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CHAPTER # 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION An earthquake is what happened when two plates of earth abruptly slip one another. The slippery surface or plane is called as fault or fault plane. As the earthquake is the vibration of earth produced by sudden release of energy that has slowly accumulated in these plates. Due to the sudden release of energy in Earth crust produced seismic wave and these seismic wave propagates and cause the movement of rocks and earth surface. 2.2 PURPOSE OF SEISMIC ANALYSIS Building structure should be able to resist major earthquakes without collapse. Design and detail structure to control location and extent of damage. 2.3 LOADS There are major two types of load that may act on structure. Static load. Dynamics load

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2.3.1 STATIC LOAD The load that almost retain its magnitude and point of application through the whole life of structure is terms as static load. 2.3.2 DYNAMICS LOAD This type of loading is time dependent and act for the small interval of time and rapidly change its magnitude and point of application. This type of loading is mainly due to seismic activity which may be cause by earthquake, atomic explosion, etc. 2.4 EARTHQUAKE An earthquake is the vibration of earth caused by the sudden release of energy within itself. This energy is stored within the earth and released at interval due to different phenomena, some of which are given below: Plate tectonics. Atomic explosions. Volcanic activity. Collision of meteorites with the surface of earth 2.4.1 STRUCTURE OF EARTH Our earth is divided in to four main layer named as Crust
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Mantle Outer core Inner core 2.4.2 PLATE TECTONICS These plates deals with large scale movement and deformation of earth outer most layer. These plates keep on moving and when two plates came across each other then there is a possibility that collision may occurs. This collisions are the biggest reasons of earthquake. There are seven large and several small plates. The largest plates are given below: Pacific plate North American plate Eurasian plate Antarctic plate Indo-Australian plate African plate Over time period of 200 million year the Indian plate separated from Australian plate and moved towards Eurasian plate and due to these movements, the great Himalayas were formed.

2.4.3 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

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Earthquakes produced by stress changes in solid rock due to the injection or withdrawal of magma (molten rock) are called volcano-tectonic earthquakes. 2.4.4 ATOMIC EXPLOSION Nuclear explosions generate seismic waves that can be detected thousands of kilometers away. These seismic wave strike with the surface of earth and cause earthquake. The magnitude and disaster which occurs due to the motion of tectonic plates is greater than the atomic explosion and volcanic activity. 2.4.5 COLLISION OF METEORITES WITH THE SURFACE OF EARTH A Meteorite is a piece of rock from outer space that strikes the surface of the Earth. And if a large meteorites strike with the earth massive impact is transferred due to large mass and high velocity by which it strike with the earth may cause vibration of the surface of earth. 2.4.6 FOCUS OF AN EARTHQUAKE The focus of an earthquake is the location within the earth where an earthquake rupture or failure starts. This is the source of the seismic waves. Focus of an earthquake is also known as hypocenter.

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Figure 2.1: Defining focus of an earthquake 2.4.7 EPICENTER The point on the earth surface directly above the focus is called as epicenter. The distance between epicenter and hypocenter is known as focal depth. 2.4.8 SHALLOW AND DEEP EARTHQUAKE Shallow focus earthquake are produced if hypocenter is near the earth surface with approximately with focal depth of 7km. These types of earthquakes are more damaging and sever. Deep focus earthquakes are those having focal depth more than 7km. shallow focus earthquakes are more damaging than the deep. 2.5 SEISMIC WAVE These waves originated from failure zone and are of following type
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Primary waves Secondary waves Rayleigh waves Love waves 2.5.1 PRIMARY WAVES An earthquake wave in which rock particles vibrate parallel to the direction of propagation of wave is termed as primary wave. The speed of travelling of Pwaves is 1.73times greater than other waves. 2.5.2 SECONDARY WAVES An earthquake wave in which rock particles vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave is termed as secondary wave. When a body waves reach the ground surface, part of these is reflected back while other produces surface waves. Surface waves are the waves produced on the earth surface on the earths surface due to an earthquake are of following two types R-waves or Rayleigh waves L-waves or Love waves

2.5.2.1 R-WAVES These waves produce circular motion similar to ocean waves. Hence rotation along with vertical movement takes place in case of R-WAVES.

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2.5.2.2 L-WAVES OR LOVE WAVES These waves produce horizontal motion along the ground surface transverse to the direction of propagation of wave. 2.6 DESTRUCTION CAUSED BY EARTHQUAKE Earthquake vibrations produce wave when these wave reach the earth surface the ground surface is shaken in different direction causing destruction. Earthquake magnitude and intensity can be measured. Strongest earthquake of magnitude 9.5 came at the coast of Chile in1960 killing at least 20000 peoples and displacing 2 Million. 2.7 MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKE Earthquake can be measured by following two approaches Richter scale Mercalli scale 2.7.1 RICHTER SCALE Measurement of energy released during an earthquake is named as magnitude of earthquake. The magnitude of earthquake is usually measured by Richter scale. Richter magnitude, M =log10 (A) mm + Distance correction factor (logAo) Where A is amplitude of seismic waves measured by the seismograph. If earthquake is measured on scale is 5 then it is 10 times greater than the earthquake measured as 3.
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2.7.2 MERCALLI SCALE The Mercalli intensity scale is a scale used for measuring the intensity of an earthquake. The scale quantifies the effects of an earthquake on the Earth's surface, humans, objects of nature, and man-made structures on a scale of I through XII. 2.7.3 TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE 2.7.3.1 TYPES DEPENDING ON DURATION Short duration earthquakes Long duration earthquakes 2.7.3.1.1 SHORT DURATION EARTHQUAKES Short duration earthquake are more serve and occur near the epicenter and its duration is 2 to 3 second. 2.7.3.1.2 LONG DURATION EARTHQUAKES Long duration earthquake having low intensity but large duration. Its duration can be up to 30 second. 2.7.3.2 TYPES DEPENDING ON INTENSITY Single shock earthquakes Irregular earthquakes Earthquakes causing earth deformation

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2.7.3.2.1 SINGLE SHOCK EARTHQUAKES These have short duration and occur in area around the fault zone. 2.7.3.2.2 IRREGULAR EARTHQUAKES These earthquake occur in an areas 400-500 km away from fault zone. 2.7.3.2.3 EARTHQUAKES CAUSING EARTH DEFORMATION These earthquake cause large scale permanent deformation of earth surface. 2.8. MAIN CONSIDERATION FOR SEISMIC DESIGN Design of structure to withstand the maximum intensity earthquake is highly expensive and may not be possible due to following reasons The magnitude and intensity of earthquake are not precisely known. Stiffer structure attracts more earthquake loads. Heavier the design more will be the mass of structure and more will be inertial forces are produced due to ground excitation. So the most common practice is that to design earthquake resistant structures is to design for mild earthquake of excepted common occurrence in the elastic range or in the inelastic range with less or no permanent deformation. Ductility is then provided for maximum expected intensity of earthquake. 2.9 COMPONENTS OF THE BASIC DYNAMIC SYSTEM

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The essential physical properties of any linearly elastic structural or mechanical System subjected to an external source of excitation or dynamic loading are its mass, elastic properties (flexibility or stiffness), and energy loss mechanism or damping. In the simplest model of a SDOF system, each of these properties is assumed to be concentrated in a single physical element. A sketch of such a system is shown in figure 2.2. The entire mass m of this system is included in the rigid block which is con-strained by rollers so that it can move only in simple translation; thus, the single displacement coordinate v(t) completely defines its position. The elastic resistance to displacement is provided by the weightless spring of stiffness k, while the energy loss mechanism is represented by the damper c. The external dynamic loading producing the response of this system is the time varying force p(t).

Figure 2.2: Defining Components Of Dynamic System

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2.9.1 LUMPED MASS In case of the buildings most of the mass is concentrated at the floor level. Hence for convenience in analysis, it is assumed the whole of the mass is present at a particular height (at a point) is known as lumped mass. 2.9.2 DEGREE OF FREEDOM The number of displacement component that must be considered in order to represent the effect of all the significant inertial forces of a structure are termed as the number of dynamics degree of freedom . 2.9.3 EQUATION OF MOTION OF THE BASIC DYNAMIC SYSTEM The equation of motion for the simple system of is most easily formulated by directly expressing the equilibrium of all forces acting on the mass using d'Alembert's principle. As shown in Fig the forces acting in the direction of the displacement degree of freedom are the applied load p(t) and the three resisting forces resulting from the motion, i.e., the inertial force fI(t), the damping force fD(t), and the spring force fS(t). The equation of motion is merely an expression of the equilibrium of these forces as given by

fI(t) + fD(t) + fS(t) = p(t)

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In accordance with d'Alembert's principle, the inertial force is the product of the mass and acceleration fI(t) = m (t) Assuming a viscous damping mechanism, the damping force is the product of the damping constant c and the velocity fD(t) = c(t)) Finally, the elastic force is the product of the spring stiffness and the displacement fS(t) = k v(t) the equation of motion for this SDOF system is found to be m (t) + c (t) + k v(t) = p(t)

2.10. METHOD OF ANALYSIS FOR EARTHQUAKE LOADING There are generally three method of analysis for earthquake loading Free vibration analysis Response history analysis(RHA) Response spectrum analysis(RSA)

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2.10 EQUIVALENT STATIC LATERAL FORCE ANALYSIS It is a simplified technique derived from structural dynamics. In this method some equivalent forces are applied to approximately get the effect of vibration according to fundamental and higher modes of vibrations. The equivalent static lateral force analysis is useful, even if the final design is based on a more critical analysis. The forces from an equivalent static lateral force analysis are used to apply accidental torsion and is also used to check the results from Tine history and response spectrum analysis. It is better to use equivalent lateral force analysis for structures whose floor masses, cross-sectional areas and moments of inertia of structural members do not differ by more than 30 percent in adjacent floors. In addition, this type of analysis may be applied to buildings whose response is not significantly affected by contributions from modes of vibration higher than the fundamental mode in each principal direction. The concept employed in equivalent static lateral force procedures is to place static loads on a structure with magnitudes and direction that closely approximate the effects of dynamic loading caused by earthquakes. Concentrated lateral forces due to dynamic loading tend to occur at floor and ceiling/roof levels in buildings, where concentration of mass is the highest. Furthermore, concentrated lateral forces tend to be larger at higher elevations in a structure. Thus, the greatest lateral displacements and the largest lateral forces often occur at the top level of a structure (particularly for tall buildings). These effects are modeled in equivalent static lateral force procedures of the IBC and UBC by placing a force at each story level in a structure.
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The equivalent static lateral force method is only applicable if the following conditions are satisfied: 1. All types of structures in zone 1 and regular or irregular structures, but not for essential, hazardous or special use in zone 2. 2. All regular structures with 73m height with any lateral load resisting system. 3. All irregular structures up to 5 stories or 20m height may be analyzed. 4. Regular structures having a flexible upper portion supported over a rigid lower portion satisfying the UBC provision.

2.10.1 REGULAR STRUCTURES Structure which have no significant physical discontinuity in plan or vertical configuration or in their lateral force system such as irregular features. more rational definition is that a regular structure is one in which there is a minimum coupling between the lateral displacements and the torsional rotations for the mode shapes associated with the lower frequencies of the system.

2.10.2 IRREGULAR STRUCTURES Irregular structures are those which have significant physical discontinuities in configuration or in their lateral-force-resisting systems.

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2.11 STRUCTURAL IRREGULARITY OF UBC AND IBC

2.11.1 VERTICAL STRUCTURAL IRREGULARITIES IN UBC AND IBC 2.11.1.1 STIFFNESS SOFT STORY IRREGULARITY A soft story is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70% of that in the story above or less than 80% of the average stiffness of three stories above. 2.11.1.2 STIFFNESS EXTREME SOFT STORY IRREGULARITY A soft story is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 60% of that in the story above or less than 70% of the average stiffness of three stories above. 2.11.1.3 WEIGHT (MASS) IRREGULARITY Mass irregularity shall be considered to exist where the effective mass of any story is more than 150% of the effective mass of adjacent story. A roof that is lighter than the roof below need not be considered. 2.11.1.4 VERTICAL GEOMETRIC IRREGULARITY Vertical geometric irregularity shall be considered to exist where the horizontal dimension of the lateral force resisting system in any story is more than 130% of that in adjacent story. One-story penthouses need not be considered.

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2.11.1.5 IN-PLANE DISCONTINUITY IN VERTICAL LATERAL-FORCE RESISTING ELEMENTS An in-plane offset of the lateral-load resisting elements greater than the length of those elements. 2.11.1.6. DISCONTINUITY IN CAPACITY WEAK STORY A weak story is one in which the story strength is less than 80% of that in the story above. The story strength is the total strength of all seismic-resisting elements shearing the story shear for the direction under consideration. 2.21.1.7. DISCONTINUITY IN CAPACITY WEAK STORY A weak story is one in which the story strength is less than 80% of that in the story above. The story strength is the total strength of all seismic-resisting elements shearing the story shear for the direction under consideration. 2.11.2. HORIZONTAL STRUCTURAL IRREGULARITIES IN UBC AND IBC 2.11.2.1. TORSION IRREGULARITY Torsional irregularity shall be considered to exist when the maximum story drift, computing including accidental torsion, at one end of the structural transverse to an axis is more than 1.2 times the average of the story drift of the two ends of the structure in which the diaphragms are rigid or semi-rigid.

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2.11.2.2 EXTREME TORSION IRREGULARITY Torsional irregularity shall be considered to exist when the maximum story drift, computing including accidental torsion, at one end of the structural transverse to an axis is more than 1.4 times the average of the story drift of the two ends of the structure in which the diaphragms are rigid or semi-rigid. 2.11.2.3 RE-ENTRANT CORNER Plane configuration of a structure and its lateral force resisting system contain reentrant corners, where both projection of the structure beyond a re-entrant corner are greater than 15% of the plan dimension of the structure in the given direction. 2.11.2.4 DIAPHRAGM DISCONTINUITY Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or variations in stiffness, including those having cutout or open area greater than 50% of the gross enclosed area of the diaphragm, or changes in effective diagram stiffness of more than 50% from one story to the next. 2.11.2.5 OUT OF PLANE OFFSETS Discontinuity in the lateral force path, such as out of plane offsets of the vertical elements. 2.11.2.6 NONPARALLEL SYSTEM The vertical lateral load resisting elements are not parallel to or symmetric about the major orthogonal axes of the lateral force resisting system.
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2.12 BASE SHEAR Base shear is an estimate of the maximum expected lateral force that will occur due to seismic ground motion at the base of a structure. Calculations of base shear depend on:

soil conditions at the site proximity to potential sources of seismic activity (such as geological faults) probability of significant seismic ground motion the level of ductility and over strength associated with various structural configurations and the total weight of the structure

the fundamental (natural) period of vibration of the structure when subjected to dynamic loading

The UBC addresses the probability of significant seismic activity in various locations by categorizing geographic regions of the U.S. as Seismic Zones 0 through 4 (See UBC Figure 16-2). Seismic Zone 0 indicates a geographic location where no seismic activity is expected to occur. Seismic Zone 4 indicates a geographic location with a high probability of significant seismic activity. Let, V = base shear force associated with ground motion at the base of the structure Fx = lateral story force applied at each story level of the structure Ft = additional lateral force applied at the top level of the structure

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(The equivalent static force procedure in the Uniform Building Code (UBC 1630.2) specifies the following formula for calculating base shear (V) V = Cv I W / RT (UBC Equation 30-4) The UBC also specifies the following upper and lower bounds for V Upper bound: Lower bound: V < 2.5 Ca I W / R (UBC Equation 30-5) V > 0.11 Ca I W / R (UBC Equation 30-6)

An additional lower bound applies in seismic zone 4 (major portions of California, as well as regions in Alaska, Arizona, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada and Wyoming) V > 0.8 Z Nv I W / R (UBC Equation 30-7) The upper bound value for base shear tends to govern for relatively stiff structures that exhibit a small (short) fundamental period of vibration (T). The lower bound values for base shear tend to govern for relatively flexible structures that exhibit a large (long) fundamental period of vibration (T). The terms used to calculate base shear (V) in UBC Equation 30-4 are defined as follows: I = importance factor (see UBC Table 16-K)

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The importance factor is essentially an extra safety adjustment used to increase the calculated load on a structure based on its occupancy and/or function. Essential facilities (such as hospitals, fire and police stations, etc.) and facilities that house toxic or explosive substances have higher seismic importance factors (I = 1.25) than other structures (I = 1.0). Higher importance factors are intended to insure that structural integrity is not compromised and important facilities remain operational during emergencies and natural disasters. Based on typical occupancy classifications for most wood structures, wood buildings are frequently designed using an importance factor of unity (I = 1.0).

Designers should note that the seismic importance factor (I) is not identical to the importance factor for wind (Iw). Futher more, the UBC provides two distinct seismic importance factors one (I) for the design of typical structural systems/assemblies such as shear walls and diaphragms, and another (Ip) for the design of critical elements that are attached to structures and may need to resist large concentrated seismic forces (see UBC Section 1632 for more details) T = fundamental (natural) period of vibration for a structure The UBC provides the following simplified method for estimating T based on the height of the structure (hn): T = Ct (hn)3/4 (UBC Equation 30-8)

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Where Ct = 0.02 for wood structures hn = height of the top level of a structure (ft) For structures with flat roofs, hn is the distance from the ground to the roof/ceiling system. For structures with sloped (pitched) roofs, hn may be taken as either the height of the ceiling system above the ground or as the mean roof height. R= ductility and over strength factor (see UBC Table 16-N)

The R factor is intended to account for inelastic structural behavior and the ability of a structure to displace/deform and dissipate energy without failing. Since all R factors specified in UBC Table 16-N are greater than unity (R > 1.0), the R factor effectively reduces the calculated base shear (V) by varying amounts depending on the ductility of a structure. In general, ductile structural systems should have higher R factors than brittle structural systems. Typical values of R for many low-rise wood structures are:

R = 5.5 for light frame wood buildings with shear walls that support gravity loads and simultaneously resist lateral loads in structures less than 4 stories high

R = 4.5 for light frame wood buildings with shear walls that support gravity loads and simultaneously resist lateral loads in structures more than 3 stories high

The following additional R factors also apply to wood structures, but are associated with less commonly used structural systems:
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R = 6.5 for light frame wood buildings less than 4 stories high in which the frame system supports gravity loads independently of the shear panels that resist lateral loads

R = 5.0 for light frame wood buildings more than 3 stories high in which the frame system supports gravity loads independently of the shear panels that resist lateral loads

R = 5.6 for heavy timber braced frames in which the frame system supports gravity loads independently of the bracing that resists lateral loads R = 2.8 for heavy timber braced frames in which bracing supports gravity loads and simultaneously resists lateral loads Cv and Ca are seismic coefficients associated with structural sensitivity to the velocity and acceleration (respectively) of seismic ground motion. Cv and Ca are based on the geographic location of the structure (seismic zone) and soil conditions at the site. Values for Cv and Ca are specified in UBC Tables 16-R and 16-Q.

The additional lower bound for calculating base shear (V) in seismic zone 4 includes factors associated with the magnitude of peak ground acceleration (Z) and proximity to known sources of seismic activity (Nv). Values for Z and Nv are provided in UBC Tables 16-I and 16-T.

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2.13 UBC LATERAL STORY FORCES Lateral forces that counteract the base shear, V, are assumed to act at each story level of the structure. The magnitude of each story force,Fx, is determined from the following formula:

(UBC Equation 30-15) hx is the height from the base of the structure to level x wx is the portion of the building weight assumed to be lumped at level x. wx typically includes the total weight of the floor or ceiling/roof system at level x, plus half the weight of the vertical elements (walls; columns) located immediately below level x and half the weight of the vertical elements located immediately above level x. Ft is an additional lateral force assumed to act at the top of a structure. This force is intended to approximate the effects of higher modes of structural vibration. The magnitude of Ft is determined based on the natural (fundamental) period of vibration of the structure, T: Ft = 0.07 T V Ft = 0.25 V Ft = 0 when 0.7s < T < 3.57s when T > 3.57s when T < 0.7s
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Since Ft = 0 when T < 0.7s, it is apparent from UBC Equation 30-8 that Ft = 0 for buildings less than 114.5 ft tall. Thus, designers are not required to consider an additional lateral force at the top (Ft) for most wood buildings. 2.13.1 UBC SIMPLIFIED LATERAL FORCES An alternate (simplified) procedure can be used to determine the base shear, V, and story forces, Fx, for low-rise, standard occupancy, light frame wood structures that are 3 stories or less in height (see UBC 1629.8.2, 1630.2.3, and Table 16-K): V = 3 CaW/ R Fx = 3 Cawx / R (UBC Equation 30-11) (UBC Equation 30-12)

2.14 RESPONSE SPECTRUM ANALYSIS In order to perform the seismic analysis and design of a structure to be built at a particular location, the actual time history record is required. However, it is not possible to have such records at each and every location. Further, the seismic analysis of structures cannot be carried out simply based on the peak value of the ground acceleration as the response of the structure depend upon the frequency content of ground motion and its own dynamic properties. To overcome the above difficulties, earthquake response spectrum is the most popular tool in the seismic analysis of structures.

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2.14.1 RESPONSE SPECTRA Spectral response means the maximum displacement, velocity or acceleration response. Pseudo Acceleration is the maximum displacement of the structure multiplied with square of natural circular frequency. Pseudo Velocity is the maximum displacement of the structure multiplied with natural circular frequency. Sa = Spectral acceleration Sv = Spectral velocity Sd = Spectral displacement Response spectra are curves plotted between maximum response of SDOF system subjected to specified earthquake ground motion and its time period (or frequency). Response spectrum can be interpreted as the locus of maximum response of a SDOF system for given damping ratio. Response spectra thus helps in obtaining the peak structural responses under linear range, which can be used for obtaining lateral forces developed in structure due to earthquake thus facilitates in earthquake-resistant design of structures. This method should be used under the following conditions: 1. Structures 240 feet (73 152 mm) or more in height, except as permitted by Section 1629.8.3 2. Structures having a stiffness, weight or geometric vertical irregularity of Type 1, 2 or 3, as defined in Table 16-L, or structures having irregular features not described in Table 16-L or 16-M, except as permitted by Section 1630.4.2.
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3. Structures over five stories or 65 feet (19 812 mm) in height in Seismic Zones 3 and 4 not having the same structural system throughout their height except as permitted by Section 1630.4.2. 4. Structures, regular or irregular, located on Soil Profile Type SF, that have a period greater than 0.7 second. The analysis shall include the effects of the soils at the site and shall conform to Section 2.14.2 PROCEDURE TO USE RESPONSE SPECTRA FOR SDOF SYSTEMS The procedure is summarized as under: Calculate angular speed and time period T of structure. Estimate damping ratio. Use applicable response spectrum for a particular area and find Sa or Sv or Sd against the time period. Find shear force in each column as: S.F = Sd*k Find the total lateral force by adding shear force in all the column. The lateral forces may be scaled to the values given by the equivalent static method. This scaling depends upon the types of frames and their ductility.

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2.14.3 PROCEDURE TO USE RESPONSE SPECTRA FOR MDOF SYSTEMS The procedure is summarized as under: Calculate angular speed and time period T of structure. Find the mode shape ai. Estimate damping ratio. Use applicable response spectrum for a particular area and find Sa or Sv or Sd against the time period. Calculate the effective weight as follows: WE = (Wiai)2/(Wiai2) Calculate the base shear as follows: V = WE Sa/g Find the lateral force at each level as follows: Fi =V* Wiai`/(Wiai) The lateral forces may be scaled to the values given by the equivalent static method. This scaling depends upon the types of frames and their ductility. 2.14.4 FACTOR INFLUENCING RESPONSE SPECTRA The response spectral values depends upon the following parameters,

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1) Energy release mechanism 2) Epicentral distance 3) Focal depth 4) Soil condition 5) Richter magnitude 6) Damping in the system 7) Time period of the system According to UBC 1633, the following requirement of seismic design of buildings must be satisfied: All building components in Seismic Zones 2, 3 and 4 shall be designed to resist the effects of the seismic forces prescribed herein and the effects of gravity loadings from dead, floor live and snow loads. Consideration shall be given to design for uplift effects caused by seismic loads. In Seismic Zones 2, 3 and 4, provision shall be made for the effects of earthquake forces acting in a direction other than the principal axes in each of the following circumstances: The structure has plan irregularity Type 5 as given in Table 16-M.

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The structure has plan irregularity Type 1 as given in Table 16-M for both major axes. A column of a structure forms part of two or more intersecting lateral-forceresisting systems. 2.14.5 EXCEPTION If the axial load in the column due to seismic forces acting in either direction is less than 20 percent of the column axial load capacity. The requirement that orthogonal effects be considered may be satisfied by designing such elements for 100 percent of the prescribed design seismic forces in one direction plus 30 percent of the prescribed design seismic forces in the perpendicular direction. The combination requiring the greater component strength shall be used for design. Alternatively, the effects of the two orthogonal directions may be combined on a square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) basis. When the SRSS method of combining directional effects is used, each term computed shall be assigned the sign that will result in the most conservative result. 2.15 TIME HISTORY ANALYSIS Time histories usually express the ground motion as a record of acceleration with respect to time. Acceleration time histories should be developed so their response spectrum is consistent with the previously established site specific design response spectrum.
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To convert multiple degrees of freedom into single degree of freedom modes are derived, once the modes are derived, the response of the complex multiple degree of freedom system is reduced to the solution of the simple, single basic equation of motion for a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system. For time history analysis, the response is easily obtained using step by step integration of the equation of motion for the SDOF system for each significant mode based on the frequency (Eigen value) of the mode. Analysis of a structure, applying data over increment time steps as a function of: Acceleration Force Moment Displacement The closer the spacing of time steps, the more accurate the solution will be. 2.15.1 DEFINITION Time history analysis is the evaluation of response against the elapsed time of the system throughout a known record of the earthquake by solving the actual equation of motion considering all dynamic forces. The fundamental problem in dynamic analysis is to determine the deformation response of the structure with respect to time during an earthquake by solving the differential equation of motion.

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2.15.2 EXPLANATION The Time History Response of a structure is simply the response of the structure evaluated as a function of time including inertial effects. The time history analysis in the advanced level of Visual Analysis allows four main loading types. These include:

1. Harmonically varying force input 2. Factored forcing functions 3. Base displacements 4. Base accelerations 2.15.2.1 HARMONIC FORCING FUNCTION The harmonic forcing function varies in a sinusoidal fashion. Harmonically varying loads are probably most common when analyzing the effects of machinery on a structure. Often unbalanced rotating machinery or parts are most applicable. 2.15.2.2 FACTORED FORCING FUNCTIONS (LOAD AMPLITUDE) The Load Amplitude time history option essentially uses a text file to specify the fraction of the load at specific times. The text file requires two columns, time (t) and A(t) which is the amplification factor and generally graph form between t(s) and A(t) shown in figure 2.3

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Figure 2.3: Defining fraction of the load at specific times As with the harmonic function, A(t) multiplies the static loads applied to the structure in the time history load case at various times. Load Amplitude loads are commonly used to model wind loads, impact loads, and possibly blast loadings. 2.15.2.3 BASE DISPLACEMENT Like the Load Amplitude loading type, the Base Displacement uses a text file for input. The base displacement is exactly as it sounds, the structure is forced through some varying ground displacement over time. These displacements can act independently in the x, y, and z directions. The displacements can be any combination of all or some of these directions.

Figure 2.4: Defining the base displacements

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2.15.2.4 BASE ACCELERATION Again, the Base Acceleration loading type uses a text file for input. The base acceleration is very similar to the base displacement and represents putting the structure through some varying ground acceleration over time. Logically, the base acceleration is just the second derivatives of the base displacements. Similarly, the accelerations can act in the x, y, and z directions and again they can be any combination of all or some of these directions.

Figure 2.5: Defining Base Acceleration

Notes: With the harmonic and amplitude analysis types, the static loads applied within the time history case are varied dynamically according to what is specified and with the base displacement and base acceleration analysis types static loads only have an inertial effect on the structure. For the displacement and acceleration types, Visual Analysis converts any statically applied load in the time history load case acting in the positive or negative Y direction to a mass. It then has an inertial effect on the results similar to adding lumped mass to nodes. Any statically applied

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loads that do not act in the gravity direction (positive or negative Y) and any moments are simply ignored by Visual Analysis and will have no effect on the displacement or acceleration analysis results. 2.15.3 PROCEDURES There are two basic procedures for developing acceleration time histories: 1. Selecting suite of past recorded earthquake ground motions 2. Synthetically developing or modifying one or more ground motions These two procedures are explained below: 2.15.3.1 SELECTING SUITE OF PAST RECORDED EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTIONS When selecting a suite of time-history records for the first procedure, the intent is to cover the valleys of the spectrum produced by one record, which fall significantly below the site-specific design response spectrum, with better matching spectral values at these frequencies as produced by the other records in the suite. It is also necessary that the spectra produced by the suite of records not significantly exceed the site-specific design response spectrum. Primary advantage of this procedure is that the structure is analyzed by real, natural ground motions that are representative of what the structure could experience.

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2.15.3.2 SYNTHETICALLY DEVELOPING OR MODIFYING ONE OR MORE GROUND MOTIONS When using the second procedure, it is possible to either completely synthesize an accelerogram, or modify an actual recorded earthquake accelerogram so that the response spectrum of the resultant accelerogram closely fits or matches the site-specific design response spectrum. The primary advantage of this procedure is that a good fit to the design response spectrum can be achieved with a single accelerogram, thus only a single dynamic analysis is required. 2.15.4 ADVANTAGES

The advantages of tine history analysis are: Considered to be more realistic compared to response spectrum analysis Most useful for very long or very tall structures (flexible structures) Eigen values generated for the structure based on response to time history. 2.15.5 DRAWBACKS The drawbacks of tine history analysis are: Very time consuming Generates and requires large quantities of data May not always reduce seismic forces in structure and depends on:

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a. Soil properties b. Structure type c. Available data

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