Voltage and Current

EEE 3 - Lecture 1 A. Nerves

OBJECTIVES
Become aware of the basic atomic structure of conductors such as copper and aluminum and understand why they are used so extensively in the field. Understand how the terminal voltage of a battery or any dc supply is established and how it creates a flow of charge in the system. Understand how current is established in a circuit and how its magnitude is affected by the charge flowing in the system and the time involved.
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OBJECTIVES
Become familiar with the factors that affect the terminal voltage of a battery and how long a battery will remain effective. Be able to apply a voltmeter and ammeter correctly to measure the voltage and current of a network.

INTRODUCTION
Now that the foundation for the study of electricity electronics has been established! the concepts of voltage and current can be investigated.
" #he term voltage is encountered practically every day. " $e are aware that most outlets in our homes are %2& or 23& volts.

'lthough curre t may be a less familiar term! we know what happens when we place too many appliances on the same outlet(the circuit breaker opens due to the excessive current that results.

ATO!S AND T"EIR STRUCTURE

' basic understanding of the fundamental concepts of current and voltage re*uires a degree of familiarity with the atom and its structure.
" #he simplest of all atoms is the hydrogen atom! made up of two basic particles! the #roto and the electro . " #he ucleus of the hydrogen atom is the proton! a positively charged particle.
The orbiting electron carries a negative charge equal in magnitude to the positive charge of the proton.
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ATO!S AND T"EIR STRUCTURE

$I%. &.1 Hydrogen and helium atoms.

ATO!S AND T"EIR STRUCTURE Co##er is the most commonly used metal in the electrical electronics industry. 'n examination of its atomic structure will reveal why it has such widespread application. -t has 2. electrons in orbits around the nucleus! with the 2.th electron appearing all by itself in the )th shell.
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ATO!S AND T"EIR STRUCTURE

$I%. &.& The atomic structure of copper.

VOLTA%E
-f we separate the 2.th electron in 1ig. 2.2 from the rest of the atomic structure of copper by a dashed line as shown in 1ig. 2.)2a3! we create regions that have a net positive and negative charge as shown in 1ig. 2.)2b3 and 2c3.

$I%. &.' Defining the positive ion. .

VOLTA%E
#his positive region created by separating the free electron from the basic atomic structure is called a #os(t(ve (o . -n general! every source of voltage is established by simply creating a separation of positive and negative charges.
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VOLTA%E

$I%. &.) Defining the voltage between two points.

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VOLTA%E
4ince it would be inconse*uential to talk about the voltage established by the separation of a single electron! a package of electrons called a coulo*+ ,C- of charge was defined as follows5
" One coulomb of charge is the total charge associated with 6.242 !"!# electrons. " $f a total of ! %oule &'( of energy is used to move the negative charge of ! coulomb &)(* there is a difference of ! volt &+( between the two points.
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VOLTA%E
+ + + + + + + + + charge against an electric field. e e $hen force is applied over a e distance! work is done. $ork e done in moving a charge against e the electric field leads to the definition of voltage5 e e +oltage is the wor, per charge e done against the electric field.
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1orce is re*uired to move a

VOLTA%E
T.e /e0( ( g e1uat(o 0or voltage (s

. + One volt is the potential difference &voltage( between two points that uses one %oule of energy to move one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.

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VOLTA%E
4ince the #ote t(al e erg2 associated with a body is defined by its position! the term potential is often applied to define voltage levels.
" 1or example! the difference in potential is ) 6 between the two points! or the #ote t(al /(00ere ce between a point and ground is %2 6! and so on.

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CURRENT
$ith no outside directing force! free electrons move randomly.

-f an outside force causes electrons to move in the same direction! this movement is called current.

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CURRENT
The applied voltage is the starting mechanism/the current is a reaction to the applied voltage.

$I%. &.3 There is motion of free carriers in an isolated piece of copper wire* but the flow of charge fails to have a particular direction. %/

CURRENT

$I%. &.4 0otion of negatively charged electrons in a copper wire when placed across battery terminals with a difference in potential of volts &+(.

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CURRENT

$I%. &.5 1asic electric circuit.

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CURRENT
Curre t ,I- (s t.e a*ou t o0 c.arge ,Q- t.at 0lo6s #ast a #o( t #er u (t o0 t(*e ,t-. T.e /e0( ( g e1uat(o (s7

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7ne a*#ere is a number of electrons having a total charge of % 8 moving through a given cross section per second 2s3. .hat is the current if 2 ) passes a point every 2 s3

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CURRENT
#he unit of current measurement! a*#ere! was chosen to honor the efforts of 'ndr9 'mp:re in the study of electricity in motion.

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CURRENT
-n summary! therefore! the applied voltage &or potential difference( in an electrical4electronics system is the 5pressure6 to set the system in motion* and the current is the reaction to that pressure.

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CURRENT
;irect current is unidirectional.
" -t always travels in the same direction " -t can change in value but not in direction.

'lternating current is bidirectional

" -t periodically changes direction.

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CURRENT
#his figure compares '8 and ;8 current.

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CURRENT
Sa0et2 Co s(/erat(o s -t is important to reali<e that even small levels of current through the human body can cause serious! dangerous side effects. =xperimental results reveal that the human body begins to react to currents of only a few milliamperes. 'lthough most individuals can withstand currents up to perhaps %& m' for very short periods of time without serious side effects! any current over %& m' should be considered dangerous.
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VOLTA%E SOURCES
#he term /c9 used throughout this text! is an abbreviation for /(rect curre t9 which encompasses all systems where there is a unidirectional 2one direction3 flow of charge.
$I%. &.11 7tandard symbol for a dc voltage source. 2,

VOLTA%E SOURCES
I/eall29 a voltage source ca #rov(/e a co sta t voltage 0or a 2 curre t re1u(re/ +2 a c(rcu(t.
#he $+ curve for an ideal voltage source has a constant voltage for all current. $n practice* ideal sources do not e ist* but they can be closely appro imated by actual sources.
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VOLTA%E SOURCES
-n general! dc voltage sources can be divided into three basic types5
" Batteries 2chemical action or solar energy3 " >enerators 2electromechanical3! and " ?ower supplies 2rectification(a conversion process to be described in your electronics courses3.
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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es ' Battery
" -s a component that converts chemical! thermal! or light energy to electrical energy " ?roduces a difference of potential across its terminals

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es ' battery is made up of one or more cells.
" =ach cell has an electrode surrounded by a chemical agent called an electrolyte.

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es #he chemical reaction between the electrode and the electrolyte results in the electrode either gaining or losing electrons. #his results in a potential difference 2voltage3 between the electrodes. ' battery may contain one or more cells depending on the voltage rating of the battery.
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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es
Battery capacity is the measure of how long a battery can maintain its voltage at a given current.
" -t is measured in ampere@hours 2'h3. " #he product of current and time 2in hours3 e*uals the 'h rating of the battery " 1or example! if an ''@cell battery can maintain its %.+ 6 rating for .., hours A 2+& m'! it has a capacity of!

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es #here are two types of cells.
" ?rimary 8ells5 #he chemical reaction in primary cells causes permanent changes. #hey cannot be recharged. #hey are also called dry cells. " 4econdary 8ells5 #hese cells can be recharged by forcing a current through the cell in the opposite direction of normal cell current. #hey are also called wet cells.
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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es
#ypes of Batteries ?rimary 8ells " cannot be recharged
" " " " " 8arbon@<inc 'lkaline 4ilver@oxide Binc@air Cithium

8ommon Batteries 24econdary 8ell3 " can be recharged

" Cead@acid " Nickel@8admium 2Ni@8d3 " Nickel Detal Eydride 2NiDE3 and Cithium -on 2Ci@ion3" newer replacements for Ni@8ds

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es

$I%. &.1& 8l,aline primary cell9 &a( )utaway of cylindrical :nergi;er< cell= &b( various types of :veready :nergi;er< primary cells.

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es

$I%. &.13 >ithium primary batteries.

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es

$I%. &.1' 0aintenance?free !2 + &actually !2.6 +( lead?acid battery.

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es

$I%. &.1) @ic,elAmetal hydride &@i0H( rechargeable batteries.

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es

$I%. &.1: Dell laptop lithium?ion battery9 !!.! +* 44"" m8h.

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es Batteries are connected in series to increase total circuit voltage.
" Daximum current is still e*ual to the current rating of each individual battery.

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Batter(es Batteries are connected in parallel to increase total circuit current.
" Daximum voltage is still e*ual to the voltage rating of each individual battery.

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
Solar Cell

$I%. &.13 7olar 7ystem9 &a( panels on roof of garage= &b( system operation.

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
%e erators
#he /c ge erator is *uite different from the battery! both in construction and in mode of operation. $hen the shaft of the generator is rotating at the nameplate speed due to the applied tor*ue of some external source of mechanical power! a voltage of rated value appears across the external terminals. #he terminal voltage and power@handling capabilities of the dc generator are typically higher than those of most batteries! and its lifetime is determined only by its construction.
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VOLTA%E SOURCES
%e erators

$I%. &.14 dc generator.

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
;o6er Su##l(es #he dc supply encountered most fre*uently in the laboratory uses the rect(0(cat(o and filtering processes as its means toward obtaining a steady dc voltage.

$I%. &.15 8 " + to 6" +* " to !.2 8 digital display dc power supply

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
;o6er Su##l(es ;8 ?ower 4upply " a piece of e*uipment with dc outputs that can be adFusted to provide any voltage within its supply limits

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
;o6er Su##l(es
' ;8 power supply can supply voltages that are either positive or negative with respect to the common terminal. " #he common terminal is the reference point. " 'll voltages are determined to be either positive or negative with respect to some reference. " #he positive or negative designation is )0 referred to as polarity.

VOLTA%E SOURCES
;o6er Su##l(es ;8 7utputs 28ontinued3

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
;o6er Su##l(es
?ositive 6oltage 6ersus Negative 6oltage
" 4ide ' is positive with respect to side B " 4ide B is negative with respect to side '

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
;o6er Su##l(es

$I%. &.&8 dc laboratory supply9 &a( available terminals= &b( positive voltage with respect to &w.r.t.( ground= &c( negative voltage w.r.t. ground= &d( floating supply.

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
$uel Cells 7ne of the most exciting developments in recent years has been the steadily rising interest in 0uel cells as an alternative energy source. 1uel cells are now being used in small stationary power plants! transportation 2buses3! and a wide variety of applications where portability is a maFor factor! such as the space shuttle. Dillions are now being spent by maFor automobile manufacturers to build affordable fuel@cell vehicles.
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VOLTA%E SOURCES
$uel Cells
' fuel cell converts chemical energy into dc voltage by combining a fuel 2usually hydrogen3 with an oxidi<ing agent 2usually oxygen3. Hydrogen and o ygen react to form water. #his process differs from batteries in that the reactants constantly flow into the cell where they combine and produce electricity.
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VOLTA%E SOURCES
$uel Cells

$I%. &.&1 Buel cell &a( components= &b( basic construction.

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VOLTA%E SOURCES
$uel Cells

$I%. &.&& Hydrogen fuel?cell automobile.

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A!;ERE-"OUR RATIN%
#he most important piece of data for any battery 2other than its voltage rating3 is its a*#ere-.our ,A.- rat( g. Gou have probably noted in the photographs of batteries in this chapter that both the voltage and the ampere@hour rating have been provided for each battery.
" The ampere?hour &8h( rating provides an indication of how long a battery of fi ed voltage will be able to supply a particular current.
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BATTER< LI$E $ACTORS

#he previous section made it clear that the life of a battery is directly related to the magnitude of the current drawn from the supply. Eowever! there are factors that affect the given ampere@hour rating of a battery! so we may find that a battery with an ampere@hour rating of %&& can supply a current of %& ' for %& hours but can supply a current of %&& ' for only 2& minutes rather than the full % hour calculated using =*. 22.03.
" -n other words! the capacity of a battery (in amperehours) will change with change in current demand.

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BATTER< LI$E $ACTORS

$I%. &.&3 8mpere?hour rating &capacity( versus drain current for an :nergi;er< D cell.

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BATTER< LI$E $ACTORS

$I%. &.&' 8mpere?hour rating &capacity( versus temperature for an :nergi;er< D cell. +.

BATTER< LI$E $ACTORS

$I%. &.&) Terminal voltage versus discharge time for specific drain currents for an :nergi;er< D cell.

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CURRENT SOURCE
-deally! a current source can provide a constant current for any load.
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#he $+ curve for an ideal current source has a constant current as indicated by the straight line.
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CURRENT SOURCE
Curre t sources are ot as co**o as voltage sources9 +ut t.e2 are use0ul 0or #ro/uct(o test( g.
The units shown here include current sources and built?in measurement instruments* and can operate using a built?in microprocessor to direct a test sequence.

8ourtesy of Heithley -nstruments

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CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

;ifferent wires placed across the same two battery terminals allow different amounts of charge to flow between the terminals. Dany factors! such as the density! mobility! and stability characteristics of a material! account for these variations in charge flow.
" -n general! however! conductors are those materials that permit a generous flow of electrons with very little external force (voltage) applied. " -n addition! good conductors typically have only one electron in the valence (most distant from the nucleus) ring.
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CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

TABLE &.1 Celative conductivity of various materials ,)

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

8onductors provide little opposition to current.
" 8onductors usually have one valence electron. " #hey have a high density of atoms per unit volume.

-nsulators normally block current.

" -nsulators have complete valence shells 20 electrons3. " #he have few atoms per unit volume than conductors.

4emiconductors are neither good conductors nor good insulators.

" #hey usually have ) valence electrons.
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CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

$I%. &.&: +arious types of insulators and their applications. &a( Bi?7hoc, e tender insulator= &b( Bi?7hoc, corner insulator= &c( Bi?7hoc, screw?in post insulator.

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CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

-nsulator Iatings
" 'verage Breakdown 6oltage " the voltage 2per unit length3 that will force the insulator to conduct! measured in kilovolts per centimeter 2k6 cm3

TABLE &.& 1rea,down strength of some common insulators.

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SE!ICONDUCTORS
7emiconductors are a specific group of elements that e hibit characteristics between those of insulators and those of conductors. 7emiconductor materials typically have four electrons in the outermost valence ring.

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A!!ETERS AND VOLT!ETERS

-t is important to be able to measure the current and voltage levels of an operating electrical system to check its operation! isolate malfunctions! and investigate effects impossible to predict on paper. 's the names imply! a**eters are used to measure current levelsJ volt*eters9 the potential difference between two points. -f the current levels are usually of the order of milliamperes! the instrument will typically be referred to as a milliammeter* and if the current levels are in the microampere range! as a microammeter.
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A!!ETERS AND VOLT!ETERS

Deasuring 6oltage " connect meter across component

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A!!ETERS AND VOLT!ETERS

$I%. &.&3 +oltmeter connection for an up?scale &D( reading.

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A!!ETERS AND VOLT!ETERS

Deasuring 8urrent " insert meter in the current path

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A!!ETERS AND VOLT!ETERS

$I%. &.&4 8mmeter connection for an up?scale &D( reading.

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A!!ETERS AND VOLT!ETERS

' clamp@on ammeter does not re*uire you to break the current path.
" -t uses the magnetic field that forms around the conductor to determine the magnitude of the current. " Only 8) current measurements can be make with a clamp@on meter.

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A!!ETERS AND VOLT!ETERS

' multimeter is an instrument used to measure voltage! current! and resistance. 4ome meters can measure other values like capacitance. #here are two types of multimeters5
" 'nalog meters use a pointer that moves across a fixed scale to produce a reading. " ;igital meters use a digital readout display.
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A!!ETERS AND VOLT!ETERS

' digital multimeter is usually referred to as a ;DD. 'n analog multimeter is called a 67D for volt?ohm?milliameter.

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

4witch " a device that allows you to make or break the connection between two or more points in a circuit

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

' switch has both stationary and moving contacts.
" #he stationary contacts are called throws. " #he moving contacts are called poles.

4witches are identified by the number of terminals.

" 1or example a single@pole! single@throw 24?4#3 switch has two terminals " ' 4?;# has three terminals " ' ;?4# has four terminals " ' ;?;# has si terminals

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

;escribed by the number of poles and throws
" ?ole " the moving contact " #hrow " the non@moving contact

=xample5 ;ouble@?ole! 4ingle@#hrow 2;?4#3

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

S6(tc.es are co**o l2 use/ to co trol c(rcu(ts +2 e(t.er *ec.a (cal or electro (c *ea s. #he pole refers to the movable arm of a switch. #he throw refers to the number of contacts that are affected by a single switch action.

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4?;#

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

4ome switches are designed so that they are normally open or closed unless they are activated.
" ' normally"closed 2N83 switch ma,es a connection unless activated. " ' normally"open 2N73 switch brea,s a connection unless activated.

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

' rotary switch is one with one or more poles and any number of throws.
" Iotating the control shaft makes a connection between the pole and one of the throws.

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

;ual -n@Cine ?ackage 2;-?3 4witches

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

1uses are circuit protection devices. #hey act like normally closed switches until circuit current exceeds a specified value.

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

#he current rating of a fuse is the maximum allowable current before the fuse opens.
" 7nce a fuse opens! it is destroyed and must be replaced. " #he applied voltage is measured across the open fuse.

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

#he fuse voltage rating is the maximum voltage that an open fuse can withstand before it begins to conduct again.
" -f enough voltage is applied! the air in the fuse may ioni<e and allow the open fuse to conduct.

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

#ypes of 1uses
" Eigh@4peed -nstantaneous " Normal -nstantaneous " #ime ;elay

Ieplacing a 1use
" " " " Dake sure all power is removed from the circuit 7nly replace with a fuse of the same current rating 7nly replace with a fuse of the same or higher voltage rating Never replace with a fuse with a higher current rating

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

=lectronic fuses come in a variety of current ratings. #here are three types5
" Eigh@speed instantaneous " Normal instantaneous " 4low@blow

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

Dicro 1uses and -ntegrated 8ircuit ?rotectors 2-8?s3

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

=lectrical fuses are contained in a fuse box.
" #hey connect the '8 line voltage to the rest of the circuit.

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

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S=ITC"ES > CIRCUIT ;ROTECTORS

8ircuit breakers are circuit protectors! Fust like fuses.
" Unlike fuses! once they open! they can be reset and used again.

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