Int. J. Fatigue Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 145154, 1998 1998. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

. All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain 01421123/98/$19.00+.00

PII: S0142-1123(97)00098-4

Failure analysis and prevention in SCC and corrosion fatigue cases

Kenjiro Komai
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kyoto University, 606-01 Yoshidahonmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan

Failure cases concerning stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and corrosion fatigue (CF) have been surveyed, and the overall trend of the cases and correcting measures were summarized. 60% of SCC occurred in stainless steels, and special attention should be paid when stainless steels, above all austenitic stainless steels, are used. In most cases of SCC, residual stress induced by welding and chloride environment were important, and the time to SCC failure was 1 to 2 years. The most important corrective measure in SCC cases was material change. Half of the stress sources in CF cases were mechanical stress, but special attention must be paid that the remaining 45%, which were caused by resonance and/or vibration and cyclic thermal stress. The most important corrective measure in CF cases was structural modication to lower the stress concentration and design stress. 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd.
(Keywords: failure analysis; stress corrosion cracking; corrosion fatigue)

INTRODUCTION Collections of failure cases and their analyses perform two tasks. Firstly, they provide a practical opportunity to employ state of the art technology. Secondly, they contribute to fundamental research activities by indicating unexpected inuential factors in laboratories as well as dictating the future trend of engineering research. Though failure cases caused by environmental factors are widespread, only a small number have been published. In the present study, failure cases concerning stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and corrosion fatigue (CF) collected by the division of corrosion engineering in The Japan Society of Materials Science and by the author will be surveyed. The overall trend of the cases and correcting measures will be summarized. FAILURE ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION IN SCC CASES SCC cases classied by materials The division of corrosion engineering in The Japan Society of Materials Science collected more than 250 SCC and CF cases. The author classied the SCC cases into the material category of carbon steel, low alloy steel, copper alloy, aluminum alloy, austenitic stainless steel (ASS), martensitic stainless steel (MSS), precipitate hardening stainless steel (PH) and ferritic stainless steel (FSS) with respect to machine components as is shown in Table 1. The percentage of the materials in SCC cases is shown in Figure 1. It should be noted that 60% of the SCC cases concerned stainless steel.
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The characteristic features of SCC cases with respect to the material category are summarized as follows. With carbon steels, a number of cases were found in pressure vessels, tubes, pipes and end plate of shells. Most lives to failures were less than 2 years, but an accident occurred after 10 years use. As for environmental factors, alkaline and hydrogen environment are concerned. The cracking was found at temperature range lower than 50C as well as the range 50 150C. Most of the stress sources were residual stresses induced by welding. Both SCC types of active path corrosion (APC) and hydrogen embrittlement (HE) were found, the former in alkaline environment, the latter in hydrogen environment. Cracking morphology were mostly intergranular. With low alloy steels, it was a characteristic feature that the cases of pressure vessels were followed by those of bolts. The lives were less than 2 years as for carbon steel. Hydrogen embrittlement in hydrogen and S2 environment were the main cause of failure and welding was involved in most cases. Most cases of copper alloys were found in tubes, and all failures occurred in less than 5 years. The operating environment contained Cl or NH3 at comparatively low temperatures in the range 050C. In these cases residual stresses were also concerned. Aluminum alloys suffered intergranular SCC in chloride environment at 050C. The lives were less than 1 year. With austenitic stainless steel (ASS), many cases were found in pipes, heat exchangers, boilers, tanks and vessels. It is important that 61% of the failures

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Table 1 SCC cases with respect to machine components. mild steel 4 5 4 2 2 1 4* low alloy steel 4 3 1 3**

Kenjiro Komai

component pressure vessel tube, pipe shell end plate bolt condenser clip, fastener spring miscellaneous

tate stainless steels (PH), the characteristic feature was that the cases of load bearing components such as bolts, pins and plugs were frequently found. As for the environment Cl , H2O and atmospheric air were involved. Cracking was found at all temperature ranges from low to high temperature. Intergranular cracking due to HE occupied most cases. Correcting measures against SCC cases The correcting measures adopted in SCC cases were classied into 10 categories which are listed in Table 2 with respect to materials and environment. In the table since multiple measures were accepted in a single case, the total number of measures are greater than the number of cases as shown in the right column. Figure 2 shows percentage of the correcting measures in SCC cases, the three most important measures being material change (32%), heat treatment (10%) and stress relief (10%). In SCC cases of mild steels in a mild atmospheric air, HE was a unique cause for the cases in S2 , H and H2 environment, and heat treatment (baking, heat treatment to ductile bainite structure) and structural modication (removal of crevice, lowering of design stress) were adopted. On the other hand, stress relief as a primary measure followed by materials change and other 8 measures were adopted in aggressive environment such as sea water, crude oil, NH3 and chemicals. In SCC cases with low alloy steels in mild atmospheric air, structural change reducing stress concentration, baking treatment (removal of occluded hydrogen) and materials change to more ductile one were tried with an equal frequency. However, material change was rstly tried in an aggressive environment, other measures being adopted at the same time. It is noteworthy that an unavoidable case was uniquely reported in a H2S environment. In SCC cases with Cu alloys, materials change was

*hopper, structure, plug, drier **pin, turbine shaft, rotor component tube lug miscellaneous Cu alloy 11 6* Al alloy 1 2 2**

*case, fastener, bolt, sheet, cap, roll casing **nut, cylinder component tube, pipe heat exchanger boiler, tank shell, sheet blade, impeller bellow bolt nozzle valve duct separator miscellaneous ASS 56 18 16 10 3 4 3 1 2 2 8* MSS/PH FSS 2

1 4 1 3**

*clump, ange, surgical material, rope, sleeve lining, nozzle, jacket, sleeve **pin, plug

Figure 1

Percentage of materials in SCC cases.

occurred in less than 1 year. SCC in chloride environment was the most common. The cracking mostly occurred at middle and high temperature ranges, it should also be noted that several crackings were reported at a temperature lower than 50C. Residual stresses resulted from welding and partly operating stresses were concerned, and APC type SCC brought about mostly transgranular cracking in addition to intergranular one. With martensitic stainless steels (MSS) and precipi-

the main measure irrespective of environment, followed by the improvement of pipe expansion and shot peening process, addition of inhibitor, lowering of design stress and stress relief heat treatment. In SCC cases with ASS, material change was a primary measure irrespective of environment as was Cu alloy, the other measures being adopted at the same time according to the aggressiveness of environment. In SCC cases of heat insulating material and lling material the measures were limited to covering (water

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Failure analysis and prevention in SCC and corrosion fatigue cases

Table 2 mild steel environment material change heat SR treatment 2 1 3 1 5 6 Number of correcting measures in SCC cases with respect to materials and environments.

147

structural machining welding covering environment operating cleaning unavoidable case change operation condition inspection numbers 1 1 2 1 1 2 14 11 15/21

air 1 miscellaneous* 2 sum 3

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

*sea water, oil, NH3 chemical low alloy steel H2S natural environment sum Al alloy ocean air sum Cu alloy water sea water NH3, Hg sum ASS heat insulator, lling material water air steam alkaline chemical plant oil sum 3 4 3 4 4 9 8 32 3 1 2 2 2 10 2 1 2 1 1 1 8 3 1 1 1 1 2 9 2 1 1 1 5 2 1 6 2 1 1 10 2 5 5 5 8 4 2 3 2 5 11 6 9 6 11 12 60/98 6 2 3 11 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 1 1 8 2 3 13/22 2 1 3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 1 4/10 4 2 6 2 2 4 1 3 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 4 11/20

1 1 3 5

*H2S + CO2, hot air, seacoast MSS,PH,FSS water miscellaneous* 3 sum 3 4 1 5 1 2 3 4 3 7/12

1 1

H2S + CO2, hot air, seacoast

Figure 2

Percentage of correcting measures in SCC cases.

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Kenjiro Komai

proof tape, Zn coated steel sheet) and environmental improvement (removal of salt in heat insulating material, acceptance of salt free materials) without material change. In a mild environment such as atmospheric air, steam and water, stress relief, improvement of machining and operation (precision grinding, multipass, minimum torque on the occasion of fastening, material change to the same one of bolt and nut), structural change (shape modication of drain and nozzles, gradual change of wall thickness, avoidance of local heating, drain of condensed water) were adopted in addition to the material change. However, with an increase in environmental aggressiveness, the material change became more important. Cleaning, stabilization heat treatment after welding, stress relief, improvement of machining and structural change and so forth were tried at the same time. This means that material change can not be a fundamental solution in SCC cases involving ASS.

FAILURE ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION IN CF CASES CF cases A summary of 34 CF cases is shown in Table 3. A list of CF cases classied by industry, number of cases classied by components, and repetitional stress sources resulted in CF failures are shown in Table 4 Table 5 Table 6. Most CF cases were found in the transportation industry and the industrial machinery followed by chemical machinery. Though the eld of surgical implantation material is quite different from the industrial one, the danger of CF failures is also clear. The daily activity of a human body produces 50010 000 cycles/day of the total weight. Time-dependent failure of implanted materials during normal life is caused by CF in addition to crevice corrosion, pitting corrosion, SCC and fretting corrosion. Concerning the classication by component, most cases were found in turbine blades, impellers and propellers followed by cylinder structure of diesel engine and pump, tube, pipe and spring. As for the stress sources causing failure, though it is not surprising that half were mechanical stress, but attention must be paid to the remaining 45%, which were caused by resonance and/or vibration and cyclic thermal stress. In machine components subjected to resonance and vibration, the stress amplitude is quite small, but the number of cycles is very high. The cyclic thermal stress resulted from temperature variation sometimes exceeds the yield stress, though the cyclic frequency is very low. It is obviously dangerous to neglect the cyclic thermal stress on the basis of its small number of cycles. In CF the inuence of cyclic frequency is well known to be conspicuous, and the practical failures occurred over an extraordinarily wide frequency from 5 kHz of a marine turbine blade and 3 kHz of a noise reduction plate to 1 cycle per month of a cylinder cover of marine diesel engines. Time to failure was distributed at a equal frequency from 220 h for a stainless steel bearing in sea water to 13 years for an implanted bone plate. No special tendency depending upon material was observed.

Correcting measures against CF cases The correcting measures adopted in CF cases were classied into 5 categories and listed in Table 7. The percentage distribution is shown in Figure 3. Though the adopted corrective measures were different depending upon materials in SCC cases, no such feature was found in CF cases. As in SCC cases, multiple measures were adopted for a single case, and the total number of measures (59 measures) is greater than that of cases (40). Structural modication and adoption of corrosion protection occupied 60% of the corrective measures. Among the former, lowering of stress concentration and design stress is a main part followed by anticorrosion design. Concerning smoothing ow, the damage by cavitation erosion was reduced by modifying the cross sectional shape of blades or the internal shape of pumps, thereby removing the origin of CF failure. Concerning the corrosion protection, lowering of aggressiveness of environment by addition of an inhibitor and anticorrosive oil, insulation of material surface from environment by coating or plating and cathodic protection were adopted. In these cases, we must pay attention to the protection ability and the proong period. In case of the change of material, corrosion resistant material such as stainless steel was mostly selected, though SCC susceptibility and an economic problem must be considered. Concerning the working method, forging methods must be sometimes improved, and it is notable that the repair site by welding became an origin of CF failures. Concerning the maintenance and operation, 2 CF failures by water contamination of lubricating oil and of hydraulic oil were found. Failure analysis of volute pump blade (case number 18 in Table 3) A failure case of a volute pump blade of a high pressure water injection pump is introduced as follows. The pump was used for the de-scaling of steel plates, and the material used was 12%Cr stainless cast steel (SCS1), the diameter of vaned wheels and the thickness of blades were 323 mm and 6 mm, respectively. The start and stop cycles to nal fracture of the blade was about 3.9 105, the total operation time being about 7600 h (the rotating speed = 65 Hz). The macroscopic surface cracks obtained by forced fracture is shown in Figure 4(a), and the crack was known to be initiated from the cast defect as is shown in Figure 4(b). An enlarged photograph at a distance of 0.93 mm from the fracture origin is shown in Figure 5. Cracked corrosion products were observed, and the uorescent X-ray chemical analysis exhibited Ca in addition to Fe. The fracture surface at a crack front site (the depth = 5.8 mm) is shown in Figure 6, and indistinct fatigue striations (Figure 6(a)) and rolling traces of foreign particles whose diameter was several microns (Figure 6(b)) were observed. Another fracture surfaces obtained from an another fractured blade are shown in Figure 7. Typical striated patterns which are frequently observed in fatigue fracture surfaces (Figure 7(a)) and clear fatigue striations (Figure 7(b) were observed. From above mentioned results, it was concluded that the main cause of fracture was fatigue crack propagation in corrosive environment (the concentration of

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Table 3 Summary of CF cases. cause and corrective measures material stress environment structure material environment ref.

general information

No.

damaged components radial crack at feed water inlet of boiler cracks at blade root and blade surface 19Ni-steel, 13Crsteel inspection at use of boundary between 18Cr8Ni2MoTi-steel blade root and blade surface, constant speed operation

duration until failure impressions

marine boiler (ferryboat)

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turbine blade

cyclic thermal boiler water + O2 stress by start and stop of boat resonance H2S due to thermal dissociation of Na2SO3

deoxidization of boiler feed water by N2H4

marine turbine blade

shell mark, branched 13Cr-steel crack lled with hydroxide shell mark resonance steam (510C, 60 atm) steam (450C, 40 atm)

24 cases, shorter period with bigger output

blade vibration, f0 transition from dry = 5 Hz, = to wet steam, (1/5-1/7)w strong alkali due to condensation of cleaner resonance, (9.8- steam (510C, design 137 MPa) 60 atm) modication design modication improvement of cost for measure = working method, 22,000,000 yen cross sectional shape, blade root radius, removal of crevice corrosion wet steam (250CC, 1.42 MPa) H2S dissociated from engine oil additive decrease of design stress, acceptance of welded-type cover introduction of residual compressive stress by shot peening and heat treatment addition of nitrite inhibitor feed water treatment (dechlorination)

moving blade of marine steam turbine nozzle of marine steam turbine including shroud crack initiation at steam discharge opening, circular crack propagation moving blade, pitting X15Cr13-steel corrosion at upper blade surface

condensing turbine 28,000 h (5 years) blade

fracture of blade end 13Cr-steel pin, crack initiation at crevice intergranular secondary crack, corrosion product cracks at cooling surface of cylinder cover thickened crack by corrosion gray cast iron CrMo-cast steel gas pressure

bending stress by shroud

middle pressure turbine blade (atomic power plant) bearing cap bolt of diesel engine at shank

Failure analysis and prevention in SCC and corrosion fatigue cases

cylinder cover of 2 cycle marine diesel engine

3,000-4,000 h

10

cyclic thermal water (90Cstress by start and 100C) stop of engine and gas pressure stress at 1.7 Hz gas pressure stress cooling water sea water

addition of inhibitor stoppage of welding repair

11

inserted collar of water cooled diesel engine marine propeller

85,000 h

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ne cracks, casting manganese bronze cyclic tensile defect, crack cast stress initiation from repair 39.2 MPa, f = welding 1.7 Hz

+ 2 phase structure, Al bronze

149

150

Table 3 Continued. cause and corrective measures material stress environment structure material environment ref.

general information

No.

damaged components fracture originated from corrosion pit longitudinal crack 7079-T6 along joining surface of cylinder, shell mark originated from intergranular corrosion pit cracks parallel to carbon steel longitudinal principal (St50.11) stress 4340-steel cyclic torsion, hydraulic oil (0reversed cantilever 80C) containing bending water

duration until failure impressions

12

shaft for aircraft

10,000 h

water contained oil, check of contaminated oil

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13

forged oil hydraulic cylinder for aircraft

14

water pressure pump

application of corrosion resistant steel

anticorrosive oil

15

pump (centrifugal type, piton type)

Kenjiro Komai

16

pump cylinder for 2,000 h urea synthesizing plant PBC2, Cu alloy 12Cr-stainless steel type403 18Cr10Ni2Moaustenitic steel 4340-steel = 182 Mpa (presumed)

cracks originated from pitting corrosion crack initiation from SUS33 pump llet, penetration, leak

application of corrosion resistant steel use of AIS1329, life extension greater improvement of ingot than 10 size and forging method

17

vane pump blade of sewage plant

210-750 h

water proof design, inspection of inside tapered part and grinding hydraulic pressure hydraulic uid improvement of = 20.7 MPa ow line of crystal, increase of wall thickness, lowering of stress concentration at root of joined surface cyclic tensile lime + Cl- + SO42 nishing of + stress plunger hole to spherical shape, smoothing ow cyclic bending chemical plant, oil reduce stress stress renery plant concentration, increase of size internal pressure H2NCO2NH4 improvement of uctuation cylinder shape 24.6(26.6)1.5 MPa abs, f = 3.4 Hz Cl-, H2S, ammonia lowering of design stress 123 ppm Cl-, SiO2, Ca lowering of design stress

18

addition of inhibitor

19

volute pump blade 7,630 h of high-pressure water injection pump compressor inducer

20

ventilator impeller

striation, corrosion along slip line, corrosion products crack initiation from casting defect, striation, rolling trace of foreign body corrosion fatigue cracks at root of leading edge crack initiation from welded part of boss corrosion pit, secondary crack, striation tangential crack 7/3 brass

21

valve block of chemical plant

use of mineral oil highly dried use of Al brass application of cathodic protection

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22

condenser tube

23

separator

17Cr2Ni-steel

rotational speed = combustion gas 49.3 Hz (8% SO2), 30C at inlet port, condensation high cyclic stress glycerin lubricant contaminated with water containing chloride cyclic thermal O2, CL-, pH 7, stress by H2S temperature change and vibration range of resonance H2SO3

superiority of ferriteaustenite 2 phase structure

Table 3 Continued. cause and corrective measures material stress environment structure material environment ref.

general information

No.

damaged components main crack initiated from weld bond, striation corrosive uid (160C)

duration until failure impressions

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24

pipe

25

U-bent tube of heat exchanger shape change of drain pot, forging SO2 + H2O

10 y

cooling water stress relief containing chloride annealing and sulde

26

drain pot of steam 7 y receiver

27

guide spring of conveyer system

use of corrosion resistant spring shot peening, Zngalvanizing

coating by rubber and synthetic resin no failure after duration of 4 y

28 cracks initiated from corrosion pit multiple secondary crack, CF crack originated from corrosion pit 440C stainless steel

relief valve spring 2 y

austenitic stainless cyclic thermal steel stress by temperature change in pipe, approximately 63.7 MPa transgranular crack at 7/3 brass U-bent corner, small cracks, corrosion product transgranular mild steel cyclic thermal corrosion fatigue stress, residual crack originated from stress by welding, corner misalignment superimposed fretting C60 passage through corrosion resonant region at braking generation of H21 tool steel uniform torsional corrosion pit varying stress increase of bending curvature of gripping part design change to top opening type wet air, steam temperature = 330-400C wet gas, 100C sea water

29

noise reduction metal plate

30

bearing

220 h

acoustic vibrational stress at 3 kHz cyclic loading stress

change to 17-7PH stainless steel galvanizing, greasing

31

mining rope

Failure analysis and prevention in SCC and corrosion fatigue cases

32

implanted bone plate

17 month

33

implanted bone plate

13 y

34

femur plate

resonant vibration dropping water no measure containing CO2 or salt crevice corrosion, CF 316 stainless steel xation between sodium carbonate, crevice corrosion, cracks originated trochanters, chloride, pH = pitting corrosion from pitting maximum load = 5.6-7.35 corrosion (5-6) body weight ne cracks started CoCr-steel do. do. galvanic corrosion, from corrosion pit, crevice corrosion striation persistent slip band, 316LR stainless do. Do. fretting corrosion fatigue crack steel between plate and xing bolt

151

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Table 4

Kenjiro Komai
List of corrosion fatigue cases classied by industry.

transportation ship, boiler, turbine, diesel engine, propeller, radar rail way, rail, rail road tie, spring automobile, steering arm, front axle aircraft: shaft, oil pressure cylinder, wire industrial machine turbine, pump, tube, spring, bearing, sound absorbing plate, rope, ventilator, compressor chemical industry pump, tube, pipe, tank surgical implant material implanted nail plate, femur plate

Table 5

Number of CF cases classied by components. case numbers 8 7 6 4 2 2 2 2 2 3 7 45

component blade cylinder tube, pipe spring rod shaft impeller rope boiler, tank surgical implant material miscellaneous sum

the rolling traces of foreign particles. The spacing of striations was estimated as 0.16 m and applied K was obtained as 24.5 MPa.m1/2 (f = 10 Hz, R = 0.1) from the fatigue crack growth data of SUS403 stainless steel having the same chemical composition in 1% NaCl solution. Since the surface crack length 2c and crack depth d were 19.5 mm and 5.8 mm, respectively, applied stress amplitude can be obtained as = 182 MPa assuming the surface crack having a half elliptic shape. The range of stress intensity factor at the surface cast defect was estimated as K = 8.8 MPa.m1/2 from the value of stress amplitude, and it was nally concluded that the stress greater than the threshold stress intensity factor range K = 7.5 MPa.m1/2 was applied from the initial stage of operation. In this case the most effective corrective measure was the decrease of stress amplitude and the design stress must be smaller at least 1520%. CONCLUSIONS 1. 2. 3. 60% of SCC occurred in stainless steels, and a special attention should be paid when stainless steels, above all austenitic stainless steels, are used. In most cases of SCC, residual stress induced by welding and chloride environment were important, and the time to SCC failure was 1 to 2 years. The most important corrective measure in SCC cases was material change. In other words, material selection is essential in the design of machine components in SCC environment. Half of the stress sources in CF cases were mechanical stress, but special attention must be paid that the remaining 45%, which were caused by resonance and/or vibration and cyclic thermal stress. It is obviously dangerous to neglect stresses induced by resonance and/or vibration and cyclic thermal stresses, because of the small amplitude or small number of cycles. The most important corrective measure in CF cases was structural modication to lower the stress concentration and design stress. In other words stress analysis is essential in the design of components in CF environment.

Table 6

Cyclic stress sources. case numbers 22 11 7 40

source of cyclic stress mechanical stress including inertia force and impact load resonance, vibration repetition of thermal stress sum

4.

5. Cl- was 123 ppm) initiated from cast defects. Moreover, corrosive environment was concerned in crack propagation (corrosion products on fracture surfaces), and contaminated water by sand particles was proved by
Table 7 Number of corrective measures accepted in CF cases. lowering of stress concentration 7 inhibitor, anticorrosive oil 8 change to corrosion improvement of forging

structural modication 22 corrosion protection 18 change of material 12 working method

lowering of design water proof design smoothing ow stress 5 coating, plating 6 resistant material shot peening 3 2 cathodic protection 4 machining welding, size of billet, stoppage of weld repair, heat treatment, stress relief each 1 case

removal of crevice lining, stoppage of corrosion resonance, damper structure 2 each 1 case

12 maintenance operation 5

3 inspection of environment 2

2 2 periodic inspection operating condition 2 1

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Failure analysis and prevention in SCC and corrosion fatigue cases

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Figure 3

Percentage of correcting measures in CF cases.

Figure 4

Fracture surface of blade. (a) Macroscopic feature. (b) Cast defects at blade surface (An arrow shows crack initiation site).

Figure 5

Cracked corrosion products on fracture surface.

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Kenjiro Komai

Figure 6

Fracture surfaces at crack front site.(a) Indistinct fatigue striations.(b) Rolling traces of foreign particles.

Figure 7

Fracture surfaces at crack front site.(a) Striated patterns.(b) Fatigue striations.

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