34 U N I T O N E The Chemistry of Life

Isotopes
All atoms of a given element have the same number of pro-
tons, but some atoms have more neutrons tl1an other atoms of
the same element and therefore have greater 111ese d if-
ferent atomic fom1s of the same element are called bot opes
of the element. In nature, an element occurs a'i a mixture of i l'i
isotopes. I:Or example, consider the three isotope.'i of the ele-
ment carbon, which has the atomic numher 6. The most com-
mon isotope is carbon-L2,

whkh accounts for 99%

of the carbon in nature. 111e
1
:.C has 6 neutrons. Most
of the remaining 1% of carbon consists of atoms of the Isotope

V\rith 7 neutron.'\. A third, even rarer isotope. tc, has

8 neutrons. Notice that aJI three isotope.'i of carbon have 6 pro-
tons; otherwise, they \\'Ould not be carbon. AJthough the Lm-
topes of an element have slightly different 0135.'\e.Ci, lhey
beha\e identically in dtemlcal reactions. (rhe numliler usually
given as the atomic mas.c; of an element, such as 22.9R98 daJ.
tons for sodium, is actually an average of the atomic masses of
all the element's naturally occu.rring isotopes.)
Both
12
C and
13
C are stable isotopes, meaning U1at their
nuclei do not have a tendency to lose particles. The isotope
14
C:, how-ever, is unstable, or radioactive. A r adloactlve
biotope is one in whidl the nuc1eLLc; decays spontaneously,
giving off particle.< and energy. When the decay leads to a
change In the number of prot<>ns, it trilll.Ciforms the atom to
an atom of a different eJement. For example, when a mdioac-
tive carbon atom decays, it becomes an atom of nitrogen.
Radloactlve Lc;otopes have many useful applications in bl
ology. In Chapter 25, you will Jearn how researchers use
measurements of radioactivity in fossils to date the."\e relics of
past life. As shown in figure 2.6, radioacthre Lc;otopes are also
useful as LTacers to follow atoms through metabolism, the
chemica] processes of an organism. Cells use the radioactive
atoms as they would use nonradioactive isotopes of the same
element, but the radioactive tracers can be readily detected.
Radloactlve tracers are Important diagnostic tools In medi
cine. For example, certain kidney disorders can be diagnosed
by injecting small doses of substances containing radlooctjve
lc;otopes Into the blood and U1en measuring the amount of
tracer e.xcreted in the urine. Radioactive tracers are also lL'\ed
in combination with sophJsticated imaging lnstrun1enK PET
scanners, for imtance, can monitor chemical processe.c;, such
as those ll:wolved in cancetOlLCi. growth, as they actually occur
in the body (Figure 2.7).
Although radioactive lc;otopes are very useful In biologicaJ
research and rnedidne, radiation from decaying isotopes also
poses a h.azard to life by damaging ceJiular molecules. l11e
severity of UllCi damage depends on the type and amount of
radiation .an organism absorbs. One of the most serlOlLCi envi-
ronmentaJ threats is radioactive fallout hom nuclear acci-
denlc;. l11e doses of most isotopes used in medical diagnosis,
are relatlvely safe.
RESEARCH METHOD figwe 2 .6
Radioactive Tracers.
APPLICATION Scie-otists use- racOOactive ISOtopes to label certaiu
compounds, tracers that allow to follow c1
metabolic pr'ocess Of kKate- she- compound with111 an Ofganism. In thcs
e)(arnple. rac:hoactive tracers afe ulihzed 10 de!E!(mine the effE!Cl of tem.
peta!ufe oo the rate at wl\d'l cells make cop.es of lhE!t! DNA.
TKHNI QUE
() Compounds
used by cells
Compounds irdudi1lg
radiO<Jctive uacer
(brogh t blue)
I
Humatl cells

-..
to make DNA are added ...
to huMM One
1S labeled
3
H, a radtOCKtrve
lrKubators
of hv<f'togen. Nifl(? of celts incubated at
differe1U lhe cells make new DNA, IOC:Orporatiog
thE:> fadioactive tra<:er.
) Cells from each
i1lCubatOf are> pt.x:ed
irl t ubes; then DNA
rs tSOiatE>d; and
untJS<>d labeled
compowtds are
roe>m&.<ed.
(old and new)
I) A solution called scrntillation fluid tS to the samples, \\'tlich
are placE>d in a Slilltillaoon counter. As the lH tn the fle'\Niy
made DNA decays, tl e-mits fachatton thcu chemicals in thE!
scntill.at.on lluid. c.ausrng them to give off bght. JfclshE:>:s of light ate
recofded by the scimillatiofl coume-c
RESULTS The of flashes, which is re<:orded as per
minute. is pfopor1ioool to th& amount of the radio-:lC:tivE> lr'ace-r
tndic:aung thE<> amount of new DNA. tn this whE?O
Optimum--._

fO<DNA
synthesis
Tetnpel'dture ("C)
counts per mrnute
cue plotted against
it is
that tempera.
tureaffects the sale
of DNA
the most DNA was
madG at 35C.