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Greg OBrien
May 15, 2013
Abstract
In this paper we will cover a brief survey of on going research of grav-
itation waves. Background on gravity will be presented followed by basic
concepts and implementations of gravitational waves. We will move on
to specically designed experiments that intend to measure gravitational
waves eects. Exact technical details will be forgone, covering more gen-
eral mechanisms of instrumentation at LIGO. Data sets collected from
experiments and respective results will be discussed.
1 Background
Gravity was the rst discovered fundamental force, but today is the lease well
known. Gravity is weaker than all of the fundamental forces, but has the largest
eect on our universe in terms scale. Newtons equations work well with in 98%
of all planetary measurements. At the turn of the century Einsteins equations
accounted for the other 2% of physics. An importance dierence between New-
tonian and relativity is how light travels through space. Black holes were rst
theorized by Laplace and Michel 100 years before Schwarzschild rst theorized
the Schwarzschild metric. A consequence of treating spacetime as Minkowski
Spaces is the propagation of disturbances at the speed of light in all directions. A
subset of disturbances are gravitational waves relating to acceleration of mass
at a point in space. These disturbances are tidal forces propagating through
spacetime. Gravitational waves (GWs) are yet to be directly detected but are
in strong agreement with observational results
Mass for the conversation of this paper has no negative resonance such as
charge. In order to produce an electromagnetic wave, a dipole must be displace.
Because mass on has a order of one, a quadrapole is required to produce a
propagating wave set. A rotating quadrapole moment is dene as
d
Q
ij
dt
= 3
m
1
m
2
m
1
+m
2
R
2
w
3
_
_
sin(2wt) cos(2wt) 0
cos(2wt) sin(2wt) 0
0 0 0
_
_
(1)
As the quadrapole rotates, one mass moves closer to an arbitrary point while
the other moves away. At one point in the rotation mass 1 will reach a minimal
1
distance to the observer, while mass 2 will be displaced the most. This represents
the peak of the wave, where gravitation strength will be maximum. After a
quarter of rotation, both mass will be equally distant, the trough of the wave.
A quarter more, mass 2 is the closest, and 1 is farthest. The total period of
rotation will contain two peaks and two troughs. [?]
h
+
=
1
R
G
2
c
4
2m
1
m
2
r
1 + cos
2
=
1
R
G
2
c
4
4m
1
m
2
r
(cos ) sin [2(t R)] (3)
h
+
represents a linear polarization in a plane perpendicular to the propa-
gating wave. h
x
indicates a polarization rotated /4 radians with respect to
an azimuthal z axis (the axis of propagation). Keep in mind that gravitational
rotating bodies will closely follow Keplers laws in relativistic form. Energy
expelled through this precess is know as gravitational radiation. Without an
external force, gravitational potential energy is slowly dissipated and the pe-
riod of rotation will decrease as the masses move closer together. The resulting
energy ux is given by [?]
P =
dE
dt
=
G
5c
5
_
d
Q
ij
dt
_
2
=
32
5
G
4
c
5
(m
1
m
2
)
2
(m
1
+m
2
)
r
5
(4)
As the objects move closer, their velocity increases maintaining a quasi-stable
system. The change in potential occurs slowly form gravitational radiation and
the increase in kinetic energy. Taking the limit of potential energy going to zero,
we can solve for the time till collision. [2]
t =
5
256
c
5
G
3
r
4
(m
1
m
2
)(m
1
+m
2
)
(5)
The following set of equations are only dened for one wavelength outside the
center (1/2 a light year). Similar to electromagnetic radiation, gravitational
radiation drops o as 1/r
2
. The resulting amplitudes are relatively small dis-
turbances of spacetime.
At sucient distances GW can ba approximated as plane waves. For waves
propagating in the z direction, the spacetime metric uctuates by
d
2
' dt
2
(1 +h)dx
2
(1 h)dy
2
dz 3 (h 1) (6)
where h is the fraction deviation of the metric in dx
2
and dy
2
such that h = h
+
,
also known as the strain. Where total strain is given by hD with D as the
2
distance measured. In free space with h << 1, the Einstein Field Equations
reduce to the wave equation. [1]
2
h
t
=
2
h
x
+
2
h
y
+
2
h
z
(7)
With the wave propagating along the z axis, the equation can be generalized to
h = h
+z
(z t) + h
z
(z + t). We only care about the positive direction due to
cylindrical symmetry in r so the second term may be ignored. The distortion
of space only occurs in the plain orthonormal to the indent wave. Contraction
occurs in the x direction while expansion only occurs in y alternating every
1/4th period of revolution. [2] Gravitational polarization distorts spacetime in
dierent directions. Both polarizations are found in GWs. Any strain measured
is from a combination of two fractional polarizations strains h
+
and h
. The
Figures below show exaggerated eects of GWs. Typical h
+
or h
are on the
order of 10
26
Figure 1: Annenberg Learner, Physics: Gravitational Waves
Displacements are correlated such that if x contracts, y expands and vise
versa. If we add the deviation in the x direction and deviation in the y direction,
we will get zero. The circumference of circle normal to plane of propagation does
not change.
In spacetime, if distance changes, time changes (which really are one in the
same). The speed of light inside the gravitational eld is d
2
= dt
2
(1 +
h)dx
2
dx = (1 +h)
1/2
dx (1 h/2). An observer inside the
gravitational wave would also experience a change in space scale and time so the
speed limit of light is safe. If a strong gravitational wave passed though earth,
we would not view anything dierently because space and time would contract
and expand at the same rate.
Spacetime curvature can be expresses by the metric tensor g
, which con-
tains information on how the space has been changes. In the form of the Einstein
Tensor the metric tensor is related by [?]
G
=
8G
N
c
4
T
(8)
Where G
N
is the gravitational constant and T
= g
. If we take
our gravitational radiation from a point source (i.e. very far away) the crucial
3
radiation eld will be represented by
_
| det g|g
(9)
where
= 16
(10)
where =
+
t
is the at-space dAlembertian operator. The equation reduces
to the homogeneous wave equation with a point source in spherical coordinates
and
h
=
_
_
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 h
+
(t r, r, , ) h
(t r, r, , )
0 0 h
(t r, r, , ) h
+
(t r, r, , )
_
_
(11)
For further derivation see Appendix A
2 Detectors, Past and Present
In 1993 the noble prize in physics was presented to Russell A. Hulse and his
graduate student, Joseph H. Taylor Jr. for measuring a Doppler shift in a pair
of binary pulsars. Using the Arecibo dish they were able to show a decrease
in the binary orbital radius. In accordance with Einsteins theory of relativity,
gravitational radiation carried energy away form the system. [?]
Currently there are several experiments looking for gravitational waves in the
world. No experiment to date has found any direct evidence of their existence.
Gravitational waves produce shifts in the Minkowski space metric. Due to
this, actual distance between two objects uctuate as the amount space time
between the changes with a passing GW. The actual displacement is very small
since sources are parsecs away and radiation drops of as 1/r
2
. The equivalent
example would be the gravitational force you feel from Proximal-Centari, 4.3
light years away; small! Any kind of detection form cosmological sources require
extremely sensitive data collection.
The rst scientic experiment attempting to do this was carried out in the
1970s by Joseph Weber. A solid 2 meter long aluminum cylinder was tted
with piezoelectric crystals around the diameter. In theory, a passing GW would
jiggle the aluminum at its resonate frequency of 1660 Hz. The piezoelectrics
would translate any mechanical oscillations into electrical signals. In theory the
size of oscillations would be 10
_
|h
+
(t)|
2
+ |h
x
(t)|
2
dt (19)
9
Under the conguration of 2007, typical sensitives of h
r
ss at 50% detection
rates lied 5 10
22
Hz
1/2 to 1 10
22
Hz
1/2
for the collapsed NS waveform
at ranges 50-200pc
The biggest source of error is interpretation of the results. Going back to
Weber, if you look hard enough anywhere you will eventually nd a signal
weather its there or not. Calibration error is determined by uncertainties in the
system, random jitters in phase. The goal is to make these small as possible,
without changing what the data says. Some parts can be tested by injecting
wave packets and measuring the strain response. However the preciseness of the
calibration is limited by the accuracy of the instruments.
At the conclusion of the data analysis of S5 for GRWBs, no on-source data
was found above the FAR of once in 8 years. Noise in the experiment was con-
stant with theoretical models of unknown parameters and background processes
such as plate tectonics and ocean tides. The lowest FAP achieved was .24, a
close event but with a signal to noise ratio of only 9. Mass chirps consistent
with compact binary coalescence at signal-to-noise ratios of 17 were observed
at one point but ended up being a blind hardware injection. [9]
With the sensitivity of SJ2 we can set an upper limit on the strain for GWs.
Assuming a Poisson distribution of rare events, an upper condence interval
can be found for the time it would take to detect such an event. 50% CI for
a Sine-Gaussian wave is about 1.7 years. Considering the energy emitted by a
gravitational waves,
E
GW
=
c
G
rfh (20)
where h is the average strain, f is the frequency of the emitted GW and r is
the radius of the ducial distance from the source. If we take the population of
standard candles randomly orientated at uniform density in the sky. Factoring
the inclination angle of GWs, we can estimate the rate per volume at which
they should be observed. The upper limit derived is controlled by the detector
eciency. Higher eciency means a higher limit. Assuming 50% eciency and
the standard candle distance of a 10 Kpc search radius gives a limit on h
r
ss.
Converting to energy we get 2.2 10
8M
5 for a
1.4M
. = 10
32
15
1/2
_
r
3
48 14U +U
2
dU
d ln r
dr
3
(23)
12
Figure 3:
where (r) is the energy density and g(r) is the acceleration due to gravity and
U = 2 +dg/d ln r. The ellipticity fraction dierence in the moments of inertia,
=
I
xx
I
yy
I
zz
=
8
15
1/2
Q
22
I
zz
(24)
Below the graphic represents the mass vs radius vs inertia relationship. As the
neutron star increase in mass, the radius diminishes but the overall inertia of
a system increases. Neglecting relativistic eects and distortion due to highly
rotating star (the system were interested in are 200Hz), is well suited to the ap-
proximation. The moment of inertia increases for low masses due the increased
radius. [4]
The maximum Q
22
and the NS crust can support is depends on the mass,
with higher stars having greater gravitation force, yielding the gure below. The
Q
22
and are over 100 and 1000 times higher for Q
22
and in .12M
vs a 1.4M
.
As mentioned above, this sets limits on the angular frequency of the system.
Coupled with the equation of state, assuming long range Coulomb interaction
max
= 1050
M
M
1/2
10km
r
3/2
Hz (25)
with a 1.2M
= 16
(27)
=
_
_
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 h
+
(t r, r, , ) h
(t r, r, , )
0 0 h
(t r, r, , ) h
+
(t r, r, , )
_
_
(28)
(t, ~x) = 16
_
G
(t, ~x; t
0
, ~x
0
)
(t
0
, ~x
0
) dt
0
d
3
x
0
(29)
G
(t, ~x; t
0
, ~x
0
) =
1
4
(t |~x ~x
0
| t
0
)
|~x ~x
0
|
(30)
We are consider the negative parts of the function representing GW traveling
away from the source.
(t, ~x) = 4
_
(t |~x ~x
0
|, ~x
0
)
|~x ~x
0
|
d
3
x
0
(31)
14
We only wish to look at the function over a very small space very far awy from
the source so we can further simplify to
4
r
_
(t r, ~x
0
) d
3
x
0
(32)
h
ij
(t, ~x)
4
r
d
2
dt
2
_
x
0
i
x
0
j
00
(t r, ~x
0
) d
3
x
0
(33)
and since
= 0
00
=
j
jk
v (34)
h
ij
(t, ~x)
4
r
d
2
dt
2
_
x
0
i
x
0
j
00
(t r, ~x
0
) d
3
x
0
. (35)
where =
00
the mass energy density If we look at a binary mass system with
the masses behaving like point masses, we can describe the energy density as a
pair of delta functions with positions x
1
and x
2
of mass M
1
and M
2
h
ij
(t, ~x)
4
r
d
2
dt
2
_
x
0
i
x
0
j
p(t r, ~x
0
) d
3
x
0
. (36)
(t r, ~x
0
) = M
1
3
(~x
0
~x
1
(t r)) +M
2
3
(~x
0
~x
2
(t r)) (37)
h
ij
(t, ~x)
4
r
d
2
dt
2
_
M
1
x
i
1
(t r)x
j
1
(t r) +M
2
x
i
2
(t r)x
j
2
(t r)
_
(38)
4
r
M
1
M
2
R
n
i
(t r)n
j
(t r) (39)
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