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Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of
Ultrasonic Testing
Basic Principles of
Ultrasonic Testing
Michael Berke
Krautrkamer Ultrasonic Systems
Agfa NDT GmbH, Hrth, Germany
1986 - 2002
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Examples of oscillation
ball on
a spring
pendulum rotating
earth
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The ball starts to oscillate as soon as it is pushed
Pulse
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Oscillation
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Movement of the ball over time
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Time
one full
oscillation T
Frequency
From the duration of one
oscillation T the frequency f
(number of oscillations per
second) is calculated:
T
f
1
=
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180 360 90 270
Phase
Time
a
0
The actual displacement a is
termed as:
sin A a =
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Spectrum of sound
Frequency range
Hz
Description Example
0 - 20 Infrasound
Earth quake
20 - 20.000
Audible
sound
Speech, music
> 20.000 Ultrasound
Bat, Quartz
crystal
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gas liquid solid
Atomic structures
low density
weak bonding
forces
medium density
medium bonding
forces
high density
strong bonding
forces
crystallographic
structure
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Understanding wave propagation:
Spring = elastic bonding
force
Ball =
atom
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T
distance travelled
s
t
a
r
t

o
f
o
s
c
i
l
l
a
t
i
o
n
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T
Distance travelled
From this we derive:
or
Wave equation
During one oscillation T the wave
front propagates by the distance
:
T
c

=
f c =
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Direction of
oscillation
Direction of propagation Longitudinal wave
Sound propagation
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Transverse wave
Direction of oscillation
Sound propagation
Direction of propagation
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Wave propagation
Air
Water
Steel, long
Steel, trans
330 m/s
1480 m/s
3250 m/s
5920 m/s
Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials.
Transverse waves only propagate in solid bodies.
Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse
waves
travel at lower speeds.
Sound velocity mainly depends on the density and E-
modulus of the material.
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Reflection and Transmission
As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material
characteristics ,e.g. the surface of a workpiece, or an internal
inclusion, wave propagation will change too:
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Behaviour at an interface
Medium 1 Medium 2
Interface
Incoming wave Transmitted wave
Reflected wave
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Reflection + Transmission: Perspex - Steel
Incoming wave
Transmitted wave
Reflected wave
Perspex Steel
1,87
1,0
0,87
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Reflection + Transmission: Steel - Perspex
0,13
1,0
-0,87
Steel
Perspex
Incoming wave
Transmitted wave
Reflected wave
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Amplitude of sound transmissions:
Strong reflection
Double
transmission
No reflection
Single
transmission
Strong reflection
with inverted
phase
No transmission
Water - Steel Copper - Steel Steel - Air
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Piezoelectric Effect
Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz)
Battery
+
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+
The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal
lattice
Piezoelectric Effect
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+
The effect inverses with polarity change
Piezoelectric Effect
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An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the
frequency f
U(f)
Sound wave
with
frequency f
Piezoelectric Effect
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A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation at the crystals
resonant
frequency f
0
Short pulse
( < 1 s )
Piezoelectric Effect
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Reception of ultrasonic waves
A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces
crystal vibration which then causes electrical voltages
at the crystal surfaces.
Electrical
energy
Piezoelectrical
crystal
Ultrasonic wave
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Ultrasonic Probes
socket
crystal
Damping
Delay / protecting face
Electrical matching
Cable
Straight beam probe Angle beam probe TR-probe
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100 ns
RF signal (short)
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RF signal (medium)
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N
Near field Far field
Focus Angle of divergence Crystal
Accoustical axis
D
0

6
Sound field
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Ultrasonic Instrument
0 2 4 8 10 6
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0 2 4 8 10 6
+ -
U
h
Ultrasonic Instrument
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0 2 4 8 10 6
+
-
U
h
Ultrasonic Instrument
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0 2 4 8 10 6
+
+
-
-
U
U
h
v
Ultrasonic Instrument
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Block diagram: Ultrasonic Instrument
amplifier
work piece
probe
horizontal
sweep
clock
pulser
IP
BE
screen
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Sound reflection at a flaw
Probe
Flaw
Sound travel path
Work piece
s
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Plate testing
delamination
plate
0 2 4 6 8 10
IP
F
BE
IP = Initial pulse
F = Flaw
BE = Backwall echo
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0 2 4 6 8 10
s
s
Wall thickness measurement
Corrosion
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Through transmission testing
0 2 4 6 8 10
Through transmission signal
1
2
1
2
T
T
R
R
Flaw
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Weld inspection
0 20 40 60 80 100
s
a
a'
d
x
a = s sin
a = s sin
a' = a - x
a' = a - x
d' = s cos
d' = s cos
d = 2T - d'
d = 2T - d'
s
Lack of fusion
Workpiece with welding
F
= probe angle
s = sound path
a = surface distance
a = reduced surface
distance
d = virtual depth
d = actual depth
T = material thickness

T
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Straight beam inspection techniques:
Direct contact,
single element probe
Direct contact,
dual element probe
Fixed delay
Immersion testing Through transmission
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surface =
sound entry
backwall flaw
1 2
water delay
0 2 4 6 8 10
0 2 4 6 8 10
IE IE
IP IP
BE BE
F
1
2
Immersion testing
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