TERI Bhutan Human Settlement Guidelines

Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Department of Human Settlement Ministry of Works and Human Settlement Thimphu, Bhutan June, 2013
Foreword
The rapid rate of urbanization and socio-economic changes taking place in the country could have an adverse effect on the environment and the peoples way of life. Unplanned developments are taking place rapidly which could also lead to loss of habitat, traditional settlement patterns and architecture of Bhutan. Besides, Bhutan being located in an extremely fragile terrain is highly susceptible to numerous natural and climate change related hazards such as extreme weather patterns, floods, earthquakes and landslides. In addition, rapid urbanization could lead to loss of prime agriculture land, land degradation, encroachment into forestland and water resource. Developments may extend to steep terrain with increased risks of natural disasters or located along the river valleys that are prone to Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), flash floods and landslides. Climate change could also significantly undermine development by threatening critical resources, especially water, and increasing the incidence and severity of natural disasters. Given the urgency of the problem, it is essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through mitigation and pursue climate/disaster resilient development. Lack of environment, climate change and poverty mainstreamed guidelines/codes in the preparation of development plans and layouts for human settlements both in urban and rural areas increases the vulnerability of the population, particularly the poor who depend mostly on environment and natural resources for their livelihood. Therefore, the primary objective of the study was to develop a framework of guidelines for human settlement in both urban and rural areas by mainstreaming Environment, Climate Change and Poverty (ECP). The guidelines focus on promotion of eco-friendly technologies, conservation of natural environment, management of environmental hazards (resilience planning). The best practices in planning and construction practiced in other parts of the world is also covered in the guideline.
This guideline has been prepared by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) based in New Delhi with the funding from the Joint Support Program (JSP). The project was led by Dr. Hina Zia and supported by a team of Engineers and Urban Planners from TERI and advised by Mr. Pradeep Kumar. From the Department of Human Settlement, Mr.
Department of Human Settlement Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, RGOB
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Table of Content
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................... III INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Aim/objective....................................................................................................................1 1.2 Limitation..........................................................................................................................1 GOAL SETTING............................................................................................................................... 3 GENERIC PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED FOR ALL SETTLEMENTS .............................................. 7 OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................................................. 13 SECTION 1: SUSTAINABLE SETTLEMENT ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING/SITE AND SUBDIVISION DESIGN ........................................................................................................... 17 Guideline1.1:SiteAssessment...........................................................................................18 Guideline1.2:PlanningtheDevelopment........................................................................19 Guideline1.3:Retainingnaturalvegetation....................................................................19 Guideline1.4:RevegetationandLandscaping.................................................................20 Guideline1.5:Transportplanning.....................................................................................21 Guideline1.6:EarthworksandGrading...........................................................................21 Guideline1.7:Soilerosionandsedimentationcontrol24 Guideline1.8:Preservationoffloraandfauna.31 Guideline1.9:Systemapproachadoptionwhilelanduseplan/subdivisionlayout.37 Guideline1.10:VisualQuality............................................................................................37 SECTION 2: ENERGY AND ENERGY SYSTEMS ................................................................. 40 Guideline2.1:ArchitecturalPlanning&Design..............................................................40 Guideline2.2:RenewableEnergySystems.......................................................................45 Guideline2.3:Electricitydistributionnetwork...............................................................48 SECTION 3: ENERGY EFFICIENT STREET LIGHTING .............................................................. 53 Guideline3.1:Energyefficientstreetlighting..................................................................54 SECTION 4: WATER & WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS ......................... 65 Guideline4.1:Sustainablewatermanagement...............................................................67 Guideline4.2:Sustainablewastewatermanagement......................................................78 Guideline4.3:SustainableStormwatermanagement....................................................88 SECTION 5: SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ................................................................ 101 Guideline5.1:Organic/Biodegradablewastetreatment.............................................105 Guideline5.2:Construction&Demolition(C&D)wastemanagement....................110 SECTION 6: RISK MITIGATION / ADAPTATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE ....... 117 Guideline6.1:Planningforclimatechangeadaptationinallsettlements.................119 SECTION 7: BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES...................... 123 SECTION 8: IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................................................. 131 v
REFERENCES: .............................................................................................................................. 133
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List of Table
Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 1 : Energy consumption for the following activities needs to be estimated: ......... 5 2: Electricity emission factors (tCO2/MWh) .............................................................. 6 3 :Tree survey format .................................................................................................. 33 4: Degree of maintenance required (for vegetation) ............................................... 36 5: Sunshine availability during winter months (Dec to Mar) ................................ 40 6: Minimum spacing between buildings .................................................................. 42 7: Solar hot water generating potential avg. lpd/m2 .............................................. 47 8 : Electricity generation potential from SPV ........................................................... 48 9 : Water treatment methods based on contaminants ............................................ 67 10: Recommended water reuse standards ................................................................ 75 11 : Summary of SUDS Components ....................................................................... 98 12 : Climate change impacts and suggested adaptation measures at settlement level ......................................................................................................................... 119 13 : Bamboo in Bhutan............................................................................................... 127
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List of Figures
Figure 1 : Per capita carbon emissions in Bhutan and other countries ................................. 4 Figure 2 : Current practice of grading the entire site at one go ........................................... 22 Figure 3: Balanced cut and fill approach for construction in slopes ................................... 23 Figure 4 : Inappropriate soil erosion and sedimentation control ........................................ 24 Figure 5: Good practice of netting and anchoring in one of the big construction project 27 Figure 6 : Some of the soil erosion and sedimentation control strategies .......................... 31 Figure 7: A Ridgeline ................................................................................................................. 37 Figure 8 : Use of various colours as part of the external finish ............................................ 39 Figure 9: High reflective roofs of new buildings v/s green/ochre roofs of old buildings .............................................................................................................................................. 39 Fgure 10: Visual impact of streets with and without dimming ........................................... 63 Figure 11 : Water Sensitive Urban Design v/s conventional urban water use ................. 66 Figure 12: What could a water sensitive design do at neighbourhood scale? .................. 66 Figure 13 : Improvised Septic Tank ......................................................................................... 87 Figure 14: SUDS Management train-adapted from www.ciria.org..................................... 93 Figure 15 : Pervious pavements................................................................................................ 94 Figure 16: Green roof ................................................................................................................ 95 Figure 17: Infiltration trench ..................................................................................................... 95 Figure 18: Infiltration basin ....................................................................................................... 96 Figure 19 : Hierarchy of integrated solid waste management .......................................... 101 Figure 20 : Schematic of TEAM digester ............................................................................... 107 Figure 21: A demonstration project using HI CSEB in Bhutan .......................................... 125 Figure 22 : Map showing areas with different species of bamboo in Bhutan .................. 127
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Guidelines
DevelopmentTypology Applicability
Section RuralAreas UrbanAreas
Code
SECTION1:SUSTAINABLESETTLEMENTENVIRONMENTALPLANNING Guideline1.1 Guideline1.2 Guideline1.3 Guideline1.4 SiteAssessment PlanningtheDevelopment Retainingnaturalvegetation Revegetationand Landscaping Transportplanning EarthworksandGrading Soilerosionand sedimentationcontrol Preservationoffloraand fauna Systemapproachadoption forlanduseplan VisualQuality
Guideline1.5 Guideline1.6 Guideline1.7
Guideline1.8
Guideline1.9
Guideline1.10
SECTION2:ENERGYANDENERGYSYSTEMS Guideline2.1 ArchitecturalPlanning& Design RenewableEnergySystems Electricitydistribution network
Guideline2.2 Guideline2.3
SECTION3:ENERGYEFFICIENTSTREETLIGHTING Guideline3.1 Energyefficientstreet lighting
SECTION4:WATERANDWASTEWATERMANAGEMENTSYSTEMS Guideline4.1 Sustainablewater
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management Guideline4.2 Sustainablewastewater management Sustainablestormwater management
Guideline4.3
SECTION5:SOLIDWASTEMANAGEMENT Guideline5.1 Organic/Biodegradable wastetreatment Construction&Demolition wastemanagement
Guideline5.2
SECTION6:RISKMITIGATION/ADAPTATIONANDCLIMATECHANGE Guideline6.1 Planningforclimatechange adaptationinallsettlements
SECTION7:BUILDINGMATERIALSAND CONSTRUCTIONTECHNOLOGIES
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In tro d u cti o n
1.1
Aim/objective
The prim ary objective of the proposed stud y is to d evelop a fram ew ork of guid elines for hum an settlem ent in both urban and rural areas by m ainstream ing Environm ent, Clim ate Change and Poverty (ECP) The guid elines focus on prom otion of eco-friendly technologies, conservation of natural environm ent, m anagem ent of environm ental hazard s (resilience planning).
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Limitation
The stud y d oes not cover the m apping and forecasting of clim a te ind uced changes and vulnerabilities thereof in future w ith im plications on settlem ent and build ings. Preparation of d etailed structure plan for the entire country is not w ithin the purview of this stud y. Due to tim e and resource constraint, prim ary d ata collection for energy consum ption d ata for various build ing types, construction typologies, inventory of building m aterials suppliers, etc., is not includ ed as part of this study. Instead, several interview / interactions w ere cond ucted w ith officials of key ministries and d epartm ents for an overview of these aspects. Key d epartm ents and m inistries contacted w ith the help of Departm ent of H um an Settlem ent are: Thim phu Municipal Corporation Dzhongkhag Engineer, Thim phu Dzhongkhag Bhutan Stand ard s Bureau Departm ent of H yd rom et Services, Ministry of Econom ic Affairs Departm ent of Geology and Mines, Ministry of Econom ic Affairs Departm ent of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture & Forests Departm ent of Renew able Energy, Ministry of Econom ic Affairs Departm ent of Forest and Park Services, Ministry of Agriculture & Forests N ational Environm ent Com m ission Departm ent of Culture, Ministry of H om e & Cultural Affairs N ational H ousing Developm ent Corporation
Based on the m ethod ology proposed as part of the Inception report, these d raft guid elines have been prepared .
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
GO A L SETTIN G
Prior to m oving on the section on Guid elines for Settlem ents, goal setting is very im portant. The overarching goal of course, rem ains the achievem ent of sustainability in every aspect. One im portant aspect w hich a local authority (especially in the context of urban centers) can look at is the carbon footprint of the settlem ent/ city.
TARGETED CARBO N FO O TPRINT and Measurement and reduct ion of Set t lement carbon foot print
In the context of increasing concerns about clim ate change im pacts of increasing levels of carbon em issions in atm osphere, it has becom e critical to plan for low -carbon grow th of urban areas as they contribute tow ard s a significant share of carbon emissions. Retrofitting exiting urban settlem ents to red uce their carbon im pact is a daunting task for the city planners; how ever, the new urban d evelopm ents that are coming up in the country can m ake a contribution tow ard s achieving the goal of low -carbon grow th. To d o this, the new d evelop m ents have to be planned in a manner that they m inimize use of fossil fuels to sustain the activities that are planned to com e up w ithin their prem ises. The key interventions that can be taken includ e: 1. Red ucing and optim izing energy use in build ings 2. Red ucing and optim izing energy use in provision of services like w ater pum ping, etc. 3. Prom oting use of alternative clean fuels like solar energy, w ind energy, etc. 4. Red ucing use of personalized m otorized transport w ithin the d evelopm ent by a. Provid ing ad equate an d quality infrastructure for w alking and cycling b. Provid ing m ass transport options that run on clean fuels c. Prom oting use of clean fuels in personal vehicles by provid ing ad equate supporting infrastructure for use of clean fuels In ord er to fix the targeted carbon footprint, it is proposed to look at per capita basis in ord er to com pare it w ith national average values and / or other cities. For instance, the per capita carbon estim ate for Bhutan w as 0.55 tonnes, nearly oneeighth of the correspond ing global av erage of 4.55 tonnes. Per capita carbon footprint estim ates for various neighbouring Indian cities in 2007-08 w as also d one by ICLEI as part of a stud y.
Figure 1 : Per capita carbon emissions in Bhutan and other countries (Source: http:/ / tonto.eia.d oe.gov/ cfapps/ ipd bproject)
The per capita carbon em issions from the use of energy has show n a d ecreasing trend from 2007 onw ard s in Bhutan. Sim ilar d ata need s to be generated for urban centers to keep a target below the national level benchm ark. This has been ad opted by m any cities across the w orld to map their emissions every year and accord ingly d efine their targets/ vision. Once a targeted footprint has been set (for the time being national stand ard can be taken as the benchmark), all the local authorities for urban centers shall aspire to achieve the targeted carbon footprint through various interventions.
Carbon footprint is defined as the total carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions released from energy use a development/city/state/country/sector. Framework towithin measure carbon footprint 1. Estim ate the total energy consum ption w ithin the settlem ent
Table 1 : Energy consumption for the follow ing activities needs to be estimated:
Activity Building operations Total Energy consumption Electricity from grid Electricity from off-grid sources Services Electricity from grid Electricity from off-grid sources Other sources LPG, natural gas, etc. Transportation within the settlement Petrol Diesel CNG Auto-LPG Electricity from grid Electricity from off-grid sources Others Electricity generation (if electricity is being generated on-site) Fuel consumption for electricity generation
2. Estim ate the carbon emissions from energy use In ord er to estimate the carbon em issions from energy use, the total energy consum ption figures obtained in the previous step need to be m ultiplied by respective emission factors. Tables below give values for Bhutan -specific em ission factors.
CF = Ei * EFi w here, CF = Carbon Footp rint E = Energy consu m p tion i = Energy typ e (electricty, p etrol, d iesel, CN G, etc.) EFi = Em ission factor sp ecific to fu el typ e i
Table 2: Electricity emission factors (tCO2/MWh)
Average Bhutan 1.004
Source: IGES, List of Grid Emission Factor, 2010. Institute of Global Environmental Strategies
For Bhutan-specific CO2 em ission coefficients of road transpor t (conventional and nonconventional), one can refer the tool d eveloped by N EC as part of the ADB Technical Assistance (Japan Governm ent Fund ed) capacity build ing of N EC for Transport Sector or take IPCC,2006 recomm end ed w orld average num bers.
The carbon em issions estim ated based on the total energy consum ption of the settlem ent w ill ind icate the im pact that the settlem ent has in term s of carbon released . Based on the estim ate, com parison has to be m ad e w ith the national level benchm arks and str ategies m ay be arrived at by the local authority to red uce the sam e in short term and long term and ind icate their com mitm ent to low carbon grow th.
GEN ERIC P RIN CIPLES TO BE FO LLO W ED FO R A LL SETTLEM EN TS

Settlements seeking special care : Bhutan is located in one of the very seismically active zones of the w orld . Being the bound ary zone of the tw o plates, Ind o-Australian and Eurasian, seism ic activities are very prom inent. Delicate w eak rocks, steep terrain, torrential rain, seism ic m ovem ent, extensive soil erosion d ue to construction practices, all lead to aggravating the land slid e related hazard s (increasingly experienced in Bhutan) follow ed by flash flood s. The ad joining map show s the areas prone to fault lines and earthquakes, glacier lake outburst, areas w hich have alread y suffered substantial soil erosion, biological corrid ors, national parks and rivers. Any settlem ent com ing up in these areas need special attention and care and the respecting local authority shall consid er all precautions to be follow ed in case any construction is allow ed in such areas. All areas highlighted in red in the Figure need immediate intensive soil conservation measures. These have far fetched effects on the downstream areas and lead to instability of slopes. All streams across the country shall have a compulsory buffer of at least 200 ft on either side. Mandatory River bank protection measures to be adopted for all new settlements in rural and urban areas. For all existing settlements, phase wise plans to protect the river banks should be drawn by all the local authorities, dzongkhags and geogs. Clustered v/s scattered settlements Clustered settlements are preferred over scattered settlements as the latter endanger the agricultural land, require high investments for new infrastructure, resource intensive maintenance and renewal. All new settlements should preferably follow a clustered approach. However, given the terrain characteristic and land ownership pattern, it may be difficult to implement in entirety. For hotels, resorts, group housing, hostels, educational institutes, etc., coming in non-planned areas, it is strongly recommended to ask the project proponents for the following prior to giving approval for construction: a. On-site sewage management b. On-site storm water management c. Adoption of energy efficient measures
d. On-site treatment of municipal solid waste and arrangements for safe disposal of other kinds of waste in compliance to the Waste Management and Handling Regulations 2012 e. Appropriate adaptation/mitigation strategy in case the site is located in any vulnerable areas (as broadly marked in the adjoining map) f. Construction and Demolition waste management plan (for execution during the construction stage) g. Also, occupancy certificates should be provided only after checking the installed facilities in conformance to that proposed by the project proponent at the design stage.
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O BJECTIVES
The proposed Guid elines are intend ed to im pact d esign features to protect the natural environm ent by providing policy and regulatory d irection for environm entally sensitive d evelopm ent in Bhutan. The objectives can be separated into four m ajor categories w hich these Guid elines attem pt to ad d ress: 1) Site and Subd ivision Design, 2) Works and Services, Infrastructure 3) Build ings and Structures, and 4) N atural Environm ent.
1) SITE AN D SUBDIVISION DESIGN a. Id entify and incorporate significant site features in subd ivision design. Proposed d evelopm ent layout and the typical build ing site d esign m ust ackno w led ge these natural features. This is required to: - d evelop an und erstand ing of the environm ental and geological cond itions of the site prior to any construction to ensure that the most appropriate m ethod s are used to d evelop the site; and preserve and p rotect unique natural features w hich are a characteristic feature of Bhutan.
b. Und ertake subd ivision planning and d esign that respects the existing natural areas terrain and hazard ous cond itions, w hile enhancing the areas natural character. This is required to: - enable subd ivision planning and d esign that allow s as m uch undisturbed native green space as possible on a site; d irect m ore d evelopm ent d ensity to the less sensitive and flatter sections of a site, thereby creating clusters of d evelopm ent w h ich avoid ecologically sensitive areas 1; ensure that steeper portions of a site (w ith an existing slope of 30% or greater) are not includ ed in the d evelopable area calculation; and if allow ed (as less steep slopes m ay not be readily available in Bhutan) should preferably be d one w ith necessary precautions m inimize the im pact of grad ing and retain as m uch of the natural topographic character of the site so that natural vegetation and other features rem ain und isturbed in ord er to protect ecological values, m aintain slope stability and provid e aesthetically pleasing view s.
This need s to be integrated w ith the EIA clearance proced ure for all d evelopm ental activities from N EC.
Such ecologically sensitive areas (other than the protected areas) need to be identified by the RGoB
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c. Protect and preserve the scenic characteristics of hills and places identified un d er heritage/ conservation plan (und er process by the Departm ent of H eritage Conservation) This is required to: - ensure significant rid gelines 2visible throughout the d evelopm ent are protected thereby m aintaining the natural appearance of skylines for public enjoyment and benefit; and - m aintain the conservation character of heritage villages and sites 2) WORKS AN D SERVICES a. Im plem ent m ethod s for collection, conveyance, control and treatm ent of storm w ater that m itigates potential im pacts and em ulates t he areas natural w ater cycle. This is required to: - lim it runoff from new d evelopm ent based on the soil capacity and sensitivity for ground recharge and overland conveyance.
b. Integrate onsite d esign w hich com plim ents the streetscape d esign. This is required to: - ensure w orks and services are suited to the d evelopm ent proposed and support the streetscape required for creation of a people orientated neighbourhood contrary to the conventional practise of vehicle oriented settlem ents.
c. Provid e m unicipal services and utilities on hillsid e d evelopm ents that m inimize red und ancy and provide cost efficient m aintenance and future replacem ent. This is required to: - ensure that d evelopm ent on hillsid es d oes not result in financially unsustainable increases in infrastructure relative to the num ber of units created , (i.e. single load ed road s or service m ains that only cater to m arket objectives); and - ensure com prehensive design of w ater and sew er system s based on ultim ate land use and topography. The service life of proposed infrastructure m ust be consid ered w hen examining the lim itations of required w orks. This is required to ensure the scope of initial w orks is consistent w ith proposed phasing and d oes not facilitate installation of w orks that w ill have no o r m inim al use d uring their service life.
A ridgeline is the continuous line that demarcates the contrast between the sky or distant hills and the earth
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3) BUILDIN GS AN D STRUCTURES a. H illsid e zoning recognizes the unique nature of hillsid es and governs onsite coverage and setback issues necessary to provid e livable neighbourhood s that are not d om inated by vehicles or buildings. This is required to: provid e flexible front and sid e setbacks that red uce the am ount of cutting and filling required , and support level entry and good street presence; provid e a less im posing character on surround ing d evelopm e nts; and provid e opportunities on the new ly created lot for the planting of trees that w ill eventually m ature and contribute tow ard s the long -term aesthetic character of the d evelopm ent as view ed from the rest of the settlem ent. b. Avoid over height build ings and m inim ize the visual im pact of new build ings on hillsid es. 4) N ATURAL EN VIRON MEN T a. Minim ize slope alterations and retain the natural terrain and topography of the site. This is required to m inim ize disturbance to natural vegetation, to m aintain ecosystem integrity and protect natural buffers betw een d evelopm ent clusters w ith rem ovals based on an intimate know led ge of the site b. Id entify and protect significant organic and inorganic natural features and w ild life habitat corrid ors. This is required to ensure that natural features that support unique m icro-ecosystem s and provid e habitat rem ain und isturbed and linked to other open space features such as ravines, forested areas and w ater supply. c. Plant vegetation that helps m itigate the im pact of d evelopm ent enhances visual quality and ad d resses the need s of resid ents. It should ensure the use of ind igenous local plants and tree species w hich can provid e food and shelter for local w ildlife, cost less to m aintain, are d rought tolerant and fire resistant.
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SECTIO N 1: SU STA IN A BLE SETTLEM EN T EN VIRO N M EN TA L PLA N N IN G/ SITE A N D SU BDIVISIO N DESIGN

As m entioned in the earlier chapter, Bhutan is located in one of the very seism ically active zones of the w orld. Geologically, it is fragile in term s of the stability of rocks, resulting in natural and hum an ind uced instances of land slid es, flash flood s, glacier lake outburst. Land slid e is d efined as a d ow nw ard and outw ard m ovem ent of slope form ing m aterials und er the influence of gravity (Varnes, 1978). Although it is a natural process, it has been aggravated due to hum an activities, w hich d isturb the slope stability (Rotaru, et al., 2007). There could be several factors triggering land slid es, some of w hich is sum m arized in the follow ing table:
Landslide triggers Rem oval of su p p ort N atural triggers Erosion at the base of a slop e by stream s, w aves, glaciers Human triggers Excavation at the base of a slop e or excavation on a hillsid e Tim bering Sew age or ru noff d isp osal, broken w ater p ip es, im p rop er grad ing Placem ent of fill
Rem oval of vegetation Ad d ition of m oistu re
Forest fire Rainfall or snow m elt
Ad d ition of w eight
H eavy snow fall, volcanic ash, land slid es
Over steep ening (this term is u sed as rem oval of su p p ort) Vibrations Earthqu akes, nearby land slid es
Placing fill at a grad ient th at exceed s the angle of rep ose Blasting op eration of heavy equ ip m ent
Source: Rotaru, Oajd ea and Raileanu (2007)
As observed in the table, am ongst the hum an triggers m ost of them are d irectly or ind irectly related to construction activities. Guid elines proposed und er this section prim arily focus on am eliorating or preventing such hum an triggers.
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Guideline 1.1: Site Assessment

Site assessm ent is im portant prior to d eveloping the building site and road d esign to acknow led ge the hillsid e character and natural features of the site. In case of new large settlem ent and cam puses/ neighbourhood , follow ing is recom m end ed : A review including topographic survey to assess and plan the site in a m anner that respects the slope and any special features present (e.g. stream , w ater bod y) A geotechnical assessm ent to id entify and avoid hazard ous areas. In case such stud y is not possible at a national level, it is strongly recom m end ed to und ertake a m icro-zonation stud y and areas w here no d evelopm ent can be taken should be earm arked and follow ed by the respective local authorities. A large portion of the country lies in very high to high earthquake prone areas and strict construction regulation (technologies and m aterials as recom m end e d by the IS Cod es) need to be follow ed specially in such areas.
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An environm ent assessment (base case as recommend ed in the EIA by N EC) to id entify existing ecosystem s and special natural/ cultural/ heritage features of a site. This helps in d esigning as per the site cond itions, retain natural resources and allow for efficient construction and m aintenance.
Guideline 1.2: Planning the D evelopment

N o construction of high rise (G + 2 and above) build ings should be perm itted for slopes greater than 30%. Although construction of even low storeyed buildings on slopes greater than 30% is not d esirable but d ue to non -availability of enough land of less steep slopes, it is recom m end ed to take all necessary precautions for such construction to avoid safety issues. Use build ing setbacks (w here applicable) in a flexible m anner to protect slopes and natural features from d evelopm ent encroachm ents. All the proposed setbacks and d rivew ays need to be show n on grad ing plans.
Guideline 1.3 : Retaining natural vegetation

Existing vegetation on steep slopes is not only important to the ecological and aesthetic values of the site, but also plays an im portant role in the m aintenance of slope stability, d rainage and erosion prevention. The d ecision to retain or rem ove vegetat ion should therefore, be based on an intim ate know led ge of the site. It is recom m end ed to use varied lot size and configuration, to retain tree stand s and other vegetation com m unities to preserve environm ental value (e.g., habitat, biod iversity, heritage trees, etc), m aintain soil stability, provid e a buffer betw een d evelopm ent areas, and d efine neighbourhood character. Make strategic use of existing vegetation to retain the sites natural character. Phase land clearing to m inim ize the area exposed to soil loss and erosion at any one tim e. Phasing m ay be service related (eg, clear initially only enough to install
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road s and m ain service lines), or spatially related (ie, clearing only one portion of the plot at a tim e, com pleting d evelopm ent and revegetation to control erosion before starting the next portion). For further d etails refer the soil erosion and control guid elines. For areas of the site w here vegetation m ust be rem oved but no construction w ill occur, leave soil intact (ie, avoid com paction, excavation, filling, etc) to allow for m ore successful replanting in these areas.
N ot only do site disturbances (cut and fill, clearing, compacted soil, dump sites, eroded areas, etc) have short-term impacts but, if not properly treated, these disturbances may have long-term negative impacts on personal safety, property and the environment.
Guideline 1.4: Revegetation and Landscaping

Following is recommended under this guideline: 1. Replace trees in a manner that helps to restore the natural character of the hillsid e site. Specifically, plant trees to screen undesirable view s and buffer incom patible uses. Arrange trees in natural groupings or clusters rather than in lines or form al arrangements.
Source: Steep Slope Development Guidelines, City of Nanaimo
2. It is strongly recom m ended to use native plants for site r estoration and land scaping as m uch as possible. Where the use of native plants is not d esirable given site or view constraints, select naturalised plants that is sim ilar in appearance, grow th habit, colour and texture to native plants, and that w ill not
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act as a w eed in the natural environm ent (i.e., it w ill not out -com pete native plants, provid e habitat for und esirable w ild life, or act as a host for insect pests). 3. Plant shrubs and trees in m asses and patterns characteristic of a natural setting and w ith the intent of encouraging biod iversity. 4. For restoration or creation of habitat areas (e.g. riparian areas, ravines, greenw ays, etc.) use plant species that have value as food or cover for w ildlife. 5. For d ry or south facing slopes, replant w ith d rought and fire-resistant species. If list of such species is not available, the concerned d epartm ent of Agriculture and Forestry m ay provid e such list to the Ministry of Works and H um an Settlem ent for integration w ith build ing rules and bye-law s at all levels (includ ing rural settlem ents).
Guideline 1.5: Transport planning

Roads and Lot Layout
Straight lines and rectilinear shapes generally d o not com plement natural hillsid es. It is therefore, recom m end ed to lay out road s and lots in a pattern that offers a variety of sizes and configurations that com plem ent the topography and features of the site.
Trails and Open Space
Retain open space and corrid ors betw een d evelopm ent lots to provid e continuous habitat linkages w ithin the site as w ell as w ith neighbouring sites . Use trails or linear system s to link parts of the hillsid e com m unity w hich are not otherw ise linked by roads d ue to topographic constraints. An open space, streetscape and trail system should be d eveloped to provid e ped estrian access w ithin the hillsid e area and to/ from key d estinations in other parts of the com m unity (e.g., schools, com m ercial or tow n centers, parks, other trails, etc).
Guideline 1.6: Earthw orks and Grading

This guid eline is applicable for construction on sites of any scale (i.e., ind ivid ual build ings, set of build ings, cam puses, etc.) 1. In preparation of a grad ing plan the follow ing must be consid ered : Avoid grading or alteration of key topographic features (e.g. knolls, rid gelines, cliffs, ravines, etc). Avoid sharp cuts and long or w id e slopes w ith a uniform grad e. Grad ed slopes should not have a typical m anufactured look rather an organic natural look. 21
Establish contours and grad ients that resem ble the naturally occurring terrain. Round out slope transitions and blend transitions betw een lots or ad jacent to und isturbed areas. Refrain from grad ing large flat terraces on hillside sites in ord er to expand d evelopable area or to develop housing or other uses characteristic of flat or gently-sloped sites. Developing smaller terraces (eg, for build ing pad s, stepped retaining w alls, etc) is preferred .
Figure 2 : Current practice of grad ing the entire site at one go
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts 2. Cut and Fill
In d esigning and d eveloping the site, m inim ize the total am ount of cut and / or fill and its environm ental and visual im pact by: Where the volum e of cut exceed s the volum e of fill m aterial for a proposed d evelopm ent, it should not be d ispose of on site in the form of unnecessary filling, or sid e-casting. Where necessary, dispose of excess m aterial at appropriate off-site locations.
Figure 3: Balanced cut and fill approach for construction in slopes
Re-vegetate exposed slopes as quickly as possible to prevent erosion and slope stability problem s (Refer the section on guid elines for erosion control)
3. Retaining Walls
It is recom m end ed to use retaining w alls w here they can red uce disturbing the slope to provid e useable construction sites. Retaining w alls should respect the natural character of the site and not be d om inating. Retaining w all height m ay be limited to 3.0 m etres for road s and site w orks, 1.2 m etres for front plots, and 2.4 m etres for rear and sid e plots from the perspective of stability. H igher w alls m ay be appropriate w here they are articulated , have a surface texture/ pattern, or w here sufficient lan d scaping is provid ed at its base. Use of sm aller stepped retaining w alls over the use of a large uniform w all is preferred . The height and d epth of the w all steps should be consistent w ith the natural terrain. For stepped retaining w all systems, landscape the interm ed iate terraces.
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Guideline 1.7: Soil erosion and sedimentation control

When land is und er construction, soil erosion can be significant often m any tim es greater than on land used for agriculture; it increases by 2-40,000 tim es the preconstru ction rate. The resulting sed im ent d amages surface w ater resources, obstructs road s and d egrad es w ildlife habitat. Once d eveloped , the land has m ore roofs, road s, parking lots and com pacted turf. Im pervious surfaces like these send m ore runoff across land scapes, and consequently, the risk of flood ing is increased . Urban runoff im pairs w ater quality in stream s, lakes and w etland s by delivering sed iment, nutrients, hyd rocarbons and other pollutants. Ground w ater recharge is also red uced by im pervious surfaces.
Figure 4 : Inappropriate soil erosion and sed im entation control
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Prior to d esigning a subd ivision or any other d evelopm ent, it is im portant that the d eveloper take into account the slope & soil limitations of the site. This w ill facilitate a d esign that is econom ically and environm entally feasible. Once the limitations of the site are know n, the d eveloper can begin to d esign a developm ent that is com patible w ith the natural environm ent. In areas prone to significant soil erosion and / or sed im en tation (w hich is prim arily the case for m ost parts of Bhutan), the developer m ust im plem ent a soil erosion and sed im entation plan of m anagem ent. Erosion and sed im entation control can be broad ly classified und er three sections: A. Source Erosion Control - stopping erosion before it starts, by keeping soil from being displaced . B. Runoff Control - red ucing the erosive energy of runoff and / or conveying it using non-erod ible surfaces. C. Sediment Control - trapping runoff and red ucing its velocity allow ing sed im ent to settle.
A. Source Erosion Control Methods: This is the m ost effective and econom ical w ay to keep soil on construction sites from getting erod ed by m inimising clearing and grad ing, and to keep exposed soil surfaces covered . This w orks on the fund am ental principle of keeping soil from being d isplaced at the outset and is in fact, the first line of d efence. Suggested strategies to source erosion control are as follow s: 1. Retained Vegetation: Retaining the existing trees and plants is the best and low est cost d efence against erosion. Places w here clearing has to be d one, grubbing of tree roots m ust be held back until grad ing is to proceed -the root m ass provid e substantial erosion control.
2. Clean w ater d iversion: Use strategies such as diversion sw ale above grad ed ar eas to d irect clean w ater from undisturbed areas aw ay from the grad ing activity. Sw ales m ust be gently sloped . For d ispersing the sw ale runoff into vegetated areas, use rock apron or d rainpipe to transport clean w ater to below the construction site.
3. Minim ise disturbance area:

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Only those areas should be cleared that m ust be grad ed in the current phase of d evelopm ent. For larger sites, grad ing and erosion control should be first com pleted in one area before proceed ing to another. Vegetated areas m ust be left in place as long as possible to red uce erosion.
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4. Slope Design: Soil, runoff and groundw ater cond itions m ust be recognised w hen d esigning slopes. Saturated sand and silt soils are highly erod ible. Erod ible soil slopes over 2:1 m ust be avoid ed . Sheet d rainage is encouraged to avoid concentrated w ater flow d ow n unarm oured slopes. 5. Surface roughening: Surfaces should be roughened prior to seed ing by using ploughing or m achine tracking. This slow s run -off and encourages infiltration w hich prom otes germ inations and plant survival. 6. Seed ing and m ulching: Depend ing on the germ ination time, seed ing m ust be d one on d isturbed areas. Use of local species is strongly recom m end ed . Mulching is a tem porary soil stabilization technique w hich m ay also be used . Mulch is sim ply a protective layer of a m aterial that is spread on the top of the soil. Mulches can either be organic, such as grass, hay, straw , w ood chips, and similar m aterials, or inorganic, such as stones and brick chips. Mulching should be used w ith seed lings and plantings in steep slope areas (slopes>33%). Steep slopes are prone to heavy erosion. N etting or anchoring should be used to hold it in place. In ad d ition to stabilizing soils, m ulching red uces the storm w ater runoff over an area. Mulching w hen d one w ith seed lings or plantings, aid s plant grow th by hold ing the seed , fertilizers, and top soil in place. It retains m oisture and insulates the soil against extrem e tem peratures.
Good practice of netting of slope
Im proper tree preservation
Figure 5: Good practice of netting and anchoring in one of the big construction pr oject
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7. Plastic Covers: Plastic covers m ay be used for short term cover of sm all areas w hen other m ethod s are not feasible. H ow ever, for stockpiles not to be used for 2-3 or m ore d ays should alw ays be covered by plastic covers or w hen rain is expected . B. Runoff control methods Runoff control m ethod s red uce the erosive energy of runoff. The strategies to d o this should d ecrease the am ount of runoff, detain w ater to d ecrease the d ow nstream velocity (decreasing the velocity of running w ater by red uces the erosive energy by 4 tim es), d ivert the runoff to less erod ible areas and d issipate the runoff to facilitate sheet runoff. 1. Catchm ent area control: The site should be internally d ivid ed into sm all catchm ent areas (in case of large d evelopm ents), to avoid concentrating large volum e of runoff w ater. Collection and conveyance of runoff from each catchm ent area should be planned separately. 2. Slope Breaks: Slope breaks are recom mend ed for breaking the effective length of slopes. They are terraces w ith d iversion sw ales or d ykes, w hich collect sheet runoff from a catchm ent area and d irect it to a slope d rainpipe or other d rop structure. Sw ales should be gently sloping and may includ e check d ams, rock lining, or grass lining d epend ing on the soil types and slope. 3. Check Dams: Check d am s are recom mend ed to be used for both runoff control and sed im entation control. Steeper sw ales(>5% in stable soil) require check d am s to slow the velocity and red uce erosion.
Check d am s are usually m ad e in rocks, sand bags, gabions (w ire b asket of rocks), straw bales, logs or interlocking pre-cast concrete blocks, d epend ing
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on the availability of local m aterial. N on -erod ible m aterial (gravel, cobble, etc.) is recom m end ed w herever w ater is concentrated (high velocity) or flow s rapid ly over the structure. 4. Grass sw ale/ rock channel lining: Sw ales upto 5% gradient in stable soils m ust be grass lined , prior to exposing them to high flow s. For channels w ith high runoff velocities, rock channel lining is preferred . 5. Slope d rainpipes: Slope d rainpipes should be provid ed tem porary or perm anent to convey runoff from sw ales and channels d ow n steep slopes. All necessary calculations should be done to size the pipe to match peak rainfall events. 6. Energy d issipators: These are either precast concrete structures or riprap/ geotextile solutions. They m ay be provid ed at the outfall of d rainpipes or high -velocity channels. It prim arily red uces the runoff velocity and d isperse the run -off.
C. Sed im ent Control m ethod s Som e of the sed im ent control strategies are listed as und er. 1. Sed im ent trap: A sed im ent trap can be constructed by excavating a pond across a low -lying area on the site. The trap should retain the run off enough to allow the sed im ent to settle before they are released . The outlet is constructed using large stones and aggregate to slow d ow n the release of run off. This system is appropriate for sm all d rainage areas not m ore than 10 acres (Source: EPA, Chapter 3 Sedim ent and Erosion Control). The volum e of the storage required d epend s upon the surface type and rainfall intensity of the place. 2. Sediment Barriers: Silt fence are the commonest sediment barriers employed with alternatives such as continuous berms of gravel or earth, straw bales, etc. A silt fence is a temporary m easure for sed im entation control to detain sed im ents from a small drainage area. This system consists of a filter fabric w hich is supported by posts. The low er ed ge of the fence is vertically trenched and covered by backfill. This system is m ost effective w here there is overland flow . It controls sed im ent run off from the site from entering into the receiving w aters. For large areas, silt fence is not appropriate to control the run off; how ever, it could be used in com bination w ith other erosion and
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sed im ent control m easures. The sedim ents should be rem oved and d isposed once it is one third or one half the height of fence. Sed im ent barriers should be installed to create pond ed w ater -on flatter ground below exposed slopes, along the contour.
3. Sediment Basin/Pond: Sed im ent basins are approp riate for d isturbed site areas larger than 5 acres. A sed im ent basin could be d efined as a settling tank w ith a controlled storm w ater release structure w hich is used to collect and store sed im ent prod uced from d isturbed sites w here construction activities are carried out. It is im portant that the basin size should be calculated to hand le the m axim um am ount of d rainage expected from the site. The em bankm ent w hich form s the sed im entation pool should be com pacted and stabilised w ith vegetation. The outlet of the basin should be as far as possible from the entrance to provid e m axim um retention time. The outlet should be a gravel outlet to slow d ow n the run off and provid e extra sedim ent filtration. 4. Gravel access pads: Gravel access pad s -20 cm thick layer of gravel should be provid ed at the site access to red uce the tracking of m ud off the site onto ad jacent road s, w here it w ould eventually w ash into the storm w ater system or natural w aterw ays. These should be installed prior to use of heavy equipm ent or site grad ing operations and should be necessarily m aintained throughout the construction operations. Trucks and m aterials/ equipm ent transporting m od es should be restricted on these gravel access pad s and gravel runw ays. Reinstallation of gravel access pad s m ay be necessary on large construction sites.
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5. All sediment interception traps/ponds must be inspected after each storm event and must have sediment removed regularly to maintain capacity.
Figure 6 : Som e of the soil erosion and sed im entation control strategies
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Guideline 1.8: Preservation of flora and fauna

The link betw een plants and w ild life is im m ense. N ative plants, those w hich w ould naturally occur in an area of land w ithout the interference of m an, support a w id e range of insects and animals. They also support other plant life. Wildlife and plants are inextricably linked and m any insects for instance can only survive if a particular plant is present. Because of this strong link betw een plants, insects and other w ild life it is possible to pred ict w hich w ildlife is likely to thrive if a given range of plant species is grow ing together. Plants support m ost of the other life on earth by prod ucing oxygen. They influence various aspects of the physical environm ent; in particular they are of major im portance for the m aintenance of air quality and can be used in microclim ate cont rol. Follow ing is recom m ended for preservation of vegetation and land scape on site When d eveloping the site, care should be taken to keep vegetation clearing at a m inim um . Vegetation cleared should be m onitored and d ocum ented in term s of area, species, d ensities / numbers of trees etc. Com pensatory forestation should be practiced w herever vegetation rem oval has been d one Mark existing vegetation on site in surveys and follow d etailed guidelines of tree preservation. Protection of existing vegetation (includ ing trees, shrubs, grasses and other plants) w here possible, by preventing d isturbance or d am age to specified areas d uring construction is recom m end ed . Preservation of natural vegetation acts a perm anent control m easure. It m inimises erosion potential, protects w ater quality and provides aesthetic benefits. The technique is applicable to all soil types. Areas w here preservation of existing vegetation are particularly beneficial are buffer areas, vegetated sw ales, steep slopes and stream banks, flood plains, and other areas w here erosion control w ould be difficult to establish, install and or m aintain.
All existing vegetation should be m arked on a site survey plan. A tree survey in prescribed form at should be carried out as indicated in Table-x. The land scape plan should ind icate trees, w hich have been preserved , and also those, w hich had to be transplanted or rem oved clearly d ifferentiating betw een these three categories.
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Table 3 :Tree survey form at Serial No. identifi able in survey plan Botanical name Com mon name Girth Heigh t Spread Conditio n Protected/pr eserved /transplante d /removed
Trees retained on the project site should be protected d uring the construction period by follow ing m easures: Dam age to roots should be prevented d uring trenching, placing backfill, driving or parking heavy equipm ent, d um ping of trash, oil, paint, and other m aterials d etrim ental to plant health by restricting these activities to outsid e the area of the canopy of the tree. Avoid cut and fill in the root zones, through d elineating and fencing the d rip line (the spread limit of a canopy projected on the ground ) of all the trees or group of trees. Separate the zones of m ovem ent of heavy equipm ent, parking, or excessive foot traffic from the fenced plant protection zones. Trees should not be used for support; their trunks should not be d amaged by cutting and carving or by nailing posters, ad vertisem ents or other m aterial. Lighting of fires or carrying out heat or gas em itting construction activity w ithin the ground , covered by canopy of the tree should be avoid ed . Young trees or saplings id entified for preservation (height less than 2.00m, 0.10m trunk girth at 1.00m height from finish ground , 2.00m crow n d iam eter) w ithin the construction site should preferably be protected using tree guard s of approved specification. Existing d rainage patterns through or into any preservation area should not be m od ified unless specifically d irected by the Land scape Architect / Architect/ Engineer-in-charge. Existing grad es should be m aintained around existing vegetation and low ering or raising the levels around the vegetation is not allow ed unless specifically d irected by the Land scape Architect / Architect / Engineer -in-charge. Maintenance activities should be perform ed as need ed to ensure that the vegetation rem ains healthy.
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The preserved vegetated area should be inspected by the Land scape Architect / Architect / Engineer-in-charge at regular intervals so that they rem ain und isturbed . The d ate of inspection, type of maintenance or restorat ive action follow ed should be record ed in the logbook. Or any alternative arrangem ents should be suggested by the respective m unicipal authority/ Dzongkhag
Recom m end ations for planting d esign consid erations:

Plant m aterials are a very im portant com ponent of land scape d esign, and planting d esign is integral to the land scape plan. Designing w ith plants requires aw areness and know led ge of a broad range of aspects includ ing (a) Ecology (b) Botany (c) H orticulture (d ) Aesthetic Value (e) Grow th and Survival an d (f) Use of Plants to fulfil environm ental d esign functions.
Plant mat erial

The m ajor sets of factors that influence the choice of plant m aterial are related to the characteristics, both botanical and physical of plant m aterial and the context in w hich the plant m aterial is to be used . The inter-relationship of these sets of factors is the basis for d eveloping a sound approach to the process of d esigning w ith plants.
Phy sical and Bot anical Charact erist ics of Plant Mat erial
The inform ation on plant m aterial should be available in a system atic format to includ e d efinition, significance and d esign im plications of the follow ing aspects: N om enclature, Latin and com m on Origin, fam ily, natural habitat Grow th characteristic, form as a function of habit Physical characteristics, e.g. bark texture, foliage etc. Propagation and m aintenance Use in Land scape Design
Vegetation Types: Evergreen and d ecid uous: Som e exam ples of the functional im plications of using evergreen and d ecid uous plant m aterial for specific situations are: Evergreen trees for: i. ii. places requiring shad e throughout the year strong visual screening
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iii. iv.
part of w ind break or shelter planting areas w here leaf litter is to be d iscouraged
Decid uous trees for: i. ii. iii. iv. v. greater visual variety partial visual barrier areas w here und er-planting is to be encouraged (e.g. grass) em phasis on branching and flow ering pattern. areas w here shad e is not required throughout the year.
Grow th rate and age of the vegetation: Grow th rate is d irectly related to the life -sp an of a tree and slow er grow ing trees have a life-span extend ing to hund red s of years. The fast grow ing trees to the exclusion of other slow er grow ing varieties is not recom m end ed . Land scapes are d eveloped to sustain future generations; slow grow ing & native trees m ust be includ ed in all m ajor planting schem es, especially those related to institutional cam puses and large urban d evelopm ent. H ow ever, fast grow ing species do have a lim ited role, and are appropriate in situations w here: Quick effects are required -for instance in w ind breaks and shelterbelts. Im m ed iate results w ith regard s to stabilization of soil etc. are necessary as for instance in soil conservation schem es. As nurse plants to protect slow er grow ing sensitive species w hen necessary.
The slow er grow ing species w ould generally be appropriate in situations w here sustained environm ental benefits are required such as road side planting, cam puses, tow nships, ind ustrial areas, and other public landscapes. Maintenance: The success of a d esigned landscape d epend s upon the grow th of vegetation over an extend ed period of tim e; therefore m aintenance of landscape is also a d esign com ponent. Maintenance need s and a practice in any given situation arises out of the inter-relationship betw een the grow th requirem ents of plant m aterial chosen and the environm ental cond itions existing on site. The likely d egree of m aintenance should be assessed based on the follow ing: i. ii. iii. Scale of the Design Project Financial and m anpow er resource Availability of m anures
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iv. v.
Future intensity of site Environm ental cond itions
In sm all-scale projects such as gard ens and small parks the natural environm ental cond itions can be changed and m aintained in this changed state by m anagem ent practices such as irrigation and application of fertilisers. The choice of plant species is therefore not very strictly lim ited by the existing environm ental cond itions. On larger scale schem es, such as very large parks, cam puses and settlem ents, this kind of intensive m aintenance is not possible, and any plan ting schem e, w hich d oes not take this into consid eration, fail. The process of choosing plants m ust therefore respond to the existing environm ental cond itions and also in such cases the choice of plant m aterial is restricted by these conditions and suitable species are lim ited . The type of treatm ent ad opted also serves as a guid e to the degree of m aintenance required : Table 4: D egree of maintenance required (for vegetation) a) Low Maintenance The lowest degree of maintenance is usually possible in areas treated with native species of trees only. A slightly higher degree is necessary where native shrubs are also used, as these may require pruning
b)
Medium
Areas treated with a mixture of native and exotic trees Exotic shrubs and trees
c)
High
Exotic shrubs and ground covers Lawns and maintained grass areas Annual flowers, special schemes
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Guideline 1.9: System approach adoption w hile land use plan/sub-division layout
All new settlem ents, resid ential colony, large campuses, etc., should follow a system approach w hile d oing the land use plan. Und erstanding of the formative systems w hile d oing land use planning/ sub-d ivision layout is im portant yet often ignored . For this, und erstand ing the physiographic (natural) character of a site is the key. Pred evelopm ent perform ance or mim icking the natural perform ance of the site w hile d oing any land use plan is extrem ely im portant. This becom es m ore significant in the case of Bhutan as the entire country is eco-sensitive. For instance, if the site d ischarged no overland flow s into surface channels before d evelopm ent, then it should not release surface runoff (storm w ater) into natural channels after d evelopm ent. Or take another exam ple of a site w hich is (say) a conveyance zone in a w atershed area w here m aintaining the continu ity of flow even after d evelopm ent is im portant from sustainability perspective and long-m ed ium terms ill consequences.
Guideline 1.10: Visual Quality

These guid elines aim at protecting and conserving the natural character of the hills and also to m aintain key scenic view s includ ing heritage sites. 1. Protection of Rid gelines
A rid geline is d efined as the continuous line d emarcating the contrast betw een the sky and the earth (i.e., the ground surface or top of tree line).
Figure 7: A Rid geline (Source: http:/ / w w w .cavalrypilot.com / fm 21-26/ Ch10.htm )
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Rid gelines should be protected to m aintain the characteristic visual quality of a place. Follow ing is recom m ended to achieve the same: Site build ing envelopes below the rid geline and retain trees and other veget ation on rid gelines as m uch as possible. Road s or large and continuous build ings should not be located on or over rid gelines w ith an overall aim that the ridgeline is seen as a continuous line of natural terrain or vegetation. In case of gaps in the ridgeline caused by site d evelopm ent (e.g., road s, utility poles, buildings, etc.) plant trees and vegetation in front of and behind the d isturbance to restore a naturally appearing rid geline.
2.
Scenic features includ ing heritage sites
Scenic features hereby mean t are features visually unique and visible to the com m unity includ ing build ings/ sites of heritage. Site/ plot should be d esigned so as not to alter or d isturb any natural scenic features such as cliff, overhang, rid geline, gully, w ater bod y, stream s, etc. Apart from m aintaining the trad itional architectural style (as integrated in the d evelopm ent control regulations and build ing rules), it is strongly recom mend ed to m aintain such finishes and exterior colours w hich are com plem entary to the scenic feature, th rough the use of m uted colours and natural m aterials. 3 As seen in the figures below , use of vibrant exterior colour for w alls and high reflective roofs is not d esirable for visual quality. Location of build ings should be such as to not ham per the view of h eritage sites/ build ings. The architectural exterior view of all build ings in heritage villages should be in harm ony w ith the cultural and architectural view of the place.
During the site visit conducted by the authors, few new residential projects of startling colors (non harmonious with the natural terrain) were seen in and around Thimphu and need to be strictly controlled and restored.
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Figure 8 : Use of various colours as part of the external finish
Figure 9: H igh reflective roofs of new build ings v/ s green/ ochre roofs of old build ings
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SECTIO N 2: EN ERGY A N D EN ERGY SYSTEM S

The prim e intent of the energy and energy systems guid elines is to enable red uction of energy consum ed by build ings through appropriate site p lanning, clim ate responsive d esign of buildings, efficient lighting and space heating/ cooling. Integration of renew able energy for w ater heating and possible generation of electricity by renew ables (non-grid , other than the hyd ro-pow er based ) m ay also be explored given the key criterion of energy security issues of the country and to also further red uce the carbon em issions. Som e of these guid elines proposed in this section are also being looked into m ore d etailed m anner at build ing scale by the ongoing w or k on Developm ent of Green Design Guidelines for Build ings, Departm ent of Engineering Services, Ministry of Works and H um an Settlem ent.
Guideline 2.1: Architectural Planning & D esign

The layout of build ings in a new settlem ent at neighbourhood scale or b igger scale m ust respond to the solar geom etry and w ind d irections. Som e of the consid erations could be follow ing: Site selection Based on availability of sun shine d uration d uring w inter m onths of Decem ber to March, the site should preferably be selected on sunny sid e or southern slopes.
Table 5: Sunshine availability during w inter months (D ec to Mar)

Areas No of sunny days in Dec 25.93 25.93 25.93 26.87 26.22 25.93 25.93 25.93 26.87 No of sunny days in Jan 26.24 26.24 26.24 25.61 26.56 26.24 26.24 26.24 25.61 No of sunny days in Feb 23.87 23.87 23.87 24.61 24.78 23.87 23.87 23.87 24.61 No of sunny days in Mar 26.96 26.96 26.96 28.48 27.69 26.96 26.96 26.96 28.48
Gasa Punakha Wangdue Bumthang Lhuentse Haa Paro Thimphu Trongsa
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Areas
No of sunny days in Dec
No of sunny days in Jan
No of sunny days in Feb
No of sunny days in Mar
Trashiyangtse Mongar Trashigang Sirang Sam tse Chukka Dagana Sarpang Zem gang Pem agatshel
26.22 26.22 26.22 27.04 26.87 25.93 25.93 27.04 26.87 26.87
26.56 26.56 26.56 26.92 25.61 26.24 26.24 26.92 25.61 25.61
24.78 24.78 24.78 23.94 24.61 23.87 23.87 23.94 24.61 24.61
27.69 27.69 27.69 28.17 28.48 26.96 26.96 28.17 28.48 28.48 27.93
Sam d rupjonkhar 26.93 27.38 24.69 Source: https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/RETScreen/
Orientation As far as possible, the longer axis of the build ing should be oriented east-w est d irection to trap m axim um solar energy d uring w inter m onths.
Building Spacing Build ings should be spaced in such a w ay that they should not shad e each other or block sun d uring w inter. Minim um spacing for d ifferent types of housing for d ifferent cities of Bhutan are recom m end ed in table below although given the terrain characteristics it is extrem ely d ifficult to follow these spacing in all cond itions and regions;
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Table 6: Minimum spacing betw een buildings

Zone 1 Slope G+1 1:20 (2.86 deg) 1:10(5.71 deg) 1:5(11.3 deg) 1:3(18.43 deg) 5.5 4.9 3.8 3 Spacing (m) G+2 8.5 7.7 6.5 5.4 G+3 11.6 10.6 9 7.7 G+4 14.6 13.5 11.6 10
Zone 2 Slope G+1 1:20(2.86 deg) 1:10(5.71 deg) 1:5(11.3 deg) 1:3(18.43 deg) 5.4 4.8 3.7 2.9 Spacing (m) G+2 8.4 7.6 6.4 5.3 G+3 11.5 10.5 8.9 7.6 G+4 14.5 13.4 11.5 9.9
Zone 3 Slope G+1 1:20(2.86 deg) 1:10(5.71 deg) 1:5(11.3 deg) 1:3(18.43 deg) 5.3 4.7 3.6 2.8 Spacing (m) G+2 8.3 7.5 6.3 5.2 G+3 11.4 10.4 8.8 7.5 G+4 14.4 13.3 11.4 9.8
Zone 1 1 2 3 4 Gasa Punakha Bu m thang Lhu entse 1 2 3 4
Zone 2 Haa Mongar Trashigang Zhem gang 1 2 3 4
Zone 3 Tsirang Samtse Chu kha Dagana
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Guidelines for Planning and Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Zone 1 5 6 7 8 9 Paro Thim p u Trongsa Trashiyangtse Wangd u e
Zone 2 5 6 7
Zone 3 Sarp ang Pem agatshel Sam d ru p Jonkhar
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Planning for spaces The living spaces of a build ing should be d esigned as d ay lit spaces. The non-living spaces i.e., stair cases, toilets, stores and garages m ay be planned preferably on northern sid e to provid e as buffer to red uce heat loss from living spaces. N orth faade should have m inim um d oor and w ind ow openings. Southern faad e should have m axim um glazing in ord er to capture m axim um solar heat d uring w inters. It is recom m end ed that for new construction glazing should be in proportion to total surface area of the w all and preferably not exceed m ore than 50% in m id altitud e region i.e. 1500 m to 2200 m and not m ore than 70% in high altitud e regions i.e. 2200 m and higher. In w arm and hum id climate regions (Southern part of the country), high level of cross ventilation is required in the build ings to maintain the therm al com fort. Sm all size w ind ow s should be placed on w ind w ard sid e, w hile larger w ind ow s should be placed on leew ard sid e for facilitating d irect ventilation through pressure d ifference.
Integrating solar heating systems in building designs Passive solar heating system s like solar air heating, w ater heating, sun space, solar w alls, space heating green houses and solar trom be w all etc. shall be integrated in the build ing d esign w herever possible on southern sid e, so as to allow maxim um d irect solar access to these system s. The suitability of space heating system s to be installed or incorporated in the d esign of a solar passive build ing to be d ecid ed by the Architect/ Engineer/ Designer/ Solar expert in accord ance w ith building site, clim ate and space heating requirem ents.
Provision of thermal barrier to reduce heat loss Preference m ust be given to use local materials i.e. stone, slate and m ud and such construction practices to red uce heat loss and m aintain ad equate therm al com fort d uring peak w inter m onths.
Wall and roofs For all buildings w ith active (m echanized ) systems of space heating, w alls and roof s should preferably be insulated by ad equate insu lation m aterials to provid e
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better therm al barrier outer and inner environm ents to red uce heat loss and m aintain good therm al com fort. For other building types (passive build ings), roofs m ay be ad equately insulated , cavity w alls w ith air or w ith insulation m ay be provid ed
Air leakages Proper sealing of all fenestrations (d oors and w ind ow s) to the extent possible is recom m end ed to red uce heat loss.
Guideline 2.2: Renew able Energy Systems

These guid elines on solar hot w ater and solar photovoltaic system are in ad d ition to the guid elines being proposed by the Departm ent of Renew able Energy w hich is w orking on im plementation of renew able energy system s in the country. The guidelines proposed by the Departm ent of Renew able Energy shall prevail over the guid eline s proposed in this section. The section has been proposed to m aintain the integrated approach of sustainable settlem ents. Solar hot w ater system It is recom m end ed to provid e solar hot w ater system in all types of new com m ercial, hospitality, health, institutional and resid ential build ings. The capacity of the solar hot w ater system should be d eterm ined as per the requirem ent of particular build ing type. In resid ential and light com m ercial build ings solar hot w ater system should be integrated preferably in roof of the build ing, w herever possible so that the panel becom e the integrated part of the roof. In case of new com m ercial, health, hospitality and institutional build ings, it is recom m end ed to have open space on the rooftop w hich receives d irect sun ligh t. The load bearing capacity of the roof shall be at least 50 kg/ m 2. All build ings of these categories m ust com plete installation of solar hot w ater system before these get occupied . All the solar hot w ater heating system s should be equipped w ith autom atic electric pow er back up so that same m ay be functional d uring cloud y or low sunshine days. Provision in the build ing d esign itself should be kept for an insulated pipeline from the rooftop in the build ing to various d istribution points w here hot w ater is required . The installation of solar hot w ater system should be as per the accepted d om estic or international stand ards. 45
Table 7: Solar hot w ater generating potential avg. lpd/m 2

Areas Latitude Longitude Lpd/m2 by Glazed type collectors 50 50 50 45 43 50 50 50 45 43 43 43 42 45 50 50 42 45 45 48 Lpd/m2 by evacuated type collectors 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46
Gasa Punakha Wangdue Bumthang Lhuentse Haa Paro Thimphu Trongsa Trashiyangtse Mongar Trashigang Sirang Samtse Chukka Dagana Sarpang Zemgang Pemagatshel Samdrupjonkhar
27.55 27.61 27.46 27.6 27.66 27.38 27.43 27.48 27.51 27.35 27.26 27.33 26.96 27.3 27.05 27.11 26.86 27.23 27.51 26.81
89.41 89.86 89.9 90.81 91.18 89.27 89.41 89.63 90.5 91.27 91.28 91.56 90.11 90.6 89.56 89.76 90.26 90.65 90.43 91.56
Source: https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/RETScreen/ Solar Photovoltaic Panel (SPV) for lighting It is recom m end ed that the solar photovoltaic panels be int egrated preferably in the build ing d esign for provid ing ind oor lighting and em ergency lighting. Stand -alone solar PV lighting along w ith electric back up m ay be provid ed for outd oor lighting applications i.e. street lighting and com m on area lighting.
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Table 8 : Electricity generation potential from SPV

Area Latitude Longitude Avg. annual Pow er generation potential 2 (kWh/m /yr.) 1580 1580 1580 1521 1518 1580 1580 1580 1521 1518 1518 1518 1488 1521 1580 1580 1488 1521 1521 1541
Gasa Pu nakha Wangd u e Bu m thang Lhu entse H aa Paro Thim p hu Trongsa Trashiyangtse Mongar Trashigang Sirang Sam tse Chu kka Dagana Sarp ang Zem gang Pem agatshel Sam d ru p jonkhar
27.55 27.61 27.46 27.6 27.66 27.38 27.43 27.48 27.51 27.35 27.26 27.33 26.96 27.3 27.05 27.11 26.86 27.23 27.51 26.81
89.41 89.86 89.9 90.81 91.18 89.27 89.41 89.63 90.5 91.27 91.28 91.56 90.11 90.6 89.56 89.76 90.26 90.65 90.43 91.56
Source: https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/RETScreen/
Guideline 2.3 : Electricity distribution netw ork

1. These guid elines are in ad d ition or supportive of the guid elines been proposed by Bhutan Pow er Corporation (BPC). The guid elines being proposed by BPC shall prevail over these guid elines. Also, d ue consid eration should be m ade w hile laying H T cables that it should be far aw ay from the hum an establishm ents to avoid any safety issues.
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Transformers H igher the rating, higher w ill be the no load loss therefore it is recom m ended that correct rating of transform er shall be selected . Stand By transform er w ithout load also consum es energy. It is better to share the load on tw o transform ers rather than putting load on one transform er w hile keeping other as stand by. Losses are m ore, if transform er tem perature is m ore. The m axim um efficiency of the transform er should be d esigned at a load ing in the range of 50 to 65% of' its full load capacity. If the average load is 80% or m ore of the rated pow er, a bigger transform er or a second transform er m ay be consid ered because the short-circuit losses become a large portion of the total losses.
Cables Cables contribution is highest in the overall technical loss in a d istribution netw ork therefore they should be sized in such a w ay that their cable current rating ensure their suitability w .r.t m axim um current. Cable length should be selected w ith m inim um num bers of joints. Joints in cables not only increase the loss but also result in to frequent break d ow ns. It is recom m end ed to slightly oversize cable if length of cable is m ore. A good quality of cable term ination is also recomm end ed . The d istribution netw ork m ay be d esigned to ensure a voltage d rop less than 3% at highest load cond itions.
Sw itch Gears Sw itch gears contribute loss both d ue to heating and also may be d ue to their ow n consum p tions. All the sw itch gear shall be appropriately sized and shall have good quality of term ination and ad equate capacity of term inals. Sparking at terminals not only increases chances of break d ow n but also affects the technical loss. Design & specification should ensure no sparking.
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Motors Motor horsepow er ratings should not exceed 20% of the calculated m axim um load . Motors should be energy efficient i.e. eff-1 or eff-2 types.
Instrumentations Instrum entations in netw ork increases joints and contribute in to technical loss d ue to ow n consum ptions. Duplication of instrum ents in netw ork shall be avoid ed and it shall be installed in such a w ay that there should be only one instrum ent for current, PF and energy m easurement The m ore num ber of instrum ents in netw ork affect m easurem ents by over burd ening CTs and PTs of d istribution elem ents. Installation of CT norm ally results in tw o joints. Therefore installation of CTs should be minim ized and BUSH m ounting CTs m ay be used .
Protection and other numerical relay They contribute to technical loss in the sam e w ay as instrum ents d o. They should be includ ed in the d esign in less num ber w ith few joints and of good quality to red uce their ow n consum ption.
Pow er factor All electricity supplies exceed ing 100 A, 3-phase should preferably m aintain their pow er factor betw een 0.95 lag to unity at the point of connection As the technical loss is depend ent upon flow ing current, so it is im portant to ensure apparent current is equal to active current. The netw ork should have APFC units to m onitor and control pow er factor. This also helps in regulating voltage levels. H ow ever it should be ensured that capacitor bank is sw itched off, w henever load is sw itched off. APFC should be as near to load as possible.
Harmonics Presence of harm onics can increase technical loss, can cause heating, can increase neutral current, can affect m easurem ents and lastly can red uce efficiency of 49
d evices. Feeders w here load generates harm onics shall be isolated , so that it d oes not affect other load . If sam e is not possible harmonics filters should be installed .
N eutral current N eutral current and N eutral to Earth voltage are also useful and inform ative health param eters. By monitoring the sam e and ensuring them as low as possible, low losses is ensured .
Voltage drop H igher the voltage d rop betw een voltage feed ing point and at load point ind icates high level of technical loss and it shall not be m ore than 3%.
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SECTIO N 3: EN ERGY EFFICIEN T STREET LIGH TIN G

Street lighting is a very im portant elem ent in settlem ents and consum es a lot of energy. Because of this large investm ent in energy use, method s for d eigning optim ised system s using efficient lighting equipm ent and controls w hile m aintaining aesthetically pleasing installation w ould not only provid e energy efficiency benefits, but also provid e potential econom ic benefits by increased com m ercial activity d ue to properly lit and safe circulation in settlem ents. Often, planners and engineers d o not appreciate opportunities for effective energy efficient street lighting from energy savings and a high quality d esign and perform ance perspective. Guid elines for efficient street lighting integrate technical, perform ance and d esign guid ance for effective energy efficient street lighting system s. The guid elines provid e energy stand ard s to ensure energy efficiency at the d esign of street lighting system and offer specific technical & d esign inform ation to d esigners & engineers. In ad d ition to this, these guid elines can also be used : To com m unicate the benefits of effective energy efficient street lighting to d ecision m akers To und erstand the im portant elem ents and issues of effective energy efficient street lighting, and gain the know led ge to m ake inform ed street lighting procurem ent d ecisions
Energy efficient street lighting principles

At present, m ost of the street lighting is selected based solely on providing a recom m end ed am ount of light to the streets as per accepted stand ard s using general types of poles and fixtures. Effective energy efficient street lighting d esign integrates efficient lam p technologies, optim um pole placement, efficient fixture photo m etrics (light d istribution), and aesthetics w hile using the least am ount of energy and m eeting various requirem ents for visibility & appropriate light levels.
Energy efficient street lighting opportunities and benefits

N ew effective energy efficient street lighting offer the greatest opportunities given that efficient d esigns and technologies can easily be integrated in to the plan. Effective energy efficient street lighting installations offer the follow ing benefits to large d evelopm ent. These opportunities and benefits need to be und erstood by the electrical consultant & land scape architect to help d evelop a holistic approach to street lighting d esign for settlem ents.
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i.
Energy Savings-Through use of efficient technologies and d esign practices, excess energy use can be avoid ed . Capital cost savings-Using the proper spacing and placem ent can red uce capital costs because m ore efficient systems can use few er poles and fixtures. Maintenance cost savings-Using lam ps w ith longer lives and layouts w ith proper spacing and placem ent m eans red uced costs for fixing burnouts and paintings or replacing d am aged poles. Im proved sense of security-Selection of efficient equip m ent and incorporating proper d esign can m ake an area appear safer and m ore secure w ithout increasing light levels. In fact, light levels w hich are too high w ill not m ake an area seem safer. Direct glare and high light levels red uce perceptions of safety m aking visibility m ore d ifficult. Attention to uniform ity d escribed as even light d istribution on the horizontal surface and light distribution on the vertical surface ad d to a persons sense of security. Evenly lit road s and w alkw ays-Good d esign im proves visibility by avoid ing overly bright and d ark patches on road s and w alkw ays. Red uce glare and im proved visibility-Overly high light levels create unw anted glare that d ecreases visibility. Careful selection of fixtures and lam ps that enhances visibility and im proves d etection of ped estrians by d rivers and increases seeing d istances beyond those provided by autom otive head lights alone. Econom ic d evelopm ent-Com m unities see street lighting as an im portant part of im proving economic d evelopm ent efforts in all set tlem ents.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Guideline 3.1: Energy efficient street lighting

It is recom m end ed to introd uce energy efficient street lighting for all new and (if possible) existing settlements. Follow ing steps are recom m end ed to be follow ed to achieve the above: Id entification of road type : Road s classification should follow the Urban Road s Stand ard s, 2002 or any other relevant d ocum ent by the Royal Government of Bhutan superseding the sam e. Lighting level requirem ents: All the road s should be d esigned to m eet the m inim um illum ination levels & uniform ity coefficient. Energy stand ard s: Lighting pow er per m eter run of the road (W/ m eter) for m ain traffic road s should be defined specifically for Bhutan
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Design basics & lighting system arrangem ents lam p selection Lum inaire selection Controls
1.
Id entification of road type:
Road Classification and ROW Primary: Minimum 15 m Ideal 18 m Secondary: Minimum 10 m Ideal 12 m Access: Minimum 6 m Ideal 8 m
Max. no. of Lanes
Carriageway
Footpath, Drain, Shoulder & Median
Minimum Widths
4 4
12.00 m 13.20 m
3.00 m 4.80 m
Footpath = 1.20 m Drain
2 2
6.00 m 6.60 m
4.00 m 5.40 m Shoulder
= 0.30 m
= 0.50 m 1 1 3.50 m 3.50 m 2.50 m 4.50 m Median = 0.25 m
Source: Urban Road s Stand ard s, 2002
2.
Illu m ination levels
All the lighting for d ifferent types of streets shall be d esigned to m eet the m inim um level of illum ination levels & uniformity coefficient as follow s: Prim ary Road s: Average lighting level on the surface of the road shall be m aintained around 30 lux. Uniform ity coefficient d efined as ratio of m inim um lighting level to average lighting level shall not be less than 0.4.
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Second ary Road s: Average lighting level on the surface of the road shall be m aintained around 15 lux. Uniform ity coefficient shall not be less than 0.4. Access Road s: Average lighting level on the surface of the road shall be m aintained around 10 lux. Uniform ity coefficient shall not be less than 0.4.
Lighting level measurement Lighting levels shall be calculated or m easured at a grid of not m ore than 1M*1M on road surface betw een one spacing of street lighting system . The illum ination level on the street w ill be the average of all these lighting levels and uniform ity coefficient w ill be calculated by divid ing m inim um lighting level by illum ination level of the street.
3.
(i)
Design Basics
Mounting height (H )- The vertical d istance betw een the centre of the lum inaire and the surface of the carriagew ay m easured vertically is called the m ounting height of lighting installation. The optim um m ounting height shou ld be chosen by taking into account the light output of the sources, the light d istribution of lum inaries, and the geom etry of installation. Table below show s the recom m end ed m ounting heights for d ifferent category of road s and carriagew ay w id th. Spacing (S)- The distance, m easured horizontally, along the centre line of the carriagew ay, betw een successive lum inaries in an installation is d efined as spacing of lighting schem es. Carriagew ay-That portion of a highw ay intend ed prim arily for vehicular traffic.
(ii)
(iii)
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(iv)
Dual carriagew ay-Dual carriage is d efined as a layout of tw o separated carriagew ays, each reserved for traffic in one direction only. Carriagew ay w id th (W)- The d istance betw een kerb lines m easured at right angles to the length of the carriagew ay is w id th of carriagew ay. Overhang (O)- The d istance m easured horizontally betw een the centre of a lum inaire m ounted on a bracket and the ad jacent ed ge of the carriagew ay is d efined as overhang.
(v)
(vi)
(vii) Span- That part of the highw ay lying betw een successive lum inaries in an installation is term ed as span (viii) Central verge-Central reserve is a longitud inal space d ividing a d ual carriagew ay. (ix) Verge-Unpaved area flanking a carriagew ay, forming part of the highw ay and substantially at the sam e level as the carriagew ay I called ver ge. Kerb-Kerb is form ed at the ed ge of a carriagew ay w ith the help of bord er of stone, concrete or other rigid m aterial.
(x)
Types of Arrangement in street lighting

Four fund am ental types of arrangem ent are consid ered in road lighting d esign:
Single side arrangement

In single-sid e arrangem ent, all the lum inaries are on one sid e of the carriage -w ay. It is recom m end ed for sm all road w id th.
St aggered arrangement
In staggered type arrangem ent, the luminaries are situated on either sid e of the carriage w ay and m ay be em ployed w hen the w id th of the carriage-w ay is of m edium size.
O pposit e
In opposite arrangem ent, the lum inaries situated on either sid e of the carriage -w ay opposite to one another is ad visable w hen the w id th of the carriage-w ay is big.
Axial or t w in cent ral

In axial arrangem ent, the lum inaries are placed along w ith axis is usually consid ered for m ajor road s.
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Other arrangem ents exist, but they result from the com bination of the four preced ing fund am ental types.
4.
Street lighting system
Based on their p erform ance, the lighting com ponents can be grouped in three system s.
St ruct ural sy st em
Poles & pole found ation or base
O pt ical sy st em
Lum inaires
Elect rical sy st em
Lam ps, ballasts, and service cabinet or fuse box
Lam ps
Street lighting system s generally use three types of high intensity d ischarge (H ID) lam ps. They are high pressure sod ium vapour (H PSV) lam ps, m etal halid e (MH ) lam ps, and high pressure m ercury d ischarge (H PMV) lam ps. H PSV lam ps prod uce yellow ish light; have very high efficiency, high lum en m aintenance, very long life but very poor colour rend ition. MH lam ps are also having high efficiency and very good colour rend ering and being recom m ended for new installation but they tend to have a shorter life and poor lum en m aintenance. H PMV lam ps are not very frequently used in street lighting now . They are least energy efficient am ong H ID lam ps but they have colour rend ition better than H PSV lam ps. Light-em itting diod e (LED) technology is a fast d eveloping one w ith significant energy saving potential an d very long life. They do not use ballasts or starters and have excellent colour rend ering quality, how ever, their upfront cost is quite high as com pared to H ID lighting system s.
150 W , 250 W & 400 W High pressure lamps

Lum inous efficacy of lam ps should be in the range of 110 ~ 130 lum en/ w att. Lam ps should have fast ignition tim e w hich should be less than 180 seconds. Lam ps should have high m aintenance of 95% at the end of 15000 hrs. Lam p life at 50% m ortality should be m ore than 30,000 hrs. 56
250 W Q uart z met al halide lamps

The lum inous efficacy of the lam p should be m ore than 76 (lum en/ w att). These lam ps should function at a m inim um supply voltage of 198 volts and the CRI should be m ore than 80. It should be possible to operate these lam ps both w ith electron ic as w ell as electrom agnetic ballasts.
Ceramic discharge met al halide lamps

Its lum inous efficacy should be m ore than 93 (lum en/ w att). The com pact single/ d ouble end ed 150 W w ith CRI m ore than 80 should function w ith electrom agnetic and electronic ballast.
150 W , 250 W Ceramic discharge met al halide lamps

The lum inous efficacy of these lam ps should be more than 93 lum ens per w att. They should operate even at a low supply voltage of 198 volts and have CRI m ore than 80 and Correlated colour tem perature (CCT) w hich d efines the light colour of 4200 K.
Ballasts & Igniters

Ballasts are required for all H ID lam ps. They provid e proper open circuit voltage to start the lam p, keep the lam p operating w ithin the d esired param eters and help ad apt lam ps to any one of the line voltages com m only available. But because of their configurations they tend to have pow er loss. Ballasts & igniters should conform to Bhutanese stand ard s, if available. Pow er d elivery to lam p should be m ore than 95%. Ballasts should be vacuum im pregnated open construction type. Ballasts should be low loss ballasts and the pow er loss in H ID fixtures should not be m ore than as specified below . 150 W - <18 Watts 250 W - < 24 Watts 400 W - < 44 Watts
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Lu m inaires
The lum inaire has a d ouble role of protecting the light source from the w eather and redistributing its lum inous flux. In the choice of the lum inaire, follow ing points should be consid ered : N ature and pow er of the source or source N ature of the optical arrangem ents and the light d istribution w hich they provid e Light output ratio Whether the lum inaire is open or closed type Resistance to heat, soiling and corrosion Protection against collection of d ust and insects Resistance to atm ospheric conditions Ease of installation and m aintenance Presence or absence of auxiliaries and Fixing arrangem ents, the w eight and area exposed to w ind pressure
The influence of all these factors varies accord ing to local circum stances, and it is d ifficult to recom mend one solution or each type of lighting installation. H ow ever, one essential characteristic of lum inaires the choice of w hich d irectly influences and quality of the lighting. That is, the general form of its d istribution curves of lum inous intensity particularly in d irections near the usual directions of vision. Three fund am ental form s of light d istribution are consid ered accord ing to the degree of glare w hich is acceptable: Cut-off lum inaires, Sem i-cut-off lum inaires, and N on-cut-off lum inaires
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Cu t-off lu m inaire
A lum inaire w hose light d istribution is char acterized by a rapid red uction of lum inous intensity in the region betw een 800 and horixontal 900. The intensity at the horizontal should not exceed 10 cd per 1000 lm of flux from the light sources and the intensity at 800 is of the ord er of 30 cd per 1000 lm . The d irection of the m axim um intensity m ay vary but should be below 650. The principal ad vantage of the cut-off system is the red uction of glare and its use is favoured und er the follow ing cond itions: Matt carrigew ay surfaces Absence of build ings Presence of large trees Long straight sections Slight hum ps, brid ges, and Few intersections and obstructions
Sem i-cu t-off lu m inaire

A lum inaire w hose light d istribution is characterized by a less severe red uction in the intensity in the region 800 to 900. The intensity at the horizontal should not exceed 50 cd per 1000 lm of flux from the light sources and the intensity at 800 is of the ord er of 100 cd per 1000 lm . The d irection of the m axim um intensity m ay vary but should be below 750. The principal ad vantage of the semi-cut-off system is a greater flexibility in siting, and its use is favoured und er the follow ing cond itions: Sm ooth carrigew ay surfaces Build ings close to carriagew ay, especially those of architectural interest and Many intersections and obstructions
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N on-cu t-off lu m inaire

A lum inaire w hose lum inous intensity in d irections m aking an angle equal to or greater than 800 from the d ow nw ard vertical is not red uced m aterially and the intensity of w hich at the horizontal m ay exceed the values specified for the sim i-cut-off d istribution, but should not nevertheless exceed 1000 cd . N on cut-off lum inaires are perm issible only w hen a certain am ount of glare m ay be accepted and w hen the lum inaires are of large size and of red uced brightness. In certain cases they have som e ad vantages in increasing the illum ination on facad es.
5.
Street lighting system controls
In Bhutan, the streetlights are sw itched on and off m anually. N o autom atic controls are currently being used . Manual systems often lead to energy w a stage d ue to various reasons. Therefore, it is recom m end ed that autom atic lighting controls sensitive to the seasonal variation and ad justs on & off tim e based on actual length of d ay/ night may be used for new settlem ents and / or existing settlem ents. Autom atic controls are provid ed for all the road lighting to autom atically respond to seasonal variation of sun set & sun rise tim ings
(i) Microcont roller Time Sw it ches

Microcontroller based tim esw itch, w hich has inputs like Real tim e, Date, Month, Year, plus and m inus offset is one such d evice w hich could be used . It can be set through available tactile sw itches and w ith help of seven -segm ent d isplay. of
Mem ory of the unit has d ate w ise yearly sunset and sunrise tim ings for the required city, as the d ate ad v ances output relay gets ON as per the concurrent Sunset and Sunrise Tim ings. In case if it is required to change this tim ing, it can be d one w ith help of plus and m inus offset. Micro controllers RTC has got 5 years backup through battery; hence the set program rem ains intact even in pow er failure cond ition. Enough precautions for line supply surge are taken. The Output channel relay operates the electrical contactor that ultim ately controls the lam p load . Due to its versatile concept of sw itching at Sunset and Sunrise Tim ings throughout year, it gives saving in electrical units, w hich ultim ately result in, red uced electric bills.
(ii) Passiv e infrared sensor operat ed Sw it ches

These d evices sense the rad iations equivalent to allow able light levels and sw itch on and off the fixtures at d usk & d aw n.
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In ord er to further conserve energy, it is recom mend ed that street lighting system s are equipped w ith proper d evice to be d im m ed to 50% of total light output after m id night w hen there is no or very less traffic on the road Dim m ing of street lighting is possible w ith the help of new types of fixtures w hich are now equipped w ith change over or m ulti-tap ballasts. Instead of one, fixtures are fitted w ith tw o ballasts and sam e lam p can operate at tw o different w attages at set change over tim e w hich can be set w ith a tim er. Pow er/ tim e sw itch an auto d im d evice w hich can perform auto d im m ing. At m id night w hen traffic gets thin auto d im can change over from higher w attage ballast to low er w attage ballast. Typical installation w / o d im m ing Typical installation w ith d im ming
Fgure 10: Visual im pact of streets w ith and w ithout d im m ing
Electrical system Electrical d istribution for road lighting should be d esigned to m aintain a pow er factor m ore than 0.95 lag and a voltage fluctuation of not m ore than 5% throughout the year
Energy monitoring A d ed icated feed er should be provid ed for street lighting. Electronic energy m eters should be installed to record the consum ption in the street lighting system .
Green Pow er 15% (or any grad ed limits m ay be set in association w ith the Departm ent of RE) of the connected street lighting load may be catered through RE pow er w ith grid backup. This can be provid ed either through standalone solar lighting system or centralised RE pow er system .
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SECTIO N 4: W A TER & W A STE W A TER M A N A GEM EN T SYSTEM S

Bhutan is w ell end ow ed w ith rich perennial w ater resources d ue to its head w ater source being fed w ith perm anent glaciers and associated glacier lakes, vast forest coverage & good m onsoon. There are four m ajor river basins in the form of Am ochhu, Wangchhu, Punatsangchhu & Manas. Of the entire population, 98% urban and 88% rural population has access to safe d rinking w ater how ever, localized pollution of surface w ater sources in urban areas and seasonal shortages of w ater in som e season is reported . Due to increasing urbanization, increasing w ater d em and for various applications and clim ate change im plications follow ing challenges have been recognized : Unpred ictable seasonality Accelerated m eltin g of glaciers Extrem e Clim ate events: H igher incid ence of flood ing and d ry spells Red uction in overall river flow s and w ater shortages Drying of w ater sources and rivers Increasing d emand from increasing populations and lifestyle changes Unsustainable d evelopment of hyd ropow er Extinction of plant and anim al species Glacier lake outbursts
As a result, one of the prim e requirem ents for build ings and settlem ents is to ad opt w ater sensitive urban d esign, rain w ater harvesting at ind ivid ual build ing and neighbourhood scales, proper m anagem ent of surface w ater sources, control on the spread of im pervious ground cover w hich im pedes the natural recharging of ground w ater sources and ad d s to the urban heat island effect. The approach for preparing the guid elines und er this section is illustrated in the ad joining figures. Guid elines proposed in this section are in ad d ition/ support of the existing m easures being taken up by the Divisions of Urban Infrastructure and Rural Infrastructure Services.
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Figure 11 : Water Sensitive Urban Design v/ s conventional urban w ater use (Source: Prof. Rob Skinner, Monash University, Australia)
Downpipe dis
D ow npipe D isconnection :Red uces pressure on sew er system red ucing flood ing and w ater quality problem s Treepit raingardens: Introd uces more and healthier street trees that are naturally watered by runoff. Increases urban biod iversity, property values and helps local clim ate. Creative use of land scaping and vegetation creates a safer and m ore pleasant environm ent for ped estrians
Figure 12: What could a w ater sensitive d esign d o at neighbourhood scale? (Source: CIRIA, 2013,Water sensitive urban d esign in the U.K)
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Guideline 4.1: Sustainable w ater management

Guideline 4.1.1 All settlem ents (urban and rural) should have provision for ad equate quality of w ater for potable and non-potable applications and to ensure the above, a stringent m onitoring plan should be ad opted through period ic aud its.
Why it is requ ired ?

The quality of w ater, w hether it is used for d rinking, irrigation, or recreational purposes, is significant for health w orld w ide. The quality of d rinking -w ater is a pow erful environm ental d eterminant of health. Assurance of d rinking-w ater safety is a found ation for the prevention and control of w aterborne d iseases. In case treated w astew ater is used for any applications(non -potable), it should m eet the quality stand ard s specified for those app lications. Maintaining the quality of d rinking w ater helps to ensure safe d rinking w ater to the consum er. To ensure safe d rinking w ater, both m unicipal and / or harvested rainw ater has to be treated before use to varying levels d epend ing on the w ater quality of the source.
Choosing a Water Treatm ent system based on Com m on Contam inants

In ord er to ensure safe drinking w ater, it need s to be treated before use. Treated w ater is that w hich has gone through the treatm ent process for rem oving contam inants like bacteria and other constituents as per Drinking Water Standard s of Bhutan. The table below lists out the various treatm ent system s that could be used for each type of contam inant. Table 9 : Water treatment methods based on contaminants
Contaminant Physical Param eter Tu rbid ity/ Transp arency Treatment methods Slow sand filter Cand le filter Cloth filtration Coagu lation Sed im entation Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Contaminant Od ou r
Treatment methods Aeration/ Oxid ation Activated carbon filter Charcoal Resin Boiling
Colou r
Charcoal Activated carbon filter Slow sand filter Resins
Chem ical Param eter
Flu orid e
Activated Alu m ina N algond a
N itrate
Reverse Osm osis Ion Exchange Distillation
Am m onia
Chlorine Boiling
Iron
Oxid ation and Settling Boiling
H ard ness
Boiling and settling/ Filtration Reverse Osm osis Resin Ion Exchange w ater softeners
Chlorid e/ Free chlorine
Reverse Osm osis
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Contaminant
Treatment methods Activated carbon filter
Bacterial Contam ination
Slow sand filtration Boiling Chlorination U V Rad iation Resins Ozonation
Source: 2009, TERI and TV PL, Environmental Building Guidelines for Hyderabad M etropolitan A rea, HM DA .
H ow ever, integration of a purification techniques and the type of technology to be used w ill d epend on several factors: 1. Kind of contaminant 2. Extent of contamination 3. Sim ple & d urable 4. Low m aintenance 5. Depend ency on pow er 6. Profile of the w ater users 7. Afford ability Often, in spite of precautions, contamination of w ater can occur d uring its storage or transportation to the point of consum ption. H ence storage and maintenance of treated w ater is as essential as is the purification process.
Principles of Water Pu rification

All the w ater treatment technologies essentially follow three m ain principles of prim ary purification. Id eally all the three principles should be follow ed r igid ly in the sam e ord er. One cannot om it or substitute any principle. All principles m ust be follow ed to get a good quality safe d rinking w ater
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1. Sed im entation 2. Filtration 3. Disinfection.
Prim ary Treatm ent

1. Sediment at ion
Sed im entation is a process w hereby su spend ed m atters in w ater settle dow n and w hich can be separated by straining. It also m eans storage of w ater. Physical and chem ical events take place d uring sed im entation. a. Physical - Quality of w ater im proves by m erely storing it. About 90% of the suspend ed and colloid al im purities settle d ow n w ithin 24 hours by gravity. The w ater becom es cleaner and allow s penetration of sunlight, initiating a further purification process. Settled suspended particles are seen at the bottom . For successful sed im entation, w ater should not be disturbed d uring storage. b. Chemical - Interaction betw een constituents also aid s in purification. Certain lighter suspend ed particles m ay not settle quickly, or m ay not settle d ow n at all. In that case coagulation is necessary. Alum can be used at hom e to facilitate settling of suspend ed im purities, to get clear w ater. This is m ainly practiced in rainy seasons w hen the w ater is m uch m ore turbid . Use of coagulants helps to red uce color, od or and im prove taste of the w ater.
2. Filt rat ion

Filtration is the second stage of purification and is the m ost im portant step in purification. The process of passing the w ater through bed s of fine granular m aterials (called filters) such as sand is know n as filtration. Filtration helps in rem oving color, od or, turbid ity and pathogenic bacteria. The settled particles in w ater can be effectively rem oved by this process. There are three action involved in filtration: a. Mechanical Straining: The suspended particles present in w ater, w hich are of a bigger size than the size of the void s (em pty spaces) in the sand layers of the filter, cannot pass through these void s and get arrested in them. The resultant w ater is free from suspend ed particles. b. Sedimentation: The voids betw een sand grains of filter act m ore or less like a tiny sedim entation/ coagulation tank. The im purities are adhered to the sand surface and slow ly a gelatinous film or coating is d eveloped on sand grains. Colloid al matter and bacteria present in w ater stick to this film . The im purities thus settle d ow n in the void s and get rem oved .
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c. Electrolytic changes: The purifying action of the filter can also be explained by theory of ionisation. Accord ing to this, a filter helps in purifying the w ater by changing the chem ical characteristics of w ater. Sand grains of the filter m ed ia and the im purities in the w ater carry electrical charges of opposite nature. When they com e in contact w ith each other, they neutralise each other, thereby changing the characteristics of w ater and m aking it purer.
3. Disinfect ion of W at er
This treatm ent d estroys harm ful germ s (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, etc.) by either killing them or m aking them inactive. Water can be d isinfected by several m eans: Application of heat or other physical agents Surface active chem icals Resin (iod ine based , e.g. Zero-B) Rad iation by ultraviolet light and rad ioactive ions Alkalis and acid s Metal ions like silver, copper, m ercury. Oxid ants w ith halogen, ozone other chem ical compound s like potassium perm anganate, brom ine, iod ine and chlorine. (Ozone at 0.5 ppm takes about 5 minutes to kill bacteria. Chlorine at 1ppm takes about 2 hours and silver takes about 4 to 10 hours.)
Local authorities com m only use chlorine, iod ine and silver to kill bacteria. UV rad iation and ozonation m ay also be used for large w ater supplies in tow nships/ resorts/ hotels located outsid e the m unicipal lim its.
Second ary Treatm ent

There are several treatment m ethod s that have been d eveloped w hich are effective and can rem ove pollutants to d esirable concentrations. Techniques have b een devised accord ing to the specific contaminants (Table). Generally the techniques adopted for w ater purification are based on aeration, precipitation, coagulation, filtration, d em ineralization, adsorption, ion exchange and mem brane processes like revers e osm osis. The technologies like ion exchange and reverse osm osis are highly effective but expensive and are unable to reach the masses. Many other technologies have been d eveloped w hich are less expensive like precipitation and coagulation. Though not as effective as the m em brane utilising technologies, they are effective in rem oving specific contaminants like Fluorid e, Arsenic etc at com munity and ind ivid ual household level.
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These Second ary level treatm ent technologies have been broad ly classified on the principle of w ater purification: 1. Disinfection: UV rad iation, Ozonation, Solar Disinfection 2. Filtration/ Demineralization: Ion Exchange, Activated Carbon Filtration, 3. Mem brane Processes (Micro filtration, N ano filtration, Ultra filtration, Reverse Osm osis, Electrod ialysis)
1. Disinfect ion
Ultra Violet radiation (UV ): UV is nature's w ay of purification. It is a band of invisible light in the electrom agnetic spectrum . This range 200 nm -285 nm is the germ icid al range. Proteins and nucleic acid , w hich all micro-organism s contain as their m ain constituents, absorb UV rad iation energy. After absorption, the UV energy d estroys or inactivates the DNA, thus preventing the m icroorganism s from reprod ucing. UV is also know n to bring d ow n Total Organic Carbon (TOC) consid erably in w ater.
Precaution: The w ater entering the UV unit m ust necessarily be clear as suspend ed solid s provid e a shield ing effect to microorganism s. H ence Pre-treatm ent is necessary. Ozonation: Ozone is the strongest oxid ising agent for w ater treatm ent. By virtue of its properties, ozone is also the strongest d isinfectant. Solar Disinfection: A sim ple m ethod of im proving the quality of w ater w ith the help of sunlight. It em ploys use of solar UVA rad iation and tem perature to inactivate pathogens. The d isinfection process is effective through a 2w ay process- exposure to UV-A rad iation and increased w ater tem perature. If the w ater tem perature rises above 50C, the d isinfection process m ay take one hour.
2. Filt rat ion/ Demineraliz at ion

Ion Exchange Ion exchange is a process that includ es tw o very sim ilar applications of the sam e technology for rem oval of excess am ounts of H ard ness, Iron, N itrates
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W ater softening This is the process of rem oving ions from the w ater and replacing/ exchanging them w ith sod ium ions and chlorid e ions. Ion Exchange w ater softeners em ploy the use of N aCI (sod ium chlorid e) for a cation exchange process. N a or K replaces Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn etc in the w ater. The m ost com m on use for this is at household level. Deionization: H ere, the hard ness and other ions that are initially in the w ater are rem oved and replaced w ith H + and OH - ions, w hich can com bine to form w ater. H ence, it red uces d eposits and scale form ation because of high level of hard ness. This is used in applications w here extrem ely pu re w ater is required . A ctivated Carbon Filtration Activated carbon is extrem ely porous w ith a very large surface area. It em ploys a process called ad sorption, in w hich m olecules of the contam inants attach them selves to the surface of the carbon either by p hysical or chem ical attraction. The tw o main reasons that chemicals ad sorb onto activated carbon are- a "d islike" for w ater, and attraction for the activated carbon.
3. Membrane Processes
Reverse Osm osis (RO), N ano Filtration (N F), Ultra Filtration (UF) and Micro Filtration (MF) are the com m only used pressure d riven m em brane processes in the ord er of increasing pore opening. M embrane material Cellulose acetate, Arom atic polyamid e, nylon derivatives, Polyvinyl alcohol d erivative etc. These m em branes have a preferential attraction for w ater and rejection for charged ionic substances. The filtration is depend ent on the pore size, pore size d istribution and pressure. M icro Filtration A very low -pressure (less than 1 Kg/ sq. cm) process w hich separates particles above 0.05 m icrons and below 1 m icron from the solvent. MF mem branes are prim arily used to rem ove particulate matter and bacteria from w ater.
Ultra Filtration This is a low pressure (less than 10 Kg/ sq. cm ) separation process w hich allow s low m olecular solutes (>1000 MW) are retained . Ultra filtration m embranes (1nm to 10nm)
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are used to rem ove particulate, colloid al m atter, bacteria, pyrogen and viruses from w ater. N ano Filtration This is a process in betw een ultra filtration and reverse osm osis. The N F a llow s m onovalent salts like N aCI, CaCI2to pass through and retains d ivalent anionic salts like N a2S04, MgS04 along w ith solutes having m olecular w eights greater than 300. N F m em branes are often called a loose RO and are used as softening m embranes or to rem ove d yes and organic com pound s from w ater and liquid effluents. Reverse Osmosis Reverse Osom osis is a high pressure (15 Kg/ sq. cm ); energy efficient separation process. Low organic salts are concentrated w hile w ater is allow ed to pass. The pore size of 520AD of the m em brane retains over 95-99% of the d issolved salts. In this process, w ater is forced through a sem i-perm eable m em brane und er pressure, because of w hich the d issolved salts are held back in d ischarge. All dissolved salts, sugars, bacteria, viru ses, pyrogens, proteins, d yes and other particles w ith a w eight greater than 150-250 d altons can be rem oved by RO to the highest extent. It is also used to rem ove inorganic salts, TDS from brackish w ater, seaw ater and w aste w ater. While ord inary filters can only rem ove suspend ed particles and sedim ents from w ater, RO can also rem ove high percentages of d issolved contam inants- molecule by m olecule- from w ater. Electrodialysis: Electrod ialysis units are norm ally used to d esalinate brackish w ater. It involves the separation of d issolved cations and anions by the use of ion exchange m em branes. Electromembrane (electrodialysis) Because of its low sensitivity tow ard s im purities in w ater and sim plicity of m od els, electrod ialysis seem s m ore attractive for sm all applications like hom es, tourist cottages, hotels and yachts. For large settlements, w ater should preferably be treated at a centralised level and then supplied to individual buildings. Precautions are recommended for storage and conveyance of the treated w ater to prevent any contaminants. Alternatively, w ater for potable application should be centrally treated to at least primary level and then supplied to individual buildings for further treatment and end-use application.
Guideline 4.1.2: Water quality stand ard s for Flushing is recom mend ed to be ad opted to prom ote use of recycled w astew ater There are no Bhutanese Stand ard s for using recycled w ater for flushing applications.
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Reuse Stand ard s and to som e extent testing protocol exist in som e countries of Europe and in US. Find ings from a stud y d one by the CMH C, Canad a is presented in the follow ing table.
Table 10: Recommended w ater reuse standards

Parameter Units Med ian* BOD TSS Tu rbid ity m g/ L m g/ L N TU 10 10 2 (alternative to TSS) <1 <1 0.1 to 1.0 + Toilet flushing Maxim u m 20 20 5 (alternative to TSS) 200 200
Fecal Coliform s E Coli CI resid u al
CFU/ 100 m l CFU/ 100 m l m g/ L
*Med ium based on d ata collected follow ing the US EPA ETV testing protocol, or a m inim um of five sam ples collected over a 30-d ay period .
Source: 2005, Research report on Water reuse stand ard s and testing protocol, H ealthy H ousing and Comm unity Series, CMH C, Canad a
W hat ev er may be t he reuse applicat ion, it is st rongly recommended t hat cross connect ion concerns be addressed by using an air gap bet w een pot able w at er supply for makeup w at er and reuse w at er st orage. Also, guidelines prescribed in t he Int ernat ional Green Plumbing Code or Uniform Plumbing Code of India may be referred and cust omized for Bhut an.
Guideline 4.1.3 To ensure ad equate w ater m onitoring and leak d etection plan at the settlem ent level, occasional w ater aud its or preferably regular m onitoring through SCADA system (for large cities such as Thimphu) is recom m end ed . Water aud its at settlem ent level m ust be taken at least once a year and the report m ust contain the follow ing:
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Am ount of m unicipal w ater available and total w ater utilized from both m unicipal w ater supply and other sources Water losses and efficiency of the system along w ith reasons for such losses Measures to check w ater losses and im prove efficiency
In lieu of the increasing m unicipal w ater supply-d em and gap in som e parts of the country and w hen unaccounted for w ater is unknow n, it becom es extrem ely im portant to have a strict m onitoring plan. Regular w ater aud its or real tim e based monitoring through SCADA system has the potential to save this loss of w ater.
Guidance N otes
What is a Water Aud it?
Water aud it d eterm ines the am ount of w ater lost from a d istribution system d ue to leakage and other reasons such as theft, unauthorised or illegal w ithd raw als from the system s and the cost of such losses to the utility. Com prehensive w ater aud its give a d etailed profile of the d istribution system and w ater users, thereby facilitating easier and effective m anagem ent of the resources w ith im proved reliability.
Steps in a Water Au d it Step 1: The Water Use Inventory

It is im portant that facility m anager/ ow ner/ user d evelop an und erstand ing of exactly how and w here their large d evelopm ent uses w ater. To d o this, an inventory of all w ater use points in the site prem ises w ith flow rates m ust be d eveloped . The com plex m ay or m ay not have many typologies of build ings. Conduct sam ple aud its of typical build ing types in the prem ises. The inventory should also includ e th e mechanical system installed (if w ater based ), its location, its capacity, and the rate at w hich it uses w ater for cooling. In som e cases, the ow ners m anual w ill id entify the w ater flow rate. H ow ever, it m ay be necessary to use a stopw atch and a bucket to d eterm ine the actual w ater flow rate.
Step 2: Metering
Read ings from w ater m eters provid e an indication of how a building compares to other build ings, but it w ill not show w here to look for areas w here w ater use can be red uced , particularly if the build ing is large or com plex. Narrow ing use d ow n to possible areas w here use can be red uced requires sub-metering. Where and how sub-m eters are installed d epend s to a great extent on the d esign of the w ater system serving the settlem ents/ cam puses/ tow nship. Id eally, m eters and subm eters w ould be installed on each build ing and respective floors of the build ing. Each
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m eter should be read at least m onthly. All m eter read ings should be logged and review ed on a regular basis for unexplained changes. Tracking w ater m eter read ings provid es a baseline of w ater use for the entire settlem ent. The key to gaining useful inform ation from sub-m eters is to have the m eters read on a regular basis, and as frequently as possible. Frequent read ings help to quickly id entify and locate leaks.
Step 3: The Water Efficiency Plan

Once inform ation has been gathered on how w ater is being used w ithin the settlem ent, the report w ill give the w ater balance, places of leaks, leaking pipes , based on w hich an action plan can be established for red ucing w ater use w ithin the settlem ent. The plan m ay set specific w ater use red uction goals for the entire d evelopm ent d epend ing on the resid ents/ occupants d esire and aspirations. Those goals m ust be measurable, achievable and realistic. The plan m ust also id entify a m echanism for period ically review ing the success of the program in m eeting those goals. The w ater efficiency plan should set the priorities for im plem entation based on costs, benefits and available m anpow er.
SCADA for w at er and w ast e w at er management of large set t lement s

SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system s. SCADA is electronic and capable of autom ation from the basic level to a very high level of sophistication. As the nam e indicates, it is not a full control syst em , but rather focuses on the supervisory level. As such, it is a purely softw are package that is positioned on top of hardw are to w hich it is interfaced , in general via Program m able Logic Controllers (PLCs), or other com m ercial hard w are m od ules. SCADA are used for m any applications includ ing w ater supply, w aste w ater treatm ent and m anagem ent systems. Many Ind ian city corporations have started using the system for m anaging w ater supply system s.
Adv ant ages of SCADA t o t he user
There are a num ber of advan tages of SCADA for users. A few are: Water users d o not have to m anually read and record m eter read ings at regular intervals because d ata on w ater use is collected autom atically; Data can be d ow nload ed at the users convenience;
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wr/measuring/images/pdf/scada_systems.pdf
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Can be rigged for telem etry access by rad io, satellite, cell phone, or telephone land line and allow the user to rem otely control the entire supply system and access d ata instantly.
Guideline 4.2: Sustainable w astew ater management

Guideline 4.2.1 All new settlem ents should have provision of the Dual Plum bing/ Dual Water Distribution System to recycle and reuse the treated w aste w ater. All large hotels and build ings w hich are w ater guzzlers should have m and atory provision of the d ual plum bing system
Grow ing urbanization accelerates the situation of increasing w ater d emand s for d om estic, ind ustrial, com m ercial, and agricultural purposes. As w ater d em and s and environm ental need s grow , w ater recycling w ill play a greater role in the overall w ater supply. By w orking together to overcom e obstacles, w ater recycling, along w ith w ater conservation can help to conserve and sustainably m anage vital w ater resources. Water recycling is reusing treated w astew ater for beneficial purposes such as agricultural irrigation, ind ustrial processes, toilet flushing. The term w ater recycling is generally used synonymously w ith w ater reclamation and recycled w ater can satisfy m ost w ater d em and s, as long as it is ad equately treated to ensure w ater quality appropriate for the use. As for any w ater source that is not properly treated , health problem s could arise from d rinking or being exposed to recycled w ater if it contains d isease-causing organism s or other contam inants. Water recycling is a sustainable approach and can be cost-effective in the long term , the treatm ent of w astew ater for reuse and the installation of d istribution system s can be initially expensive com pared to such w ater supply alternatives as im ported w ater. The ad d itional cost of providing a d ual system m ay ad d only 9-10% to the cost of plum bing.
Why is this requ ired ?

Water recycling and reuse is required d ue the follow ing reasons: To facilitate a m ore forw ard -looking focus on w ater -starved areas of the country H elp to stretch or increase w ater supplies, satisfy the d em and s of grow ing populations, protect environm ental need s, and strengthen local economies. Minim ize w ater crises all over the country. 76
To red uce the load of w ater pollution. To red uce health hazards spread by w ater borne d iseases. Provid e a balanced , practical approach to w ater m a nagem ent.
Water recycling and reuse is beneficial as it elim inate d epend ence of d evelopm ental area on local w ater supply authoritys upto a large extent. And also contribute tow ard s m ore green and sustainable d evelopm ental activity as there is no d ischarg e of w aste effluents from the d evelopm ental area prem ises. The use of the treated effluent results in substantial savings in irrigation w ater costs and red uces the likelihood of w ater pollution, assum ing that the effluents w ould otherw ise have been disposed of treated / untreated through STPs. Reuse technology elim inates the need to use potable w ater supplied by the Municipal local authorities for irrigation and m akes it available for other uses.
Guidance notes:
What is Du al w ater d istribu tion system
As the nam e im plies, d ual d istribution system s involve the use of w ater supplies from tw o d ifferent sources in tw o separate d istribution netw orks. The tw o system s w ork ind epend ently of each other w ithin the sam e service area. Dual distribution system s are usually used to supply potable w ater through one d istribution netw ork and non -potable w ater through the other. The system s w ould be used to augm ent public w ater supplies by provid ing treated w aste w ater for purposes other than d rinking. Such purposes could includ e fire-fighting, sanitary flushing, street cleaning, or irrigation of ornam ental gard ens or law ns.
Technical Description of the system

The system s are d esigned as tw o separate pipe netw orks: a potable w ater d istribution system , and a system capable of d istributing treated w ater from w aste w ater treatm ent facility for non -potable w ater application. The system includ es d istribution pipes, valves, hyd rants, stand pipes, and a pum ping system , if required . Pipes in the systems are generally cast iron or d uctile iron, although other m aterials have also been used . Pum ps m ay be required to lift w astew aters from treated w astew ater sum ps or other collection points. The pum ping system s consist of a pum ping station containing the w ater intake, a pum ping w ell, and an elevated storage tank for em ergency use. The pum ps require foot valves, or one-w ay valves, in ord er to retain their charge of w ater.
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The w ater is pum ped through a m anifold into the second ary or alternative d istribution system .
Operation and Maintenance

Depend ing on the use (i.e., interm ittent use in the case of fire-fighting supplies or regular in the case of irrigation supplies) in the dual d istribution system , regular testing of the system is recom mend ed .
W here Treat ed w at er can be used

Recycled treated w aste w ater from treatment facility can be used for various non potable purposes includ ing: Irrigation of agricultural land/garden/open area surrounding buildings and facilities Commercial uses such as vehicle washing facilities, laundry facilities, external space washing, and mixing water for pesticides, herbicides, and liquid fertilizers. Dust control and concrete production for construction projects. Toilet and urinal flushing in buildings.
How t reat ed w at er is supplied t o Users

The treated w ater/ reclaim ed w ater from treatm ent facility is d elivered to custom ers/ users through a parallel netw ork of distribution m ains separate from the com m unitys potable w ater d istribution system. The reclaim ed w ater d istribution system becom es a third w ater utility, in ad d ition to w astew ater and potable w ater. Reclaim ed w ater systems are operated , m aintained , and m anaged in a m anner sim ilar to the potable w ater system.
Treatm ent Requ irem ents

One of the m ost critical objectives in any reuse program is to ensure t hat public health protection is not com prom ised through the use of recycled w ater. Protection of public health is achieved by: Red ucing or elim inating concentrations of pathogenic bacteria, parasites, and enteric viruses in the recycled w ater, Controlling chemical constituents in recycled w ater, and / or Lim iting public exposure (contact, inhalation, ingestion) to recycled w ater.
Determ ining the necessary treatm ent for the intend ed reuse application requires an und erstanding of the:
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1. Constituents of concern in w astew ater 2. Levels of treatm ent and processes applicable for red ucing these constituents to levels that achieve the desired recycled w ater quality. Levels of w astew ater treatm ent are generally classified as preliminary, prim ary, second ary, and ad vanced . Ad vanced w astew ater treatm ent, som etim es referred to as tertiary treatm ent, and is generally d efined as anything beyond second ary treatm ent. A num ber of technologies for w astew ater treatm ent have been applied w orld w id e for d ifferent scale applications. Selection of the treatm ent system d epend s on m any factors such as the quality of w ater required w hich in turn d epends on the application type, cost constraints, operation and m aintenance expertise and costs, energy requirem ent, etc.
Guideline 4.2.2 It is recommended to ensure Operation and Maintenance (O & M) of D ecentralised/Centralised Wastew ater Systems and Safe disposal of generated sludge in all settlements
Possible w ays to achieve the above are: a) All d ecentralized w aste w ater treatm ent system s and centralised w astew ater treatm ent system s installed in settlem ents should have at least one trained personnel on-site to perform the basic operations of the installed treatm ent system . This hold especially relevant for any large cam pus, tow nships, institute, etc. b) An annual m aintenance contract (AMC) should be signed , preferably w ith the sam e agency w hich installed the treatm ent system to und ertake the follow ing i. Ensure quality of treated w astew ater m eets national discharge stand ard s (if available) for reuse and d isposal though regular checks Maintain the system to ensure sm ooth operation Display m onthly treated w astew ater quality reports in the establishm ent office and on all com m on notice board s
ii. iii.
c) All w astew ater treatm ents system s m ust dispose of the resid uals or slud ge in a sustainable m anner. Possible w ays of d isposing the slud ge could be: i. On site slud ge processing by using Effective Micro organism s that eat the slud ge or d rying and converting it into organic manure
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ii.
Entering into a contract w ith a slud ge disposal com pany that w ill process the slud ge or arrangem ents w ith the Municipality/ local authority for safe d isposal

Effective O & M w ould lead to: Consistency in the perform ance of the treatm ent system Achieve 100% treatm ent efficiency Econom izing the running cost of the system Enhance the shelf life of the installed treatm ent system Increase the reuse and recycling potential of the treated d ischarge Im prove and m aintain the d esired quality of environm ent.
Guidance N otes
O & M com pliance requ irement:
For an effective O & M, follow ing requirem ent need s to be taken care of: 1. Description of proposed w astew ater system Flow d iagram indicating all unit operations and com ponents Main line, re-circulated effluent, slud ge flow s and d esign av erage/ peak values Expected influent/ effluent concentrations and d esign efficiencies
2. Personnel Responsibilities Outline of responsibilities of STP service em ployee Routine m onthly w ork sched ules Training on operational proced ures to service employee
3. Operation of Facility
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Specific operational inform ation and control techniques available for each unit operation Com m on operating problem s from past experience and rem ed ies Provision for slud ge m anagem ent viz., thickening, d ew atering and reuse options
4. Maintenance Measures for routine m aintenance to be perform ed d aily, m onthly and annual basis Provision for storeroom / tool room w ith a list of all m ajor tools required for, em ergency equipm ent inventory, spare parts inventory, sched ules and references of suppliers, etc
5. Sam pling and Laboratory Testing Explanation of representative sam pling of flow s and the d ifference betw een grab and com posite sam ples Exact location of each sam pling point Description of how sam ples are to be collected in general List of tests to be perform ed and their nature and purpose, w ith appropriate references to approved m ethod s for cond ucting tests
6. Record s and Reporting Requirem ents for operators w orksheets and d aily operating logs, includ ing: operational param eters for each unit operation; pow er consum ption, etc Annual & m onthly report requirem ents includ ing: operating d ata w ith m onthly averages of d aily flow s, quality parameters viz., BOD, SS levels etc. Requirem ents for availability of record s includ ing O & M Manual, equipment suppliers m anual s, construction photographs Details of operating cost breakd ow n and a record system for m onitoring plant costs
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7. Treatm ent Works Safety Description of safety hazard s involved w ith the operation of each unit operation in the process Description and requirem ents for an ongoing preventive safety program includ ing ed ucation in safety proced ures and training in first aid/ em ergency proced ures Listing of safety rules and process equipm ent and laboratory
8. Utilities List of utilities servicing treatm ent w orks w ith con tact personnel w ithin utility com pany Reliability of electrical service and effect on continuous operability of process Breakpoints in utility/ treatm ent plant responsibilities
Guideline 4.2.3: Water reuse and recycling (includ ing rainw ater harvesting) for all settlem ents It is proposed that all settlem ents should aspire for at least 10% 5 of the entire annual w ater d em and is m et through adequately stored and m aintained rainw ater for potable/ non potable applications and / or ensure at least entire potable w ater d em and during scarcity d ays (w herever the problem exists) is m et by rooftop harvested rainw ater. Ensure som e of the irrigation w ater d em and (in ad joining agricultural areas of settlem ents) is m et through recycled w ater from settlem ents. H ow ever, adequate m easures to m aintain the quality for agricultural applications should be follow ed . Wherever m echanised or biological treatment system s treating to the level of second ary stages is installed at settlem ent level, ensure that the treated w ater is either put to use for agricultural application as stated above or used for toilet flushing or any other non -potable application. Every settlem ent-new and old can plan installation of preferably biological treatm ent system in phases either at a centralised location or d ecentralised catering to com m unity scale.
This target percentage can be fixed by each municipality or Dhzongkhag based on their need assessment and future projections
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The Bhutan Building Rules 2002 and the Draft Developm ent and Construction Rules for non-planned settlem ents of Bhutan 2012 m ay further ad d provisions for Im provised Septic tanks in place of the conventional se ptic tanks and soak pits.
Bhutan, currently, d oes not have m uch installed capacity of treating the w astew ater. In 2008, an eco-friend ly sew age treatm ent plant (ecoline) w as com m issioned in Trashigang tow n for a capacity of 850 houses and is suitable for r em ote areas.6 Earlier, people had to clean their septic tanks and d iscard all the w aste in the nearby stream (ad ding biological load on the w ater). Thim phu, the capital city, has a lagoon system for treating its w astew ater but is now not able to m eet the current treatm ent d em and s. In a recent ADB initiative, installation of w astew ater treatm ent system based on m echanised treatm ent for a capacity of 14 MLD is und er process7. There is a consensus on the need for having appropriate w astew ater treatm ent syst em s at all settlem ents and these guid elines shall help in furthering and im plementing this.
Rainw ater harvesting potential for storage applications

In Bhutan, precipitation varies significantly w ith the elevation. The average rainfall varies from region to region 8. H im alayan regions -Less than 500m m per year. Inner central valleys- 500m m to 1000m m per year. Southern foothills -2000m m to 3500m m per year. Southern bord er area- 3000m m to 5000m m per year
6 7
Sanitationupdates.wordpress.com http://www2.adb.org/documents/rrps/bhu 8 http://www.lonley planet.com/Bhutan/weather
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Assum ing an area of 100 sq. m w ith run -off coefficient of 0.8, all these regions have enough potential to conserve rainw ater from the roof top of build ings and either use it for d ry d ays or to m eet at least the potable w ater requirem ents for the entire year.
Region
Potential of harvesting water from rooftop (kL)
Himalayan regions Inner central valleys Southern foothills Southern border area
40 80 160-280 240-400
This is especially relevant for places like Mongar, w here increasingly incidences of shortage of w ater d uring sum m ers are felt. Places w here there is likely contam ination of surface w ater courses d uring som e seasons and w hich get their supplies from such w ater m ay also d epend m ore on rooftop stored rainw ater for potable applications. This can either be taken up at each household level or at neighbourhood scale. Rainw ater harvesting m ay also help control erosion and flood ing d uring period s of excessive rainfall. Im plem entation issues are not very big, Apart from capacity build ing and generating general aw areness am ong the people, apprehensions on increased investm ent cost needs to be taken care of. Financial investm ent is minimal w ith build ing ow ners required to purchase gutter for channeling of w ater to tank, a tank, and an electric m otor to pum p the w ater from low er tank to existing tank. For the local authorities, this means less energy required to treat w ater thereby benefitting the environm ent. Integrated rainw ater harvesting m ay also help the agricultural prod uction w hich is currently d epend ent on the rains. Som e of the strategies sug gested are: Micro-catchm ent runoff farm ing w ater harvesting system s Macro-catchm ent runoff farm ing w ater harvesting system s Flood w ater harvesting runoff farm ing (also called large catchm ent w ater harvesting or spate irrigation)
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Rainwater harvesting systems for agricultural applications are however, not within the purview of current study (which is focused on settlements)
Implementation mechanism:
The governm ent can influence the d em and by affecting the supply cost by either taxation or subsid y and increasin g the tariff on w ater to d iscourage use.
Improvised Septic tanks

In this im provised version of septic tanks, baffled reactors are created w ith ad d itional pipes for flow of sew age from one tank to another. This enhances the treatm ent capacity substantially, w hich is otherw ise not possible in the conventional septic tanks.
Figure 13 : Im provised Septic Tank (Source: CSE, Do-it-yourself:Recycle and Reuse Wastew ater)
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Guideline 4.2: Sustainable Storm w ater management

Sustainable storm w ater m anagem ent entails the follow ing guid elines: a) All settlem ents should ad here to natural site contours and red uce hard paving b) All settlem ents should provid e for an efficient storm w ater m anagem ent system c) If buildings have basements, there should be ad equate provisions for storm w ater m anagem ent in basem ents There should be m inim al d isturbance, grad ing of the land or stripping of vegetation on slopes of 30% or steeper. If at all it is essential to disturb such areas for utility construction or road s, it should be show n via analysis of alternatives that such im provem ents are necessary and affect the sloped area to m inim um extent possible. Construction should not be allow ed in any catchm ent area/ natural d rainage areas such as gorges, w ater bodies, stream s, etc. Road s and d rivew ays should follow the natural topography to the greatest extent possible in ord er to m inimise the cutting and grad ing of critical slope areas. There are separate guid elines and environmental cod es on this prevalent in the country. H ow ever, part com pliance of som e of measures such as soil erosion prevention, slope stabilisation through various m easures, im proper construction w aste m anagem ent is observed. This lead s to im pacting m icro w ater shed areas in the lon g run and could have d evastating im pacts.
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Measures should be taken to red uce hard paving on site to red uce storm w ater runoff attenuation and infiltration and red uce Urban H eat Island Effect 9.
Ensure that the storm w ater m anagem ent system is based on the principles of Sustain able Urban Drainage System s (SUDS) for all settlem ents and cam puses/ build ings; Ensure that the post-d evelopm ent peak run -off rate and quantity from 5-year 24-hour design storm d oes not exceed the pre-d evelopm ent peak run off rate and quantity; At least 50 % of the quantity should be treated by any of the SUDS techniques. The proposed system should be capable of also treating a minim um of 90% of storm w ater and achieve the follow ing stand ard s for quality control:
UHI is defined as the rise in temperature of any man-made area, resulting in a well-defined, distinct "warm island" among the "cool sea" represented by the lower temperature of the areas nearby natural landscape. Though heat islands may form on any rural or urban area, and at any spatial scale, cities are favoured, since their surfaces are prone to release large quantities of heat. Nonetheless, the UHI negatively impacts not only residents of urban-related environs, but also humans and their associated ecosystems located far away from cities. In fact, UHIs have been indirectly related to climate change due to their contribution to the greenhouse effect, and therefore, to global warming. (Source: http://www.urbanheatislands.com/)
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Maxim um rem oval of Total Suspend ed solid s Maxim um rem oval of litter Maxim um rem oval of hyd rocarbons
Provid e for ad equate measures for storm w ater managem ent in basem ents.

The location of the site and its contours in the context of the local catchment area need s to be und erstood p rior to comm issioning of any construction project. The d esign of the structure need s to be in tand em w ith the natural site level differences so that there are no m ajor obstructions in the d rainage patterns, post-d evelopm ent. This integrated approach to the existing site characteristics shall reap benefits in several w ays such as preventing soil erosion, m aintenance of w atershed s and natural w ater bod ies, etc. Several places in Bhutan have flood s and flash flood s (especially along the southern foothills) d ue to various reasons like intense rains on sm all and steep catchm ents, grazing and harvesting of forest prod ucts for d om estic use, lack of infrastructure specific for storm w ater d ischarge, clogging of d rains and sm all w ater bod ies d ue to pollutant loading specially d uring and after storm events, blockage of natural d rains from im proper w aste m anagem ent, lack of system s to recharge ground w ater w ith runoff or to harvest rainw ater, and unplanned urban d evelopm ent w ith relation to the d rainage patterns. Protection of rivers and ground w aters from these effects requires changes to the approach to d rainage and consid eration of treatm ent facilities prior to d ischarge. A range of techniques as a part of Sustainable Drainage System s are available to achieve this. They are a flexible series of options, w hich allow a d esigner to select those that best suit the circum stances of a particular site. It represents an integrated system of techniques aim ed at storm w ater m anagem ent and is the anti-thesis of the conventional d rainage techniques follow ed for flushing storm w ater out of the site. SUDS can be und erstood sim ply as a form alised revival of these practices that aim at localised at -the-source m anagem ent of storm w ater. Moreover, Structural storm w ater m anagem ent solutions are capital intensive and require m ore stringent maintenance. N on -structural storm w ater m anagement solutions (sustainable urban d rainage system s) are m ore sustainable than conventional d rainage m ethod s because they: Contain and m anage runoff flow rates at the site-level itself, red ucing the im pact of settlem ents on flooding Protect or enhance w ater quality by red ucing pollutant concentration in storm w ater Are sym pathetic to the environm ental setting and the need s of the local com m unity Provid e a habitat for w ild life in w atercourses for bio-d iversity enhancem ent Encourage natural ground w ater recharge(w herever appropriate)
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Guidance notes
Gu id ance notes on red u ction of Hard paving
Urban areas are characterized by their high activity based build ings w hich require various subsid iary on-site requirem ents such as parking, w alkw ays and similar other circulation arrangem ents. There is a pertinent need to categorize and d em arcate these areas from other open areas w hich resulted in the paving of the sam e.
Increased Imperv iousness:

H ard paving has led to increased im perviousness on site, w hich has resulted in increased storm w ater run -off d uring rains causing flood ing and its associated unhygienic environs. They also have d rastically red uced the infiltration potent ial of the ground , thus ad versely affecting the natural recharging process of the ground w ater table. This presents a tw o-pronged effect w here flood ing is a w ater surplus issue and red uced percolation is a w ater shortage issue. Im pervious surfaces also collect m assive organic and inorganic pollutants in various form s w hich get w ashed aw ay along w ith storm w ater runoff. This runoff gets stagnated in habited areas acting as propagation m edia for num erous pathogens spread ing w ater borne/ related d iseases apart from heavy m etals. Pollutant-lad en runoff has been responsible for m ost of the ground w ater contam ination and alm ost all surface w ater bod ies are polluted . Lack of filtration channels albeit natural or m anm ade, has resulted in this situation.
Higher ambient t emperat ures:

City tem peratures are higher d ue to lack of trees, shrubs and other plants to shad e the build ings, pavem ents etc. by intercepting solar rad iation and cool the air through evaporation. Build ings and pavem ents m ad e of dark m aterials absorbs s olar rad iation excessively causing the tem perature of the surface and air in contact rise sharply.
Poor air qualit y :

UH I also red uces the air quality by increasing percentage of sm og in air. Sm og is created by photochem ical reactions of pollutants in the air. These reactions are m ore likely to occur and intensify at higher tem peratures.
Where paving is required , the use of perm eable, pervious or porous paving m aterials w ill have the follow ing d irect and ind irect ad vantagesIncreased infiltration of storm w ater runoff into the ground w ater table or aquifer. Depend ing on d esign, paving material, soil type, and rainfall, perm eable paving can infiltrate as m uch as 70% to 80% of annual rainfall. Grass pavers can im prove site appearance by provid ing vegetation Provid es onsite storm w ater run -off attenuation allow ing infiltration thus red ucing the risk of w ater-logging and flood ing in low -lying areas
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Act as a prim ary w ater quality treatm ent m ed ium that captures the suspend ed solid s from trickling through, thus preventing the ground w ater contam ination. It red uces the need for storm w ater conveyances and treatm ent structures, resulting in cost savings elsew here. Red uces the am ount of land need ed for onsite storm w ater m anagem ent as it m ay satisfy requirem ents for green space, allow ing more paving on a site.
Gu id ance notes on SUDS

Structural storm w ater managem ent solutions includ e engineered structures such as pipes, concrete channels, etc. N on-structural stormw ater m anagem ent solutions includ e sustainable urban d rainage system s (SUDS) such as pond s, vegetated sw ales, w etland s, etc. Water infiltrated through such system s is consid ered to be 100% treated , achieving all the requisite quality control stand ard s.
SUDS are prim arily aim ed at optim al storm w ater m anagem ent b yDealing w ith runoff close to w here the rain falls Managing potential pollution at its source for present and future site conditions Protecting w ater resources from point pollution (such as accid ental spills) and d iffused sources.
SUDS can be d esigned to fit into all d evelopm ents, from hard surfaced areas to soft land scaped features, as there are m any d esign options available. They can be d esigned to im prove am enity and biod iversity in d eveloped areas. For instance, ponds can be d esigned as a local featu re in large sites for recreational purposes and to provide valuable local w ildlife habitat nod es and corrid ors. This variety of options allow s d esigners to consid er local land use and the need s of local people w hen und ertaking the d rainage d esign, as w ell as consid ering the trad itional engineering com ponents of the d esign, such as peak flow and capacity in the system . The SUDS managem ent train is a useful concept in the d evelopm ent of a d rainage system and illustrates the m ethod ology of operation of SUDS as given in the ad joining Figure 14. Just as in a natural catchm ent, a com bination of d rainage techniques can be used in series to change the flow and the quality of the runoff in stages.
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Figure 14: SUDS Managem ent train -ad apted from w w w .ciria.org
This concept is fund am ental to designing a successful SUDS schem e it uses d rainage techniques in series to increm entally red uce pollution, flow rates and volum es. The hierarchy of techniques that should be consid ered in d eveloping the m anagem ent train are as follow sPrevention The use of good site d esign and site housekeeping m easures to prevent runoff and pollution (eg: sw eeping to rem ove surface d ust and d etritus from car parks) and rainw ater reuse/ harvesting. Prevention policies should generally be includ ed w ithin the site m anagem ent plan Source control- Control of runoff at or very near its source (eg. Soak w ays, other infiltration m ethod s, green roofs, pervious pavem ents) Site control- Managem ent of w ater in a local area or site (eg. Routing w ater from build ing roofs and car parks to a large soak w ay, infiltration or d etention basin) Regional control Managem ent of runoff from a site or several sites, typically in a balancing pond or w etland
Best Managem ent Practices or BMPs, w hich form a part of this m anagem ent strategy are the application tools of SUDS and categorised und er the follow ing heads based on their utilitarian efficiency: Source Control & prevention techniques Perm eable pavem ent surfaces Green Roofs Rain w ater collection 91
Infiltration d evices Infiltration trenches and basins
Perm eable conveyance system s Filter strips and d rains Sw ales
Passive treatm ent system s Constructed w etland e.g. reed bed s Detention and retention pond s
Perv ious Pav ement s
Figure 15 : Pervious pavem ents
Perm eable pavem ent is an alternative to conventional paving in w hich w ater perm eates through the paved structure rather than d raining off it. Both the surface and the sub -grad e need to be d esigned w ith this function in m ind . Where the cond itions are suitable the w ater m ay be allow ed to infiltrate d irectly into the subsoil. Alternatively, it can be held in a reservoir structure und er the paving for subsequent reuse, infiltration or delayed d ischarge, as show n in ad jacent figure (Figure ad apted from w w w .ciria.org). The perm eable paving can be m aterials such as gravel, grasscrete, concrete blocks d esigned for the purpose or porous asphalt. Overflow s can be constructed on all these systems w here a surface m ust be kept free of w ater in all cond itions or w here the base need s to be sealed to protect the aquifer.
Green Roofs
The system offers significant benefits in term s of red uction in the am ount of w ater running off the roof, the rate of runoff and quality im provem ents. Many conventional flat roof system s used in ind ustrial buildings could be converted to green roofs w ithout exceed ing d esign load ings and w ith the ad d itional benefit of im proving insulation and extending roof
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life. Green roofs built w ith the m ost appropriate base and vegetation has the potential to absorb 15 90% of roof run-off. Figure 16 show s a green roof section w ith its typical com ponents.
Figure 16: Green roof (Source: Karen Liu, PhD, from Proceedings of the Green Rooftops for Sustainable Com m unities Conference,Chicago, 2003, p.279)
Infilt rat ion Trenches

An infiltration trench is a shallow , excavated trench that has been backfilled w ith stone to create an und erground reservoir. Storm w ater runoff flow ing into the trench grad ually infiltrates into subsoil. An overflow m ay be required for extrem e rainfalls that exceed the capacity of the reservoir. The w orking m echanism of an Infiltration trench is illustrated in the adjacent Figure 17. The perform ance of the trench d epends largely on the perm eability of the soil and the d epth to the w ater table. In com mon w ith other source control techniques, infiltration trenches usually serve sm all catchm ent areas, perhaps up to 2-3 hectares. The closer they are to the source of the run - off the m ore effective they w ill be. The operational life of the trench may be enhanced by providing pre-treatm ent for the inflow , such as a filter strip, gully or sum p pit, to rem ove excessive solids. Regular m aintenance w ill be required for m ost pre-treatm ent designs. Pollutant rem oval m echanism s includ e adsorption, filtering and m icrobial decom position in the fill m ed ia and the soil below the trench and trapping of particulate m atter w ithin pre-treatm ent areas. Properly constructed and maintained, infiltration trenches can significantly red uce levels of solids, coliform s, trace m etals and organic m atter. Levels of phosphate and nitrate can also be red uced .
Figure 17: Infiltration trench
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Infilt rat ion Basins

Infiltration basins are shallow , surface im poundm ents w here storm w ater runoff is stored until it grad ually infiltrates through the soil of the basin floor as given in the ad jacent schem atic layout. An overflow m ay be required for extrem e rainfall events w hich exceed the capacity of the reservoir. The perform ance of the basin d epend s largely on the perm eability of the soil and the d epth to the w ater table. Infiltration basins can serve larger catchm ent areas than infiltration trenches because a larger volum e of w ater can be stored on the surface. They can typically serve catchm ents of up to 10 hectares. All other feat ures are sim ilar to the Infiltration Trenches.
Figure 18: Infiltration basin Permeable Conv ey ance
Sy st ems
These m ove runoff w ater slow ly tow ard s a receiving w atercourse, allow ing storage, filtering and som e loss of runoff w ater through evaporation and infiltration before the d ischarge point. There are tw o main types: und erground system s, such as filter d rains (or French d rains) and surface w ater sw ales.
Filt er Drains
The und erground system s are know n as filter (or French) d rains. They com prise a trench, filled w ith gravel w rapp ed in a geo-textile m em brane into w hich runoff w ater is led , either d irectly from the d rained surface or via a pipe system . The gravel in the filter d rain provid es som e filtering of the runoff, trapping sedim ent, organic matter and oil resid ues that can be broken d ow n by bacterial action through time. Runoff velocity is slow ed , and storage of runoff is also provided . Infiltration of stored w ater through the m em brane can also occur and som e filter d rains need not lead to a w atercourse at all. Filter d rain sy stem s have been w id ely used by the highw ay authorities for road s d rainage
Sw ales
Sw ales are grassed d epressions w hich lead surface w ater overland from the d rained surface to a storage or d ischarge system , typical using the green space of road sid e m argins. When com pared to a conventional ditch, a sw ale is shallow and relatively w id e, provid ing tem porary storage for storm w ater and red ucing peak flow s. They are appropriate close to
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source and can form a netw ork w ithin a developm ent schem e, linking storage po nd s and w etland s. A sw ale is d ry d uring d ry w eather but d uring a rainfall event w ater flow s over the ed ge and slow ly m oves through the grassed area. The flow of surface w ater is retard ed and filtered by the grass. Sed im ent is d eposited and oily resid ues an d organic m atter retained and broken d ow n in the top layer of soil and vegetation. Sw ales can be lined below the soil zone w here necessary, to protect the underlying aquifer. During a rainfall event a proportion of the runoff can be lost from the sw ale by infiltration, and by evaporation and transpiration. If necessary, overflow s can be placed at high level to provid e conveyance in tim es of exceptionally heavy rainfall. Sw ales should be d esigned to be d ry betw een storm events to enhance their pollutant rem oval capability.
Passiv e Treat ment Sy st ems

Passive treatm ent system s use natural processes to rem ove and break d ow n pollutants from surface w ater runoff. Small scale system s such as filter strips, can be designed into land scaped area, and are sited upstream of other SUDS. Larger, end of pipe system s usually involve storage of w ater in constructed pond s w here natural purification processes can be encouraged . Constructed w etland s and pond s also provid e the opportunity to im prove w ild life habitat in urban areas. Ad d itionally, pond s can be mad e into am enity features for the local comm unity.
Filt er St rips
Filter strips are vegetated sections of land d esigned to accept runoff as overland sheet flow . In ord er to be effective they should be 5 15 metres w id e and they m ay adopt any natural vegetated form , from grassy m ead ow to sm all w ood . The w id er the strip and the m ore d ense the vegetative cover the better the pollutant rem oval.
Det ent ion Basins

Detention basins are d esigned to hold back storm runoff for a few hou rs to allow the settlem ent of solid s. Bypasses m ay be includ ed to ensure the first flush is d etained . Detention basins d rain via an orifice or sim ilar hyd raulic structure into a w atercourse or surface w ater d rainage system . Detention basins are d ry outsid e of storm period s. They are d esigned to retain flood events, red ucing peak flow s and limiting the risk of flooding. Solid s rem oval is the chief feature of d etention basins, and high rem oval rates are possible. N utrient and trace m etals rem oval is m ore m od est. Extend ed d etention basins incorporate a sm all perm anent pond or w etland w hich can enhance the appearance of the basin. Pollutant rem oval can be m axim ised by allow ing up to 24 hours d etention and seeking to treat a m od est volum e of runoff. It m ay be bett er to treat the first flush of runoff from the catchm ent and by-pass the rest, rather than to scour out settled silt by passing the full storm flow through the basin. Perform ance is further enhanced w ith retention pond s and w etland pond system s.
Ret ent ion Ponds

Retention Pond s retain a certain volum e of w ater at all tim es. This can avoid possibly unsightly exposure of banks of collected sed im ent and enhance perform ance in rem oving nutrients, trace m etals, coli form s and organic matter. Allow ance for a con sid erable variation in w ater level d uring storm s should be incorporated in the d esign, so that a significant
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storage volum e can still be provid ed . The perm anent w ater may be visually m ore attractive, although elevated nutrient concentrations m ay result in algal bloom s. To be successful as an am enity, a retention pond should have a catchm ent of at least 5 hectares and / or a reliable source of base flow .
W et lands
These are a further enhancem ent of retention pond s, and incorporate shallow areas planted w ith m arsh or w etland vegetation. These provid e a m uch greater d egree of filtering and rem oval of nutrients by algae and, to a lesser extent, by incorporation into plant m aterial. Inlet and outlet sum ps, as w ith d etention basins and retention pond s, w ill enhance perform ance and might be consid ered alm ost obligatory, since excessive sed im ent can quickly overw helm the shallow area. Only specially constructed w etland s should be used to treat surface w ater. It is not norm ally an acceptable practice to lead surface w ate r into an existing, natural, w etland area. Table 11 : Summary of SUD S Components
Pervious pavings Surfaces that allow inflow of rainwater into the underlying construction or soil Vegetated roofs that reduce the volume and rate of runoff and remove pollution. Linear drains consisting of trenches filled with a permeable material, often with a perforated pipe in the base of the trench to assist drainage, to store and conduct water; they may also permit infiltration. Filter strips Vegetated areas of gently sloping ground designed to drain water evenly off impermeable areas and to filter out silt and other particulates. Swales Shallow vegetated channels that conduct and retain water and may also permit infiltration; the vegetation filters particulate matte Detention Basins and Retention ponds Areas that may be utilised for surface runoff storage as well as to provide water quality Treatment Infiltration devices Sub-surface structures to promote the infiltration of surface water to ground. They can be trenches, basins or soak-aways. Pipes and accessories A series of conduits and their accessories normally laid
Green roofs
Filter drains
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Pervious pavings
Surfaces that allow inflow of rainwater into the underlying construction or soil underground that convey surface water to a suitable location or treatment and/or disposal. (Although sustainable, these techniques should be considered where other SUDS techniques are not practicable).
Constructed wetlands
Constructed Wetlands are ponds with shallow areas and wetland vegetation to improve pollutant removal and enhance wild life habitat
Source: Modified from the Interim Code of practice for SUDS- National SUDS Working Group
MAINTENANCE
All d rainage system s require m anagem ent and maintenance. Maintenance costs are red uced as SUDS schem es can be m anaged as part of normal land scape care and avoid s the need for expensive specialist contractors. Conventional site d rainage w hich uses gullies, pipes, inspection cham bers, and oil interceptors, requires regular specialist m aintenance w hich is often neglected until pollution occurs. Source Control elem ents require m aintenance w hich can be accomm od ated by norm al land scape m anagem ent practice. The inherent d esign tolerances of BMP techniques prevent catastrophic failure as w ell as background pollution of the environm ent
Gu id ance notes on Storm w ater managem ent in Basem ents

Storm w ater m anagem ent in Basem ents is a very vital part of the entire gam ut of sustainable runoff control. Often this aspect of d rainage control is view ed m ore from the perspective of giving an im m ed iate solution to a risky d isturbance, than trying to integrat e the sam e into the entire sites storm w ater d rainage managem ent regim e. Basem ents provision is there in the Bhutan Build ing Rules 2002. In case the basem ents are used for vehicular parking, the storm w ater running through these spaces may get highly polluted w ith vehicular spills such as oils, fuel, sand and silt, etc. Basem ent storm w ater m anagem ent hence becom es an area of concern that requires ad d itional focus on pollutant-load red uction also through provision of ad equate filters.
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SECTIO N 5: SO LID W A STE M A N A GEM EN T

Bhutan has a very com prehensive regulation on w aste m anagem ent. The Waste Prevention and Managem ent Regulation, 2012, w hich cam e into effect on 18 April 2012 in Bhutan is a w ell laid -out regulation for the w aste m inimization and m anagem ent. It establishes various agencies and m onitoring authorities for the effective im plem entation of this regulation, and is applied to all point sources and / or point of origin of d ifferent types of w aste and their m anagem ent. The prim e objective of these regulations is to close the w aste cycle loop and to follow a m ore system atic, integrated approach to w aste m anagem ent. Solid Waste Managem ent covers all activities pertaining to the control, transfer, transport, processing and disposal of solid w aste in accord ance w ith best principles and practices of public health, economics, engineering, conservation and aesthetics. The best m ethod to d eal w ith w aste is centered on a broad ly accepted H ierarchy of w aste m anagem ent w hich gives a priority listing of the technic al and sociological options of w aste m anagem ent. The hierarchy gives general guid elines on relative d esirability of the d ifferent m anagem ent options.
Figure 19 : H ierarchy of integrated solid w aste m anagem ent
The highest and m ost preferred rank of this integrated m anagement h ierarchy is w aste prevention or w aste m inim ization at source, w hich aim s at red ucing the am ount of the w aste prod uced . It is the m ost effective w ay to red uce the quantity of disposable w aste, the cost associated w ith its hand ling and its ad verse environm en tal im pacts. Reuse, recycling and energy recovery technologies then com e as m od erately suitable technologies. Land -filling is the last option of the hierarchy that involves controlled interm ent of the resid ual w aste w hich has no further use on or in the e arths m antle. N ational Environm ent Com m ission (N EC) is the apex m onitoring bod y und er this regulation w hich shall coord inate and m onitor the overall perform ance of Im plem enting
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Agencies d esignated to efficiently im plem ent the provisions of this Regulatio n and , the Royal Bhutan Police shall assist the im plem enting agencies in achieving full com pliance. This regulation is a strong m easure to d eal w ith the existing bad scenario of w aste d isposal and m anagem ent in Bhutan. It provid es for restriction of sanita ry landfill or open d um p site in certain locations such as w ithin a distance in or around hum an settlem ents, near w ater catchm ent areas, rivers, w etland s or ground w ater sources, land slid e prone areas, notified area of end angered w ild life habitation and near monum ents. This regulation has laid d ow n m any provisions for handling and m anagem ent of hazard ous or infectious w aste w hich are to be follow ed by im plem enting agency such as to have in place a system for safe storage, hand ling and d isposal of hazard ous w astes, provid ing personal protective equipm ents, labeling of containers having hazard ous contents and m aintaining d etail record s regard ing incid ents of injuries, accid ents and non -com pliance to the regulation. For w aste m anagem ent services, the im plem enting agency in consultation w ith the Sanitary Com m ittee m ay form ulate collection m echanism s and propose chargeable fee am ount that m ay vary for resid ential, com m ercial institutions and corporations. The fees, charges and fines collected are used for purposes such as outsourcing of w aste collection services; public ed ucation and aw areness program s; fund research, technical capacity d evelopm ent program s; cleaning campaigns, maintenance of existing w aste m anagem ent infrastructures; and incentives & aw ard s for exem plary w aste m anagem ent initiatives. The implementation agencies or responsible authorities for the general provisions are: 1. 2. 3. 4. The N ational Environm ent Com m ission The Royal Bhutan Police Dzongd ag m onitoring authority w ithin Dzongkhag jurisd iction Dungpa, Gup , Mangm i, Divisional Forest Officer, Park Managers and institutional head s shall be the im plem enting agencies w ithin respective territorial jurisd ictions 5. Departm ent of Road s in collaboration w ith the Road Safety and Transport Authority 6. Sanitary comm ittee WASTE MAN AGEMEN T CATEGORIES Im portantly, this regulation covers all kind s of w aste and has separate provisions for their m anagem ent . This regulation classifies w astes into four categories for the purpose of clearly d em arcating the roles of im plem enting agencies und er respective w aste categories for the effective w aste managem ent. The provisions und er these four w aste m anagem ent categories are as follow s: A. Medical Wastes Management Und er this section, the Ministry of H ealth and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests shall m onitor the Im plem enting agencies w hich includ e health clinics, hospitals, BH US, Departm ent of Livestock, Bhutan N arcotic Control Agency and Drug Regulatory Authority.
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B. Municipal Waste Management Und er this section, the M inistry of W orks and Human Settlement shall be responsible for m onitoring the im plem entation w ithin the jurisd iction of Throm d e w ith the help of m unicipal offices of the Throm d e and Dzongkhag as im plem enting agencies. Some of the responsibilities to be undertaken by Thromde for managing municipal w aste are: - Proper w aste m anagem ent includ ing segregation, collection, processing, transport and d isposal to d esignated sites - Provid e separate containers for biod egrad able and non -biod egrad able w astes at every point source for the w aste segregation - Collect w aste m anagem ent service fees and other charges - Safe hand ling, storage and d isposal of hazard ous or infectious w aste - Collection and treatment of leachate from a sanitary landfill before its release into the environm ent - Cond uction of ad vocacy program s and aw areness program s. The im plem enting agencies shall d esignate Throm d e Inspectors for the effective im plem entation of the municipal w aste m anagement provisions und er this regulation. Responsibilities are entrusted to w aste trad ers and scrap d ealers to ensure cleanliness w hile d ealing w ith m unicipal w astes, provid e protective equipm ent to their w orkers and ensure suspicious recyclable w astes are not purchased . C. Industrial Waste Management Und er this section, the Ministry of Econom ic Affairs in cooperation w ith other related agencies shall m onitor the im plem enting agencies. Incentives like exem ption from Bhutan sales tax, Incom e tax and custom d uties for 20 years, exem ption from license fee etc. m ay be provid ed to any licensed person engaged in the activities of w aste collection, recycling, reuse or value ad d ition to the w aste. Und er this section a Waste Managem ent Fund is established w hich d eposits any revenue generated from the im plem entation of this regulation and is used for m any activities related to w aste analysis, minimization and m anagem ent initiatives. D . E-Waste Management The provisions under this section shall be im plemented by the e-w aste m anagem ent entity and the Throm d es, Dzongkhags, Gew og and Chiw og w ith overall directives and guidelines from the Department of Inform ation Technology and Telecom m onitoring the im plem entation by the e-w aste m anagem ent entity. This section has laid d ow n d etailed provisions for every prod ucer, im porter, expo rter, transporter, consum er or bulk consum er for the managem ent and handling of e -w aste. An E-w aste fund is created und er this section by the Departm ent of Inform ation Technology and Telecom in consultation w ith the N EC to finance the im plem entation of e -w aste m anagem ent system and carry out related tasks.
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There is an entire chapter und er the Waste Prevention and Managem ent Regulation, 2012 d ealing w ith Waste m anagem ent in governm ent reserved forest including protected areas and Dzongkhag com m unities. The im plem enting agency for this purpose is the Divisional Forestry Officer or Park Manager and the m onitoring authority is the Ministry for Agriculture and Forests. The guid elines for solid w aste collection and transportation w ithin com munities are also m entioned und er this section. A Regional Waste Collection Centre m ay be coord inated by d ifferent Dzongkhags to prom ote econom ic viability of inorganic solid w aste for the reuse or recycling purposes by interested agencies. Fine and administrative action This regulation im poses fines and ad m inistrative actions on individ uals or organizations for various offences. The Waste Prevention and Management Regulation, 2012 in Bhutan seem s to be a w ell laid legislation covering all aspects related to w aste managem ent issues of the country but im portantly im plem entation is yet to be seen. The regulation is holistic in term s of clear responsibilities, d uties, penalty clauses, im plem enting agency roles, etc. and shall become a role m od el for other countries to follow if im plem entation also happens as envisaged .
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Guideline 5.1: Organic /Biodegradable w aste treatment

The m anagem ent system for m unicipal solid w aste is clearly laid out in the Waste Prevention and Managem ent Regulation, 2012. To further help in im plementation by the respective authorities and the Ministry of Works and H um an Settlem ent,, follow ing guid ance notes provid e for som e solutions on treatm ent of biod egrad able/ organic m atter w hich can be taken up at centralised level or at com m unity scale/ build ing level.
Technology for treatm ent of organic/ biod egrad able w aste

Technology selection is prim arily guid ed by the kind and type of w aste com position. The solid w aste generated in and around settlem ents com prise of alm ost 50 per cent of biod egrad able w aste. Such w aste can be biologically or therm ally treated . Various kind of technology options available for the processing of biod egrad able w aste and the param eters w hich should be consid ered for selection of the treatm ent option are given in the adjoining figure. Treatment options for Biodegradable waste
Biological treatment
Thermal treatment
Biological Processes
Biological treatm ent involves using m icro-organism s to d ecom pose the biod egrad able com ponents of w aste. Tw o types of processes are used , nam ely: a) Aerobic processes: Windrow com posting, aerated static pile com posting and in vessel com posting; vermi-com posting, com posting w ith bioculture m ethod etc. b) Anaerobic processes: Low -solid s anaerobic d igestion (w et process), high -solid s anaerobic d igestion (d ry process) and com bined processes. In the aerobic process the utilizable prod uct is com p ost. In the anaerobic process the utilizable prod uct is m ethane gas (for energy recovery). Both processes have been used for w aste processing in d ifferent countries a majority of the biological treatment process ad opted w orld -w id e are aerobic com posting; the use of anaerobic treatm ent has been m ore lim ited . In the neighbouring country India, aerobic com posting plants have been used to process up to 500 tons per d ay of w aste.
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Vermicomposting In this type of com posting, the process of com posting is accelerated by introd ucing d eep burrow ing earthw orm s or surface earthw orm s.(the usual red w orm s). Vermicompost ing by use of Surface eart hw orms: They eat the w aste and verm i-com post is the excreta that they leave behind . This occurs after absorbing the nutrients for their ow n life cycle and leaves a higher fungal and actinom yte count, w hich is not beneficial to plant grow th, d ue to red uced oxygen and helpful m icrobial count. H igher m aintenance as they require d ung (expensive)
Vermicompost ing from deep burrow ing eart hw orms

Verm icom post is prod uced by breaking d ow n of food leftovers by m icroorganism s in the soil, encouraged through aeration by the d eep burrow s caused by d eep burrow ing earthw orm s. These earthw orm s are soil eating. They grind m inerals int o soil in their d igestive system s, thereby creating new soil. can be used to create arable soil N utrients are consid ered to be of high value because of the existence of a higher total count of helpful m icro-organisms and a larger num ber of nitrifying bacteria and phosphate solubilisers in them , w hich help plant grow th. Sm aller quantities of d eep -burrow ing earthw orm verm i-com post required in com parison to that of surface earthw orm s, prod uction process less cum bersom e Requires 1sqm for 1 kg w aste or 7 potted plants per household
The availability of both type of earthw orm s needs to be checked for Bhutan .
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Effective microorganism or Biosanitisers

Organic solutions such as Effective Micro-organism s is a liquid concentrate of specially cultured m icroorganism s and are very useful in enhancing the com posting. Originally d eveloped by Dr. Teuro H iga at the University of Ryukus, Japan, the solution is now available in Ind ia (neighbouring country). The solution has to be activated w ith m olasses or rice w ater; activated solution is then sprayed on a batch of m ixed garbage of 3-4 m. w id th & 2 m .ht. It takes 4 to 8 w eeks for com posting and the stink usually associated w ith com posting is gone. It can also be used by single household too. Biomethanisation converts organic w aste into gas (Methane) and com post and is feasible for organic w aste generation of atleast 50 kg or preferably 100 kg per d ay. As a result, this is useful for installation in large m onasteries, institutions, tow nships or sm all settlem ents or com m unity scale. Som e of the com m on bio-m ethanation based digesters available in India are as follow s: TEAM d igester (d eveloped by The Energy and Resource Institute (TERI) ASTRA d igester (Centre for Sustainable Technologies) ARTI d igester (Appropriate Rural Technology Institute) SPRERI d igester (Sard ar Patel Renew able Energy Research Institute) BARC d igester (Bhabha Atom ic Research Institute) Mailhem Engineering PVT Ltd .
TEAM (TERI Enhanced Acidification and Methanation) is a high -rate d igester for biom ethanation of fibrous and semi-solid organic w astes.
Figure 20 : Schem atic of TEAM d igester
Som e of the key ad vantages of using TEAM d igester are:
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Elim ination of Scum form ation - a feature in sm all size plants. Proven perform ance of pilot plant (in India) since Jan. 1999. Low capital cost com pared to im ported d esign Energy and enriched m anure Suitability for sm all and d ecentralized application Very low w ater requirem ent d ue to recycling Low m aintenance cost Ease in m aterial hand ling Process suitable for ad aptation by sm all entrepreneurs
Thermal Processes
Therm al treatm ent involves conversion of w aste into gaseous, liquid and solid conversion prod ucts w ith concurrent or subsequent release of heat energy. Three types of system s can be ad opted , nam ely: a) Com bustion system s (Incinerators): Therm al processing w ith excess am ounts of air. b) Pyrolysis system s: Therm al processing in com plete absence of oxygen (low tem perature). c) Gasification system s: Therm al processing w ith less am ount of air (high tem perature). Com bustion system is the m ost w id ely ad opted therm al treatment process w orld -w id e for MSW. Though pyrolysis is a w id ely used ind ustrial process, the pyrolysis of m unicipal solid w aste has not been very successful. Sim ilarly, successful results w ith mass fired gasifiers have not been achieved . Three types of com bustion system s have been extensively used for energy recovery in d ifferent countries nam ely: a) Mass-fired combustion system s (MASS), b) Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF), c) Fired com bustion systems and Fluidized Bed (FB) com bustion system s
To be viable for energy recovery through therm al processing, the organic w aste m ust possess a relatively high calorific value. In the MSW generated in d eveloped countries, presence of significant quantity of paper and plastics yield s a high ca lorific value of the MSW (typically above 2000 kcal/ kg) w hich m akes it suitable for therm al processing. In case, the calorific value of organic w aste is lesser therm al processing m ay not be feasible. It is therefore, im portant to stud y the calorific value of m unicipal w aste streams for various
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locations (there could be regional differences in the w aste stream and calorific value) as w ell to arrive at a feasible centralised treatm ent option for organic w aste.
Param eters to be consid ered for selection of th e treatm ent option for biod egradable w aste
Som e of the param eters w hich should be consid ered for selecting the treatm ent type are listed as und er: Capital cost Operation & Maintenance cost Com position of the w aste, its calorific value Land requirem ents Sensitivity of the treatm ent technology to external param eters like tem perature, hum id ity, oxygen level, etc By-prod ucts Social acceptability Pay-back period Finances Viability of the scale of operation
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Guideline 5.2: Construction & D emolition (C & D ) w aste management

The Waste m anagem ent and prevention regulation 2012 has som e provision for construction w aste as part of the m unicipal w aste. This section further gives guid ance on enhancem ent of the m anagem ent process. Construction and d em olition w aste is generated w henever any construction/ d em olition activity takes place, such as, building road s, brid ges; fly over, subw ay, rem od elling etc. It consists m ostly of inert and non -biod egrad able material such as d ebris, concrete, steel, plaster, m etal, w ood , plastics, packaging and paper prod ucts, fluorescent tubes, light fixtures, tiles, paints, etc. These w astes are heavy, having high d ensity, often bulky and occupy consid erable storage space either on the road or com m unal w aste bin/ container. It is not uncom m o n to see huge piles of such w aste, w hich is heavy as w ell, stacked on road s especially in large projects, resulting in traffic congestion and d isruption. Waste from sm all generators like ind ivid ual house construction or d em olition, find its w ay into the nearby m unicipal bin/ vat/ w aste storage d epots, m aking the m unicipal w aste heavy and d egrad ing its quality for further treatm ent like com posting or energy recovery. Often it find s its w ay into surface d rains, choking them . It constitutes about 10-20 % of the m unicipal solid w aste (the correct percentage may only be d eterm ined once w aste stream characterisation is d one at the country level). Construction ind ustry generates a lot of w aste annually. Also, the road construction currently going on in the country h as huge requirem ent for aggregates. Recycling of aggregate m aterial from construction and d em olition w aste m ay red uce the d em and -supply gap in road s sector. Concrete and m asonry w aste can be recycled by sorting, crushing and sieving into recycled aggregate. This recycled aggregate can be used to m ake concrete for road construction and even build ing m aterial. Work on recycling of aggregates has been d one at Central Build ing Research Institute (CBRI), Roorkee, and Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), N ew D elhi, Ind ia, w hose help m ay be taken for Bhutan specific research and use applications.
Characteristics of C & D w aste

This category of w aste is com plex d ue to the different types of building m aterials being used but in general m ay com prise of the follow ing m aterials:
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Major com ponents

Cem ent concrete Bricks Cem ent plaster Steel (from RCC, d oor/ w ind ow fram es, roofing support, railings of staircase etc.) Rubble Stone (m arble, granite, sand stone) Tim ber/ w ood (especially d em olition of old buildings)
Minor com ponents

Cond uits (iron, plastic) Pipes (GI, iron, plastic) Electrical fixtures (copper/ alum inium w iring, w ood en baton, bakelite/ plastic sw itches, w ire insulation) Panels (w ood en, laminated ) Others (glazed tiles, glass panes)
Steps for Integrated management of C & D w aste.

A. STORAGE OF CON STRUCTION AN D DEMOLITION WASTE
These w astes are best stored at source, i.e., at the point of generation. If they are scattered around or throw n on the road , they not only cause obstruction to traffic but also ad d to the w orkload of the local bod y. For large d evelopm ental projects special provision should be m ad e for storage and hand ling of w aste m aterial. All attem pts should be m ad e to stick to the follow ing m easures: a. All construction/ d em olition w aste should be stored w ithin the site itself. A proper screen should be provid ed so that the w aste d oes not get scattered and d oes not becom e an eyesore. b. Attem pts should be m ade to keep the w aste segregated into d ifferent heaps as far as possible so that their further grad ation and reuse is facilitated .
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c. Material, w hich can be reused at the sam e site for the purpose of construction, levelling, m aking road / pavem ent etc. should also be kept in separate heaps from those, w hich are to be sold for landfilled or processing. d . The client m ay arrange to provid e appropriate num ber of skip containers/ trolleys on hire w hich m ay be parked at the site and rem oved w ith skip lifters or tractors as the case m ay be.
B. COLLECTION AN D TRAN SPORTATION

If the construction d ebris is stored in skips, then skip lifters fitted w ith hydraulic hoist system should be used for efficient and prom pt rem oval. In case, trailers are used , then tractors m ay rem ove these. For hand ling very large volum es, front -end load ers in com bination w ith stu rd y tipper trucks m ay be used so that the tim e taken for load ing and unload ing is kept to the m inim um . For sm all generators of construction d ebris, e.g., petty repair/ m aintenance job, there m ay be tw o options (i) specific places for such d um ping by the local bod y and (ii) rem oval on paym ent basis. In case of sm all tow ns w here skips and tipping trailers are not available, m anual load ing and unload ing should be perm itted . In case of large generators C & D w aste should be reused for construction activitie s or m ust be sold to registered C & D w aste recyclers.
C. RECYCLIN G AN D REUSE
The use of these materials basically d epend s on their separation and condition of the separated m aterial. A m ajority of these m aterials are d urable and therefore, have a high potential of reuse. It w ould , how ever, be desirable to have quality stand ards for the recycled m aterials.
Const ruct ion and demolit ion w ast e can be used in t he follow ing manner:
a. Reuse (on site) of bricks, stone slabs, tim ber, conduits, piping railings etc. to the extent possible and d epend ing upon their cond ition. b. Sale / auction of m aterial w hich can not be used at the site d ue to d esign constraint or change in design. c. Plastics, broken glass, scrap m etal etc. can be used by recycling ind ustries. d . Rubble, brick bats, broken plaster/ concrete pieces etc. can be used for build ing activity, such as, levelling, und er coat of lanes w here the traffic d oes not constitute of heavy m oving load s. e. Larger unusable pieces can be sent for filling up low -lying areas. f. Fine m aterial, such as, sand , d ust etc. can be used as cover m aterial. 110
D. DISPOSAL
Being pred om inantly inert in nature, construction and d em olition w aste does not create chem ical or biochem ical pollution. H ence maximum effort should be m ade to reuse and recycle them as indicated above. The m aterial can be used for filling/ levelling of low -lying areas. H ow ever, proper sam pling of the m aterial for its physical and chemical characteristics has to be d one for evaluating its use und er the given circum stances.
Stages of Waste Minimization

There are three key stages w here w aste m inim isation and reuse initiatives should be introd uced : 1. Contractual stage 2. Design stage 3. Site operation stage At the contractual stage, the legal responsibility of project partners for m inim izing w aste d uring construction and properly m anaging w aste is established by including clauses in the contract agreem ent. At the d esign stage, firstly the client should clearly com m unicate the comm itm ent to red ucing environm ental im pact in d esign briefs and accordingly select a design team . The architect/ d esigner should consid er the follow ing: Materials specification: Avoid ance of the follow ing w here possible Designs that require m ore m aterial than necessary. E.g., over specification of the m aterial quantities for beam s or colum ns; Designs that restrict the use of reclaim ed and recycled m aterials; Use of high embod ied energy m aterials Sizing of m em bers and com ponents w hich involve a lot of w astage from cuts
Site operation stage is prim arily d one by the con tractors and involves a structured m ethod ology of three d istinct phases.
Phase 1-Analysis and evaluation of w aste managem ent opportu nities

This phase involves id entifying the w aste streams and causes of w aste generation; evaluating the various options for w aste segregation (on-site or off-site), options for recycling and reusing materials; d ecid ing the final d estination of w aste m aterial; d esigning spaces for storage of w aste on -site, etc and d raw ing the final w aste m anagem ent plan.
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Phase 2- Im plem entation

For successful im plem entation of the w aste m anagem ent plan, staff training and com m unication plays a very im portant role and is d one at this phase.
Phase 3-m onitoring

At this phase, the success of the w aste m anagem ent plan is d eterm ined by cond ucting survey at regular intervals.
List of hazardous w astes present in C & D w aste:

1. Asbestos prod ucts-insulation, tiles, etc. 2. Fuels and heating oils and other volatile/ flam m able liquid s such as coolants, grease, etc. 3. Tar and Tar prod ucts (bitum en, felt, w ater p roofing com pound s, etc.) 4. Centering oil, form w ork oil 5. Wood d ust 6. Lead 7. Plastics, Acrylics, Silica, PVC 8. Chem ical ad mixtures, sealants, adhesives solvents etc. 9. Paints, pigments, d yes and prim ers 10. Pesticid es 11. Tarpaulin 12. Explosives and related prod ucts and equipm en t used in excavations 13. Prod uct packaging (cement bags, cartons, containers, plastic covers, etc.) 14. Com pressed gas/ cylind ers 15. Mercury containing lamps and tubes-Fluorescent lam ps intact and crushed , halogen lam ps, arc lam ps, UV lam ps, high pressure sod ium lam p s, m ercury vapour lam ps, neon lam ps, incand escent lam ps. 16. Mercury containing d evices-m ercury sw itches, relays, regulators, therm ostats, etc. 17. All types of batteries
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18. Electronic ballast, PCBs, transform ers, capacitors, sw itchgear, lead cable, oil filled / gel filled cables. 19. Electronic w aste-com puter prod ucts, circuit board s, CRTs, electronic parts, sold er d ross, w eld w aste
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SECTIO N 6: RISK M ITIGA TIO N / A DA PTA TIO N A N D CLIM A TE CH A N GE

Clim ate change is a potential threat that need s to be ad d ressed at all levels. Tw o broad categories of response mechanism are id entified by United N ations Fram ew ork Convention on Climate Change (UN FCCC) to d eal w ith climate change, nam ely m itigation and ad aptation. Mitigation involves red ucing the sources or enhancing the sinks of greenhouse gases. Ad aptation refers to the ability of a system to adjust to clim ate change (includ ing climate variability and extrem es), to m od erate potential dam age, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope w ith the consequences. Both responses are equally im portant and can help red uce the risks of clim ate change to natural and hum an system s. Clim ate change not only increases the incid ence of extrem e events and d isasters but also ind uces grad ual changes such as tem perature and precipitation changes, thus variability of clim ate is another im portant im pact that m akes resource m anagem ent and infrastructure planning m ore challenging, and increases the urgency of the need to ad apt city level operations to both current clim ate variability and future clim at e change. There is strong need therefore to plan for ad aptation and mitigation actions at all levels by id entifying prim e sectors for intervention d epending on projected im pact of the clim ate for particular region. As per the stud y, Bhutan N ational Ad aptation Program m e of Action, N ational Environm ent Com m ission, a stud y of tem perature and rainfall and likely clim ate change im pacts w as d one. Given the scarce resources, proper equipm ent, lack of capacity and trained manpow er, projecting clim ate change in a m eaningful and system atic manner w as recognised as extrem ely d ifficult task. Reliable data exists for only about 10-12 years beyond w hich observations are not reliable enough to m ake any firm conclusions as climate pred ictions w ould need at least a few d ecad es of observations. H ow ever, the analysis of available m eteorological d ata for the past 13 years ind icates an increasing trend in precipitation variability d uring the past 13 years across the country. Also, a clear ind ication on rising tem peratures is observed. As part of the NAPA program , top 9 prioritized projects have been shortlisted as show n below : 1. Disaster Managem ent Strategy (Pilot Im plem entation of Food Security and Emergency Med icine) 2. Artificial Low ering of Thorthom i Glacier Lake 3. Weather Forecasting System to Serve Farm ers and Agriculture 4. Land slid e Management & Flood Prevention (Pilot Schem es in Critical Areas) 5. Flood Protection of Dow nstream Ind ustrial and Agricultural Area 6. Rainw ater H arvesting
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7. GLOF H azard Zoning (Pilot Schem e Cham kar Chu Basin) 8. Installation of Early Warning System on Pho Chu Basin 9. Prom ote Com m unity-based Forest Fire Managem ent and Prevention Of the above, projects w here there is a d efinite role and involvem ent of settlem ents is Land slid e m anagem ent and flood prevention and Rainw ater harvesting. Im portant conclusions draw n from this stud y w hich is useful for settlem ents planning and build ing construction are: Increased vulnerability to land slid es and flood s Increase in tem perature (m ore d em and for space cooling in certain seasons especially in the southern region) Spread of vector-borne tropical d isease (m alaria, d engue) into m ore areas (higher elevations) w ith w arm ing clim ate Loss of safe (d rinking) w ater resources increasing w ater borne d iseases. Interrupted supply of grid -based electricity from hyd ro-pow er plants
This section gives an introd uction to clim ate change im pacts and responses to these threats in the form of ad aptation and m itigation. It und erlines the need for settlements to plan for clim ate change im pacts at neighborhood levels not only to prepare and w ithstand these im pacts but also to enjoy the fruits of sustainable, clim ate and environm ent friendly d evelopm ent. Factoring clim ate change ad aptation and m itigation into settlem ents w ould equip them to w ithstand shocks and threats that are yet unforeseen and som etim es unpred ictable.
Ad aptation at N eighbou rhood level:

A lot of efforts on clim ate change ad aptation are being carried out by several m inistries und er the guid ance of National Environ m ent Com m ission. H ow ever, adaptation planning at settlem ent level is yet to be und ertaken. It is an established fact that ad aptation and m itigation are operational on m uch sm aller scales and their cum ulative results w ould benefit at a larger scale. For exam ple, energy efficient and climate responsive build ings that are less d epend ent on mechanical m eans for therm al com fort w ould help red uce consid erable am ount of energy use, thus indirectly lead ing to m itigation effort. Sim ilarly, a colony w ith a storm w ater d rainage netw ork w ith a d esigned capacity to w ithstand flash flood s d uring m onsoon period s or any unforeseen heavy precipitation event as an outcom e of clim ate change w ould m ake the area resilient to that particular clim ate im pact or threat. Also various elem ents of ad aptation planning and m itigation activities are better d esigned at the level of the individ ual build ings, or colony, or a large cam pus or neighborhood . For exam ple, w hile w ater conservation as an ad aptation activity could be m and ated by law in a settlem ent, but actual conservation w ould take place w hen the facility is built at the level of the build ing/ a com m unity/ a colony or a cam pus.
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Guideline 6.1: Planning for climate change adaptation in all settlements

There are no generic or tailor-m ad e solutions available to help any d evelopm ent to be clim ate proof one that encom passes ad aptation and m itigation actions at the planning stage itself. H ow ever, d ifferent stud ies are available (Eckert et al, 200910),(EU,200911) w here such attem pts have been m ad e. This section d raw s from such stud ies and attem pts categorization of ad aptation and m itigation actions on the basis of the relevant clim ate im pact. Im pacts m ay vary from region to region and it is strongly recom mend ed that settlem ents/ d zongkhags should allow for a settlem ent level risk assessm ent and vulnerability analysis to und erstand and plan settlem ent specific adaptation need s. Table 12 : Climate change impacts and suggested adaptation measures at settlement level
Cause
Settlement Impact Flooding landslides and
Sectoral Response
Adaptation Measure
Change in precipitation heavy rain, ground water level rise
Land use planning
Disrupted hydro-power based electricity
Conduct natural drainage pattern of the site analysis and place the built-up such that it allows for excess water to stream out rather than collect at various locations within settlement. Strong enforcement of soil sedimentation control measures erosion,
At building level, provision for flood resilient construction (measures incorporated into the building fabric, fixtures and fittings to reduce the impact of floodwater on the property e.g., raising the plinth level, provision of damp proof membranes, locating electrical sockets above predicted flood level, protecting wiring by suitable insulation, etc.) Decentralised grid; alternative means of clean electricity such as solar, wind, biomass based Drainage systems Managing flood pathways within site Providing for a well developed drainage system within site One way valves fitted in drains and sewage pipes to prevent backflow Water
10
resource
Management of quantity of run-off water
2009. Eckert Ronald and Schinkel Ulrikle. Livable cities TP. Ho Chi Monh- Adaptation as response to impacts of climate change. Proceedings REAL CORP 2009,Tagungsband,22-25 April 2009, Sitges.http://www.corp.at 11 2009. European Union. Adaptation to climate change-Policy instruments for adaptation to climate change in big European cities and metropolitan areas.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts conservationquality and quantity
Providing for collection of excess runoff on site and directing it to ground water recharge/sumpwell for future use based on site suitability Rainwater harvesting mechanisms installed in buildings Drains cleaning mechanisms to ensure unhindered water flow in flood prone areas of the site.
Health
Primary health care facilities available on site Mechanisms at place for prevention of water borne diseases At building level, ensure on-site clean source of water, provision of mosquito nets on the windows and openings
Flood defence
Building outfalls and storage reservoirs, sluices Flood defence walls on the vulnerable side of the site if adjoins river, canal , water body, hill or mountain foot etc (optional and very site specific measure)
Temperature rise
Heat wave
Increase proportion green space Reduction sealed surface
of
Linked network of well spaces, green corridors
irrigated
open
of
Green infrastructure like wetland restoration within site, trees, green roofs etc Construct artificial ponds, lakes, canals
Increase bodies Solar control
water
Shading and orientation of buildings to reduce excessive heat gain Cool pavement materials surface reflectivity to increase
Promotion of traditional housing typologies to capture natural climate friendly elements in design of site and buildings
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Ventilation Drought and water shortage Extensive rain water harvesting Water storage
Natural ventilation Allow for compulsory rain water harvesting
Recharging and storing rain water to be used in summer season Water Recycling buildings systems installed in
Fittings
Developers /faucets
provide
for
efficient
fittings
Others
Mitigation Measures Site level movements facilities for pedestrian
Restriction on car use for demarcated areas; use of mass transport systems based on clean fuel technologies Ensuring markets and utility areas within walking distance to discourage use of car and two-wheelers, provision of public transport outside/within campus Promote design and orientation of buildings such that less need for mechanical means for thermal comfort. Solar passive design features could be used. Provision of Green Areas/Plantation /green cover to improve air quality on site
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SECTIO N 7: BU ILD IN G M A TERIA LS A N D CO N STRU CTIO N TECH N O LO GIES

All build ings and infrastructure require m aterials for construction. These m ate rials could either be high in em bod ied energy or low in em bod ied energy. There is an increasing trend w orld w ide includ ing Bhutan to go for high em bod ied energy m aterials such as cem ent, steel, bricks, glass etc. The problem is further compound ed in case of Bhutan w hich im ports m ost of the building m aterials. There is therefore, an urgent need to look for alternative m aterials w hich are preferably available locally or can be m anufactured locally. Apart from being high embod ied m aterial, m any of the conventionally used m aterials becom e costly also d ue to being im ported from the neigbouring countries. From environm ental and poverty perspective, ad option of m ore and m ore locally available low embod ied energy m aterials is highly d esirable in the country. Som e of the alternative build ing materials/ technology w hich m ay be consciously prom oted in the country are: 1. 2. 3. Com pressed stabilized earth blocks H ollow interlocking blocks Bam boo
Apart from the above, Green Design Guid elines (currently und er d evelopm ent by the Departm ent of Engineering Services) shall further look at m ore strategies and solutions. 1. Compressed stabilised earth blocks: The first and the m ost critical step in CSEB technology is id entification of soil w hich is suitable for block prod uction and w ill be available locally in the required quantity. CSEB gives the ad vantage of local m anufacturing w ith less em bod ied energy involved (as com pared w ith the regular kiln -burnt bricks and transported from far off places in Ind ia).It is also less polluting than the fired bricks (2.4 -7.8 tim es less 12). Soil, consisting of sand , clay and silt is the basic raw m aterial for CEB. In general, soils containing 10 -15% clay and 60-75% sand are satisfactory for cem ent- stabilized CEB. It is preferable that the clay in the soil should be non-expansive, because it is extrem ely unstable in presence of w ater, although it can be stabilized in a com plicated m anner 13. If a stabilized CSEB is prod uced using a clayey soil m ore than 20% clay and if the cem ent stabilization is less than 5%, the block is likely to d evelop cracks d uring alternate w etting and d rying leading to surface cracks or spilling at corners after exposure to w eather for 2-3 years. Such problems can be avoid ed by ad d ing ad equate quantity of sand to the soil m ix to keep the percentage of clay below 15%.
Auroville Earth Institute, 2005. Training manual on Earthquake resistant buildings with hollow interlocking blocks.
12 13
http://www.ruralhousingnetwork.in/technical/stabilized-compressed-earth-blocks
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Proper Testing of soil is to be d one w ith respect to the com position of quality and particle size of sand &silt; w hich w ould aid in d etermining the quantity of cem ent/ stabilizing agent (fibres, lime, fly ash, straw , latex, resins, etc.) and soil im provem ent to achieve the d esired strength. CSEB is a very site specific m aterial and if used properly can be a great boon as an alternative construction m aterial. Basic D ata on CSEB (For 5% cement stabilized blocks) Dry com pressive strength (after 28 d ays curing) Wet com pressive strength (after 28 d ays curing) Dry bend ing strength(after 28 d ays curing) Dry shear strength (after 28 d ays curing) Water absorption by w eight (after 28 days curing) Apparent bulk d ensity (d ry) 3 to 6 MPa
1.5 to 3 MPa
0.5 to 1 MPa 0.4 to 0.6 MPa 8 to 12% (test d one after 3 d ays im m ersion)
1700 to 2000 kg/ m 3
Source: Training manual on Earthquake resistant buildings with hollow interlocking blocks, Auroville Earth Institute
2.
Hollow Interlocking blocks for earthquake resistance
This is a technology using reinforced hollow concrete block and has been used in various w ays all over the w orld. Its principle is to reinforce the masonry by grouting a concrete into the hole of the block w here stand s a steel rod at the critical locations (like corners end s, near openings, etc.). H orizontal reinforcem ent is also cast in U -Shape blocks.
H ollow interlocking blocks are of tw o types 1. H ollow Interlocking Com pressed Stabilised earth blocks (H I CSEB) 2. H ollow Concrete Block
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The technology using H ollow interlocking Com pressed stabilised earth Block (H I CSEB) is based on the sam e principle: to reinforce horizontally and vertically the masonry w ith Reinforced Cem ent Concrete (RCC) m em bers. The ad vantage of hollow interlocking CSEB, com pared to hollow concrete block, is that they offer keys, w hich interlock the other blocks thus these w alls offer m ore resistance to shear and build ings w ould be even stronger. Such build ings can better resist earthquakes and w ithout m ajor d am ages. Advantages: Biod egrad able m aterials Energy efficiency and eco friend liness 5 15 times less energy consum ed than fired brick and around 3 8 tim es less emission Cost effectiveness Minim um m ortar required Keys that interlock w ith each other provid es better integrity H ollow provisions for laying vertical and horizontal reinforcements to im prove the lateral load resisting capacity
Limitations: Only for low rise structures: m axim um 2 storey Strength very m uch d epend ent on the properties of soil Too m uch stabilization(cem ent) w ill m ake no econom ic sense Interlocking features d o not provid e air tightness. Minim um gap is form ed d ue to w hich term ite/ air current can pass. For fram e structures, H I-CSEB can be used as filler m aterials but the structu ral m em bers sizes increases d ue to increase in the block w eight. H I-CSEB use in Bhutan Use of H I-CSEB blocks is reported in som e areas such as Jem ina in Bhutan.
Figure 21: A d em onstration project using H I CSEB in Bhutan Source: Presentation by Jigm e Tenzin at the 6 Annual Engineering Conference
th
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3.
Bamboo
Bam boo has a great potential to solve the scarcity of sustainable building m aterials for high end and afford able buildings in both urban as w ell as rural areas. The m odern d ays build ing m aterials, w hich m ainly constitute w ood , concrete and steel are not consider sustainable m aterials because they are associated w ith high -em bod ied energy. Som e issues d o exist such as using raw bam boos for the construction of houses have many ad vantages and d isad vantages. Use of raw bam boos is generally cheap, easy and d oes not require high tech m achineries and capital investments. Use of bam boo in housing how ever, has d isad vantages, as it is a non -d im ensional m aterial and d oes not often com e w ith uniform shape, size and age. Consid ering the above-m entioned d isad vantages there is how ever, a great opportunity to prom ote bam boo for the construction of houses as all the above problem s can be solved by converting or processing bam boo into engineered panels. All the d isadvant ages of natural bam boo w ould naturally be m itigated once it is processed . The other great ad vantage of the panel is that it could be fabricated accord ing to the stand ard requirem ent for the housing such as that of timber housing and w ould meet the requirem ents of build ing cod e. Major advantages of bamboo prefabricated housing: Bam boo prefabricated quality houses are relatively afford able com pared to bricks or stone m ad e concrete houses. These houses are environm ent friendly and have better earthquakes resistance (The lab test cond ucted in Ind ia supported by DFID has show n that bam boo house can easily stand 7-rector scale of earthquake) and they have good insulation characteristics. The experience from the IN BAR/ TN C bam boo housing project revealed that a 30 square m eter bam boo house w ould save about 10 cubic m eter of timber. In m ore general term s: build ing one sm all tw o-room house w ith bam boo rather than w ood could alread y save at least one big mature tree. A research cond ucted in Costa Rica revealed that only 70 hectares of bam boo plantation are sufficient to build 1,000 bam boo houses per year. If these houses w ere built w ith tim ber, 500 hectares of natural forests w ould be d estroyed every year. Stud ies show that processing of bamboo requires only 1/ 8 of the energy that concrete need s to create a build ing m aterial of the same capacity. In com parison to steel, bam boo need s only 1/ 50 the am ount of energy for processing. Bam boo has a zero w aste as all the parts of the bam boo can be utilized efficiently. Bamboo d u st has been used for m aking particleboard and insulation brick. These houses w ould contribute to the society by provid ing afford able but quality prefabricated bam boo houses to poor and hom eless people. These houses require m inim um tim e to construct and install (m inim um of one to m axim um of three m onths) hence, can be effectively used for relief purposes in the tim es of natural d isaster. Bamboo in Bhutan : The unpreced ented construction boom in Bhutan em erge a great pressure on the local forestry resources. As the d em and of tim ber increase in construction m arket, the supply continues to d im inish and result in price hike. Sustainable alternative to the timber is bam boo w hich grow s naturally in Bhutan because of the country's largely und isturbed forests and the limited agriculture practiced in areas w here bamboo proliferates (Table 13).
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Bhutanese bamboo is principally of H im alayan and Chinese-Japanese origins, w ith som e Southeast Asian and South Ind ian contributions. Bhutan has 15 genera and 31 species of bam boo. Possibly as m any as 50 m ore species exist, that prod uce strong, lightw eight, flexible poles excellent for use in earthquake-resistant build ing structures, bam boo has trad itionally been overlooked as a m aterial for local construction.
Table 13 : Bamboo in Bhutan

Botanical name Arundinaria spp. Local name Maling bans Distribution Chimithangka and Thimphu Selephu/Paro Diafam, Bhangtar, Nganglam, Deothang/ Samdrup Jongkha Begana, Helela, Lamperi/Thimphu Sarpang. Samdrup Jongkha Samtse Sarpang Zhemgang Samdrup Jongkha Pemagatshel Sarpang Parts used Stems Leaves
Arundinaria maling Bambusa spp. Dendrocalamus spp. Dendrocalamus stricta
Hima Bhalu bans Mal bans/Choya bans Bejuli bans
Stems Stems Stems Stems
Figure 22 : Map show ing areas w ith d iffer ent species of bam boo in Bhutan
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Bhutans Ministry of Agriculture and Forests Joined IN BAR in 2009 and is w orking to prom ote the use of bam boo as a sustainable alternative to tim ber. In Dec 2011 the first bam boo d em onstration house w as built in Tingtibi, Bhutan. Recently, the Ministry has signed w ith IN BAR to im plem ent a new 2-year Com m on Fund for Com m od ities (CFC)fund ed pilot project on bam boo value chain d evelopm ent for construction prod ucts.
Bhutan alread y has a com prehensive bamboo harvesting guidelines in place given the likelihood of its increasing d em and (N ational Forest Policy Goal, Royal Governm ent of Bhutan) w hich further strengthens the basis to prom ote this as one of the alternative build ing m aterials
CASE STUD Y Name of Project Name of Developer / Owner / Promoter Name of Architect / Design Firm Project Completion Site Area Built Up Area Contact Detail 1. The new structure uses local bam boo as the framew ork of the house and for m any of the w alls, w ith tim ber still used for som e joints, w hilst the use of trad itional ad obe w alling and a thatched roof ensures that all m aterials, except the cem ent used in the found ations, w ere sourced locally. The house uses approxim ately 3 25.5m less w ood than an equivalent tim ber-fram ed hom e, and is nearly half the price, at a cost of US$140/ m 2.
Source: http://www.inbar.int/2012/01/bambooconstruction-bhutan/
Residence of the Tingtibi Community Chief Royal Government of Bhutan INBAR 2011 100 Sq.m www.inbar.in
2.
The house is built to last, w ith an expected life-span of at least 20 years, and its earthquake resistance has alread y been proven im m ed iately after com pletion in Septem ber 2011 the house w ithstood shocks from an earthquake in nearby Sikkim , Ind ia, w ithout suffering any d am age.
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3. This innovative project has show n that bam boo build ings clearly have the potentia l to help Bhutan d evelop sustainably, and as a result, the governm ent now plans to construct three m ore bam boo structures in 2012 w ith IN BARs support. 4. Areas w here bam boo is read ily available, such construction types should be prom oted by the local authorities.
Earthquake-Resistant Construction: The m ost d angerous natural hazard w hich d am ages build ings and m an -m ad e structures is Earthquake. Param eters such as intensity, d uration and frequency content of ground m otion, geological and soil cond ition, quality of construction etc., signifies the earthquake dam age. To construct Earthquake resistance build ing w hich w ill not get dam age in Strong earthquake such build ings w ill be too robust and also too expensive. Instead , the engineering intention is to m ake build ings earthquake resistant; such build ings resist the effects of ground shaking, m ay get d am aged severely but w ould not collapse d uring the strong earthquake thus ensuring the safety of people in earthquake and thereby a d isaster is avoid ed . Geo-physically, Bhutan is located in one of the most seism ically active zones in the w orld . its proxim ity to the N orth -eastern parts of In d ia, w hich is in the m ost active seism ic Zone V (accord ing to Bureau of In d ian Stand ard s), indicates that the m ajority of Bhu tan is either in Zone IV, according to the seism ic hazard m ap of Bhutan, d raw n by IIT Roorkee, Ind ia.
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Earthquake effects on a structure: Structural elem ents such as w alls, colum ns and beam s, are only bearing the w eight of the build ing and the live load und er norm al conditions. Mostly com pression forces for the w alls and columns and vertical bending for the beam s. The earthquake d esign philosophy m ay be sum marized as follow s: Minor: Und er m inor but frequent shaking, the m ain m embers of the build ing that carry vertical and horizontal forces should not be d am aged ; how ever building parts that d o not carry load may sustain repairable d am age. Moderate: Und er m od erate but occasional shaking, the m ain mem bers m ay sustain repairable d am age, w hile th e other parts of the build ing may be d amaged such that they m ay even have to be replaced after the earthquake; and Strong: Und er strong but rare shaking, the m ain m em bers m ay sustain severe (even irreparable) d amage, but the build ing should not collapse.
Thus, after minor shaking, the build ing w ill be fully operational w ithin a short tim e and the repair costs w ill be sm all. And, after m od erate shaking, the build ing w ill be operational once the repair and strengthening of the d amaged m ain m em bers is com plet ed . But, after a strong earthquake, the building m ay becom e d ysfunctional for further use, but w ill stand so that people can be evacuated and property recovered . Based on the above philosophy and the earthquake hazard of the country, there are regulations provid ed by respective local authorities to be follow ed . Strict enforcem ent of the structural guid elines as applicable for all planned settlem ents should be follow ed . In case, it is observed that there are not enough structural engineers available in the country, capacity enhancement program m ay be und ertaken. Guid elines for rural construction in stone m asonry prepared by the Stand ard s & Quality Control Authority should be referred to and w id ely d issem inated in non planned settlem ents. The guid elines is an excellent com pend ium providing sim ple techniques and w ell established construction practices to im prove the earthquake resisting capacity of non -engineered stone m asonry build ings. For further outreach, tip sheets in the local language w ith a lot of sket ches and training program s at the Geog level may be introd uced for w id er ad option.
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SECTIO N 8: IM PLEM EN TA TIO N

The key to the success of the proposed guid elines is in successful im plem entation. Effective im plem entation of any initiative is possible only a fter und ertaking the required aw areness generation m easures, training & capacity build ing activities and also by initiating som e specific integration w ith the existing policy/ Rules fram ew ork in tune w ith the overall objectives of the initiative. Som e of these suggested im plem entation strategies are as und er: Wherever applicable, integration w ith the Bhutan Build ing Rules 2002 and the recently introd uced Rural Construction Rules 2013 for non -planned settlem ents of Bhutan. Integration of guid elines w ith all the DCR for existing and new tow ns Micro-hazard zone m apping to be taken up on a priority basis by the respective Ministry in association w ith the MoWH S given the highly seism ic nature of the entire country. Species (pref. fast grow ing) w hich m ay be used for preventing soil erosion is required . Such a list m ay be requested from the Dep artm ent of Agriculture & Forestry List of native species of trees, shrubs and grass may be attached w ith relevant Build ing rules. Such a list m ay be requested from the Dep artm ent of Agriculture & Forestry. Slopes id entification for all areas (other than the places for w hich structural plans w ith such d etails are available) should be taken up for id entification of areas w here restricted / cond itional construction m ay be allow ed . Existing vegetation form at m ay be given as ad d itional clause w ith the set of d ocum ents required for subm ission -MoWH S (for all planned and non -planned areas) Solar Water H eating m ay be m andated for typologies such as hotels; for others m ay be incentivised / prom oted by various m eans (MoWH S and Dep artm ent of Renew able Energy should jointly w ork on the implem entation strategy) Solar Photovoltaics-MoWH S should w ork w ith Departm ent of Renew able Energy to d evise strategies for im plem entation Water quality stand ard s for flushing and other non -potable applications may be taken up by N EC for w id er ad option and im plem entation of w ater related guid elines Supply chain system s- The entire supply chain for prod ucts such as Solar w ater heaters, SPV, alternative build ing m aterials, therm al insulation, high perform ance glass, etc. need to be d eveloped in close coord ination w ith various d epartm ents and m inistries.
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Given the high susceptibility of the entire country to various clim ate change ind uced extrem e events, each Dzon gkhag need to prepare resilience plan at settlement level Strict enforcem ent plan (m ay use incentives/ d isincentives/ or other policy tools) is essential There is a strong need for a separate Act on Planning as practiced in other countries so that overall better im plem entation is achieved Right to ad equate housing should not contrad ict w ith overall environm ental consid erations and should go hand in hand All environm entally sensitive areas and features should be protected and m easures to avoid , m inimize or m itigate environm ental impacts of the proposed d evelopm ent (especially in the case of large projects, tow nships, d am s, ind ustries, etc.) should be taken up. For m apping of areas w hich are extrem ely fragile, it is recom m end ed that organisations like N EC in association w ith Ministry of Works and H um an Settlem ent prepare such spatial m aps The approved list of construction m aterial should be regularly upd ated and as far as possible integrate region specific local m aterials as w ell such as the ones d iscussed in the section on Build ing Materials. Dissem ination of the use of tools and techniques on use of such local alternative m aterials am ong the various stakehold ers engaged in the construction sector and also am ong the users is equally im portant. Communication plan: An overarching m arketing and com m unication strategy m ay be evolved by the Ministry as a w hole and prioritized action plans can be taken up d uring the current Five-Year Plan. Com m unication and d issemination plan separately for im plem enters, build ing professionals and end users is required . Integration w ith existing Education system: The curriculum of architectural, planning and engineering program s in the country d o not have any focus on integrated design, green d esign and env ironm entally conscious d esign. As a result, im plem entation of any such guid elines becom es m ore challenging. It is therefore, strongly recom m end ed to m ake necessary changes in the curriculum of the ongoing engineering, planning and architectural courses. Skill upgradation for construction w orkers is also strongly recom m end ed given the d em and -supply gap and also to prom ote m ore jobs for Bhutanese. Co-ordination: Co-ord ination am ongst stakeholders at the d esign stage and d uring the construction stages of projects is very im portant from environm ental sustainability perspective w hich is currently missing and need s to be w orked upon through planned capacity build ing and aw areness program s.
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REFEREN CES:
1. Balm ori, D. and Benoit, G., 2007. Land and N atural Developm ent (LAN D) Cod e Guid elines for Sustain able Land Developm ent, New Jersey, United States of Am erica 2. Beer, Anne R. and H iggins, C.,2000. Environm ental planning for site developm ent, E & FN Spon, N ew York 3. Certification Checklist 2006, Wastew ater Treatm ent Facility Operation & Maintenance Manual, Departm ent of N atural Resources, State of Wisconsin, Decem ber, Madison (USA) 4. CMCH , 2005. Research report on Water reuse stand ard s and testing protocol, H ealthy H ousing and Com m unity Series, CMH C, Canad a. 5. Developm ent Alternatives - Drinking Water Quality Monitoring and Managem ent , Training Manual 6. EPA 2002. Onsite Wastew ater Treatm ent Systems Manual, Office of Water, Office of Research & Developm ent, US Environm ental Protection Agency, Washington 7. EPA Guidelines 2000. Managem ent of Onsite/ Decentralised Wastew ater System s, Office of Water, US Environm ental Protection Agency, July, Washington 8. Ground Water Com pliance Com m ittee 2004, Michigan Departm ent of Environm ental Quality, May, Michigan 9. Guid elines for the control of soil erosion and sed im entation on build ing and d evelopm ent sites by Lism ore, City Council. 10. H and book on Managing Onsite & Decentralized Wastew ater Treatm ent System s 2005, Office of Water, US Environm ental Protection Agency, December, Washington 11. H ealth Canad a - http:/ / w w w .hc-sc.gc.ca/ ew h-sem t/ pubs/ w atereau/ escherichia_coli/ significance-im portance-eng.php 12. H MDA, 2009, Environmental Build ing Guid elines for H yd erabad Metropolitan Area, TERI and TVPL 13. http:/ / abari.org/ bamboohousing 14. http:/ / w w w .nec.gov.bt/ Waste%20final.pd f 15. http:/ / w w w .raonline.ch/ pages/ story/ bt/ btstquake01.htm l 16. ICAEN 2004, Sustainable Build ing Design Manual, Volum e 2, The Energy & Resources Institute (TERI), N ew Delhi 17. IGES, 2010. List of Grid Emission Factor, Institute of Global Environmental Strategies
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18. IPA, 2008. Uniform Plumbing Cod e-Ind ia, Ind ian Plum bing Association. 19. LWASA Shuaib, 2005. A Geo-Inform ation Approach for Urban Land Use Planning in Kam pala, Ugand a. From Pharaoh s to Geoinform atics FIG Working Week 2005 and GSDI-8 Cairo, Egypt April 16-21, 2005 20. Marsh, W.M., 2010. Landscape Planning: Environm ental Applications 5 th Ed ition. Wiley Publications, John Wiley & Sons Inc. 21. MN RE and TERI, 2010, GRIH A Manual-I-IV, TERI Press, N ew Delhi 22. MoEF, 2006. Manual on norm s & standard s for environm ental clearance of large construction projects, Ministry of Environm ent & Forests, Governm ent of Ind ia, N ew Delhi. 23. MoEF, 2007. Manual on norm s and stand ard s for environm ental clearance of larg e construction projects, Ministry of Environm ent and Forests, Govt. of India. 24. MoUD, 2000. Manual on Municipal Solid w aste managem ent CPH EEO, Ministry of Urban Developm ent, Govt. Of Ind ia. 25. Municipal Sew age Treatm ent Works Operation & Maintenance Manual 2006, Office of Wastew ater Engineering, Departm ent of Environm ental Quality, January, Virginia 26. N ational Build ing Cod e (N BC) of Ind ia 2005, Bureau of Indian Stand ard s (BIS), Governm ent of Ind ia. 27. N orth Carolina State University: H ealth Effects of Drinking Water Contaminants http:/ / w w w .bae.ncsu.ed u/ program s/ extension/ publicat/ w qw m / he393.htm l 28. Pathogens in Drinking Water - http:/ / w w w .eaw ag.ch/ publications/ eaw agnew s/ 29. Phelps, et al, 2007. AIA Best Practices Green Roof Design: Ad apted from an AIA Convention Sem inar by Cathy Garrett, Kenneth Klein, and And reas Phelps 30. Prasad , R. and Dorji, S., 2011. Earthquake and land slid e vulnerability: some selected stud ies from Bhutan, Sherub Doenm e: The Research Journal of Sherubtse College. 31. Roatru, A., Oajd ea, D., and Raileanu, P., 2007. Analysis of the Landslid e Movem ents, International Journal of Geology, Vol 1(3), pp. 70-79 32. Steep Slope Development Guidelines, City of Nanaimo 33. SUDSWG, 2004. Interim Cod e of practice for Sustainable Drainage Systems, N ational SUDS Working group 34. Sunita N arian 2007, A Wastew ater Recycling Manual for Urban Areas w ith Case Stud ies, Centre for Science & Environm ent, N ew Delhi 35. Sustainable Urban Drainage System s (SUDS)- An Introd uction, 2003. Environm ent Agency 36. Tchobanoglous, T. and Vigil, 1993. Integrated Solid Waste Managem ent: Engineering principles and Management issues, McGraw -H ill Inc.
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37. TERI and TVPL, 2009. Environm ental Building Guid elines for H yd erabad Metropolitan Area, H yderabad , H MDA. 38. The SUDS m anualWood s-Ballard B; Kellagher R; Martin, P; Jefferies, C; Bray, R; Shaffer,P CIRIA C 697 39. Urban Road s Stand ard s, 2002 40. Varnes, D.J., 1978. Slope m ovem ent types and processes, in Schuster, R.L., and Krizek, R.J.(ed s), land slid es-Analysis and Control: N avigation Research Council, Washington D.C. Transportation Research Board , Special Report 176, pp 11-33 41. Voluntary N ational Guidelines for Managem ent of Onsite & Decentralized Wastew ater Treatm ent System s 2003, Office of Water, US Environm ental Protectio n Agency, March, Washington 42. w w w .ciria.org
43. w w w .cseindia.org
44. w w w .environment-agency.gov.uk 45. w w w .uw tc.tay.ac.uk 46. w w w _en53/ en53e_screen/ en53e_koester_s.pd
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Annexure: N eed for promoting adequate spacing betw een buildings Also know n in planning term inology as setbacks, spacing betw een buildings is an im portant com ponent. They serve m any purposes. Setback is the required d istance that a build ing m ust be located aw ay from the streets, easem ents, and other structures includ ing build ings. Setbacks allow a certain measure of privacy betw een neighbors, provid e space for light and air circulation, and provid e open space for landscaping an d recreational use. They also provid e d istance betw een neighbors to m itigate noise and od ors. It is particularly im portant in the context of Bhutan to allow for proper ventilation to m itigate the pollutants from kitchen and other spaces, given the fact that a lot of fuelw ood is used for fod d er cooking and space heating. Spacing betw een build ings is also im portant to allow for ad equate d ayligh t in living spaces of a d w elling. Along w ith the im portance of energy, stud ies have d em onstrated the non energy related benefits of d aylighting. Even if a build ing is d esigned w ell for d aylight, if there is inadequate spacing betw een buildings, not m any benefits can be availed of d aylight. H um ans are affected both psychologically and physiologically by the d ifferent spectrum s provid ed by the various types of light. These effects are the less quantifiable and easily overlooked benefits of daylighting. It is w ell recognised that good glarefree d aylight leads to im proved m ood , enhanced m orale, low er fatigue, im proved prod uctivity in w orkspaces and red uced eyestrain. One of the im portant psychological aspects from d aylighting is meeting a need for contact w ith the outsid e living environment (Robbins 1986). Wavelengths of light help control the hum an bodys chem ist ry. Many fu nctions, includ ing the nervous system , circad ian rhythms, pituitary gland , end ocrine system , and the pineal gland are affected by d ifferent w avelengths of light. Stud ies have show n that light can help cure rickets, osteom alacia, and Seasonal Affective Disord er (SAD). Given the aforem entioned ad vantages of provid ing certain spacing betw een buildings, it is recom m end ed to be observed to the extent possible.
Source: Ed w ard s,L and Torcellini, P., 2002. A Literature Review of the Effects of Natural Light on Build ing Occupants, N ational Renew able Energy Laboratory. CIBSE Guid e B2, Ventilation and air-cond itioning Robbins, Claud e L.,1986. Daylighting Design and Analysis. N ew York: Van N ostrand Reinhold Com pany.
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TERI Bhutan Human Settlement Guidelines

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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts

Department of Human Settlement Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, RGOB

Department of Human Settlement Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, RGOB

REFERENCES: .............................................................................................................................. 133

Department of Human Settlement Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, RGOB

Department of Human Settlement Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, RGOB

Department of Human Settlement Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, RGOB

Guideline1.5 Guideline1.6 Guideline1.7

SECTION2:ENERGYANDENERGYSYSTEMS Guideline2.1 ArchitecturalPlanning& Design RenewableEnergySystems Electricitydistribution network

SECTION3:ENERGYEFFICIENTSTREETLIGHTING Guideline3.1 Energyefficientstreet lighting

SECTION4:WATERANDWASTEWATERMANAGEMENTSYSTEMS Guideline4.1 Sustainablewater

Department of Human Settlement Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, RGOB

management Guideline4.2 Sustainablewastewater management Sustainablestormwater management

SECTION5:SOLIDWASTEMANAGEMENT Guideline5.1 Organic/Biodegradable wastetreatment Construction&Demolition wastemanagement

SECTION6:RISKMITIGATION/ADAPTATIONANDCLIMATECHANGE Guideline6.1 Planningforclimatechange adaptationinallsettlements

Department of Human Settlement Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, RGOB

Table 2: Electricity emission factors (tCO2/MWh)

Average Bhutan 1.004

GEN ERIC P RIN CIPLES TO BE FO LLO W ED FO R A LL SETTLEM EN TS

SECTIO N 1: SU STA IN A BLE SETTLEM EN T EN VIRO N M EN TA L PLA N N IN G/ SITE A N D SU BDIVISIO N DESIGN

Rem oval of vegetation Ad d ition of m oistu re

Forest fire Rainfall or snow m elt

H eavy snow fall, volcanic ash, land slid es

Source: Rotaru, Oajd ea and Raileanu (2007)

Guideline 1.1: Site Assessment

Guideline 1.2: Planning the D evelopment

Guideline 1.3 : Retaining natural vegetation

Guideline 1.4: Revegetation and Landscaping

Source: Steep Slope Development Guidelines, City of Nanaimo

Guideline 1.5: Transport planning

Guideline 1.6: Earthw orks and Grading

Figure 2 : Current practice of grad ing the entire site at one go

Figure 3: Balanced cut and fill approach for construction in slopes

Guideline 1.7: Soil erosion and sedimentation control

Figure 4 : Inappropriate soil erosion and sed im entation control

3. Minim ise disturbance area:

Good practice of netting of slope

Im proper tree preservation

Guideline 1.8: Preservation of flora and fauna

Recom m end ations for planting d esign consid erations:

Plant mat erial

Future intensity of site Environm ental cond itions

Guideline 1.10: Visual Quality

Figure 7: A Rid geline (Source: http:/ / w w w .cavalrypilot.com / fm 21-26/ Ch10.htm )

Scenic features includ ing heritage sites

Figure 8 : Use of various colours as part of the external finish

SECTIO N 2: EN ERGY A N D EN ERGY SYSTEM S

Guideline 2.1: Architectural Planning & D esign

Table 5: Sunshine availability during w inter months (D ec to Mar)

Gasa Punakha Wangdue Bumthang Lhuentse Haa Paro Thimphu Trongsa

No of sunny days in Dec

No of sunny days in Jan

No of sunny days in Feb

No of sunny days in Mar

Sam d rupjonkhar 26.93 27.38 24.69 Source: https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/RETScreen/

Table 6: Minimum spacing betw een buildings

Zone 1 1 2 3 4 Gasa Punakha Bu m thang Lhu entse 1 2 3 4

Zone 2 Haa Mongar Trashigang Zhem gang 1 2 3 4

Zone 3 Tsirang Samtse Chu kha Dagana

Zone 1 5 6 7 8 9 Paro Thim p u Trongsa Trashiyangtse Wangd u e

Zone 3 Sarp ang Pem agatshel Sam d ru p Jonkhar

Guideline 2.2: Renew able Energy Systems

Table 7: Solar hot w ater generating potential avg. lpd/m 2