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5. UNBOUND PAVEMENT MATERIALS
Granular minerals are used in different layers of pavement structure alone or in combination
with various types of cementing materials which support the main stresses occurring within
the pavement and resist wear due to abrasion by traffic as well as the direct weathering effects
of the natural elements in the road surface. The manner in which they do so depends on the
inherent properties and qualities of the individual particles and on the means by which they
are held together (i.e. interlocking, binders, or both). In low-cost gravel roads, where it is
desired to make the most use of locally available materials such as gravels, they frequently
form the entire pavement structure. In such instances, the gradation of the soil-aggregate
materials is most important and particular attention is paid to the plasticity characteristics of
the material.
In a flexible pavement, aggregates in the subbase layer are specified mainly by their gradation
to prevent the intrusion of fine particles while at the same time improving the subsurface
drainage characteristics of the roadway, and their load-bearing capacity. In a base layer, their
stress-carrying capacity is the factor of primary importance. Aggregates, under rigid
pavements, are not specified mainly by their the load-bearing capacity, but emphasis is placed
instead on achieving a gradation which will prevent pumping of the subgrade or intrusion of
frost-susceptible materials while at the same time improving the subsurface drainage
characteristics of the roadway.
In high-quality bituminous road surfacing, aggregates comprise of up to about 95 per cent of
the weight of the surfacing, are primarily responsible for any load-carrying capacity, which
the surfacing may have; while at the same time it provides the resistance to abrasion under
traffic, and resistance to weathering. Although there are very many types of bituminous
surfacing, in general, the ideal aggregates should have adequate strength and toughness,
ability to crush into chunky particles, free from unduly thin and elongated, low porosity,
hydrophobic characteristics, and particle size and gradation appropriate to the type of
construction. These criteria are also important for concrete, particularly those relating to
particle shape and size distribution, since they affect water requirements and workability of
concrete mixes as well as other important concrete properties.

A wide range of materials can be used as unbound base and subbase courses including
crushed quarried rock, crushed and screened, mechanically stabilized, modified or naturally
occurring as dug or pit run gravels. Their suitability for use depends primarily on the
design traffic level of the pavement and climate. However, such materials must have a particle
size distribution and particle shape which provide high mechanical stability and should
contain sufficient fines (amount of material passing the 0.425 mm sieve) to produce a dense
material when compacted. The use of locally available materials is encouraged, particularly at
low traffic volumes. Their use should be based on the results of performance studies and
should incorporate any special design features which ensure their satisfactory performance.
5.1. Sources and Properties of Aggregates
5.1.1. Sources of aggregates
Along with the naturally occurring sands and gravels, hard rocks are important sources of
aggregates. Geologists classified bedrocks according to the three distinct modes of formation
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as igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are the original rock, formed
from the cooling of molten material. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the solidification of
chemical or mineral sediments deposited under ancient seas. They are usually layered since
the original material was deposited in this manner. Metamorphic rocks are igneous or
sedimentary rocks that have been changed (metamorphosed) due to intense heat and pressure.
The principal sources of road aggregates in this country include natural sand and gravel
deposits, and crushed rock. Pulverized concrete and asphalt pavements and other recycled
and waste materials are not used, but could be the future source of pavement materials.
Natural sand and gravel pits have been used extensively as sources of road aggregates. Sand
or gravel pit is first stripped of topsoil, vegetation, and other unsuitable material from the
surface of the deposit to obtain pit run materials. The material obtained is loose, and is usually
excavated with power shovels or front-end loaders. Often it is crushed, especially if there are
cobbles or boulders in the deposit. The smaller sizes go through the crusher without change,
whereas larger particles are broken down to the desired size. Crushed gravel, as this is called,
is a high-quality aggregate used for many purposes. Sand or gravel deposits might be
composed of many different types of mineral particles-such as limestone, sandstone, and
granite--depending on the original bedrock source of the particles.
The properties of aggregates produced in quarries from bedrock depend on the type of
bedrock. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are usually very hard and make excellent aggregates
for most purposes. Limestone and dolomite are quite common sedimentary rocks. They are
softer than igneous rocks, but are still acceptable as aggregates for most purposes. Shale,
being composed of clay grains, is very weak and disintegrates easily when exposed to the
weather and is a poor aggregate material. Aggregates produced from bedrock are obtained
from quarries. After stripping and opening the quarry, holes are drilled from the surface. Then
dynamite is placed in these holes to break the rock into sizes that can be transported. The rock
is then crushed to the required sizes in various types of rock crushers.
The use of pulverized concrete from pavements, sidewalks, and buildings being demolished is
growing in other countries both due to the increased cost of natural aggregates and the desire
to recycle rather than landfill these materials. Recycled concrete is crushed, processed, and
used as base material and in concrete and asphalt paving mixtures. Asphalt pavements can be
recycled and reused in pavements. Pulverized asphalt mixtures are also used as aggregates in
base courses, but the proportion may be limited to about 30-50% as the strength of the layer
can be reduced due to the lubricating effect of the asphalt film on the particles.
5.1.2. Aggregate tests
Aggregates are obtained from different sources and consequently differ considerably in their
constitutions; inevitably they differ also with regard to their engineering properties. The
properties of aggregate that are important for road construction include its gradation,
resistance to crushing and abrasion, durability, specific gravity, water absorption, propensity
to polish, and the size and shape of the aggregate particles. Aggregate tests are necessary to
determine the suitability of the material for a specific use and to make sure that the required
properties are consistently within specification limits. The following sub-sections discuss
important tests of aggregates and their significance of application; detailed test procedures can
be found in manuals of material testing standards.
Gradation test. Gradation is the characteristic of aggregates on which perhaps the greatest
stress is placed in specifications for highway bases, cement concretes, and asphalt mixes.
Hence, gradation test, also called sieve analysis, screen analysis or mechanical analysis, is the
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most common test performed on aggregates to evaluate the suitability of the aggregate
materials with respect to their grain size distribution for a specific use. Gradation is
determined by separating the aggregates into portions, which are retained on a number of
sieves or screens having specified openings, which are suitably graded from coarse to fine.
The results obtained may be expressed either as total percentage passing or retained on each
sieve or as the percentages retained between successive sieves.
The theoretical maximum density of aggregates is obtained when the grain size distribution
follow the Fuller maximum density equation of the form
n
D
d
p |
.
|

\
|
=100

in which, p is the percent passing sieve size "d", "D' represents the maximum sieve size in
the material, and n is a constant which varies between 0. 45 and 0.5. The assumption in this
relationship is that the voids between the larger particles are filled with still smaller particles,
until the smallest voids are filled with a small amount of fines. Strength, or resistance to shear
failure, in road bases and other aggregate layers that carry load is increased greatly if the
mixture is dense graded. The larger particles are in contact with each other, developing
frictional resistance to shearing failure, and tightly bound together due to the interlocking
effect of the smaller particles. When aggregate particles are to be bound together by cement or
bitumen, a variation in the grading of an aggregate will result in a change in the amount of
binder required to produce a material of given stability and quality. Proper aggregate grading
contributes to the uniformity, workability and plasticity of the material as it is mixed.
Often the fines content must be limited, because they are relatively weak, and require an
excessive amount of binder to cover them. If fines are present as dust on larger particles, they
weaken the bond between the cement and those particles. Fines in highway bases may lead to
drainage and frost- heaving problems. Also, excessive amounts of fines (or smaller sizes of
aggregates) may result in weak mixtures, as the large particles are not in contact with each
other. The strength of the mixture would then depend only on friction between the small
particles, which is much less than between large particles. In practice, the required gradation
is not found naturally, particularly, if the aggregates are pit-run materials. In such cases,
combining two or more aggregates of different sources satisfies the gradation requirement for
a specific use.
Aggregate Crushing Test. Aggregate crushing test evaluates the resistance of aggregates
against the gradually applied load. The test is used to evaluate the crushing strength of
available supplies of rock, and in construction, to make sure that minimum specified values
are maintained. The test is undertaken using a metal plunger to apply gradually a standard 40
tonnes load to a sample of the aggregate (10 14 mm) contained in a standard test mould.
The amount of material passing 2.36 mm sieve in percentage of the total weight of the sample
is referred to as the Aggregate Crushing value (ACV). Over the range of normal road making
aggregates, ACVs vary from 5 percent for hard aggregates to 30 percent for weaker
aggregates. For weaker aggregates than this, the same apparatus is used to evaluate the Ten
Percent Fines value i.e. the load which produces 10 percent of fines passing 2.36 mm sieve.
The value is obtained by interpolating of the percentage of fines produced over a range of test
loads.
Aggregate Impact Test. This test is a means of evaluating the resistance of aggregates to
sudden impact loading. It is carried out by filling a steel test mould with a sample of
aggregate (10 14 mm) and then the impact load applied is by dropping hammer at a height
of 380 mm. The Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) is the percentage of fines passing 2.36 mm
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sieve after 15 blows. This test produces results that are normally about 105 per cent of the
ACV and it can be used for the same purposes. Both tests give results which are sufficiently
repeatable and reproducible for contract specifications.
Abrasion Test. Abrasion test is the test used to know how the aggregate is sufficiently hard to
resist the abrasive effect of traffic over its service life. The most widely used abrasion test is
the Los Angeles Abrasion Test which involves the use of a steel drum, revolving on
horizontal axis, into which the test sample of chippings is loaded together with steel balls of
46.8 mm diameter. The Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LAV) is the percentage of fines passing
the 1.7 mm sieve after a specified number of revolutions of the drum at specified speed. The
drum is fitted with internal baffles causing the aggregate and the steel balls to be lifted and
then fall as the drum revolves. The test therefore gives an indication of the impact strength in
combination with the abrasion resistance of the aggregate. For bituminous surface dressings,
chippings with an ACV less than 30 are desirable and the stronger they are the more durable
will be the dressings. With premixed bituminous materials and with crushed stone bases, high
mechanical strength, though useful, is not always of paramount importance. The repeatability
and reproducibility of this test are satisfactory and appropriate for use in contract
specifications.
Soundness Test. This test procedure is useful in both survey and design for the evaluation of
aggregates to resist disintegration due to weathering. A sample of aggregate is saturated in a
solution of magnesium sulphate or sodium sulphate, and then removed and dried in an oven.
This process is repeated for five cycles. On completion, the percentage lost gives the
durability of the material. The test is not suitable for providing a single criterion for the
susceptibility of aggregates to rapid weathering but it may find a place as part of the
evaluation procedure of aggregates suspected of containing minerals that are weakened by
chemical alteration.
Specific Gravity and Water Absorption. The tests are likely to be used both in surveys of
aggregate resources and in design, particularly in the interpretation of compaction tests and in
the design of bituminous mixtures. They may also be used as part of quality control during
construction, particularly when the survey has indicated that aggregate from the chosen source
is subject to variations in density. The test procedure is simple and the tests are repeatable and
reproducible.
Most rocks absorb less than one per cent by weight of water and, up to this level, water
absorption is of no great consequence. However, some rocks can absorb up to 4 percent of
water. This suggests that the rock may be of low mechanical strength and will be difficult to
dry and heat during processing to make bituminous mixtures. Inadequate drying will cause
difficulty in securing good adhesion between bitumen and stone, and in hot process mixtures,
where the stone must be heated to about 180
o
C, it causes a large waste of energy.
In the tests, a 4 kilogram sample of the crushed rock of specific nominal size chippings is
soaked in distilled water for 24 hours, weighed in water (W
W
), surface dried and weighed in
air (W
S
). It is then oven dried at 105
o
C for 24 hours and weighed again in air (W
D
). The
specific gravity and the water absorption are then obtained as follows:
w D
D
W W
W
gravity Specific

= 100
W
W W
(%) absorption Water
D
D S

=
Shape Tests. Three mechanical measures of particle shape which may be included in the
specifications for aggregates for road construction, are the flakiness index, elongation index
and angularity number. The flakiness index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of
particles whose least thickness is less than three-fifths of their mean dimension. The mean
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dimension, as used in each instance, is the average of two adjacent sieve aperture sizes
between which the particle being measured is retained by sieving. The elongation index of an
aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest length is greater than 1.8
times their mean dimension. The angularity number of an aggregate is the amount, to the
nearest whole number, by which the percentage of voids exceeds 33 when an aggregate is
compacted in a specified manner in a standardized metal cylinder.
Use of the shape tests in specifications is based on the view that the shapes of the particles
influence both the strength of aggregate particles and internal friction that can be developed in
the aggregate mass. Since, other factors being equal, an aggregate composed of smooth
rounded particles of a certain gradation will contain less voids than one of the same grading
but composed of angular particles, the angularity of an aggregate can be reflected in terms of
the volume of contained voids when the aggregate is compacted. Measurements show that the
angularity number may range from zero for a material of highly rounded beach-gravel
particles to 10 or more for newly crushed rock aggregate.
5.1.3. Blending aggregates
To meet the gradation requirements of aggregates for particular uses in pavement
construction, it is often necessary to blend two or more aggregates together. Charts and
diagrams are available to do this blending, but the trial-and-error method is simpler and just
about as fast as more complex methods. Consider two aggregates graded and designated as
aggregate A and B, and let the specification limit is as given in Table 5-1. The use of the trail-
and-error method for blending is then illustrated as follows:

Table 5-1. Aggregate gradation to be combined to meet specification limits

Sieve
% Passing
Aggregate A Aggregate B Specification Mid-point Combined aggregate
12.5 mm 100 100 90-100 95 100
No. 10 0 100 40-55 48 48
No. 200 0 14 5-10 8 7

It is clear in Table 5-1 that all the material passing a No.10 sieve must come from aggregate
B, i.e., approximately 48% which leaves 52 % for aggregate A. Or consider the retained
percentage on No.10 sieve for alternative solution. All materials retained on No.10 must come
from aggregate A, which is 52 % require in the specification, i.e. 52 % from A and 48% from
B. In both cases, the proportion which best fits the specification limits can be satisfied. The
following equation may be written to apply the procedure to any given sieve:
T bB aA = +
where, A and B are percentages from aggregates A and B to be blended for satisfying the
specification limits. a and b are the respective sieve analysis values for a given sieve X,
expressed as a decimal fraction, and T is the sieve analysis value in the blended aggregate.
The equation can be used for gradation expressions

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1. Percentage retained on a given sieve,
2. Percentage passing on a given sieve, and
3. Percentage retained on two or more sieves.

The result of this equation is used to proportion the 1
st
trial blend for the trial-and-error
method. The second and the subsequent blends are proportioned by observation until the
specification is satisfied. In the above illustration, the equation can be written for the No.10
sieve, % passing, as:
p p p p p
T B b A a = +

in which the subscript p indicates the percentage passing. The known variables here are a
p
=
0, b
p
=1, and T
p
=48%, which implies that B =48%. For percent retained, the equation can
be written as:
r r r r r
T B b A a = +
in which the subscript r indicates the percentage retained. The known variables here are a
r
=
1, b
r
=0, and T
r
=52%, which implies that A =52%.

Example 5- 1. Three aggregates are to be blended to meet a specification. The aggregates,
gradations, and the specification are given in Table 5-2.

Table 5-2. Aggregate gradation and specification for Example 5- 1
Sieve size Aggregate
A
Aggregate
B
Aggregate
C
Specification Spec.
Mid-point
Combined
gradation
(1
st
trial)
Passing 12.5 mm 100 100 100 100
9.5 mm 62 100 72-88 80 79
4.75 mm 8 100 78 45-65 55 46
2.36 mm 2 91 52 30-60 45 34
1.18 mm 0 73 36 25-55 40 25
600 m 51 29 16-40 28 18
300 m 24 24 8-25 16.5 11
150 m 4 20 4-12 8 6
75 m 1 18 3-6 4.5 5

Solution. Most of coarse aggregate will come from aggregate A and most of the fines will be
obtained from aggregate C. To obtain a mixture that is approximately in the middle of the
specification, we first use the equation and continue with more trials. The equation can be
written to blend aggregate A, B, and C for retained on 9.5 mm sieve and passing 75 m sieve
as follows:
T cC bB aA = + +
For retained materials on 9.5 mm sieve, the known variables are a
r
=0.38, b
r
=0, c
r
=0 and
T
r
=20%, which implies that A =53%. Similarly, for passing 75 m, the known variables are
a
p
=0, b
p
=0, c
p
=0.18 and T
p
=4.5%, which results C =25%, and B =100 53 25 =22.
The first trial blend as seen in Table 5-2 is within the specification limit, but on the coarse side.
Reducing the contribution of aggregate A and increasing B, or C or both for the second and
the subsequent trials can result a blend more close to the middle of the specification.
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5.2. Unbound Base and Subbase Materials
Unbound base and subbase courses in pavement structures are granular materials from sand or
gravel deposits or crushed rock from quarries without admixtures. The required properties of
these materials vary with the type of pavement and the depth of the material in the pavement
structure. Materials in the subbase layer should mainly satisfy gradation requirements to
prevent the intrusion of fine particles, and improve the subsurface drainage. Load-bearing
capacity is also important, particularly when the layer is used as a construction platform. In a
base layer, load-carrying capacity is of primary importance particularly when it is constructed
over subbase layer. If it is constructed directly over the subgrade, material properties should
in addition satisfy what is normally required of the subbase layer.

Different standard methods of design specify materials of construction differently considering
the traffic load, locally available materials, and environmental conditions. The following
describes the different unbound pavement materials for base and subbase courses as specified
in Road Note 31 (TRL) and adapted in the design manual drafted by ERA (2001).
5.2.1. Base course

Graded crushed aggregate. This material is produced by crushing fresh, quarried rock usually
termed a 'crusher-run', or alternatively the material may be separated by screening and
recombined to produce a desired particle size distribution, as per the specifications. The rock
used for crushed aggregates should be hard and durable. Laboratory and field experiences
have shown that crushed particles have, in general, more stability than rounded materials due
to primarily to added grain interlock. In addition, crushed materials possess high coefficient of
permeability. Alternate gradation limits, depending on the local conditions for a particular
project, are shown in Table 5-3. After crushing, the material should be angular in shape with a
Flakiness Index of less than 35%, and preferably of less than 30%. In constructing a crushed
stone base course, the aim should be to achieve maximum impermeability compatible with
good compaction and high stability under traffic.

Table 5-3. Grading limits for graded crushed stone base course materials

Test sieve (mm) Percentage by mass of total aggregate passing test sieve
Nominal maximum particle size
37.5 mm 28 mm 20 mm
50 100 - -
37.5 95 100 100 -
28 - - 100
20 60 80 70 - 85 90 100
10 40 60 50 - 65 60 75
5 25 - 40 35 - 55 40 60
2.36 15 30 25 - 40 30 45
0.425 7 19 12 - 24 13 27
0.075
1
5 12 5 - 12 5 12
Note 1. For paver-laid materials a lower fines content may be accepted.

To ensure that the materials are sufficiently durable, they should satisfy the criteria given in
Table 5-4.These are a minimum Ten Per Cent Fines Value (TFV) and limits on the maximum
loss in strength following a period of 24 hours of soaking in water. Alternatively, if
requirements expressed in terms of the results of the Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) are
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used, the ACV should preferably be less than 25 and in any case less than 29. Other simpler
tests e.g. the Aggregate Impact Test may be used in quality control testing provided a
relationship between the results of the chosen test and the TFV has been determined. Unique
relationships do not exist between the results of the various tests but good correlations can be
established for individual material types and these need to be determined locally.

The in situ dry density of the placed material should be a minimum of 98% of the maximum
dry density obtained in the Heavy Compaction. The compacted thickness of each layer should
not exceed 200 mm. Crushed stone base materials described above should have CBR values
well in excess of 100 per cent, and fines passing 0.425 mm sieve should be nonplastic.

Table 5-4. Mechanical strength requirements for crushed stone base defined by TFV

Typical annual rainfall
(Mm)
Minimum 10%
fines values (kN)
Minimum ratio
wet/dry Test (%)
>500 110 75
<500 110 60

Normal requirements for natural gravels and weathered rocks. A wide range of materials
including lateritic, calcareous and quartzitic gravels, river gravels, boulders and other
transported gravels, or granular materials resulting from the weathering of rocks can be used
successfully as base course materials. Table 5-5 contains three recommended particle size
distributions for suitable materials corresponding to maximum nominal sizes of 37.5 mm, 20
mm and 10 mm. When the traffic is in excess of 1.5x10
6
ESA, only the two larger sizes
should be considered.

Table 5-5. Recommended particle size distributions for base course material

Test sieve (mm) Percentage by mass of total aggregate passing test sieve
Nominal maximum particle size
37.5 mm 20 mm 10 mm
50 100 - -
37.5 80 100 100 -
20 60 80 80 100 100
10 45 65 55 80 80 100
5 30 50 40 60 50 70
2.36 20 40 30 50 35 50
0.425 10 25 12 27 12 30
0.075 5 15 5 15 5 15

For materials whose stability decreases with breakdown, an aggregate hardness based on a
minimum soaked TFV of 50 kN may be specified. The fines of these materials should
preferably be nonplastic but should normally never exceed a PI of 6. If the PI approaches the
upper limit of 6, it is desirable that the fines content be restricted to the lower end of the
range. To ensure this, a maximum Plasticity Product (PP) of 60 is recommended or
alternatively a maximum Plasticity Modulus (PM) of 90 where:

PP =PI x (percentage passing the 0.075 mm sieve)

PM =PI x (percentage passing the 0.425 mm sieve)

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When used as a base course, the material should be compacted to a density equal to or greater
than 98 per cent of the maximum dry density achieved in the Heavy Compaction. When
compacted to this density in the laboratory, the material should have a minimum CBR of 80%
after four days immersion in water.

In low rainfall areas, typically with a mean annual rainfall of less than 500 mm, and where
evaporation is high, moisture conditions beneath a well sealed surface are unlikely to rise
above the optimum moisture content. In such conditions, high strengths (CBR>80 %) are
likely to develop even when natural gravels containing a substantial amount of plastic fines
are used. In these situations, for traffic loading within 0.7 million equivalent standard axles,
the maximum allowable PI can be increased to 12 and the minimum soaked CBR criterion
reduced to 60% at the expected field density.

Rocks such as basalts, dolerites, and granular materials derived from their weathering,
transportation or other alteration release undesirable plastic fines during construction or in
service. The release of these minerals may lead to a consequent loss in bearing capacity and
this is likely to worsen if water enters the pavement and lead to rapid and premature failure.
The state of decomposition also affects their long-term durability when stabilized with lime or
cement. When weathering is suspected, petrographic analysis to detect secondary (clay)
minerals and soundness tests using sodium or magnesium sulphate should be carried to
evaluate the durability of masterials. Indicative limits based on these tests are (a) a maximum
secondary mineral content of 20%, (b) a maximum loss of 12 or 20% after 5 cycles in the
sodium or magnesium sulphate tests respectively.

Naturally occurring gravels which do not normally meet the normal specifications for base
course materials have occasionally been used successfully. They include lateritic, calcareous
and volcanic gravels. In general their use should be confined to the lower traffic roads.
Laterite gravels with plasticity index in the range of 6-12 and plasticity modulus in the range
of 150-250 is recommended for use as base course material for of traffic volume up to 1.5
million equivalent standard axles. The values towards higher range are valid for semi-arid and
arid areas of Ethiopia, i.e. with annual rainfall less than 500 mm. Cinder gravels can also be
used as base course materials in lightly trafficked (below 0.7x10
6
ESA) surface dressed roads.
5.2.2. Sub-bases course materials
The sub-base is an important load spreading layer which enables traffic stresses to be reduced
to acceptable levels on the subgrade. It also acts as a working platform for the construction of
the upper pavement layers separating the subgrade and base course. Under special
circumstances, it may serve as a filter or as a drainage layer. The selection of sub-base
materials depends on the design function of the layer and the anticipated moisture regime,
both in service and at construction.
Bearing capacity. A minimum CBR of 30 per cent is required at the highest anticipated
moisture content when compacted to the specified field density, usually a minimum of 95 per
cent of the maximum dry density achieved in the Heavy Compaction. Under conditions of
good drainage and when the water table is not near the ground surface the field moisture
content under a sealed pavement will be equal to or less than the optimum moisture (Light
Compaction). In such conditions, the sub-base material should be tested in the laboratory in
an unsaturated state. If saturation of the sub-base is likely, the bearing capacity should be
determined on samples soaked in water for a period of four days. Materials which meet the
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recommendations of Table 5-6 and Table 5-7 will usually be found to have adequate bearing
capacity.
Use as a construction platform. In many circumstances the requirements of a sub-base are
governed by its ability to support construction traffic without excessive deformation or
ravelling. A high quality sub-base is therefore required where loading or climatic conditions
during construction are severe. Suitable material should possess properties similar to those of
a good surfacing material for unpaved roads. The material should be well graded and have a
plasticity index at the lower end of the appropriate range for an ideal unpaved road wearing
course under the prevailing climatic conditions. These considerations form the basis of the
criteria given in Table 5-6 and Table 5-7. Material meeting the requirements for severe
conditions will usually be of higher quality than the standard sub-base material.

In the construction of low-volume roads, where cost savings at construction are particularly
important, local experience is often invaluable and a wider range of materials may often be
found to be acceptable. In Ethiopia, laterite is one of the widely available materials and can be
used as a sub-base material. Laterite meeting the gradation requirements of Table 5-7 can be
used for traffic levels up to 3x10
6
ESA provided the following criteria is satisfied:

Plasticity Index (%) <25
Plasticity Modulus (PM) <500
CBR (%) >30

Table 5-6. Recommended plasticity characteristics for granular sub-bases

Climate Typical Annual
Rainfall
Liquid
Limit
Plasticity
Index
Linear
Shrinkage
Moist tropical and wet tropical >500mm <35 <6 <3
Seasonally wet trop >500mm <45 <12 <6
Arid and semi-arid <500mm <55 <20 <10

Table 5-7. Typical particle size distribution for sub-bases

Test Sieve (mm) Percentage by mass of total aggregate passing
test sieve (%)
50 100
37.5 80 100
20 60 100
5 30 100
1.18 17 75
0.3 9 50
0.075 5 25
Filter or separating layer. This may be required to protect a drainage layer from blockage by
a finer material or to prevent migration of fines and the mixing of two layers. The two
functions are similar except that for use as a filter the material needs to be capable of allowing
drainage to take place and therefore the amount of material passing the 0.075 mm sieve must
be restricted.

The following criteria should be used to evaluate a subbase as a separating or filter layer:

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a) The ratio D15(coarse layer) should be less than 5
D85(fine layer)

where D15 is the sieve size through which 15% by weight of the material passes and D85 is
the sieve size through which 85% passes.

b) The ratio D50(coarse layer) should be less than 25
D50(fine layer)

For a filter to possess the required drainage characteristics a further requirement is:

c) The ratio D15(coarse layer) should lie between 5 and 40
D15(fine layer)

These criteria may be applied to the materials at both the base course/sub-base and the sub-
base/subgrade interfaces.
5.2.3. Selected subgrade materials and capping layers

These materials are often required to provide sufficient cover on weak subgrades. They are
used in the lower pavement layers as a substitute for a thick sub-base to reduce costs, and a
cost comparison should be conducted to assess their cost effectiveness.

The requirements are less strict than for sub-bases. A minimum CBR of 15 per cent is
specified at the highest anticipated moisture content measured on samples compacted in the
laboratory at the specified field density. This density is usually specified as a minimum of 95
per cent of the maximum dry density in the Heavy Compaction. Recommended gradings or
plasticity criteria are not given for these materials. However, it is desirable to select
reasonably homogeneous materials since overall pavement behavior is often enhanced by this.
The selection of materials which show the least change in bearing capacity from dry to wet is
also beneficial.
5.2.4. Gravel surface roads

Gravel surface roads are generally roads which are constructed and maintained at low cost using
locally available materials in the near vicinity of the site. Coarse well graded gravel is a very
satisfactory material for constructing cheap all-weather roads. This type of construction is designed for
AADT between 350 and 400 and when the weight of the individual vehicle is in the order of 10 ton.
Beyond these, they often become not economical. At higher traffic the following problems such as
surface pitting, the formation of transverse corrugation, high cost of replacing or grading, and dust
may occur.

The general soil-aggregate mixture used for constructing gravel roads should be stable
(support the loads without detrimental deformation which is the function of particle size
distribution and particle shape, density, and internal friction and cohesion), abrasion resistant,
should shed a large portion of the rain which falls on the surface, posses capillarity properties
to replace the moisture lost by surface evaporation, and low-cost.
Highway Engineering II AAiT
12
Type 1 (Table 5-8) is recommended for gravel wearing course material in the new
construction of roads having an AADT greater than 50 and for all routine and periodic
maintenance activities. According to the Tanzanian Design Manual (1999), gravel wearing
course for major roads require a minimum CBR of 25 %. Type 4 materials may be used in the
new construction of roads having an AADT less than 50. Minor gravel roads (AADT
design
less
than 20) which are normally community roads are usually unsurfaced (earth roads) and
constructed by labor-based methods. However, for subgrade CBR values less than 5% and
longitudinal gradients of greater than 6%, a gravel wearing course is recommended. Materials
for gravel wearing course shall comply with the requirements for Type 4 material for new
construction and Type 1 for maintenance activities. The CBR requirements may be reduced to
20% if other suitable material is not locally available.

Table 5-8. Gradation requirements for gravel wear course (ERA, 2001)
Test Sieve
Size(mm)
Percent(%) by mass of total aggregate passing test sieve
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4 Type 5 Type 6
50 - - - 100 - -
37.5 100 - 100 80-100 - -
28 - 100 95 - 100 - - -
20 80 - 100 95 - 100 85-100 60-80 100 -
14 - 80-100 65 - 100 - - -
10 55 - 100 65 - 100 55 - 100 45-65 80 - 100 100
5 40 - 60 45 - 85 35-90 30-50 60 -85 80-100
2.36 30 - 50 - - 20-40 45-70 50-80
2 - 30 - 65 22-75 - - -
1 - 25-55 18-60 - - -
0.425 15 - 30 18 - 45 15-50 10-25 25-45 25-45
0.075 5 - 15 12-32 10-40 5-15 10-25 10-25

Type 1: The grading of the gravel after placing and compaction shall be a smooth curve
within and approximately parallel to the envelopes detailed in Table 5-8. The material shall
have a LAV of not more than 50 at 500 revolutions. The material shall be compacted to a
minimum in-situ density of 95% of the maximum dry density. The plasticity index should be
not greater than 15 and not less than 8 for wet climatic zones and should be not greater than
20 and not less than 10 for dry climatic zones. The linear Shrinkage should be in a range of 3-
10%.
Type 2 & 3: These materials may be more rounded particles fulfilling the following: the
Plasticity Index lies in a range of 5-12% in wet areas, and in any case less than 16% in other
areas, a minimum crushing under traffic in percentage by weight of particles with at least one
fractured face of 40%, the CBR should be in excess of 20 after 4 days of soaking at 95% of
maximum dry density under Heavy Compaction. For very low traffic, the requirement may be
relaxed to a CBR of 15.
Type 4: This material gradation allows for larger size material and corresponds to the
gradation of a base course material. The use of this gradation of materials is subject to the
local experience and shall be used with PIs in a range of 10-20.
Type 5 & 6: These materials gradations are recommended for smaller size particles. They may
be used if sanctioned by experience with plasticity characteristics as for material Type 1.