and overlooad and undder

load condditions. Thiss board alsoo contains the

t safety elements
e suuch

as circuit breakers,
b fuuses and em
mergency shu
utdown buttton.
 

CHAPTER: 2 

PROJECT DESIGN & 
IMPLEMENTATION 
  

• Design & Circuit Layouts 

• Module Operation 

• Testing and Simulation 

• Troubleshooting 

  
  
 
 -12- 
CHAPTE
ER 2

Module Explanation
E n
PHOTO SENSORS

ker:
2.1 Track
A
A 

The trackeer here is being

b used to increasee light gathhering B

capability of the systtem. This is

i accompliished by ussing a

pair of seensors for horizontal

h a verticall tracking of
and o the

sun. [3]

2.1.1 Circcuit Explan

nation:

It takes innput from thhe 2 sensorrs (LDR) & then takees decision to move th
he panel in a

direction with
w greaterr sunlight inntensity.

Figu
ure 2.1

• Here thhe scan ratee has been set

s at 30 min
nutes.

• The traacker is impplemented using

u PIC12
2F675

oller unit. [8]

8-bit microcontro
m

 
 -13- 
2.1.2 Circcuit Implem
mentation

Problem Statement:
S :

• The Tracker
T was rarely deteecting a balance condiition i.e. it was eitherr moving thhe

panel right
r or left. It was not stopping th
he motor.

• We found that it was

w very diifficult to achieve the same
s Outpuut directly from
f the tw
wo

sensorrs.

• Even when
w almosst the same intensity
i off light was falling
f over the 2 sensors, there waas

a veryy small diffeerence in thhe output vo

oltage (in millivolts)
m thhe internal ADC of thhe

w 10bits output & a resolutionn of (Vdd – Vss)/2n = (5-0)/210 =

microccontroller with

4.8mvv was sharp enough to detect

d this tiiny variation.

 
Solution
n:
 

In order too remove thhe stated problems wee decided too take an innternal refeerence ratheer

than compparing the output

o of thee two LDR
Rs. In this way
w the trackker checks if one of thhe

two sensors is facingg sufficient light

l intensiity it movess the panel in that direection so thaat

the other sensor alsoo faces suffi

ficient inten
nsity. When both sensoors are facin
ng sufficiennt

intensity a balanced condition

c is achieved.

LDR
R Voltage Reference
R C
Circuit

Figu
ure 2.2
* Reference [55], [6]
 -14- 
Implemen
nted PCB of
o the Circu
uit:

ure 2.3
Figu

2.2 Chargge Controlller Board:

Figu
ure 2.4
 
 
Thhe circuit foor a Chargee Controllerr is rated 6A and batteery (i.e. to be chargedd)

voltage raating is 12V

V (variablee range up to 14V). Inn the abovve figure, PV
P Panels &

Battery Unnit will be connected

c too their respeective juncttions with prroper polariities.

Diiode D4 is a schottkyy diode useed for dischharge preveention. It iss one of thhe

typical appplications of
o a schottky diode. Schottky
S D
Diodes are m
metal to n--type Silicoon

Diode andd are differeent from Sillicon Diodes. Advantagges of Schoottky Diode over Silicoon

Diodes aree Small Revverse Recovvery Period

d, Faster andd have smalll forward voltage
v dropp.
 -15- 
Disadvantage of Schottky diode is that their reverse voltage is very small as compared to

Silicon Diodes which makes them unsuitable for high power applications.

80SQ035/80SQ045 has a breakdown voltage of 50V it means that D4 will withstand a

potential of 50V which is large enough to prevent Batteries from discharging through the

PV panel. This is necessary so that the PV panel does not get damaged.

Transistor T3 turns on when the PV panel voltage is large enough to cross the

potential Vbe of T3 which is typically 0.7V, voltage drop across R9 & the 12V drop

across D6. Here D6 ensures that T3 does not turn on at a voltage below 12V, R9 limits

current through the B-E junction.

IC3 is a 5V voltage regulator which ensures a constant voltage of 5V at its output.

Capacitors C6 & C7 are used to filter the input and output. VR1 is a potentiometer used

to change the Float Voltage Setting i.e. the Depth of Charging. The Temperature Sensor

TM1 (thermistor) modulates the float voltage setting slightly, the full voltage set point

rises in colder temperatures & falls at hot temperatures. Shorting the equalize terminals

J1 causes the circuit to stay in the charging state, this is useful for occasionally

overcharging (equalizing) a battery.

IC1 has been split up into IC1a & IC1b just to make the schematic clear.

Otherwise both are part of the same IC. IC1a & IC1b are Op-Amps operating as

Comparator. Each Op-Amp produces an output which is the counterpart of the other for

driving the bipolar LED.

Battery Voltages are compared to the float voltage setting by the Op-Amp IC1a &

IC1b. If the battery voltage is less than the float voltage setting then the Red light turns

on and the battery gets charging. Once Battery voltages become equal to the Float

Voltage Setting Green LED glows indicating the battery voltage has reached the floating
 -16- 
voltage, then the circuit starts oscillating above and below the Float voltage and RED &

GREEN LED glows alternatively.

The opto-coupler OC1 provides electrical isolation to the Output of IC1a & the

Gate of MOSFET T1. It provides optical coupling, & switches on or off depending on the

input. As a signal passes through the pin 1 & pin 2 of OC1 i.e. when the battery is

charging & RED led is glowing the opto-coupler turns on. As soon as the signal through

pin 1 & pin 2 fades away OC1 turns off.

T1 is an Enhancement-Type N-MOS which modulates the Charging Current of

the battery. When there is no input at its gate (OC1 is off due to IC1a output low)

minimum current flows through T1. As the output of IC1a goes high this turns OC1 on &

transistor T1 resistance decreases (Enhancement Mode of MOSFET) causing greater

amount of charging current.

F1 is a 6.0A Fuse to provide protection to the circuit. It breaks if the current goes

above 6.0A. D5 is a Crowbar Diode for safety purpose. If the Battery is inserted in the

reverse position by mistake, i.e. the polarities are not proper then the diode D5 provides a

short part through itself & a 6.0A fuse. Thus prevents other parts of the circuit from

damage. The current Rating of the Diode must be greater than 6.0A so that it does not

burn before the fuse breaks.

Implemented PCB of the Circuit:

Figure 2.5
 -17- 
2.2.1 Mod
dified Charrge Controlller Board::

Problem Statement:
S :

• We trried to sim
mulate the test
t circuit of the chaarge controoller based on discrette

compoonents on a simulation software, however due to cerrtain circum

mstances thhe

desiredd result couuld not be acchieved.

• w encounttered a prooblem with the 6A Scchottky Dioode which is currentlly

Also we

unavaiilable in thee Market, soo we have decided to usse a combinnation of Scchottkys.

Solution
n:

A microcoontroller bassed charge controlling

c device is more
m in tune with our reequirementss.

Figu
ure 2.6

* Reference [55], [6], [7]

 -18- 
Descriptioon:

Thhe schematiic is divideed in two main parts the

'brain', thee PIC micrrocontroller and the otther part iss for

checking voltages through resistors

r bridges.
b L
LOW

reference is
i centered on P1; HIG
GH referencee is centeredd on

P2. Both resistor

r briddges are pow
wered by reegulated 5V
Volts

and thereffore indepeendent from

m the batterry voltage. The

last bridgee is dedicateed to the batttery voltag

ge. The PIC will

convert thhese three voltages and

a compaare the batttery

voltage too the two references. The PIC will then take

actions.

The differrent tasks too be perform

med by the program
p in the
t PIC are quite simplle and do noot

require a lot
l of code space,
s the taasks preform
med by the program
p aree:

• Iniitialize the controller

c (vvariables, po
orts,…)

• Reead the uppeer limit (P1 on GP0)

• Reead the loweer limit (P2 on GP1)

• Reead the actuaal voltage of

o the battery
y (on GP2)

• Chheck if TEST
T is High inn order to ch
hoose the addjustment rooutine or no
ot.

o Do acttions ÆIs thhe battery voltage

v too low?
l

Adjustmeent:

Too set the dessired HIGH voltage refference, a teest mode is used. Why
y? because in
i

normal opperation moode, the PIC

C performss actions with
w delays. Modifying
g the batterry

witching' point. Moreovver, it helps to lower thhe

voltage creates an interaction aroound the 'sw

intrinsic coonsumptionn of the moddule.

 -19- 
This delay process makes the adjustment process a bit difficult. By putting the TEST

point at +5volt, we inform the PIC to run the adjustment routine, means without delays.

To adjust the reference values:

• Set Test point to HIGH to enter adjustment mode.

• Use an adjustable power supply ; Connect it in place of the battery.

• Set power supply to 10.8 volts. Adjust P1 to get a LOW level on GPIO.4 (pin 3).

• Set power supply to 13.8 volts. Adjust P2 to get a LOW level on GPIO.5 (pin

2).This means that the 'Solar Panel' is disconnected above 13.8 volts (or other

reference suitable for our needs)

• By varying the power supply voltage, check that :

• Between 10.8 and 13.8, GPIO.5 is HIGH and GPIO.4 is HIGH (Solar Panel and

Load connected)

• Above 13.8, GPIO.5 is LOW and GPIO.4 is HIGH (Solar Panel disconnected)

When this has been achieved, disconnect test point (TP) from +5 volts to go back to

Normal Mode.

2.2.1.1 Problem Faced in Programming:

Problem Statement:

At this step we were unable to achieve the desired output from the controller. The

output of the microcontroller was unpredictable even though we had programmed it.

Observation:

We realized that, there was some problem with the configuration registers. The

HEX file for the source code generated by Microchip was incorrect.
 -20- 
MPLAB

o Major problem is to configure the registers.

o It changes the register variables after every step, i.e. it reset the values in certian

file registers while in a delay loop.

o Also encountered ADC initializing problem

o If you leave the simulator continue running it does’nt update the variables.

o There are different types of PIC and each uses a different compiler.

o For the PIC12/16 you need a different compiler compared to PIC18,PIC24/30.

After wasting too much of our time on MPLAB we switch to the new tool i.e. MikroC of

Mikroelektronica.

MikroC

Most excellent Features:

o MikroC uses high level approach.

o MikroC covers PIC12/16 and 18.

o MikroC is supposed to have a decent library.

o MikroC provide 'built in functions' which we have no access in MPLAB.

For our programming requirement we finally opted for MikroC [9].

2.2.1.2 Final Charge Controller Design:

For the final design we shifted from the 12F675 having 6 I/O pins to the 16F877A which

has 33 I/O pins. Here the decision will be made according to the Present Battery Level.

We also added the Source Selection feature to the design & finally the decisions taken by

the Charge Controller depending on the present conditions (input) is as follows.

 -21- 
• Read battery level and check whether it is in the nominal range i.e. Sufficient

enough to drive the inverter.

• If battery level is sufficient enough (present level falls within the nominal range)

then there is no need to charge the battery.

• If battery level is insufficient then check which of the source is available for

charging & give the indication for available sources.

• Decides whether PV is to be selected for charging or AC from the wall outlet is to

be used for charging depending upon the user input.

• Charge the battery until it saturates. But don’t over charger it!!!

Charge controller disconnects the charger from battery when the battery voltages

become constant (does not increase further) indicating saturation is achieved & thus

prevents overcharging & extends battery life.

Modifications in Initial Design:

Initially the idea was to have hardware controlled limits; however when using software

controlled limits to control charging, this modification freed up more pins of controller &

enhanced charge controller efficiency.

We merged the AC Charge Controller & DC Charge Controller into a single

microcontroller for a more efficient and compact design; this is also a slight modification

from the initial design.

The battery voltage drops after the charging is turned off & it took some time for the

battery to go back to its new holding voltage, thus we introduced a delay in the code so

that the controller waits for sometime after switching off charging, so that the battery
 -22- 
voltage stabilizes & then reads the present battery level to make Charging Decision i.e.

either Continue Charging, Indicate Battery Full or Indicate Battery Error.

CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC

Figure 2.7

PCB LAYOUT

* Reference [5], [6], [7]

 -23- 

3D LAYOUT & CIRCUIT

Figure 2.8

2.2.2 PV Regulator:

The voltage levels being obtained from the solar panel are unregulated; to stabilize the

voltages we designed a PV regulator circuit [4]. The block diagram is as follows:

Figure 2.9
Configuration

• Q1, Q2 & Q5, Q6 are wired in a Darlington pair arrangement.

• Q3 & Q4 forms the control circuit. These two transistors are wired in parallel &

the charging current for the battery flows equally through this parallel

combination of transistors.

The amount of current that can pass through the Darlington pair can be calculated by:
 -24- 

Input current * gain of transistor 1 (hFE1)* current gain of

OUTPUT = DESIRED OUTPUT

• When no modulation is needed, i.e. the output voltage is equal to input voltage &

there is no error.

• The sensing circuit remains OFF, therefore entire current flows though the Q1 &

Q2.

• Q1 & Q2 conducts max current & drives Q3 & Q4 into full conduction so that Vce

is closer to Vce(sat) for Q3 & Q4 both.

• Thus the output voltage is almost equal to input voltage.

OUTPUT > DESIRED OUTPUT

• Once Q5 & Q6 detects error then the current that drives Q1 & Q2, conducts

through Q5 & Q6 too. Thus the entire current is divided between transistors Q1,

Q2 & Q5, Q6.

• Thus Q1 & Q2 moves towards cutoff region (away from saturation) as their input

current is decreased.

• Which in turn moves Q3 & Q4 away from saturation (towards cutoff), as a

consequence Vce increases & thus output decreases until it becomes equal to

desired voltage setting.

 -25- 
• Thherefore Q5 & Q6 keepp monitoring
g the outputt and maintaain output at
a the desired

voltage settingg.

• Ouutput voltagge setting caan be changeed through R6.

R

OUT
TPUT < DE
ESIRED OU
UTPUT

• Onnce Q5 & Q6
Q detect errror then the Q5 & Q6 moves
m towarrds cutoff, thus
t the

enttire current flows throuugh Q1& Q2

2.

• Ass a result Q11 & Q2 movves towardss saturation region (awaay from cutoff) as theirr

inpput current is
i increasedd.

• Thhis in turn moves

m Q3 & Q4 away from
fr cutoff region (tow
wards saturattion), as a

connsequence Vce
V decreasses & thus output
o increeases until itt become eq
qual to

dessired voltagge setting.

• Thhus Q5 & Q6 keeps moonitoring outtput and maaintains outpput at desireed voltage

settting

• Deesired Outpuut voltage setting can be

b changed through
t R6. 

Schematicc Diagram:

Figu
ure 2.10
 -26- 

Implemen
nted PCB of
o the Circu
uit:

Figu
ure 2.11

Testing th
he PV Regu
ulator:

First we provided the PV regulator

r

circuit v
voltages from an auto-

transformeer, usedd to simulate

unregulateed voltages from a PV panel.

p

Secondlyy we coonnected the chargge

controlleer board with the PV regulator, in

i

order to test the coontrolling capability

c o
of

the reguulator as w
well as th
he controlleer

board.
 -27- 

2.2.3 AC Charger:
C

Here the main

m supplyy source willl be from KESC.
K The primary
p purrpose of thee AC chargeer

is to proviide charging when thee sunlight iss unavailablle. Current requiremen

nt is adjusteed

accordinglly with the size of the battery [13]. The charginng ON/OFF
F time and voltages
v wiill

be controlled and monnitored by the

t microco
ontroller.

The blockk diagram is as follows::

220 VAC  CONTROL 
RECTTIFIER BATTTERY
50Hz CIRCUIT

Circuit Diagram:

Figu
ure 2.12

Simulatioon Result:
 -28- 

Figure 2.13

2.3 Inverter:

Power inverters are devices which can convert electrical energy of DC form into AC. [14]

They come in all shapes and sizes, from low power functions such as powering a car

radio to that of backing up a building in case of power outage. Inverters can come in

many different varieties, differing in price, power, efficiency and purpose. The purpose

of a DC/AC power inverter is typically to take DC power supplied by a battery, such as a

12 volt car battery, and transform it into a 220 volt AC power source operating at 60Hz,

emulating the power available at an ordinary household electrical outlet.

Figure provides an idea of what a small power inverter looks like. Power inverters are

used today for many tasks like powering appliances in a car such as cell phones, radios

and televisions. They also come in handy for consumers who own camping vehicles,

boats and at construction sites where an electric grid may not be as accessible to hook
 -29- 
into. Inverters allow the user to provide AC power in areas where only batteries can be

made available, allowing portability and freeing the user of long power cords.

On the market today are two different types of power inverters, modified sine wave and

pure sine wave generators. These inverters differ in their outputs, providing varying

levels of efficiency and distortion that can affect electronic devices in different ways.

A modified sine wave is similar to a square wave but instead has a “stepping” look to it

that relates more in shape to a sine wave. This can be seen in Figure 2.14, which displays

how a modified sine wave tries to emulate the sine wave itself. The waveform is easy to

produce because it is just the product of switching between 3 values at set frequencies,

thereby leaving out the more complicated circuitry needed for a pure sine wave. The

modified sine wave inverter provides a cheap and easy solution to powering devices that

need AC power. It does have some drawbacks as not all devices work properly on a

modified sine wave, products such as computers and medical equipment are not resistant

to the distortion of the signal and must be run on a pure sine wave power source.

Figure 2.14
 -30- 
2.3.1 Methodology

The construction of the pure sine wave inverter can be complex when thought of as a

whole but when broken up into smaller projects and divisions it becomes a much easier

to manage project. The following sections detail each specific part of the project as well

as how each section is constructed and interacts with other blocks to result in the

production of a 220 volt pure sine wave power inverter [16].

2.3.2 Block Diagram

Analog circuitry, as well as discrete components, a MOSFET drive integrated circuit and

a low pass filter is all that is necessary to generate a 60Hz, 220V AC sine wave across a

load. The block diagram shown in figure shows the varying parts of the project that will

be addressed.

The control circuit is comprised of three basic blocks, the 6.0V reference, sine wave

generator and triangle wave generator; when these blocks are implemented with

comparators and other small analog circuitry they control the PWM signals that the two

MOSFET drivers will send. The PWM signals are fed into these MOSFET drivers that

perform level translation to drive four N-Channel MOSFETs in an H-Bridge

configuration.

From here the signal is sent through a low pass LC filter so that the output delivers a pure

sine wave. The specific operation, construction, and resulting output waveforms for each

block will be discussed in detail in the following sections.

 -31- 
The blockk diagram is as follows::

PWM
M & SIGNALLLING  OUTPUT DRIIVER 

Figu
ure 2.15

2.3.2.1 Floow Diagram

m
12 VDC INPUT FRO
OM BATTERY DC‐DC 
CO
ONVERTERR

PWM CONTROL 
CIRCUIT
DC‐AC 
INVERTERR
HALF BRIDG
GE 
CONVERTER R
SINE‐PW
WM 
CONTROLLLER 
CIRCUIT HIGH 
FREQUENCYY 
TRANSFORMER

FULL BRID
DGE 
INVERTEER

LOW PASS FFILTER

220 VAC 6
60Hz 
OUTPUT
Figurre 2.16
 -32- 

M Control Circuit
2.3.3 PWM
 
 
 

Figu
ure 2.17

Thhe top pictuure shows the

t input reeference waaveform, annd the geneerated PWM
M

signal oveerlaid. The bottom

b pictuure shows the
t signals which
w are passed into a comparatoor

to achievee the PWM

M waveform
m. The sinee reference is includedd to show the
t result of
o

modifyingg the trianglle wave. If these waveeforms are passed intoo a comparaator, we will

obtain:
 -33- 
PWM H-BRIDGE CONTROL SIGNAL

Now, using an H-Bridge MOSFET

configuration, and utilizing both the above

PWM signal and the square wave generated, we

can obtain:

This is the final signal if filtered the Sine

Output will arrive.

Sine Wave Generator:

The first step to creating an accurate pulse width modulation signal using analog

circuitry is to construct an accurate representation of the signal. Therefore an oscillator

was needed to produce a stable 60Hz sine wave that had little distortion so that the output

could be as accurate as possible. A “Bubba” oscillator was chosen as the means to

produce this signal because of its ability to produce a stable sine wave that contains very
[10]
little distortion. The circuitry and values chosen are shown in Figure and the op-amp

chip chosen to complete the task was an LM348 as it is an inexpensive part and meets all

the requirements of creating this sine wave.

Figure 2.18
 -34- 
Results:

60Hz Sine wave was achieved.

Carrier Wave Generator:

Generating a sine wave at 60Hz requires both the reference sine wave and a carrier wave

at the switching speed of the power supply. Carrier waves can be either saw-tooth or

triangular signals; in this case, a triangular wave is used. The generation of the triangular

carrier wave has been done with analog components. The circuit for the construction of
[10]
the triangle wave generator consists of a square wave generator and integrator , as

shown in Figure 2.19.

Figure 2.19
 -35- 

The above circuit will oscillate at a frequency of 1/4RtC, and the amplitude can

be controlled by the amplitude of R1 and R2. Rt =150K VR, R1=8.2K & R2=1.5M VR,

and C=0.1uF, this circuit generates square and triangle waves.

Results:

Problem Statement:

Difficulties with this circuit were mainly caused by the operational amplifier

selected in its design. The square and triangle waves may be skewed due to the op-amp’s

inability to reach output rails. Also, if the frequency is too high for the op-amp to handle,

the square wave will be skewed and the triangle wave will be noticeably clipped or

distorted.

We have used 9 ICs for generating the required signals. The behavior of discrete

component is sometimes unpredictable and again in the PWM output we get the result as

show in the oscilloscope output. The output signals are not very clean PWM pulses; this

is due to the op-amp behavior towards high frequency.

 -36- 

Solution:

As the remedy of previous (Figuree 2.20)

work we have
h to convvert the

Op-amp based
b circuits to

the XR
R-2206 Fuunction

generator IC.

Now afterr implementting the

circuit beelow we acchieved

the pulsess which woould be

driving thee MOSFET

T Driver IC IR-2110.
I

P
Previous outtput from Opp-Amps. R-2206 based PWM.
Output of XR
 -37- 

Complete circuit of PWM:

 -38- 
2.3.4 H-Bridge

Generating a sine wave centered on zero volts requires both a positive and negative

voltage across the load, for the positive and negative parts of the wave, respectively. This

can be achieved from a single source through the use of four MOSFET switches arranged

in an H-Bridge configuration. To minimize power losses and utilize higher switching

speeds, N-Channel MOSFETs were chosen as switches in the bridge. Level translation

between PWM signals and voltages required to forward bias high side N-Channel

MOSFETS, the IR2110 MOSFET driver integrated circuit was chosen. A diagram of the

H-Bridge circuit with MOSFETS and drivers is shown in the figure below:

Figure 2.21

The IR2110 High and Low Side Drive device exceeds all requirements for driving the

MOSFETs in the bridge. It is capable of up to 500V at a current rating of 2A at fast

switching speeds. This device is required to drive the high side MOSFETS in the circuit

designated HO, due to the fact that the gate to source voltage must be higher than the

drain to source voltage, which is the highest voltage in the system. This device utilizes a

bootstrapping capacitor to maintain a voltage difference of approximately 10V above the

drain to source voltage. With a full bridge configuration, two of these devices are

utilized, as shown in the above figure. A typical connection of a single IR2110 device is

shown in Figure.
 -39- 

Operation of the IR2110 device will be controlled through generated PWM signals. The

PWM signals will be fed to the HIN and LIN pins simultaneously. If the internal logic

detects a logic high, the HO pin will be driven; if a logic low is detected, the LO pin will

be driven. The SD pin controls shut down of the device and will be unused and tied to the

ground. Additional pins that require external connections are the Vss pin which will also

be tied to the ground, the Vcc pin which will be tied to 12V, pins requiring connections to

Boot-strapping components and outputs to the MOSFETS.

Driving four MOSFETs in an H-Bridge configuration allows +350, 350, or 0 volts across

the load at any time. To utilize PWM signals and this technology, the left and right sides

of the bridge will be driven by different signals. The MOSFET driver on the left side of

the bridge will receive a square wave of 60Hz, and the right side will receive the 50KHz

PWM signal. The 60Hz square wave will control the polarity of the output sine wave,

while the PWM signal will control the amplitude. The MOSFETs to be used in the design

are the IRFB20N50KPbF (IRF740) Hexfet Power MOSFET, rated for 500V at 20A with

an Rds of 0.21ohm.
 -40- 
The implemented PCB:

Overall Circuit diagram of PWM & Output Control Circuit:

Figure 2.22

2.3.5 Half Bridge Converter:

A schematic of the half-bridge converter is shown in Figure 2.23. The major components

of the half-bridge converter are the two transistors, which are illustrated in the figure. The

purpose of the half-bridge converter is to chop up the 12 VDC supplied by a battery so

that an alternating current is seen by the transformer. The red and blue paths have been

added to figure to illustrate the switching technique used to create and alternating current
 -41- 
from direcct current. T
The red pathh shows thaat current iss forced acrross the prim
mary side of
o

the transfoormer whenn the upper transistor

t is open and thhe lower traansistor is closed.

When thee transistorrs are

toggled, the curreent is

forced in the directiion of

the blue path, thus

producingg an AC

waveform
m. Since the pulses

that contrrol the trannsistors

are compplimentary, both

half-bridge transistorrs will

never be on at the same Figu

ure 2.23
time and thhe process repeats
r 1000,000 times per
p second.

The transiistors selectted for the half-bridge

h Z44 by International Rectifier.
were IRFZ R Thhe

IRFZ44 diissipated thee least amouunt of heat for long durrations of ooperation.

Why to usse Push-Pu

ull techniqu
ue?

* Reference [15]
 -42- 

2.3.5.1 Half Bridge Converter Implementation:

The TL494 was selected; a short description of the IC is given below: 

The schematic diagram of circuit is given below:

Figure 2.24
 -43- 
Now the TL494 circuit was interfaced with transformer of rating; Input = 15+0+15 Volt

AC, Output=220VAC and current of 2A.

The results:
 -44- 
Problem Statement:

From the above oscilloscope output we can see the output is not pure Square output,

although the amplitude was about 155VAC.

2.3.5.2 Solution for the TL494 Circuit:

Now we used the SG3525 module; the short description of IC is as follows:

Figure 2.25
 -45- 

MODIFIED 
CIRCUIT 

Figure 2.26

AMPLITUDE 
≈ 300 Vpp 

        

Now we got the 60Hz (16.67msec) Square outputs with an rms value of 211VAC.

Problem Statement:

The output was about 190VAC on load; however 

the  shape  of  the  output  waveform  was  neither 

 -46- 
Sine  nor  Square.  It  has  a  peak  value  for  few  microseconds  and  then  it  decrease  with 

many dumping signals. 

Observation:

From  above  simulation  we  noticed  that  the  core  gets  saturated  after  30‐40  minutes. 

And the voltage starts decreasing by 3‐5 volts per minute. 

Conclusion:

Therefore, we decided to wind a Ferrite-Core transformer to rectify the load current

problem.

2.3.5.3 Ferrite Core Transformer

The term ferrite core may refer to a core used to build an electric transformer; there are

two kinds of core (nucleous) applications following the size and frequencies, one for

signal transformers and the other for power transformers.

The ferrite cores used for power transformers are working in the range of low frequencies

(1 to 50KHz usually) and are quiet big size, can either be toroidal, shell or C shaped and

are useful in all kind of switching electronic device (especially power supplies from 1W

to 100W maximum because usually powerful applications are out of range of ferritic

single core and require grain oriented lamination cores).

The ferrite cores used for signal have a range of applications from 1KHz to many MHz

perhaps up to 300, and found its main application in electronics.

Ferrite is a class of ceramic material with useful electromagnetic properties and an

interesting history. Ferrite is rigid and brittle. Like other ceramics, ferrite can chip and

break if handled roughly. Luckily it is not as fragile as porcelain and often such chips and

cracks will be merely cosmetic. Ferrite varies from silver gray to black in color. The
 -47- 
electromagnetic properties of ferrite materials can be affected by operating conditions

such as temperature, pressure, field strength, frequency and time.

There are basically two varieties of ferrite: soft and hard. This is not a tactile quality but

rather a magnetic characteristic. 'Soft ferrite' does not retain significant magnetization

whereas 'hard ferrite' magnetization is considered permanent. Fair-Rite ferrite materials

are of the 'soft' variety.

Ferrite has a cubic crystalline structure with the chemical formula MO.Fe2O3 where

Fe2O3 is iron oxide and MO refers to a combination of two or more divalent metal (i.e:

zinc, nickel, manganese and copper) oxides. The addition of such metal oxides in various

amounts allows the creation of many different materials whose properties can be tailored

for a variety of uses.

Ferrite components are pressed from a powdered precursor and then sintered (fired) in a

kiln. The mechanical and electromagnetic properties of the ferrite are heavily affected by

the sintering process which is time-temperature-atmosphere dependent.

Ferrite shrinks when sintered. Depending on the specific ferrite, this shrinkage can range

from 10% to 17% in each dimension. Thus the unfired component's volume may be as

much as 60% larger than the sintered value. Maintaining correct dimensional tolerances

as well as the prevention of cracking related to this shrinkage are fundamental concerns

of the manufacturing process.

* Reference [17], [18], [19], [20]

 -48- 
Types of Ferrite Cores:

Magnetics cores can be divided

into many types of

categories. This discussion will

divide magnetic cores into two

major categories, structure (shape)

and material. These major core

categories will then be sub-divided

into additional categories. This

includes; various standard types

of “core with bobbin” structures

(E, EP, EFD, EC, ETD, PQ, POT, U and others), toroids, and some custom designs.

Transformer Formulae & Calculations:

ETD-49:

     2.11 2.71  5.72

10
 

2314.2135 

10
  0.101
 -49- 
1  10   1 /

    1.5

    50

10
              1   
4

100   1000

211 2.11

271 2.71

900 

10
 
4

Input Winding = 16# AWG

Output Winding = 14# AWG

10
 
4

0.3, 80%

5.71

1   10  

1
1 
10

1
900 900 
10

244 10  

1
1 
10

For Details of Symbols & Constants, Refer to the Appendix B – Page # 73

 -50- 
ETD-44:

25

213 2.13

   173 1.73

      2.13 1.73  3.684

10
 

10
 
4

1 ; 
10  ; 

  5.07 10

450

0.3   

80%

 ?

3.684

10
3.684 450 5.07 10 0.8 25 0.3
4

0.22 10
  248.82
4 0.8 25 0.3

4   14.2

248.82   
 -51- 

For Details of Symbols

S & Constantss, Refer to the
t Append
dix B – Pag
ge # 70

Designingg a Transfoormer Baseed on Calcu

ulations:

The first problem

p in making
m the ferrite coree transformer is the core. Unfortu
unately in thhe

market there is no data

d availabble for the ferrite corees, also it iis very diffficult to finnd

ferrite-corres in Pakisttan. Now ouur first challlenge was to search thhe whole market
m for thhe

ferrite-corres, and finaally after maany days off searching, we finally got two sizzes of ferritee-

cores, how
wever these were withoout any speccifications or
o data. We browsed th
hrough manny

core manuufacturer’s websites,

w annd we dow
wnloaded thee datasheetss of their manufacture
m ed

cores, dow
wnloaded thhe pictures and we co
ompared thee features oof cores thaat we boughht

with the mechanical

m d
data. The coores we hav
ve now are ETD-44
E andd ETD-49.

                     
 -52- 

ding Resultts:
The Wind

Figu
ure 2.27

Now from
m the datasheeets and cattalog charts the Core ETD-49
E valuues are:

WA=2.71ccm2, B=9000 Gauss, Vin=12V, f=100KHzz, Vout=4400V

From our calculation we got:

Turns/voltt=0.1173, Primary Turns=

T 1.45T
T, Seconndary Turns=
= 56T.

As compaared with thee results froom an onlinee calculatorr:

It is now confirmed
c thhat our calcculations aree on cue.
 -53- 

Testing the design:

Figure 2.28

AC voltage at the output are varying due to the output frequency of 4.51 KHz, however,

the digital meters that we have are operating at a less approximation speed. We rectified

the output and measured the DC voltage for first three transformers using an analog

meter, and the results were very shocking. The DC voltages were more than 800VDC. As

for the forth one, which was designed for 400V we got 300VDC as shown in the above

picture. And the output waveform is on the right picture.

Problem Statement:

Output of transformer in terms of voltage is ok but when a capacitor is connected to

smooth the output, the transformer starts to generate noise and voltage drops to 20-

30VDC. While searching through different forums on the internet we found that for

primary side Strip wire of the same width of the Bobbin is used for winding however,

this is unavailable in Pakistan, so we tried to use copper sheet of same thickness but still

failed to achieve the desired output. And one more critical factor of Ferrite core winding

is the type of core, of which three types are available namely, F-Type, R-Type and P-

Type. The component vendors in Pakistan do not have any data related to the type of

materials being used.

 -54- 
Conclusioon:

After workking for 3 weeks

w on thhis part of our
o project, we were uunable to geet the desireed

output. Annd after seeeking the advice

a of our
o internall advisor w
we shifted our
o attentioon

towards thhe square wave inverrter based on the connventional iron core transformerr.

However, the theme of implemeenting the sq

quare wavee inverter w
was to modiffy the outpuut

as near as possible to the Sine waave using LC

L Filters att the output of inverter..

2.3.6 Mod
dified Sine--wave Inverrter

Now for teest bases wee implemennted SG3525

5 based inveerter circuitt operating at
a 60Hz.

Figu
ure 2.29

The Result:

The no looad voltagess were

238VAC and when the

load of 2000W was applied

a

the voltaage droppeed to

about 1
188VAC. This

happened,, becausee the

current off the transfformer

was insuffficient to drive

this amounnt of load. Hence

H the voltage
v decreases as a result. [21]
 -55- 
2.3.6.1 Im
mplementing the Inverrter using PIC
P Microccontroller:

The reasonn of using a PIC microocontroller was

w to conttrol the circuit more effficiently annd

to set the parameterss according to our requ

uirements. The
T up-dow
wn pulses are
a generateed

by the miccrocontrolleer to drive the

t Push-Pu
ull MOSFET
Ts. Circuit also holds the overloaad

cutoff conndition [11] for

fo the safetyy of the sysstem. And thhe transform
mer used heere has ratinng

as followss; Input 12 + 0 + 12 VA
AC, Output 220 + 240 + 260 VAC
C at current of
o 7A.

Figu
ure 2.30

The Filterr Design:

The outpuut low-pass LC Filter was

w design
ned using onnline calcullator and th
he calculateed

values are as follows::

 -56- 
The P-Spiice Simulattion of Filteer:

ure 2.31
Figu

The violett line indicaates the squuare output from

f the traansformer aand the greeen line is thhe

resulting waveform
w a
after passinng through the
t low-passs LC Filterr. And the amplitude is
i

also increaased due to the energizzing of the in

nductor coills.
 

CHAPTER: 3 

ACCESSORIES
  

• Battery  

•  PV Panel 

• 16 X 2 LCD Module 

• PIC Microcontroller 

  
  
 
 -59- 
CHAPTE
ER 3
Acceessories

3.1 Batterry

The batterry in our project

p is basically thee heart of our
o backup system. Itt is fed witth

constant 12VDC from

m the chargee controller, and it provvides input tto the inverrter.

General Sizes
S of Avaailable Battteries:

Tab
ble 3.1

Chargingg Rate:

The charging rate is determined

d b the follo
by owing formuula,

Hourrs of Chargee = (Ah Ratting x % of Charge Neeeded x 1.25) / Charger Setting

m for lead-acid batteriies is similar to lithiuum-ion but differs from

The chargge algorithm m

nickel-bassed chemisttries in that voltage ratther than cuurrent limitiing is used.. The chargge

time of a sealed lead-acid batteery is 12-16 hours (uup to 36 hoours for larrger capacitty

batteries). With higheer charge cuurrents and

d multi-stagee charge m
methods, the charge tim
me

can be redduced to 10 hours or lesss. Lead-aciid cannot bee fully chargged as quick
kly as nickeel

or lithium--based systeems.

It takes abbout 5 timess as long too recharge a lead-acid battery

b to thhe same lev
vel as it doees

to dischargge. On nickkel-based baatteries, this ratio is 1:1, and roughhly 1:2 on lithium-ion.
 -60- 
Battery raatings:

12VDC, 85Ah
8 ,18Plaate Phoenixx Brand Leaad Acid Batttery is usedd in the systeem.

With suffiicient rest and

a stable teemperature,, voltage measurementts provide an
a amazinglly

accurate SoC
S estimattion for leadd acid batteeries. It is im
mportant thhat the batteery is free of
o

polarizatioon. If conneected in a system, such

h as in a caar, there aree steady aux
xiliary loadss,

not to menntion frequeent starting and

a driving
g.

BCI Stand
dard for SoC estimation 
of a 12V lead acid carr battery. 

Tab
ble 3.2

Do and doon’t batteryy table:

Each batteery has uniqque needs that

t must bee met to obbtain reliablle service and
a long lifee.

The Do annd don’t baattery table summarizees these neeeds and advvises properr handling of
o

each battery type.

- Nickel-ca
admium Nickel-meta
al- Lithium-ion Leead-acid
(NiCCd) hydride (NiM
MH) (Li-ion) (Seale
ed or flooded)
)
Used in Two-way ra adios, Similar application as Cell phones, laptops
s, Motorcy
ycles, cars,
power toolss, N
NiCd; higher deensity. video cameras. wheelch
hairs, UPS.
medical.
Charging Do run the battery Do run the batte
D ery Do ch
harge the batte ery Do charrge the batteryy
fully down once per fu
ully down once often.. The battery la
asts immediately after
month; try to use up ev
very 3 months s. longer with partial ad-acid must
use. Lea
all energy before
b O
Over-cycling is not ratherr than full always be kept in a
charging. advised. discha
arges. chargedd condition.
The batttery lasts
Do not leav
ve battery Do not leave ba
D attery Do noot use if pack g
gets longer with
w partial
in charger for more in
n charger for more
m hot du
uring charge. rather than
t full
than 2 dayss because th
han 2 days beccause Checkk also charger. discharg
ges. Over-
of memory. off memory. cycling is not advised..
Charg ge methods:
Avoid getting Avoid getting ba
A attery Consttant voltage to Charge methods:
battery too
o hot to
oo hot during 4.20V V/cell (typical). No Constan nt voltage to
during charrge. ch
harge. trickle
e-charge when 2.40/ceell (typical),
full. Li-ion
L may rema ain followedd by float held
Charge methods: in thee charger (no at 2.25V V/cell.
Constant cuurrent, Charge methods
C s: memo ory). Battery mmust Battery must remain
followed by
y trickle C
Constant curren
nt, remain cool. No fastt- cool. Fa
ast charge not
charge wheen full. fo
ollowed by trickkle charge possible. possiblee; can remain
Fast-chargee ch
harge when full. on floatt charge.
preferred over
o slow Slow charge nott Rapid charge = 3h
charge. re
ecommended. Slow ch
harge = 14h
Slow charge = 16h Battery will get Rapid charge = 10h
Rapid chargge = 3h w
warm towards full
f
Fast charge
e = 1h+ ch
harge.
R
Rapid charge = 3h
Fa
ast charge = 1h+
1
 -61- 
Discharging
g Full cycle does
d not Avoid too many
A y full Avoid full cycle Avoid fuull cycle
harm NiCd.. cy
ycles because of becauuse of wear. 800% because e of wear. Use
NiCd is onee of the w
wear. Use 80% depth-of-discharge 80% de epth-of-
most hardy y and depth-of-discharge. recommmended. Re- discharg ge. Recharge
durable che emistries. N
NiMH has higher charge more often. more offten or use
en
nergy density than Avoid full discharge.. larger battery.
b
N
NiCd at the expense Low voltage
v may cut Low ene ergy density
off shorter cycle life. off safety circuit limits le
ead-acid to
wheeled d applications
Service Discharge tot 1V/cell Discharge to 1V
D V/cell No maaintenance Apply to opping charge
needs every 1 to 2 months evvery 3 months s to needeed. Loses capac
city every 6 months.
to prevent memory. prevent memory y. due to
o aging whetheer Occasio onal discharge//
Do not disccharge D not discharg
Do ge used or
o not. charge may improve
before each h charge. before each cha arge performmance.
Storage Best to store at 40% Store at 40% ch harge Store at 40% charge e in Store always at a full
charge in a cool in
n a cool place. Open a cooll place (40% state-off-charge. Do
place. Open n terminal te
erminal voltagee state--of-charge read ds not storre below
voltage cannnot caannot determin ne 3.75-3.80V/cell at 2.10V/c cell; apply
determine state-of- sttate-of-charge. open terminal. topping charge every
charge. 5 years
y and Prime battery iff Do noot store at full 6 month hs.
longer storage sttored longer th
han 6 charge and at warm m
possible. Prrime m
months. tempe eratures becau use
battery if stored of acc
celerated aging g.
longer thann6
months.
Disposal Do not disppose; Should be recyc
cled. Should be recycled. Do not dispose; must
contains tooxic Lo
ow volume Low volume
v household be recycled.
metals; mu ust be household NiMHH may Li-ion may be dispossed
recycled. be disposed.
Tab
ble 3.3

3.2 Photo Voltaic Ceells

A solar ceell, made froom a monoocrystalline silicon waffer. A

solar cell or photovolltaic cell is a device th

hat convertss light

energy innto electricaal energy by

b the pho
otovoltaic effect.
e

Photovoltaaic is the field of technnology and research reelated

[1]
to the appplication of solar cells
c as so
olar energyy.

Sometimees the term solar cell is reserved

d for devicees intended specifically
y to capturre

energy froom sunlighht, while thhe term ph

hotovoltaic cell is useed when th
he source is
i

unspecifieed.

Assembliees of cells are used too make solaar moduless, which maay in turn be
b linked in
i

photovoltaaic arrays.

Solar cellss have manyy applicatioons. Individ

dual cells arre used for ppowering sm
mall devicees

such as electronic calculators. Photovolttaic arrays generate a form off renewablle

electricity, particularrly useful in

i situation
ns where electrical
e poower from the grid is
i

unavailablle such as in remote area powerr systems, Earth-orbiti

E ing satellitees and spacce
 -62- 
probes, remote radiottelephones and water pumping
p appplications. Photovoltaaic electricitty

is also incrreasingly deeployed in grid-tied

g eleectrical systtems.

PV panel ratings:

* Reference [22]
 -63- 
3.3 Displaay Panel

The displlay panel consists

c of Liquid Crrystal Display

modules of
o 16 x 2 linnes.

phanumeric LCD Module Featu

16 x 2 Alp ures

• Inttelligent, w
with builtt-in Hitach
hi HD447780

com
mpatible LC
CD controlller and RAM
M providingg simple intterfacing

• 61 x 15.8 mm
m viewing arrea

• 5 x 7 dot matrrix format for

fo 2.96 x 5.56 mm charracters, pluss cursor linee

• Caan display 224 differentt symbols

• Loow power coonsumptionn (1 mA typiical)

• Poowerful com
mmand set annd user-pro
oduced charaacters

• TT
TL and CMO
OS compatiible

• Coonnector forr standard 0.1-pitch pin

n headers

The displaay outputs are

a as follow
ws:

MO
ODE SELECTTION

INVERTER
. . NG
CHARGIN

ON
N OFF PV AC
 -64- 
3.4 PIC Microcontroller

Introduction:

The microcontroller is a very common component in modern electronic systems. Its use
is so widespread that it is almost impossible to work in electronics without coming across
it.

Microcontrollers are used in a wide number of electronic systems such as:

• Engine management systems in automobiles.

• Keyboard of a PC.

• Electronic measurement instruments (such as digital multimeters,

frequency synthesizers, and oscilloscopes)

• Printers.

• Mobile phones.

• Televisions, radios, CD players, tape recording equipment.

• Hearing aids.

• Security alarm systems, fire alarm systems, and building services systems.

What is a microprocessor?

The microprocessor is the integration of a number of useful functions into a single IC

package. These functions are:

• The ability to execute a stored set of instructions to carry out user defined

tasks.

• The ability to be able to access external memory chips to both read and

write data from and to the memory.

 -65- 
What is a microcontroller?

Basically, a microcontroller is a device which integrates a number of the components of a

microprocessor system onto a single microchip.

The PIC Microcontroller:

PIC stands for – “Peripheral Interface Controller”. The original PIC was designed to be a

Peripheral Interface Controller for 6502 microcontroller from Rockwell late 70’s.

Why did we choose Microchip PIC Family of Microcontrollers?

• Free development softwares MPLAB IDE and Mikro C.

• Low cost development hardware.

• Devices are easy to obtain through distributors and can be sampled.

• A wide range of devices are available with varying feature sets.

• Microchip is in continuous development of new PIC devices.

• Has a large Internet based development community (piclist.com).

 -66- 
The Architecture of 16F877:

The architecture of 16F877 has wide range of built-in modules so that no need for

external hardware components.

Figure 3.1

Supporting Hardware:

PIC Test bench for code checking. PIC Programmer.

 

CHAPTER: 4 

FABRICATION & 
PERFORMANCE 
EVALUATION 
  

• System Wiring Diagrams 

•  Modular Performance Charts 

• Cost Analysis 

• Conclusion 

  
  
  
 -68- 
CHAPTER 4
Fabrication & Performance Evaluation

4.1 Final Designs & Pictures

Complete wiring layout between various modules of the system.

Figure 4.1

The true scaled CAD layout based on the above wiring diagram:
 -69- 
Finished Modules
M

  

 
 -70- 
4.2 Performance Charts

4.2.1 Tracker

Name Design Constraints Results Pass / Fail

Tracking Horizontal Tracking Controlled Tracking Pass
Designed
Scan rate 30 minutes Pass
Programmable
Tracker should be stable & Approx 50mV
Sensitivity Pass
parallel to Sun sensitivity
Efficiency >90% >95% Pass

Table 4.1

4.2.2 PV Regulator

Name Design Constraints Results Pass / Fail

Variable
Up to 36 Volts Achieved Pass
Input
Regulated Desired level O/P deflection is
Pass
Output (Set Externally) only 400mV
Charging
Provide constant 6A Designed for 10A Pass
Current
Regulation
>90% Achieved Pass
Efficiency
Operating
Temperature Not more than 50oC Pass
temperature is 45 oC
Size Should be compact 97mm * 100mm Pass

Table 4.2

4.2.3 Battery Charge Monitoring Board

Name Design Constraints Results Pass / Fail

Controller PIC based
Intelligent Charging Pass
Based monitored charging
Indications Display all conditions 8 Status LEDs Pass
Multiple source
Modes User defined Pass
selection
Cutoff Low & full battery
Limits achieved Pass
Status conditions
Size Should be compact 110mm * 130mm Pass
Efficiency >90% >95% Pass

Table 4.3
 -71- 
4.2.4 Inverter

Name Design Constraints Results Pass / Fail

Convert 12VDC to 12VDC to 220VAC
Voltage Pass
220VAC 50Hz
Provide 850VA continuous
Power > 900VA Pass
power
Waveform Pure 50Hz Sine wave Modified Sine Fail
Output
MOSFET based Achieved Pass
Stage
Control
Microcontroller based PIC microcontroller Pass
Circuit
Iron core
transformer used
Transformer Ferrite Core --
due to unavailability
of ferrite core.
Size Should be compact 115mm * 200mm Pass
Table 4.4

4.3 Conclusion:

As you can see from the information above most of the more important design constraints were

met. The packaged product did convert 12VDC to a 220VAC, 50 Hz. Some of the more

aggressive constraints were however not met. We were unable to produce a pure sine wave. Even

though, we have designed the PWM circuitry for the Sine wave generation, however for the

failure of the ferrite core transformer phase of the project, we feel that this constraint was set

pretty aggressively without enough knowledge of the availability of the data and the categorized

core itself. We feel that while this constraint was a failure that it is an acceptable failure. The

packaged unit size was efficiently controlled by using the CAD tools. The overall efficiency of

the entire system is 85% which is appreciable on the research and testing level. In the end our

project stands as a fully functional finished product ready to be marketed.

Future Improvement:

With the proper implementation of ferrite core transformers the efficiency, weight

reduction and the pure sine wave output can be achieved. If one is able to find the

respective data and specifications of the ferrite core and its materials.
 -72- 
4.4 Cost Analysis

Part Name Cost (Rs.)

Tracker
i. PV Panel 20,000
ii. Drive & Mechanical Stand 10,000
iii. Circuit 150
Charge Controller
i. BCM Circuit 200
ii. PV Regulator 650
iii. AC Charger 850
Battery 5,500
Box 2,000
Inverter
i. Ferrite Cores 500
ii. Winding Wires 750
iii. Circuit 350
iv. Transformer (Iron Core) 1,500
v. MOSFETS 450
Miscellaneous
i. Development Boards 120
ii. Programmer 50
iii. LCD 230
iv. Heat Sinks 400
v. Fans 600
vi. Relays 450
vii. Function Generator ICs 900
viii. Mix ICs 600
ix. PCBs
a) Tracker 70
b) PV Regulator 150
c) Display Board 100
d) BCM 200
e) Inverter 250
f) Relay Control Board 150
x. Connectors 300
xi. Wires 700
xii. Switches & Fuses 650
xiii. Components Damaged During
Testing
a) MOSFETS 900
b) ICs 230
Total Cost 49,950

Table 4.5

Our estimated cost was Rs.75,000; however we have been able to complete the project in

under Rs.50,000, this cost reduction has been quite an achievement for us.
 

  

APPENDICES
  

• Firmware 

•  Transformer Core Datasheets 

• List of Test Points ‐ Troubleshooting 

• Software & Instruments 

• References 

  
  
 
 -74- 
APPENDIX A: FIRMWARE

BATTERY MONITORING BOARD

void Bfcheck(); //Checks whether Battery is

full or needs to be charged
void SrcCheck(); //Checks Available Source &
give Indication on LED
void CC(); //DC Charger
void BC(); //AC Charger
int batt=0, bn=0, pv=0, i=0, j=0;
void main()
{
OPTION_REG = 2; //Prescaler 1:8
ADCON0 = 1; ADCON0.0 = ADON = 1;
ADCON1 = 132; //AN0 to AN4 Analog, AN5 to
AN7 Digital, ADC Clock = Fosc/2, Right Justified
TRISA = 0xFF; //PortA/RA = Input
TRISB = 0; PORTB/RB = Output;
PORTB = 0; //Reset PORTB
TRISC = 0; //PORTC/RC = Output
PORTC = 0; //Reset PORTC
Bfcheck(); //Indicates if battery is
full or needa to be charged
SrcCheck(); //Indicates Available
Sources
PORTB.f4 = 1; //Indicates Source
Selection Input Needed
delay_ms(2000); //Wait for input
PORTB.f4 = 0; //Reset Source Selection
Indication
if(PORTA.f5==0) //If Switch Pressed
{ //Switch Debouncing
delay_ms(1000);
if(PORTA.f5==0)
{
PORTB.f2 = 1; //Indicates DC Charger
PORTB.f3 = 0; //Indicates AC Charger
Jumps to DC Charger;
}
else if(PORTA.f5==1)
{
PORTB.f2 = 0; //Indicates DC Charger
PORTB.f3 = 1; //Indicates AC Charger
BC(); Jumps to AC Charger;;
}
}

void bfcheck()
{
batt = ADC_Read(1); //Read Battery
if(batt >= 690) //If Battery is in
{ //Nominal Range then
hang: PORTB.f7 = 1; //INDICATE BATTERY FULL
goto hang; //LOOP BACK (HANG)
}
else
 -75- 
PORTB.f7 = 0; //Indicates Battery not
fully charged
}

void SrcCheck()
{
pv = ADC_Read(0); //Read PV
if(pv >= 700) //If PV = 3.42v is
sufficient
{
PORTB.f5 = 1; //PV Available Indication
}
else
{
PORTB.f5 = 0; //PV not available
}

void CC()
{
OPTION_REG = 2; //Prescaler 1:8
ADCON0 = 1; //ADCON0.0 = ADON =
1
ADCON1 = 130; //AN0 to AN4 Analog,
AN5 to AN7 Digital, ADC Clock = Fosc/2, Right Justified
TRISA = 0xFF; //PortA/RA = Input
TRISB = 0; //PortB/RB = Output
TRISC = 0; //PortB/RB = Output
PORTC = 0; //Reset Output Port
batt = ADC_Read(1);
delay_ms(1); //Acquisition Time
pv = ADC_Read(0);
delay_ms(1);
while (pv > 700)
{
PORTB.f7 = 1; //Battery Full
Indication
while(batt < 690) //If battery is not in
nominal range
{
charge1: PORTB.f7 = 0; //Battery not full
PORTC.f0 = 1; //Turn DC Charger RELAY ON
PORTB.f1 = 1; //Charging INDICATION
for(i=0; i<600 ; i++) //Wait for 30 minutes
{
delay_ms(3000);
}
PORTB.f1 = 0; //Charging INDICATION OFF
PORTC.f0 = 0; //DC Charger RELAY OFF
for(j=0; j<60 ; j--) //wait for 3 minutes
{ //so that battery voltage
stabilise
delay_ms(300);
}
bn = ADC_Read(1); //Read Battery level after
being charged for "i" minutes
delay_ms(1);
if(batt < bn) //if battery voltage rises
{
batt = bn; //store new battery level
 -76- 
goto charge1; //loop back
}
else //if battery voltage not
rising
if(bn > 685) //if battery is in nominal
range
{
goto bfull1; //battery full
}
else //battery not in nominal
range
{
goto error1; //error indication
}
bfull1: PORTB.f7 = 1; //BATTERY FULL LED
PORTC.f0 = 0; //DC CHARGER RELAY OFF
while(1); //HANG INDEFINITELY
error1: PORTB.f7 = 0; //BATTERY FULL LED
PORTC.f0 = 0; //DC CHARGER RELAY OFF
PORTB.f0 = 1; //ERROR LED
while(1); //HANG INDEFINITELY
}

void BC()
{
OPTION_REG = 2; //Prescaler 1:8
ADCON0 = 1; //ADCON0.0 = ADON = 1
ADCON1 = 130; //AN0 to AN4 Analog,
AN5 to AN7 Digital, ADC Clock = Fosc/2, Right Justified
TRISA = 0xFF; //PortA/RA = Input
TRISB = 0; //PortB/RB = Output
batt = ADC_Read(10);
delay_Us(2000);
PORTA.f7 = 1; //BATTERY FULL
while(batt < 690) 645 = 3.068volt == 11.19v;
{
charge: PORTB.f7 = 0; //BATTERY FULL
PORTC.f1 = 1; //AC CHARGER RELAY
PORTB.f1 = 1; //CHARGING INDICATION
for(i=0; i<600 ; i++) //WAIT FOR 30minutes
{
delay_ms(3000);
}
PORTB.f1 = 0; //CHARGING LED
PORTC.f1 = 0; //AC CHARGER RELAY
for(j=0; j<60 ; j++) //WAIT 3minutes
{
delay_ms(3000);
}
bn = ADC_Read(1);
delay_ms(1);
if(batt < bn) //IF BATTERY VOLTAGE RISING
{
batt = bn; //UPDATE CURRENT BATTERY
LEVEL
goto charge; //LOOP BACK
}
 -77- 
else
if(bn > 685) 3.34volts == 0;
{
goto bfull; //JUMP TO BATTERY FULL
}
else
{
error; //JUMP TO ERROR
}
bfull: PORTB.f7 = 1; //BATTERY FULL
PORTC.f1 = 0; //AC CHARGER RELAY OFF
while(1);
error: PORTB.f7 = 0; //BATTERY FULL
PORTC.f1 = 0; //AC CHARGER RELAY OFF
PORTB.f0 = 1; //ERROR LED
while(1);
}
}

TRACKER

int left,right;
void main()
{
OPTION_REG = 2; Prescaler 1:8;
ADCON0 = 1; ADCON0.0 = ADON = 1;
ADCON1 = 128; //AN0 to AN4 Analog, AN5 to
AN7 Digital, ADC Clock = Fosc/2, Right Justified
TRISA = 0xFF; //PortA/RA = Input
TRISB = 0; PORTB/RB = Output;
PORTB = 0; //Reset PORTB
while(1)
{
left = ADC_Read(0);
Delay_ms(100);
right = ADC_Read(1);
Delay_ms(100);
if (left > 500 && right < 500)
{
PORTB.f7 = 1; // LEFT PIN
PORTB.f6 = 0; // RIGHT PIN
PORTB.f5 = 0;
Delay_ms(5000);
PORTB.f7 = 0;
}
else if(right > 500 && left < 500)
{
PORTB.f7 = 0; // LEFT PIN
PORTB.f6 = 1; // RIGHT PIN
PORTB.f5 = 0;
Delay_ms(5000);
PORTB.f6 = 0;
}
else
{
PORTB.f7 = 0; // LEFT PIN
PORTB.f6 = 0; // RIGHT PIN
PORTB.f5 = 1;
 -78- 
delay_ms(20000);
PORTB.f5 = 0;
}
}

DISPLAY BOARD

DEVICE : PIC16F877A
CLOCK : 12MHz
HS
RS = C.4 , R/W = C.5 , En = C.6 , Data Bus = D.7 to D.0
Lcd8_Init(*portctrl, *portdata);
E ? ctrlport.6
RS ? ctrlport.4
R/W ? ctrlport.5

D7 ? dataport.7
D6 ? dataport.6
D5 ? dataport.5
D4 ? dataport.4
D3 ? dataport.3
D2 ? dataport.2
D1 ? dataport.1
D0 ? dataport.0

void main()
{
int inp,m,bfull; //inp Stores the value at PORTE (Sw
Input)
m = 0; //m stores the current mode
selection
TRISA = 63; //Digital Inputs
TRISB = 0; //LED
TRISC = 0; //PORTC is output (Ctrl Port - LCD)
TRISD = 0; //PORTD is output (Data Bus - LCD)
// TRISE = 7; //PORTE is input (Keypad)
ADCON1= 7; //All inputs are Digital
PORTC = 0; //Reset PORTC
PORTD = 0; //Reset PORTD
Lcd8_Init(&PORTC, &PORTD); // Initialize LCD at PORTC and
PORTD
Lcd8_Out(1, 7, "TIE"); // Print text on LCD
Lcd8_Out(2, 5, "SOLARIS");
m: Delay_ms(2000);
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_TURN_OFF);
Delay_ms(200);
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_TURN_ON);
PORTB = 0;
bfull = PORTA.f0;
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_CLEAR);
if(bfull==1)

PORTB.f4 = 1;
PORTB.f3 = 0;
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_CLEAR);
Lcd8_Out(1, 7, "INV?");
Lcd8_Out(2, 5, "Press YES");
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_BLINK_CURSOR_ON);
 -79- 
b1: Delay_ms(1000);
inp = PORTA.f5;
if(inp==1)
{
PORTB.f7 = 1;
goto invr;
}
else
goto b1;

else
{
PORTB.f4 = 0;
PORTB.f3 = 1;
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_CLEAR);
Lcd8_Out(1,7, "CHRG?");
Lcd8_Out(2,5, "Press YES");
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_BLINK_CURSOR_ON);
b2: Delay_ms(1000);
inp = PORTA.f5;
if(inp==1)
{
PORTB.f0 = 1;
goto chrg;
}
else
goto b2;
}
invr:Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_CLEAR);
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_TURN_OFF);
Delay_ms(200);
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_TURN_ON);
Lcd8_Out(1,6, "INV-ON");
while(bfull==1)
bfull = PORTA.f0;
Delay_ms(3000);
PORTB.f7 = 0;
Lcd8_Out(1,6, "INV-OFF");
PORTB.f3 = 1; //Battery Low Indication
PORTB.f4 = 0;
goto m;
chrg:Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_CLEAR);
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_TURN_OFF);
Delay_ms(200);
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_TURN_ON);
Lcd8_Out(1,6, "CHRG-ON");
while(bfull==0)
bfull = PORTA.f0;
Delay_ms(3000);
PORTB.f0 = 0;
Lcd8_Out(1,6, "CHRG-OFF");
PORTB.f4 = 1; //Battery Full Indication
PORTB.f3 = 0;
goto m;
}
 -86- 
APPENDIX C: LIST OF TEST POINTS - TROUBLESHOOTING

Sr # TOPIC PAGE #
1. Tracker – Voltage Reference Circuit 13
2. Charge Controller Board (12F675) 17
3. Programming Issues 19
4. Battery Charge Monitor 22
5. PV Regulator 26
6. AC Charger 28
7. Sine Wave Bubba Oscillator 33
8. Carrier Wave Generator 34
9. TL494 Based Half-Bridge Converter 42
10. SG3525 Based Half-Bridge Converter 44
11. Ferrite Core Transformer Testing 46
12. SG3525 Based Mod-Sine Inverter 54
13. PIC Inverter 56
 -80- 
APPENDIX B: TRANSFORMER DATASHEETS

 
 -81- 

 
 -82- 

 
 -83- 

 
 -84- 

 
-85- 
 -87- 
APPENDIX D: SOFTWARE & INSTRUMENTS

SOFTWARES:

o PIC Simulator IDE

o MPLab IDE
o Mikro C
o Win Prog
o AutoCad
o OrCad 9.2
o Circuit Design Suite
o Target 3001
o PCB Artist

EQUIPMENTS:

TEKTRONIX 2213 SUNWA CD-800

DMM - 3302 YF-150 CAPACITANCE METER

FUNCTION GENERATOR 4415 TEKTRONIX 2445B

ALL-11 UNIVERSAL PROGRAMMER LODESTAR FREQUENCY COUNTER

LODESTAR AVO METER XELTEX SUPER PRO L+

TEKTRONIX TAS 465 SOLDERING STATION

 -88- 
APPENDIX E: REFERENCES

Books & Research Papers

[1] Home Power Magazines, 2007 Feb, June & November + 2008 August.

[2] Single Phase Grid connected PV System Mr. Chainon Chaisook, 2002.

[3] Solar Tracker EC476, Spring 2005 by Toby Peterson & Jeff Valane.

[4] Introduction to Power Electronics by Denis Fewson, Chapter 2 & 4.

[5] PIC Microcontroller Datasheets from www.microchip.com.

[6] IEEE Workshop on PIC microcontroller presented by Andrew & Tim, 16 Jan, 2000.

[7] Microchip Embedded control handbook updated 2000.

[8] Microchip tips & tricks 8-bit flash microcontroller, 2003.

[9] Mikro C user manual, 2006.

[10] AN106, Op-Amp Applications – Analog Devices by James Wong.

[11] Current overload protection for inverter, USS4410935 Oct 18, 1983.

[12] MCU-based non-inverting buck-boost converter for battery chargers.AN2389 ST.

[13] Single Stage battery charger with PFC by Ningliang Mi – Curtis Instruments Inc.

[14] DC-AC Isolated battery inverter. Application note AN9611 Feb, 2003.

[15] NI – LM5030 Push-Pull Converter Design Notes by Michele Sclocchi.

[16] NASA Technical Notes – PWM Static Inverter by Francis Gourash Feb, 1970.

[17] HF Power inductor design by Dr. Ray Ridley, Ridley Engineering March 2007.

[18] Wurth Elektronik – Transformer Cookbook.

[19] Magnetics – Power Design, Section 4.0. www.magnetics.com

[20] Designing Coil & transformer by M.C.Sharma Ch#14 Page:193.

[21] Losses in transformer winding by Llyod H. Dixon.

 -89- 

Websites

o www.precision-inc.com

o www.wa4dsy.net/filter

o www.piclist.com

o www.mikroelektronika.com

o www.irf.com

o www.semikron.com

o www.datasheetcatalog.com

o www.educypedia.be

o www.aaroncake.net

o www.scribd.com