P-c

Glass ^
s

Book

V/4^

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in

2011 with funding from

Library of

The

Congress

http://www.archive.org/details/lessonsinphysicaOOwell

IREE BOOKS.]

WELLS'S SERIES OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHIES.

_

[BOOK FIRST.

LESSONS

PHYSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

BY WALTER WELLS,

A.

M.

NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY MASON BROTHERS,

Nos.
5

&

MERCER STREET.

1861.

Entered according

to

Act of Congress,

in the

year 1861, by

Walter Wells,

in the Clerk's office of the District Court of the

United States, of Maine.

2S

S4j

PREFACE

t*
1.

Physical Geography must not be confounded with Physico-Descriptive, or Physico-Statistical Geography.

The

latter

two simply
is

state facts
it

the former, with the statement of

facts,

combines a discussion of the

facts

in a

word, so far as
2.

practicable,

sets forth the causes of

and the reasons

for the facts.

Physical Geography
it

is

not a distinct science, but a

summary
;

of or gleaning from

many
it

sciences

discussing

the

Earth and Lands,

borrows from astronomy and geology

it

contemplating

The Waters,

gathers

its

materials

from universal hydrography; under the head of Climate,

ology
;

simply combines the more comprehensive facts of meteor.

and in the department of Organic Existence,

it

touches upon botany, zoology, and anthropolog3r

An

exhaust-

ive Physical

Geography would exhaust

in

all

natural science.
this subject,

3.

Hence,

making
as are

a school-book

upon

my

principle has been to choose such facts only as are broad-

est in their scope,

most multifarious

in their connections

and

relations, as

come nearest

to being -universal in

space

and
I

time.

4.

have endeavored to bring this

little

essay within the capacity of such scholars as can read with tolerable

proficiency,
5.

and to that end have digested the matter into perhaps a too readily receivable form.
;

Instead of point-blank questions, I have written catch-words, short phrases, for the greater part

first,

to save

the breath of the teacher, and secondly, to compel the close attention of the pupil to the discussion at recitation.
6.

Side-notes have been placed upon the pages to

show the

pupil the progress of the thought,

and to indicate the

bearing of particular facts and reasonings upon the general argument.

getting lost in the book.

They

are guide-hoards to keep the scholar from Therefore, let every learner

But they

will

be good

for

nothing unless the scholar uses them.

study the side-notes as a part of the lesson, and

recitation.

let

the teacher, on his part, take notice of and remark upon them at

7.

I have presented the rationale of the facts, very generally in the form of short chains of argument.
careful to
;

The teacher

must be very
mitted to

have the pupil get hold of them as chains of argument, and not as mere statements to be comthus he will use his materials as fast as he acquires them, and get discipline for his understand-

memory

for

ing, as well as furniture for his

memory.

MAPS, CHARTS,

AND DIAGRAMS.

MAPS.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Co-tidal Lines and Ocean-Tempekature. Contour and Elevation of the Lands. Depression of the Sea-Bed. Ocean-Currents. River-Systems.
Desekts.

Volcanoes.

Fertile Soil.

Lake-Systems.
Winds.

Isotherms.

Monsoons.

Hurricanes.

Distribution of Rain and Snow.

_-_----_-__-____ -62 -------------------91 ------------.-95 -----------------41

-----,-23 ---------Page.

Special Winds.

105

CHARTS.
1.

2.

The Alternate Bands of Hot and Cold Water in the Gulf-Stream. The Temperature of the Gulf-Stream at different depths.

----------59 ------------66
-

1. 2. 3. i. 5.

6.
7. 8.

Representing the Earth in its present shape surrounded by its atmosphere. Representing the Earth as cubical in form, and the arrangement of its waters and atmosphere. Representing the great Tide-waves on the opposite sides of the Earth. Showing the Causation of the Tides. Explaining the Cause of the Change of Seasons. Showing the Influence of the Earth's Shape upon its Temperature.
Illustrating the Influence of different Slopes upon Temperature.
Illustrating the General System of Surface-winds.

----------------------------------------------------87 ----------89 ------. -----97

gg
gij 5*;

DIAGRAMS.

iq 10

Of the
T. Starr

pictorial illustrations, two,

King.

namely Chocorua and Mt. Washington, are from the " White Hills, their Legends, Landscape, and Poetry, by Rev. Published by Crosby, Nichols, Lee & Co., Boston."

Maps, Charts, and Diagrams executed by Rae Smith, N. Y.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
TAGE.

Physico-Geographical Definitions,

PART
THE EARTH
CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER
I.

I.

ATVD

THE LANDS.

The Shape op the Earth. Magnitude of the Earth. Position op the Earth. Motions op the Earth. 9 The Amount op Land. The Position op the Lands. The Forms of the Lands. 13 III. Plains. The Distribution of Plains. Plateaus. The Distribution of Plateaus. 16 Mountains. Hills. The Distribution op Mountains IV. 20 V. Volcanoes. The Distribution op Volcanoes. Islands. The Distribution op Islands. 24 VI. Deserts. The Distribution of Deserts. Soil. The Distribution of Fertility 29
II.

...
.

VII.
VIII.

Phtsico-Descriptive View of the "Western Continent

36
.

Physico-Descriptive

View op the Eastern

Continent.

42

PART

II.

T H E "WATERS.
CHAPTER IX. The Extent of the Ocean. The Depth op the Ocean. The Shape of the Ocean-Basin. CHAPTER X. The Saltness op the Ocean. The Temperature of the Ocean CHAPTER XI.The Tides. Rationale of the Tides. Co-tddal Lines CHAPTER XII. Classification and Causation of the Ocean-Currents. CHAPTER XIII. Physico-Descriptive View of the Constant Ocean-Currents. CHAPTER XIV. Reasons for the Existence of Ocean-Currents. CHAPTER XV. Rivers. Reasons for the Existence of Rivers. Distribution of Rivers CHAPTER XVI. Lakes. Reasons for the Existence op Lakes. Distribution op Lakes. CHAPTER XVII. Physico-Descriptive View op the Several Oceans.
. .

48
52 56 59
62

66 10

....

16
18

PART

III.
84
89

THE ELEMENTS OE CLIMATE.

CHAPTER XVIII. Temperature. The Causes thereof. Modifications of Temperature CHAPTER XIX. The Stability of Terrestrial Temperature. Isotherms CHAPTER XX. General Views of the Winds. Reasons why the "Winds Blow CHAPTER XXI. Classification' of "Winds. Constant, Periodical, Variable, and Special "Winds. CHAPTER XXII. General Views of Rain. Distribution op Rain. Fitness op the System of Rains.

...
. .

92
95

100

PART
'

IY.
. . .

ORGANIC EXISTENCE.
CHAPTER XXIII. The General Adaptations of Plants. The Variety of Plants. Food-Plants. CHAPTER XXIV. The Distribution of Plants. The Floras of the Several Zones CHAPTER XXV. Animals. Adaptation of Animals to the Inorganic "World. Adaptation of Animals
Plants and to
105

109

to
113

Man
Faunas.
. .

CHAPTER XXVI. The Distribution of Animals. The Polar, Temperate-Zone, and Tropical CHAPTER XXVII.Man's Physical Characteristics. Man's Intelligence and Position CHAPTER XXVIII.The Human Races. Descriptive View op the Races

118 122 125

DEFINITIONS/
SECTION
1.

I.
1

5.

The

Circumference of the Earth.

Is the distance

round

it,

measured on a Great

Concerning what does Physical Geography teach

Circlet
6.

It teaches concerning

the earth and lands, the

The Axis

of the Earth.

WATERS, CLIMATE, AND ORGANIC EXISTENCE.

2.

Is an imaginary line passing

center,

through the Earth's

at its

The Earth

is

from North

to South,

and terminating

A
3.

Globe or Sphere.
Its Surface.

surface.
7.

The

Poles of the Earth.

its

Is
4.

composed of land and water,

The Diameter of the Earth.

Are
8.

the ends of

axis, called respectively the

North and South Poles.

What
are the Earth's principal motions
?

Is the distance
side.

through

its

center from side to

Its rotation

upon

its axis,

and

its

revolution about

the Sun.
may
f A Great Ctrcle is one that divides the Sphere into equal parts Equator, or any Meridian, is a Great Circle. the

* This Chapter

be omitted by such pupils

as,

having studied Geog-

raphy, are sufficiently familiar with these elementary definitions.

DEFINITIONS.

SECTION
9.

II.

20.

East Longitude.

CIRCLES ON THE GLOBE.

"What
is

Is distance East,

and West Longitude distance

West
21.

of any given meridian.

Longitude
is

the Equator, or Equinoctial Line

line

An

reckoned.

imaginary

extending East and "West

around the Earth, at an equal distance from each Pole, and dividing the Earth into the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres.
10.

In general from the Prime Meridian of Greenwich, England, 180 East and West.

Latitude.

Is Distance from the Equator, either

North or

South.
11.

SECTION
22.

III.

Distance North of the Equator.

HEMISPHERES. ZONES.
A
hemisphere.
;
;

Is

North Latitude ; South of the Equator, South

Latitude.

High

latitudes are near the Poles

i.

Low

Is half of a globe or sphere

when

applied to

latitudes, near the Line,

12.

e.

the Equator.

the Earth,
23.

it

means Half of the Earth.

Parallels of latitude.

The

Eastern Hemisphere.
;

Are imaginary
from East
13.

circles

extending round the Earth

Lies East of the Prime Meridian

the Western

to

West, parallel with the Equator.

is

Hemisphere "West of the Prime Meridian.

24.

Latitude

reckoned.

The Northern Hemisphere.

;

In degrees from the Equator to the Poles

the Line
14.
it is 0, Tropics.

at

Lies North of the Line

phere, South of the Line.
25.
Zones.

at the

Poles 90.

the Soutliern Hemis-

The

Are imaginary

circles

drawn round the Earth

from
it.

parallel with the Line, 23 28' distant

15.

Are
Zones,

divisions of the Earth's

surface formed

by
five

the Tropics

and Polar

Circles.

There are

The Northern Tropic. Tropic of Cancer

;

one Torrid, two Temperate, and two Frigid.

The Torrid
Zone.
;

Is called the

the

Southern
26.

Tropic, the Tropic of Capricorn.

16.

Lies between the two Tropics

The- Polar
Circles.

hence

it is

some-

times called the tropics.

Are imaginary
allel

lines

drawn round the Earth

par27.

with the Tropics, 23 28' distant from the

The North-Temperate

Zone.

Poles.
17.

Lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the ArcThe Northern

tic Circle.
Circle.

Is called the Arctic

Circle; the Southern, the

28.

The South-Temperate

Zone.

Antarctic Circle.
18.

Lies between the Tropic of Capricorn and the

Meridians.

Antarctic Circle.
circles

Are imaginary

extending North and South

29.

The North-Frigid

Zone.

through the Poles of the Earth, and intersecting

the Equator at right angles.
19.

Extends from the North Pole

the Arctic Circle.
30.

in all directions to

Longitude.

The

South-Frigid Zone. in all directions

Is distance
ridian.

East or "West from any given me-

Extends

from the South Pole to

the Antarctic Circle.

DEFINITIONS.

SECTION
31.

IV.

42.

Cape.

Is a point of land extending into the

water

THE NATURAL DIVISIONS OF LAND.

The land
is

lofty precipitous
43.

cape

is

called a promontory.

divided into.

Shore or Coast.

Continents, Islands, Peninsulas, Isthmuses, Capes,

Is an edge or margin of land bordering on the

Shores or Coasts.
32.

water.
tlie sea.

As

respects elevation above

44.

A Plain in
level,

Geography.

It is divided into Plains,

Plateaus,

and Mount-

Is a surface

of land moderately elevated, and

ains.
33.

generally

though perhaps somewhat undulat-

Continent.

ing and broken.

Is a vast area of land

nowhere

entirely disjoined

45.

Plateau.

or broken by the sea.

34.

Is
Continents
?

an elevated
A Mountain.

plain.

How many
:

Grand

46.

Two
ridian
;

Prime Meand the Western lying West of the Prime

lying East of the

The Eastern

Is a

mass of elevated land of great height but of

limited extent*
47.

Meridian.

Volcano.

35.

The Eastern Continent embraces whatl

three

Is a

mountain that sends forth gas, smoke, flame,

i.

Embraces and Africa.

36.

Grand

Divisions, Europe, Asia,

and

lava,

e.

melted earth and rocks, from an open-

ing called a crater.

The Western Continent embraces what 1

Divisions,

Embraces two Grand and South America.

37.

North America

SECTION
48.

V.

Another Grand

Division.

added by some geographers, called Oceanica, composed entirely of islands in the Pacific and InIs

THE NATURAL DIVISIONS OF WATER.

The waters are divided
into.

dian Oceans.
38.

Oceans, Seas, Gulfs, Archipelagoes, Bays, Straits,

An
a

Channels, Sounds, Lakes, and Rivers.

Island.

Is
tirely
39.

body of land smaller than a surrounded by water.

Islands differ from continents.

continent, en-

49.

An

Ocean.

Is a vast
50.

body

of salt water.

Sea.

Only

in size, for the continents are

surrounded

by

water, and are themselves islands.

40.

Is a body of salt water smaller than an ocean, and mostly surrounded by Land.
51.

Peninsula.

Gulf or Bay.

Is a portion of land almost

41.

surrounded by water.

Is a part of

some larger body of water extending

into the land.

An

Isthmus.

Is a
ies

narrow neck of land joining two larger bod*

Mountain

of land.

definition that

is commonly defined, " A vast elevation more properly applies to a plateau.

of land," a

DEFINITIONS.
A
Sound.

52.

An

Archipelago.

55.

Is a

body

of water interspersed with

many

isl-

Is a shallow Strait or Channel.

56.

ands.
53.

Lake.

Strait.

narrow passage of water, separating two bodies of water. portions of land, and uniting two
Is a
54.

Is a

body

of water either salt or fresh, surround-

ed by land.
57.

A River.
upon the
land.

Channel.

Is a passage of

water wider than a

strait.

Is a large stream of water flowing

-^^^=5#i^^

WHITE HEAD, PORTLAND HARBOR, ME.

_j

PART
THE EARTH AND

THEE LANDS.

MOrXT WASHINGTON.

CHAPTER
The Shape of the Earth.
the Earth.

The Magnitude of the Earth. The Position of The Motions of the Earth.
3.

THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH.

1.

What /owe made

it

round

What

is

the

Shape of the

Earth. 1

It

thus became round in virtue of the attraction

Globular or Spherical.
2.

of gravity,

by which
center.

all

parts of a mass are

drawn

How did

it

get this shape

towards
1

its

The Earth was once molten with heat, and it then became round, like
a drop of quicksilver or melted lead

4.

Why

ought the Earth to be globular

Cause of

its

shape.

No

other form would allow such

!

Reasons
lar.

why

it
|

should be globu-

a distribution of light and heat, of

10

GENERAL

YIEWS

OF

THE
Life

EAKTH.

air and water, as

would be consistent with the

of organic existences.

7.

upon the edges and

corners.

comfort or even
5.

life

No
1st.

plant or animal could live upon the edges and

corners, for no air or water

would be

there.

'Nor

To

illustrate this,

draw and explain Diagram

could they

live in

the middle part of the sides, belie

Ko.l

cause both the air and the water would

deep

enough
8.

to

drown them.
Earth perfectly spherical
i.
1

Is the

The Earth's

sphe-

It is spheroidal,

e.

spherelike

in

roiditv.

form

bulges at the Equator, and

flattens at the Poles.

9.

What makes

it

bulge and

flatten

Cause thereof.

The
its axis,

rotation of the
just as

Earth upon the clay upon a pot-

ter's

wheel bulges and

flattens in parts correspond-

ing to the Equator and Poles.

It represents the

Earth as cat right clown through

thin dark rim,

10.

Why
it

is

the Earth's form spheroidal

the center, and

by the

shows how
it.

shal-

If

were

not, the

waters would
Reasons therefor.

low

is

the atmosphere which surrounds

1

Yet

the

cover the whole tropical region of

the

P al't so thick through as the Earth, nevertheless can and does cover the
atmosphere though only
-jg-tr"

Globe to the depth of miles above the tallest mountains where;

whole earth because the Earth

plants and animals have
ivhole
6.

is

round.

Hence

air to

breathe over the

would have no water at all. Thus scarcely any part of the Earth would be habas the Polar regions
itable.*

Earth*
Also,

Diagram

2d.

THE MAGNITUDE OE THE EAKTH.

11.

The Earth's mean diameter.

of the Earth
is

The mean diameter

12.

7,912 miles.

Maximum

diameter.

The diameter
from side to
13.

of the Earth through the Equator

side, is 7,925 miles.

Minimum diameter.
of the Earth from Pole to Pole,
is

The diameter
7,899 miles.
14.

The

difference.

Its Equatorial diameter is twenty-six miles greatIt represents the

al

or square in form, and as cut right

Earth as (by supposition) cubicdown through

the

er than
is

its

Polar diameter; so that the Earth's crust

in

the center.

The shading shows how

waters

sprung upward thirteen miles at the Equator, a mighty continuous arch spanning from Pole
Pole!
* See

to

how

and atmosphere would be piled up into ovals, and the edges and corners of the Earth would protrude beyond them for hundreds of miles.*

Book Second of

Series for a fuller presentation.

GENERAL
15.

VIEWS

OF

THE

EARTH.

11

Earth's circumference in miles.

THE POSITION OF THE EARTH.

is

The circumference
bers 25,000 miles.
16.

of the Earth

in

round num-

24.

Average distance of the Earth from the Sun.

95,000,000 of miles.
25.
;

Other dimensions.

When

nearer the Sun

Area

of surface, 196,820,000 square miles

Solid

During the Winter of the Northern Hemisphere

it is

Contents,

200,000,000,000

(two-hundred-thousand

nearer the

Sun by one and one

half millions of

million) cubic miles.

17.

miles.
26.

Earth's size just right.

The Earth just

When

farther off?

It

can be shown that the Earth's

is

large enough.

magnitude
cessities
18.

just suited to the ne-

of the case in
its

every particular.
diameter to be halved.

During the Summer of the Northern Hemisphere is one and a half millions of miles farther off from the Sun.
it

Suppose, however,
else

27.

When

are

we

nearest the

Sun

Then everything
in it
;

being as now, the atmosphere

live

would be so deep that no created thing could

for
all

During the Winter we are 3,000,000 of miles nearer the Sun than during the Summer.
28.

living things require an

it

atmosphere

about

fifty

miles deep, but

would then be over

If

Why the average we were twice as

;

distance

is

as

it

is.

far

from the
Earth's position just right.

two-hundred.
19.

fall

Sun, our average temperature would if half so far to 30 below zero 400 above zero.*
So that the Earth
is

The

waters moreover.

from the Sun, our temperature would

rise to
29.

Would
miles,
ly a

cover the entire Globe to the depth of

and so our now beautiful World would be on-

located.

waste of waters.
If the Earth's diameter

In the temperate zone of the Solar System, in

were
doubled.

20.

exactly that part of

it

where just enough of

to secure the

light

Then

the atmosphere would be so shallow and

and heat
of
its

falls

upon the Earth

comfort

rare that neither man, animal, nor plant could live

inhabitants.

an hour in
21.

it.

THE MOTIONS OE THE EARTH.

would
result.

How

deserts

30.

Principal motions of the Earth.

:

The
deserts
22.

lands would be so enormously expanded that

Two
81.

an annual Revolution round the Sun, and

its axis.

rain-winds could not reach their interiors,

and

vast

a diurnal Rotation upon

Rapidity of

would occupy the major part of the land.

Finally,

its revolution.

man would have

too heavy a burden.

in
;

Sixty-eight thousand (68,000) miles an hour; six-

Man
even at
tion
it

ty-one times

has not yet succeeded

subduing the Earth

ball,

more rapid than the winged cannonand six-hundred times swifter than the arrowy

under the supposiits present dimensions would have a four-fold greater surface, and his task in subduing it would be too mighty for him.
23.

flight of the eagle.

32.

Suppose
first,

it

revolved

less

rapidly.

Then,

the length of the year

What then

of the Earth's magnitude

Reasons
revolves as

why
it

it

would
in perfect

be increased;

and

all

plants

does.

As

it is, it is just

right,

because
all

it

is

and animals, which now

* See Book Second of Series.

find

that

adaptation to the wants of

the living things that

dwell upon the face of the Earth.

12

GENERAL
in

VIEWS

OF

THE

EARTH.
of the Solar System received prefor

length

adaptation to their periods of growth and

the
beautiful

other

member
time.

reproduction, would find

harmony

cisely the

same impulse,

no other rotates

in the

turned into confusion and discord.

33.

same
1

Secondly, what of heat and cold

40.
;

Why

does the Earth rotate at

all 1

Both would
ter,

be destructively extreme

the "Win-

doubled in length and augmented in severity, would freeze vegetation to death, and the Summer

would parch and wither whatever should escape the

frosts.
34.

If it di'd not, each day would be six months long and each night six the heat, the glare, the drought of the one, would be as utterly destructive to all life, as the blinding darkness and the palsying cold
;

of the other.*
Thirdly, lahor and food-supplies.
41.

Why

not rotate in twelve hours

The
etable

periods of labor would be protracted beyond

Because there would be only

44-

hours per diem

the endurance of the humaiij animal, and even vegconstitution

;

of deep and sleep-favoring darkness, after subtract-

and

in the

long Winters the

ing twilight and the day; whereas

men and

ani-

chances and the severities of famine would be en-

mals require on an average not

hours.

less

than eight

hanced
35.

in case of

a short crop.

Sailors are the shortest-lived of men, in part

is

Lastly, fall into the Sun.

because their natural rest

42.

broken.

If

the Earth were to revolve less rapidly, nothing

but the miraculous interposition of God could prevent it from falling into the Sun no inferior ve;

As

to plants also.

Plants need upon an average twelve hours a day

of sunlight and twelve of shade, to
fulfill

locity
in

would enable the Globe to keep on its track spite of the enormous attractive force of the Sun.
If the Earth should revolve more swiftly.
it

the vari-

ous functions of their

life.

This

is

especially true

of plants in low latitudes.

36.

If

were

to revolve
it

miracle could keep

more swiftly, nothing but a from flying from the Sun into
and
frozen.

43.

In point of

labor.

The
plants,

times of labor and rest to man, animals, and

the outer darkness and cold of space, so that every

living thing
37.

would
if

perish, starved

Even

prevented from flying

would be infringed upon; times now just in harmony with the length of day of plants, we say, for the day-time is the time for work to plants as
;

off.

truly as to animals.

The year would be

shortened, plants could not

;

mature, nor harvests ripen

the food-supplies of the

living

44.

Why

not rotate in forty-eight hours ?

World would be
would
38.

cut

off,

and thus everything

Both day and night would be too long

animals, and plants
ness, activity,
;

for

man,

die a death lingering

and

terrible.

the one too long for wakeful;

The Earth's

Rotation.

Maximum
hour
that of a
called a

velocity 1,040 miles per

The Earth'B rotation and its rationale.

rest

and thought the other too long for and slumber. No man, no plant, no animal,

at the Equator, a trifle less than

can habitually wake or sleep twenty-four hours.

45.

cannon-ball
is

its

-period,

Thus, in mid and in high latitudes.

Day,
its

the unit for measureffect,

ing time;

most striking

the

Man
alternation
their

and animals have to hide themselves from

of day and night.

39. Its physical cause.

the continuous daylight for rest, and plants

bow

heads and go to sleep before sunset, compelled

of their constitution.

by an inexorable law
it
;

We

know nothing about

we

can only refer

;

the fact to the impulse of the creative hand

no

* See Second

Book

of Seriea.

THE
46.

AMOUNT

OF

LAND.

13

As

to heat

and

cold.

of the Earth,
tion, its

its

Shape,

its

Magnitude,

its

Posi-

The daily variation of temperature would become destructively great; a continuous tropical
sunlight of

twenty-four hours would

it
;

kill

every

Motions, are consummately adjusted to the necessities of the case, and that the Earth is one noble harmony.
48.

plant exposed to

a night twenty-four hours long

would have a
Equator.
47.

frost at sunrise, even

beneath the

How

have

we reached

that conclusion

What
all

conclusion do

we reach

General conclu-

That

sion.

By supposing the Earth to be changed in the above features, and noting what disastrous consequences would certainly result from the changes,
however
slight

the general

conditions

they might be.

CHAPTER

II.

The Amount of Land. The Position of the Lands. The Forms of the Lands.
THE AMOUNT OF LAND.
49.

than the vastness of the oceans has delayed

that scarcely do
54.

it.

So

Area of the Earth's surface.

we want more
there so

land.
1

196,820,000 square miles.

50.

Why
:

then

is

much

land

How much

1st
is

Because

in

ages to come,
is
;

land

need
;

all

the land there

men may actually mankind may and probat

54,820,000 square miles

in the

Continents,

47,320,000 square miles 7,500,000 square miles in the

ably will become vastly

present.
55.

more numerous than

Islands.
Secondly, why'?
51.

An
first

apparent waste.

Because so much was needed

Not
a
waste

to

make any

of

it

At
to

sight there
in

would seem
having only
Earth's
to have so land.

suited for the present orders of living things.

much
56.

be a great waste

This point more

fully.

so small a portion of the

surface occupied with land.

52.

Long

before

Adam was

created,

much

of the
;

present land-surface, was covered with water

sequently the
little

con-

Is the land all

improved %

Not

one-fourth of the land has been put to use

to have more,

land there was, was bog and morass, because the waters held dominion on the
Globe.
57.

and improved, and therefore

simply involve
53.
still

would

greater waste.

Hence what follows

f Result of changing the amount of

land.

Any
"fhe lands as respects civilization.

diminution of the present

to restore that
it

amount of land tends

The

vastness of the lands

tercourse of

by obstructing the inmankind, has delayed civilization, more

state of things, because

tends to

restore the waters to their former dominion.

14

THE
What
lived

POSITION

OF

THE
66.

LANDS.

58.

upon the land

at that time

Striking feature.

and creeping things, small and Man, the nobler vegetables and animals, great. could not exist upon the Earth at that time, because
Reptiles, vipers,
it

The most
lands,
is

striking feature in the Position of the

immense preponderance of land in the Northern Hemisphere; neither the physical cause
the

was so boggy and rain-drenched.

59.

of nor reason for this fact can be assigned.

67.

The

effect of

diminishing the lands considerably.

all

What

is

worthy of notice, however

Would
animals,

be to destroy

the nobler plants

essential

and
to

by removing the conditions

their existence, or at least, to their health

and

well-

being.
60.

That water occupies that Hemisphere (the Southern) whose Summer-heat and Winter-cold tend to be most intense and that land prevails in the Northern, whose climatic extremes tend to be less
;

The
:

effect of increasing the

amount of

land.

severe.
68.

would obstruct human intercourse, and thus retard the march of civilization the hardest battle man has, is to overcome vast land-spaces.
First
It
;

Area of land

in the several Zones.

In the Torrid, 21,000,000 square

miles
;

in the

Temperate, 30,000,000
;

Land in the several Zones.

square miles
61.

in the Frigid, so far

Second, the effect as respects deserts.

as ascertained, 3,000,000 square miles.

It

and more
Globe.
62.

would render inevitable the existence of larger frightful deserts than now exist upon the

69.

Pre-Adamite positions of the land.

The
How
so
"i

lands

had

entirely

different

locations in

the ages before the creation of man.

The

present

lands must have been submerged forages, to

for

show

Several millions of square miles of land are deserts even

oceanic action and marine remains on so vast a scale

as they do.
70.

now

more

land, there
for rain,

mand
rain.
63.

want of water; but if there were would be Jess rain, and more deand hence more deserts for want of
amount

But what of the

present positions

They
best
fit

are such on the whole as

the Earth to be the dwell-

Why
are
are.

the lands

where

they

What
is

then of the present

of land

ing-place of ihe living things -up-

It

just such as
it

things;

is needed in the present order of could not be considerably increased or

on

it,

and could not be materially

and essentially changed without detriment.*

71.

diminished without disastrous consequences.

If the lands
first,

were

all in

the Torrid Zone.

THE POSITION OF THE LANDS.

64.

Then

the rain-supplies of the Earth would

Area

of land in the

Northern and Southern Hemis

be inadequate, for the land would need more rain, whereas there would be much less than at present.
72.

pheres.

Secondly, plants and animals.

In

the

Northern

Hemisphere
in

All other than tropical plants and animals would

Land
eral
in

39,820,000

square miles;

the

the sev-

Hemispheres.

Southern

Hemisphere

15,000,000

be blotted out of existence, and the World be shorn of one half of its glory and usefulness.
73.

square miles.
Thirdly, man.
is

65.

In the Eastern and Western Hemispheres

The Torrid Zone

ical,

not as favorable to the phys-

In the Eastern 38,820,000 square miles; in the Western, 16,000,000 square miles; this is not a
P/iT/sz'co-geographical

mental, and moral development of

mam

as the

Temperate Zones.
* See Second

nizes

fact, because nature recogno Eastern or Western Hemisphere.

Book of

Series.

THE
Then why not have
T

FORMS
the

OF

THE
Do

LANDS.
the Grand Divisions have similar contours'!

15

74.

all

the lands in

Temperate

79.

Zones

Because
imals

all

Tropical and Polar plants and an-

would have no favorable conditions for living; and the Earth was made, in part, to give them a
chance to
75.

They do not; Europe and North America have irregular contours or a broken coast-line Africa and South America an unbroken coast
;

Different contours of the lands.

live,

and

live

comfortably.
or shore.
in the Frigid

Why

have any land

Zones

80.

Is
is,

Because thousands of animals, and millions of to say nothing of myrbirds, put that land to use
;

an irregular coast-line an advantage 1

it

It

because

opens the

way

to

commerce, and"
extend into the

iads of plants that have a right to

life,

even though

suffers the influence of the sea to

they are very small and very humble.

land.
81.

Europe

in proof.

THE FORMS OP THE LANDS.

76.

Europe has an exceedingly broken

coast,

hence

Prevailing form of the lands.

her opportunities for commerce, her temperate and harvest-favoring climate.

82.

The

triangular form

both the
General view of
the land-forms.
;

On

the other hand.

Americas

are triangles, also Africa

and Asia, with Europe, forms a triangle whose vertex is Spain, and

whose base
77.

rests

on the Pacific Ocean.

this form.

Africa and Australia have scanty facilities for commerce, and a dry, parching climate, in part because not opened to the sea by a broken coast.
83.

Advantages of

Why
1

did not Providence give

all

the lands a broken

coast

Eirst, a greater

length of coast
is

open to commerce
than would be
if

thus secured,

Reasons for the forms of the lands.

the lands were

men

For the same reason that he does not give all the same measure of health, talent, and oppor;

circular or square.
78.

tunity

because he did not choose

it

to,

and because

he could not have done

Secondly, as to winds.

without a miracle.
1

The

interiors of the continents are vastly

more

84.

What

alone

is

required of each of the lands

it

winds of the
cular.

open to the vapor-bearing and climate-tempering sea, than if they were square or cir-

To improve
rest.

the gifts

has

and each has

superior to

its
all

pe-

culiar gifts in point of which

it is

the

16

PLAINS.

CHAPTER
Plains.

III

Distribution of Plains.

Plateaus.

Distribution of Plateaus.

PLAINS.
85.

90.

Moreover, other forces.

rains,

Mean

elevation of the lands.

all

The
Mean elevation of the lands.

If the

lands were
level,

smoothed
above the

lightning,

and

and the winds, and the dews, and the all the motors of nature, have helped
asperities of the land
;

off to
level

the height of that

feet

wear away the

thej'

and though

would be 1,612

work

slowly, yet in myriads of ages they ac-

surface of the sea.*

86.

complish much.
91.

All vertical Geographic measurements.

Why

were the lands thus smoothed down

All Geographic measurements of Elevation of Depression are

because this alone,

and
First,

made from
is

the Level of the Sea,

;

because the great and uniof mankind,

not subject to variation

the the

versal

labor

namely,

lands rise and sink, but the ocean's volume

same from age

to

age

is

the cultivation of the Earth,

would

Reasons why the lands are largely

plains.

by
it

this
92.

means be greatly
And
second.

lightened.

" Such as Creation's morn beheld, so rolls

87.

now."

The

Plain.

Is the prevailing form of surface

General view of
plains.

upon the lands; nearly

three-fifths

Because the intercourse of man with man from one side of the lands to the other would be facilitated, and just in the same proportion would civilization
be advanced.
93.

of all the lands are plains.

88.

Plain in Geography.

How

the Earth's surface once was.

A surface
erally level,

of land moderately elevated, and genrolling in undulations,

though perhaps
hills,

down,

Before the surface of the Earth was thus worn it was undoubtedly like the surface of the
be-

ridged with

furrowed with ravines, or traversed

by

valleys.

Moon, craggy, precipitous, and rugged, almost yond conception.

94.

89.

How came

the lands to be plains

Man

could not do whatl

live
;

All the lands have been, at one

Cause of
the

time or other, submerged by the

ocean
;

Man

could not

comfortably, or even tolerably,

plains.

upon such a surface

itable labors of life
ilized,
;

the dissolving action of the

could not carry on the inev-

waters, aided

by currents and

could not become a

social, civ-

tides,

wore away the surface of the lands to

* This
is

nationalized being.

plains.
95.

The

universality of plains, then.

604 feet higher than

feet.

Humboldt

assigns in his Cosmos

his figure

being 1,008

Since his calculations were made, surveys have proved

is

Evinces the providential care of the Creator, and

the pains he took to render the Earth
residence of man.
fit

that the whole of western North America

an enormous upland, and exto be true of that region.

plorations in South Africa have showed the

same

for

the

His figure

is

certainly

much

too low.

THE

DISTRIBUTION

OF

PLAINS.
Both

17

THE DISTRIBUTION OP PLAINS.

96.

104.

also.

The

entire

bed of the Ocean.

See

Are
mighty
Map
2,

fertile,

well-watered,

Constitutes one vast and continpage

rivers;

and channeled both have enormous wooded

central

by
re-

uous

plain,

000 square

miles,

whose area is 135,000,and whose depresoceanic surface

is

gions, the

Woods of

43.

North Am'erica, and

vast grassy

the Selvas of the

Amazon; both have

sion below the

tracts, the Prairies of North

America, and the Llanos

two miles on an average.

97.

and Pampas of South America.

105.

The main

points of dissimilarity.
lies in

The

entire center of the Western Continent.

Are
Zone

that the northern plain

the Temperate
;

Consists

of plains extending from the Arctic

chiefly, the

southern in the Torrid

the northern
is

the norththe south-

Gulf of Mexico, and from the Caribbean Sea to the southern extreme of Patagonia.
to the
98.

Ocean

ern contains deserts of considerable ern none of any extent

;

size,
is

broken by
en-

Division of this Plain-System.

indentations of the sea, the southern

nowhere

of two grand diCentral Plain of North America, and the Central Plain of South America.

This system of Plains consists

tered

by the sea

the northern has outjutting pe-

visions, the

ninsulas, the southern

none

the northern has enor-

mous
106.

lakes, the southern none.

The Eastern

Continent

North of the

parallel of 50.

99.

Dimensions of the North- American Plain.

Consists of a vast plain that stretches

It is 2,500 miles long
;

through

2,500 broad in the North,

France,

Germany, Russia, and

Siberia,

from the

and 1,000

in the

South; average breadth 1,800 miles;

Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean,

its

continuity being

area 4,500,000 square miles.

100.

broken only by the Ural Mountains.

107.

Two

water-sheds.

The

boundaries of this

Great Northern Plain.

Are formed upon

surface from East to

it

by a

gentle elevation of

its

West

in the

mid

latitudes of

the Continent; this ridge separates the tributaries

of the

Arctic Ocean from those of the

Gulf of

On the North are the waters of the Polar Ocean, on the South the huge mountain-chains that form the spine of Europe- Asia.
108.

Mexico.
101.

Dimensions of the Great Northern Plain.

Boundaries of the South-American Plain.

Length over
miles.
109.

190, or

about 10,500 miles

breadth

500 miles on an average; area 5,250,000 square

bounded on the West by the Andes, on the by the Atlantic Ocean and the Brazilian Mountains; on the North by the Atlantic and
It is

East

Characteristics of the

Great Northern Plain.

the Mountains of Guiana, and on the South

nates in a point.
102.
Its dimensions.
;

it

termi-

Climate humid and temperate in the West, dry and excessive in the East. Soil good in the West,
barren in the East.
Surface so level that not an

eminence need be crossed so high as the Great

Are, length 3,900 miles breadth varying from 900 to 1,800 miles, on an average about 840 miles
area 3,500,000 square miles.
103.

Pyramid, from ocean to ocean.

110.

Another immense

plain.

These two Plains

in point of form.

Extends across the North of Africa through Egypt, Arabia, and Hindoostan, and laps upon
Farther India;
its

Strongly resemble each other, both being triangles with their vertices pointing

continuity

is

broken by the

South, and their

mountains of Egypt, Arabia, and Hindoostan, and

bases trending Northwest and Southeast.

by indentations of the

sea.

18

LATEAUS.
bounded.

THEIE

DISTRIBUTION.
119.

111.

This

Great Southern Plain

is

Area of

all

the plateaus.

by the Atlas Mountains, the Mediterranean Sea, the Mountains of Persia, and the Himalayas; on the South by the Plateau of South Africa and by the Indian Ocean.
the North
112.

On

Somewhat
is

less

than two-fifths of

all

the lands

occupied with plateaus.

120.

Why do

plateaus exist 1

Whatever reasons there are

the

for
Reasons for the existence of tablelauds.

Dimensions of the Southern Plain.

the existence of plains in general,

Eange
miles.
113.

in longitude 105
;

breadth from 200 to

same hold good

for the exist-

1,000 miles

area from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 square

ence of plateaus, because plateaus

are plains
;

together with the additional considera-

Characteristics of the

Southern Plain.

tions subjoined.
121.
First, transition-slopes.

Climate excessively arid and hot in the West,

humid and hot

in the
114.

in the

East;

soil

miserably barren
in the East.

They

serve as stepping-stones, or transition-planes

facilitating

West, exceedingly productive

between lowlands and mountains,

intercourse,
rivers
122.

human

The Northern and Southern Plains compared.

is

North of the great mountain-spine of the one has a climate moist and cool, the other dry and hot the one is fertile in the West, and infertile in the East; whereas the other is barren in the West, and fertile
the continent, the other South
;

The one

may

and affording easy slopes down which run with measured rapidity.

Secondly, summer-retreats.

In hot countries they furnish cool retreats from

the summer-heats of the plains
airs for
;

and

drier,

purer

such as languish amid the humid sultriness

in the East.
115.

of the lowlands.
123.

Australia so far as known.

Thirdly, moisture.

Is a vast plain, skirted on the

East by mountains,
in the

They gather moisture from

bluff borders,

the clouds upon their

rivers of the low-

and so

slightly elevated as to

be very largely

and thus supply the

central parts

below the

level of the sea.

lands during the seasons of drought.

124.

Fourthly, variety of products.

PLATEAUS.
116.

Such
a
Definition plateaus.

plants and animals can live upon plateaus as

A Plateau
Plateau or

is

what

cannot thrive upon the neighboring plains, and hence

of

A
117.

Table-land

is

the productions

and wealth of a country are

en-

highly elevated plain.

hanced by them.
%

When

does a plain become a plateau

When

elevated so high as to have

its

climate,

distribution of rains,
ified largely

of plants and animals,

;

mod-

THE DISTRIBUTION" OF PLATEAUS.

125.

thereby

perhaps, in general, a plain

if its

The Continents themselves.

contrasted with the bed of
See
43.

may be regarded
2,000
118.
feet.

as a plateau,

elevation equals

When
lands,

Map

2,

page

the ocean, are stupendous tablethe table-lands

%

What produced

whose mean elevation above

quarter miles.
to

The subterranean

volcanic forces
Cause of the
table-lands.

the sunken plain of the sea-bottom

is

that raised the continents from be-

Two and a
126.

neath the waters, acting in some

calities

lo-

The plateaus

be mentioned hereafter.

with unusual power,

lifted

Are
piled

simply subordinate

or

secondary uplands

large portions of the land to the height of plateaus.

upon the surface of those primary highlands!

THE

DISTRIBUTION

OF

PLATEAUS.
and general
elevation,

19

the continents

or rather those parts of the prithe highest.

direction, length,

and

differs

mary highlands which were upheaved

127.

from it only
133.

in

having a greater width.

The Grand Plateau -System op the Western

The Grand Plateau-System of the Eastern

Continent.

Continent.
basis
rest,

Forms a
Mountains

upon which the Andean and Eocky

an upland 8,000 miles long, and

Extends

in a

continuous belt of highlands from

from 100 to 1,500 broad.

128.

the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian and Black Seas;

and from thence through the disconnected highlands

of Turkey, Austria, Switzerland, and Spain, to the

The Plateau-System of North America.

;

Extends from the Isthmus to the Arctic Ocean bounded on the West by the Pacific Ocean, on the' East by the 105th meridian area 3,500,000 square
;

Atlantic Ocean.
134.

This Plateau-System forms what

miles.
129.
Divisions of the North- American Plateau-System.
is

The

basis

of the various mountain-chains that

constitute the spine of the continent, Europe-Asia.

The North-American Plateau-System

into

divided

135.

The successive

links in this chain of uplands.

Plateau of Mexico, the Great Interior Basin, and the Rocky- Mountain Plateau: merely different names to different parts of one vast systhe

tem.
130.

Are the Plateaus of Spain, Switzerland, Ausand Turkey ; the Plateau of Asia Minor ; the Plateau of Iran, and the Great Oriental Plattria,

eau.

The Appalachian Plateau.

136.

Africa South of the desert-plain of Sahara.

Situated in the eastern part of the United States,

is

a long narrow upland, which follows the trend of

extends

Is

the coast, and

800 miles from South to

feet average elevation

supposed to be an enormous plateau of 2,500 explorations so far as made,

;

North.
131.

justify the assignation of

still

greater elevation.

The Plateau-System op South America.

137.

Characteristics of table-lands.

Extends nearly the whole length of the continent, 4,400 miles

Table-lands are noted for

aridity,

infertility

of

soil,

for

long, 350

broad, area 1,540,000

and

for

excessive

heat and

cold;

but

square miles.
132.

they are noted also for salubrity, and for the invigorating influence exerted by them upon the bodily
in

The Brazilian Plateau.

point of

Strongly resembles the Appalachian

and mental constitution of man.

20

MOUNTAINS,

CHOCORUA.

CHAPTER
mountains.
Hills.

IV.

The Distribution of Mountains.

140.

MOUNTAINS.
138.
(

What

is

a Mountain-Group

What

is

a mountain ?

A
General features of mountains.

number

of mountains clustered together in a

See Geographical

Definitions,

limited tract of country.

141.

No. 46.)
139.

What

is

a Mountain-Chain

In what forms do mountains appear

long

line

of mountains stretching across a

In Groups, Chains, and in Solitary Peaks.

tract of country.

MOUNTAINS.
142.

21

Average height of some of the great chains.

miles above the level of the Sea.
1

151.

Moreover, snow and

ice

ice.

About Three
143.

Snow and
in the

accumulating

in
all

mountain-gorges

Winter, continue to melt

Summer, and

the

What

is

the height of the loftiest peaks

water runs into the streams.

152.

ain

About Five and a half miles; the loftiest mounton the Globe is Mount Everest of the Him-

What advantages result t

alayas, 29,002 feet in elevation.

144.

on our

The commerce and manufacturing carried on uprivers, can flourish, when otherwise nothing

What produced

Mountains'?

could be done.
153.
Cause of Mountains.

"When the

force which

upraised

Second, in respect to the water-sheds.*

the lands from beneath the waters,

acted with very great power at

any

Mountains are to the continental water-sheds what the ridgepole is to the roof of a house, because they set the waters that
to running into the sea again.
154.
fall

given

spot,

the crust of the Earth

spot,

upon the

lands,

was broken up at that ter made a mountain.

145.

and the upheaved mat-

Therefore, they are what

How

were mountain-chains formed

When
146.

the force broke through a long

line contin-

by which the Earth

bog.
155.

Necessary parts of the great system of drainage is kept from becoming a vast

uously, a mountain-chain

was formed.
mountains were
pro-

Third, in respect to minerals, etc.

How
1

does

it

appear that

duced thus

Because the land on

gradually rises to
its

all

sides

of a mountain

Mountains disclose to us the hiding-places of the minerals and metals it is hardly possible that we
;

base, as if raised

by the same

should be able to find those indispensable elements

in

great variety or

abundance,

if

force that formed the mountain.

147.

there were

no

mountains.
156.

But Secondly.
the base-line upwards, mountains are gen-

Fourth, in respect to plants and animals.

From

erally very steep

and

through the strata

lent upheaval.
148.

crowded up beneath, by a sudden and vioprecipitous, as

if

Mountains furnish suitable habitats! for a great and animals within a narrow range of country, so that its people have greater wealth
variety of plants

and more numerous comforts.

157.
is

And

Thirdly.

Fifth,

mountains

fertilize

the plains.

The rock
showing that
149.

at the top of the tallest mountains

in the

of the same sort as that found deep

it

Earth,

Mountains are continually wasting and crumbling under atmospheric influence the pulverized
;

came from the depths of the Earth.

materials are carried

down by

torrents,

and spread
fer-

Why

do mountains exist 1
Reasons for the existence of mountains.

over the surface of the lowlands, and thus their

tility is

kept up.

So that mountains are vast comit

First,
rivers,

mountains give birth to and nourish them so that-

post-heaps scattered over the Earth to keep

from

running out
158.

they go not dry during the rainless season.

150.

Mont Blanc alone.

calculated to yield yearly 80,000 tons
is

How

do mountains do

Has been
this 1
all

of rock-matter, which

spread over the subjacent

The

cold air about their summits extorts

the
* Water-shed, a slope of land

moisture from the winds, .and their rocky masses

down which waterB may

run.

shed the

rain, so that it all

runs off to the lowlands.

f Habitats, homes, suitable conditions for living.

22

HILLS.

valleys

and

plains.

Egypt owes her

exhaustless
161.

HILLS.
The
cause of hills. hills

fertility to
159.

the dust of the

perish.

interior mountains.

Thus mountains

In part the

were upheaved
General view of

Even

as living things, even as the

"

worm

moth and the Their flowing fountains wear out the

even as the crimson pulse wears

by

the

same

force that
;

upheaved
they

hill?.

the mountains

and

in part

mountain-heart,

have been formed by running waters, that

out the heart of

160.

man

!"

have gullied out the valleys and ravines

Lastly, mountains as respects man's culture.

between them.

Mountains are the alphabet through which

God

62

Of what use are

hills 1

has most clearly written the awful majesty of his

They carry out to more

universal, results,

important, because more

power so that they fill the soul with sublime emotions and contemplations, and lift it, as their gleaming spires are lifted, toward heaven.
;

the same offices that are per-

formed by mountains.
163.
First,

water-supply.

Slowly dispensing the water that falls upon them, and that penetrates into their mass, they supply the

deep springs.
164.

Also, brooks, etc.

They
trickle

feed innumerable brooklets

and streams

that

through the pasture and field, watering them

abundantly.
165-

Second, drainage.

As
each
scale,

mountains set the waters to running

hills

off

from
from

great continents, so
little

cause
;

it

to run off

tract of country
still

so that on a smaller

but

more

universally, hills help drain the

Earth.
166
Third, various plants.

Various plants grow upon them that

flourish

will

not

upon the lowlands, so can have a more various diet,

167.

that living creatures

Lastly, objects of beauty.

They

are objects

of exceeding beauty,

and as

such contribute to the happiness and culture of

as an emotional
168.
Hills hills

man

and

intellectual being.

and mountains as respects man's condition.

Both

and mountains make

in

man's condition harder

various

Influencc of hill8

m
-Ltoare-awooTT.

nrl ^q mwucft.

an ^ mountains uponman's condition.

First,

169.

locomotion.
it

AKCHED KOCK, MACKINAC.

They render

more

difficult to travel

about from

WATP W*l- THE UISTH1BUTIH' S

Explanation
J)oU-k s7uUZirig
Lit/lit

MESEMTSTC1LCAIM

denotes F,-iif,Iity\

do

do

TnferiJMef

Dotted'

do

do

Deserts

KajLSLe of

Oceanic Stu'iace-temperatuJ : V
!

on., also

o gaAgiq jog^ro

^ iawes >m> cjeah^temfkmattdmie

JSoteJigura, Tmderaiored.thus 79" denote the Oceanstempcrcuturc for that region,.
T. tides

- Rojitetn rutmerate, tour ofhigh

tide.

"

THE

DISTRIBUTION

OF

MOUNTAINS.

^3

one part of the land to another, and compel man

to build expensive and devious roads to avoid or

tience

and endurance are cultivated and strength-

ened.

surmount
170.

their

own enormous

bulks.

Secondly, agriculture.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF MOUNTAINS.

difficult for
178.

They make
farm
is

due and cultivate the lands

him to subwork upon a hilly twofold harder than upon a level one.
it
;

much more

The two Great Mountain-Systems.

See
43.

the

There are only two MountainSystems on the Globe, extensive

Map

2,

page

171.

Thirdly, drainage.

enough
sal,

to be

regarded as Univerother mountain-systems

or in other words, as pertainto the

The water running

land too wet
172.
;

off

from the

hills,

leaves

them

ing

whole Earth ;

all

too dry, and gathering

at their bases, renders the

are comparatively limited and local.

179.

thus the

damage

is

twofold.

The two Systems

are.

Fourthly, deserts.
all

First,

The Rocky-Mountain and Andean

;

Sys-

Lofty mountain-chains extort

the sea-winds, so that
it falls

the vapor from

tem of

upon the seaivard side,

side.

and leaves the land a desert on the other

173.

Western Continent and second, Tnn Euhope-Asian System that bisects the vast continental triangle of Europe Asia.
the
180-

Example.

The Rocky-Mountain and Andean System.

The mountains on

the western coast of the Unit-

Extends North and South from the Arctic nearly

to the Antarctic Ocean, through every variety of
climate,

ed States cause the Great American Desert, cutting off the rain-winds of the Pacific Ocean from
174.
it.

contains

the most tremendous volcanoes,

silver

and the richest gold and

Yet
if

mines on the Globe.

the land were

level ?

181.

Offsets therefrom.

We should be vastly worse

ters

off;

for then the wa-

and bogs would form everywhere, breeding pestilence and death.

would not run

The Appalachian Mountains

and the Brazilian Mountains

in
in

off,

North America, South America,

are simply offsets from this great mountain-spine.

182.

175.

"What of

hills

and mountains, then

The Europe-Asian System.

triangle

They

are indispensable parts of the system of

all

Runs Northeast and Southwest, forms a

whose vertex
is in

the World, and in

their features they illustrate

the benevolence of God, and the care he has taken

to

make
176.

the Earth just

fit

for its inhabitants.

us
1

What
it

of the seeming

harm they do

whose base stretches 20 from to 60 North Latthe Pacific Ocean along itude it is confined chief!}' to the North-Temperate Zone, and contains the loftiest summits on the Earth.
Spain, and
;

In part

may be
;

avoided or conquered, and

in

183.

Transverse ranges.

part must be borne

to

and

in either case

it

contributes

Ranges of mountains transverse

North
the Mountains

to

this

great

our discipline and improvement.

177.

Central System; the Ural and Scandinavian on the

;

of Farther India,

of Hin-

How

so

doostan, of Arabia, of Greece, and Italy, on the

If

we conquer
if

the labors and

difficulties,

we

gain

South

may be regarded as continental

offsets

or

a victory, and

we

cannot conquer them, our pa-

spurs from the Central System,

24

VOLCANOES.

THEIR

DISTRIBUTION.

CHAPTER V
Volcanoes.
Distribution of Volcanoes.
Islands.

Distribution of Islands.

VOLCANOES.
184.

192.

How

so

Whole number
in
all.

of volcanoes.

They
lava,
General view of
volcanoes.

serve as vents or discharge-pipes for the

steam, and gases in the hot interior of the

About 424
185.

Earth.
193.

In what various states 1

Earthquakes,

how produced 1
confined, they

Some
some are
186-

are

perpetually

active,

intermittent,

and others are

When
extinct.

the steam and gases are

rend and shake the solid crust of the Globe, causing what are called earthquakes.
194.

Number
290.

of active volcanoes.

About
187.

Are earthquakes destructive!

What

are the

phenomena

of a volcanic eruption'!

Much more

so than volcanoes.

They

give no
;

Moanings and roarings deep in the ground, rumblings and terrible shakings of the neighboring country clouds of smoke intermingled with blazes
;

fore-warning, no place or time for escape

they

shake the breadth of a whole Hemisphere at once,

and overwhelm hundreds of

criminate ruin.
195.

villages

and

cities

with

of

fire,

hot stones hurled

and bursts of blue and purple flame; redaloft for miles from the funnel of

their thousands of inhabitants, in

sudden and

indis-

the volcano; rivers of lava flowing from the crater,

So that what appears

with dense volumes of steam and poisonous gases; showers of ashes descending with the 'rain of the

That volcanoes save vastly more than they destroy, and that satisfactory reasons for their existence

condensing steam, and forming seas of mud.

188.

may

therefore be urged.

What

is

lava

Melted earth, rocks, and minerals

white-hot, at times.
189.

it

comes forth

THE DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES.

196.

How

far does

it

sometimes run, and in how great

Arrangement of volcanoes.
in

volumes 1

Volcanoes are arranged

fifty miles, in

two

classes

or sys-

Sometimes
depth.
190.

a river five or ten miles

tems, the Central and the Linear.

Central

wide, and from one-hundred to six-hundred feet in

System embraces a cluster of volcanic mountains grouped together in a limited area as Iceland and the Sandwich Islands for examples.
;

What do volcanoes thus

occasion

197.

Eruptions of Central Systems.

The

destruction of great numbers of living things,

and of an immense amount of property.

191.

Central Systems in general are noted for the fre-

quency and violence of

istics

their eruptions

character-

Why

do volcanoes exist

Because they lessen the frequen

cy and the fury of earthquakes.

Why
exist.

volcanoes

probably owing to the fact that they are vents for enormous areas they being far removed from
;

other volcanoes.

THE

DISTRIBUTION

OF

VOLCANOES.
204.

ISLANDS.

25

198.

The Grand Linear System.

"with the

From
line

the Mediterranean.

Beginning
del-Fuego,
it

burning mountains of Terra-

The

passes to and terminates in the volcanic

Northward through the volcanoes, Arequipa, Aconcagua, Cotopaxi, and Antisana; Coseguina, in Guatemala; Tuxtla, Orizaba, Popocatapetl, Jorullo, and Colirna, in Mexico.
follows the Ancles
199.

clusters of islands
205.

on the West of Africa.

How

this

system represents the Earth.

This Linear System represents the crust of the Earth as broken or rent by a vast fissure, like a long,
irregular crack in a glass globe.

Thence Northward.
in

Volcanoes re-appear
Alaska, where volcanic

Russian America, and

in

cones of vast height have

Questions upon the Volcano-Map.

NO.
1,

been seen

in eruption.

From

Alaska, the system

bends due West, and follows the Fox or Aleutian Isles to Kamschatka, upon which peninsula numerous active volcanoes
200.
exist.

PAGE

25.

Where
System
?

is

the point of origin

of the Great Linear Volcanic

Thence Southward.
follows the

Any volcanoes in Terra-del-Fuego 1 Any in South America 1 Where 1 Name some

est.

of the larg-

The system

coast of Asia, through

Isl-

Any

volcanoes in North America

Where 1

Name some
appear
t 1

the Kurile, Japan,

Formosan, and Philippine

:

of them.

ands to the Moluccas it here divides, sends off a branch to the 8. E., through various islands, while
the main line turns

Whereabouts upon Asia does the volcanic

line
in

Thence whither does

it

lead

? 1

Volcanoes

Japan

Westward

to

Java and Sumba-

Where does the

line

branch

What remote

points does

the Southeast branch touch!

Trace the course of the Southwest branch.

noes
201.
in

Any

volca-

Central Asia

1
1

Java and Snmbawa.

In the Mediterranean Sea

ate'?

Where does

the line termin-

Are
noes
;

nothing but vast crowded clusters of volca-

38 are grouped together at one end of Java,

How many

central

systems can you count upon the

Map %

and their roarings

may be heard

far out at sea,

day

and

night, ceaseless as the thunder of Niagara.

ISLANDS.
202

From
line

Java.
206.

What

is

an Island

The

bends N. W., and passes along the

vol-

and thence through the small volcanic islands on the N. W., into the

canic mountains of Sumatra,

(See

Geographical

Definitions,
General view of
islands.

No.

38.)

Bay

of Bengal.

207.
it

What

of the

sizes

of Islands

203.

From

this point

passes.

They
ap-

are of every

size,

from Australia, with

its

Through Southern and Central Asia, and

pears
island
in

3,000,000 square miles, to Rockall, in the North Atlantic, six

208.

the Mediterranean Sea, which contains the

rods across.*
of their arrangement
?

of

Santorin
of

in the

Grecian

Archipelago,

What

composed

volcanic
;

debris,

and agitated by

They
tary.

are found in Clusters,

Chains, and Soli-

continual commotions

the Ionian Islands, shaken

;

by perpetual earthquakes and Vesuvius in Italy, and Etna in Sicily, the most celebrated though not
* Rockall
is

a granite block elevated above the surface of the sea, about

the mightiest volcanoes on the Globe.

300 miles West of Scotland.

26

THE
What
are
are islands in reality

DISTRIBUTION

OF

ISLANDS.

209.

the vast ocean.

cate
What islands really are.

Hence

islands have helped edu-

They
ains

the

tops of mount-

man

and table-lands, whose bases

The

220.

Homes

for fish.
oft"

are under water.

210.
cluster

Islands sloping
of islands
1

gradually into the sea furnish

fish

feeding-places to multitudes of
ly in shallow waters.

that can live on-

The

tops of a Group of mountains whose bases

Hence archipelagoes are the

are under water.

211.

best fishing-grounds in the world.

?

What

is

a Chain of islands

221.

Lastly, volcanoes.
sit-

The

tops of a

Chain of mountains whose bases

Two-thirds of the volcanoes on the Globe are

are submarine.
212.

uated on islands
the Solitary island 1

thus their ravages are compara-

What

is

tively harmless.

The top
tion
is

of a solitary mountain,

whose lower por-

222.

Whereas

if

there were no islands

beneath the waters.

Then
%

these volcanoes must either be on the mainthe bottom of

213.

What

is

the broad, flat island

flat

land, or else belch out their fires at

The
which

top of a broad,
is

plateau,

the surface of

the sea.
223.

above the water, but whose slopes are sub-

In either case.

merged.
214.

Vastly more destruction would result to living

thus particularize the different classes
1

Why

things than now.

bring out the fact clearly that islands are simply the result of the ordinary unevenuess of the Earth's surface, and that the law which makes a

To

THE DISTRIBUTION OP ISLANDS.

224.

mountain on the land, makes an island

215.

in the sea.

Total area of island-surface.

Are islands important

The
Globe
Importance
islands.

superficial
is

area of

all

the islands

upon the
Fif-

They

are -exceedingly important

not far from 7,500,000 square miles.

of

in various respects,

not so

much

teen of the larger islands and island-clusters have

together an area of 5,500,000 square miles.
225.

from their
216.

size, as

their position.

For example.

remarkahle circumstance.

St.
is

Helena

in the

middle of the South Atlantic

the

an indispensable watering-and-refreshment place

That the area of the islands in the ocean is aboutequal to that of the lakes and inland seas on the
continents.
226.

for vessels
217.

bound round

Cape of Good Hope.

The Sandwich

Islands.

Island-systems of the Western Continent.

The Sandwich
plies

Islands furnish indispensable supto

of food
Pacific.

and water

the

whalemen of the

North
218.

The Falkland

Islands.

Three island-systems appertain to the Western The West-India Group; The viz., Chain around the South or South America and the* Chain. on the Northwest of North America.
Continent;
;

The Falkland

Islands furnish harbors to vessels

227.

The West-India Group.

to

shattered hy the passage of Cape Horn.

219.

Seem

be out-croppings of a submarine plateau

for the

In ancient times.

of high elevation,

waters

in

their vicinity

Islands formed stepping-stones from land to land,

are shallow

it is

conjectured that this plateau once

it

so that

man

gradually gained courage to attempt

formed a part of the continent, and that

has been

THE

DISTRIBUTION
ac-

OF

ISLANDS.

27

lowered by volcanic or worn away by oceanic

tion.
228.

pelago the seat of the most powerful empire on

the Earth.

In point of importance.

235.

The eastern part

of the Mediterranean Sea.

is filled

The West
Earth.
miles, their

Indies yield to no other islands on the

is

In the vicinity of Greece

with numerous

Their aggregate area

93,000 square
cli-

islands, continuations of the

southerly offsets from

islands in

geographic position favorable, their

exceedingly
fertile,

the Balkan Mountains, re-appearing as

mate

delightful, their soil

and

the sea.
236.

their vegetable productions

unexcelled in richness

Western Mediterranean.

and

variety.

Also contains several islands and island-groups,

229.

The Chain around Patagonia.

tops of the

probably the summits of submarine Alps, continuun-

Are simply the

Andes continued

ous with those on the continent.

237.

der water, hence their wild, desert,

precipitous character.
230.

frowning, and

Of the Indian-Ocean
principal are

Islands.

The Chain on the Northwest of North America.

likewise

Madagascar and Ceylon, whose areas combined are 264,000 square miles, which in
favorableness of location, in agreeableness of
cli-

The

Are

the summits of a

mountain-range

running under water, parallel or continuous with

the coast-mountains.
231.

mate,

in fertility

of

soil, in

variety of vegetable and

mineral resources, are

gions of the Earth.

among

the most favored re-

Greenland and Iceland.

238.

The Great

Oriental Archipelago.

Together form an area of 886,000 square miles of island-surface, which is but little else than a
frightful desert of mountains, glaciers, snow, ice,

and

volcanoes

of very

Comprehends the almost innumerable islands, large and small, which stud the Pacific Ocean on the East and Southeast of Asia probably four;

little

account as respects the

fifths

habitable uses of the Earth.

232.

of the island-surface of the Earth, or 6,000,-

000 square miles.

Continent.

The

Islands of the

Eistem

239.

To

account for this archipelago.

May

be grouped
Islands
or

into three

systems, European

It is

only necessary to suppose the remarkable

Islands,

the Indian Ocean, and the

unevenness of surface which characterizes Asia to

Great Oriental Archipelago.

233.

be continued on the bed of the Pacific, and numerof Europe.

The Archipelago on the Northwest

as the British Isles,
is

ous islands are an inevitable

240.

result.

Known

simply a continu-

The

Chief Islands of the Oriental Archipelago.

ation of the ordinary

surface-formation that char-

Are
land.
241.

Australia, Sumatra,

Celebes,

Papua, Tas-

acterizes the adjoining continent; indeed, the chan-

mania, Java, the Japan Islands, and Neio Zea-

nels

that separate them

from each other and from

the mainland are shallow, showing that they once

might have

been compacted together, and been continuous with the continent.

all

Characteristic features.

The

islands of the Oriental Archipelago have

had

the treasures of nature lavished upon them.

234.

The
;

Features of the British

Isles.

climate of most of
soil for

them
is all

is

perpetual Spring

their

Aggregate area, 120,000 square miles; a soil naturally of moderate fertility, a climate drenched with rains and damp with humid winds yet the
;

the most part

;

spontaneously and exuberis rich,

antly productive

that

rare,
;

ful in vegetation flourishes

there

their
;

and beautimountains
their river-

enterprise of

its

people has

made

this little archi-

are

full

of precious

metals and gems

28

THE

DISTRIBUTION
their sea-sands

OF

ISLANDS.

beds are dusted with flakes of gold

than 30 fathoms,
al

it

follows that in one case the corin

teem

with pearls.

must have been raised and

volcanic forces.

the other depressed

242.

portion of this archipelago.

by

2,400,000 square miles in area, including the Dan-

gerous and Society Archipelagoes,

siding into the depths of the sea.
243.

is

gradually sub-

Questions upon the

NO.

Map
2,

of the Continents.

PAGE 43.
Greatest Elevation'?

Another area Westward of the foregoing.

Including the
Ireland,
is

New

Hebrides, Solomon, and

;

New

Dimensions of Australia"!
Coast-line
f

rising to greater elevations

is

still

anoth-

What occupies
ains 1

its

interior

General height of

its

mount-

er area of subsidence

including

New

met further to the West, Caledonia and the Great Coral-Reef

of Australia.
244.

What What
its

striking natural feature on its northeast coast %

is

the area of
its
1 1

Papua
1

~>

Height of

mountains

Of Java 1 Of Sumatra 1 Area of Borneo % Height of

1

How

these facts are known.

mountains

The
bed
high
is

fact of elevation

and depression
coral
is

in the sea-

Area of Celebes
Islands
1

Of the Philippines

Of the Japan
1

known from
far

the fact that

sea,

found

in

Area of the
car
? 1 1

British Isles

"i

Of Iceland

Of MadagasOf

cliffs

above the
;

and

also at

immense

depths in the waters

but since the coral insect

Of Ceylon

Of the West Indies

Of Greenland

cannot exist out of water, or at a greater depth

New

Zealand

SB^

___

DESERTS.

29

Jftga
-

=.
-

-r

--.-

THE WATER SEEKER.

CHAPTER
Deserts.

VI
The Distribution
of Fertility.

Distribution of Deserts.

Soil.

DESERTS.
245.

the Poles, where cold and darkness so prevail as to

What

forbid any attempt at cultivation.

are deserts
1

Such portions of the Earth's

surface as are for the most
loaste

lanclpart,
Dpfinitionofdesens.

248.

How

deserts differ from other lands.

From what
differ

and unadtivable.
Are any deserts
if

Fertile

has been said, it appears that deserts from other lands only in their inferior improv-

spots on a prevailing desert-surface are called Oases.

246.
entirely

ability
249.

and

their inferior natural productiveness.

waste

Deserts classified.

some coarse grasses, and berry-bearing shrubs grow in the cold deserts
any
;

Few,

ferns, mosses,

Deserts are divided

according- to
their

into classes
Classification

characteristics.

and

Causation

of deserts.

cactuses, brambles, tamarisks,

and acacias

in the

hot

and

the causes

which produce them.

and dry deserts.

247.

250.
utterly uncultivable ?

The

cold deserts.

Are any deserts

Include

all

the waste regions in the neighborhood

None, excepting, perhaps, those

in the vicinity of

of the Poles, and those elevated

upon

lofty

mount-

30

DESERTS.
by the extreme
260.

ains

these are rendered desert

rig-

Mountains, for example.

little soil

or of the cold.
251.

Have very
washing of

More

particularly in the Frigid Zones.

is

rains,

upon them by reason of the and hence mountain-regions are

The Winter

long,

and

terrible

with darkness
;

almost of necessity desert.

261.

that deadens and cold that palsies everything

the

law of vegetation.
soil
;

snows drink up the Spring-heats in their melting, and the oceans choked with ice chill the winds.
252.

The Summer indeed.

Plants cannot flourish upon one sort of they need variety of food just as animals and need it, and without it languish and die.
262.

men

Is
lo)ig,

vehemently hot, and the days are

but frosts come
" in

all

day
a

Accordingly.

"

Dog-days," snows

fall

has time
253.

month before the to grow

Harvest moon," and so nothingman.

Tracts deficient in variety of soils will not bear anything of importance, and hence are deserts.
263-

for the sustenance of

Sandy deserts.
the largest, the most completely infertile
terrible in their aspect of desolation.
1

Tracts upon lofty mountains.

lifted

Are both
surface of the
frost,

Are

far

above the
cold,

warm

and the most

264.

Earth into eternal

desert.

where

and tempest,

Why

larger

and endless drought

The Second

prevail,

and therefore they are

The

physical cause

why
is

they are larger than any

fact

other class of deserts,

254.

the

that sand,

i.

e.,

Class of deserts.

rook broken into

rains

fine

grains but not thoroughly

soil.

Are produced by

the

cutting-off of

by

powdered,
265.

is

the most abundant kind of

to the fact.

mountains intervening betwixt them and the ocean.

Added
255.

In South America.

Along the western

latitudes, exceedingly

slopes of the

Andes

in

low

dry deserts are produced by

the cutting-off of rains from

256.

them by the Andes.*

That sands are carried by the winds, and thus sandy deserts nearly always encroach upon the bordering country, unless hemmed in by mountains or by seas.
2(56.

In the western United States.

is

Their excessive barrenness.

first

The Great American Desert

Rooky Mountains.
257.

due

to the ob-

Is

due

and not unfrequently to

their not pos-

struction of the Pacific's rain-bearing winds by the

sessing sufficient variety

of elements to be good

food for plants.

267

The Third

Class of deserts.

But secondly,
rains
fall

rains.

Are found upon

plateaus

for example, the des-

erts of Central Asia,

and the deserts of the Great

North-American Plateau.
258.

upon sands, they quickly filter down through them beyond the reach of most plants, and hence only a few tough and deep-rooted plants
can
live in

When

The

chief causes of these deserts.

:

them.

Are two

1st,
;

they are elevated into the region of

268.

Thirdly, scanty rain.

prevailing cold
lofty interiors,
259.

and 2nd, the rains fail to reach their and therefore they are very dry.

Sands reflect the sun-heat vehemently, so that whatever vapor exists in the air is not precipitated
because of the heat.
269.

Lastly, their surface-soil.

Has an
infertility

influence in causing and maintaining the

This last principle.

of nearly all deserts.

Explains the fact that tropical sandy deserts are

the largest and most desolate

by reason of the fierce

* See

Map

of the Distribution of Rains.

heat.

DESERTS.
The
influence of

31

270.

soils,

how

great

278.

In illustration.

The

influence of soils in producis

ing deserts
for there

comparatively small;
soil

Light, etc. in their bearing upon deserts.

falling

is

no kind of

but

if

do not water the Sahara Desert, but upon the mountain-slopes South thereof, make them magnificently fertile.
rains
279.

The

furnished with abundant light, heat,

Third answer, reclaim the deserts.

and moi!ure,
vests.
271.

will

bear more or

less

abundant har-

If

men

are ever hard pressed for

room by

rea-

son of the deserts, they can reclaim

The sands
of the Great American Desert.
all

the-deserts.

In
is

Peru, Egypt, Nubia, and India, food for nations

raised the es-

In the western United States, contain

sentials of fertility as

upon land recovered from

The
practical result.

deserts.

abundantly as the

soil

of the

280.

Mississippi Valley

but the want of moisture makes

them
272.

desert.

The World's resources might easily be quadrupled if man would thus turn them to account, and
this

The

he not only

may

do, but he

must

soil

of Greenland.

do, or fail in

duty.

May
ing,
273.

be and probably is good, but heat and therefore harvests will not grow.
The sands
of the Sahara Desert.

is

want281.

Fourthly, deserts rear what

Deserts rear tough, laborious,

loving
soon, under

spirited,

liberty-

men

the blood,

bone, and sinew of desert-

If transported to England,

would

races have kept humanity from running out.

282.

the influence of rains, and dew, and humid winds,

bear food for

274.

man more

or less abundantly.

Some desert-races, indeed.

Have
A
grand question.
Vindication of the existence of
deserts.

suffered themselves to be overcome

by the

How could a benevolent G-od suffer

hardness of their country, and have sunk into gross barbarism. But these have abused the terms of
their probation,
283.

such dreadful wastes to deform

and are alone

to blame.

the aspect of the World, and there-

by seemingly oppress mankind with

over-heavy burdens?
275.

Fifth answer, breathing-places.

Many

deserts

serve

as

breathing-places to the

populous empires on their borders.

First answer.

Desert-winds

are exceedingly pure, and are potent to remove disease.

284.

Nobody is compelled to live in deserts, for the World has abundance of fertile country not occupied

nobody can complain of deserts, or charge God with cruelty on their account.
;

therefore

To

illustrate.

The Plague never The same winds

rages along the valley of the

it.

Nile so long as the Sahara's winds blow across

276.

For example.

penetrating the

fertile

country on

Nobody compels
land, or the
their
ing.
277.
life is

the

Esquimaux to

live in
;

Green-

the South of the Desert, put to flight the legion of

jungle-fevers and
vail at
285.

Bedouin
hard,
it is

to live in the

Sahara

and

if

liver-complaints

that

there pre-

the fruit of their

own

choos-

other seasons.
Sixth answer, not easily prevented.

Second answer, no

loss.

In the present order of things,

get about as

God

could not

In spite of the deserts,

we

much

prevent the existence of deserts without a perpetual

produce; because the rain that refuses to water

them, waters more profusely the bordering country,
so that
it

miracle

would pay
or power.

for itself,

but such an outlay of power never and he never wastes materials

bears larger harvests.

32

THE
Tropical deserts for example.

DISTRIBUTION

OF

DESERTS.
The Eastern Continent.

286.

293.
it

There are some tropical deserts upon which

does not seem that sufficient moisture could
unless

Contains at least 8,700,000 s'quare miles of land,

fall,

upon which

little

will
is

grow

for the sustenance of

by some mighty miracle, for there are no visible natural means of getting enough water to them.
287.

man

or beast.
Siberia.

This

the continent of infertility.

294.

Also the Polar regions.

Contains 2,000,000 square miles of waste land

one-third sterile tracts of gravel crusted here and

How
light

could the Polar regions receive sufficient

and heat to make them fertile, unless by a miracle not less amazing than if another sun were set to shine upon them ?
288.

there

with

salt;

one-third

marshy moorlands, or
all

Tundra, covered with moss, and frozen

round, save
at the very surface, in

the year

Summer; and

And

one-third cold and craggy mountain-wildernesses.

therefore, finally.

has done the best he could under the cumstances, has made as much of the Earth as
tile

God

295.
cir-

The Great Belt of Sandy

Deserts.

fer-

Embraces the Sahara, of

Africa, 2,700,000 square

as he could,, without violating his established

miles; the Deserts of Arabia, 500,000 square miles;

laws of acting.

and of Central Asia from the Caspian Sea

Pacific Ocean, 1,500,000 square miles.

to the

Total, with

the before-mentioned, 6,700,000 miles.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF DESERTS.

289.

296.

To

the above

must be added.

Area of the

deserts.

Perhaps
without

750,000

square

miles

in

Australia

At

the least possible calculation, and

1,000,000 square miles in Southern Africa, and the

reckoning in the smaller desert-areas, the

of terrestrial deserts cannot
fall

sum

total

Great Indian Desert of Hindoostan.

8,700,000 square miles.
297.

Sum

total,

short of 11,700,-

000 square miles

over one-fifth of the entire land!

But

in addition to the foregoing.

surface of the Earth

290.

Immense waste
Western Continent.
mountains of
is

tracts

lie

scattered

among

the

The

Deserts of the

this

Continent, of which no account

so
little is
is

wastes of Patagonia at one extreme, of Greenland, Labrador, northern British

the

Embrace

here made, because

total

known of them.
really beloiv t'he

Hence the sum

truth.

above given

America, and Russian America at the other- a combined area of at least 2,500,000 square miles,
the rigor of

whose climate forbids agriculture or

life.

Questions upon the Desert-Map.

NO.
1,

any considerable development of vegetable

291.

PAGE

25.

In addition to these deserts.

Are there any deserts in North America'!

lie

Where'?

How
1

Vast

tracts of utter

sterility

along the west-

indicated

ern slopes of the Andes, and on both sides of the

What
What

sort of deserts
1

are

those in the extreme North

Eocky Mountains,
'

the

aggregate of whose area

at the

Their area

annot be

less

than 500,000 square miles

parts

of North
1

America are barren and

is fertile 1

infertile,

though not desert

correct estimate.
292.

What

part of North America

How

is it

indica-

Sum

total.

ted on the

Map
1

Areas of the Barren and Fertile portions

Sum

total of deserts for the

Western Continent,
is

respectively
Is

South America light-shaded or dark-shaded 1

3,000,000 square miles.

The "Western Continent

Why'!

Is

any part of South America barren and

1

infertile 1

Any

eminently

fertile,

or at least, cultivable.

desert

SOIL.

33

What
tile,

part of

it is

exceedingly

fertile
1

Area of the Fer-

302.

All living things.

soil for existence, for

Barren, and Desert, respectively

is

How
Is

Europe shaded
it

1 1

any part of

desert
1

Why How

Depend upon
extreme North
1

without

soil

in the

there could be no plants, and without plants no animals,

Is

any part barren

is

Is

England

fertile 1
1

and thus the Earth would be a hideous un-

How

Asia shaded, light or dark

is

Why
then
1

peopled desolation.
303.

Whereabouts
Is

the dark shading

Is the centre of

Asia

fertile 1
1

How

What

is

meant by

soil 1

any part of Asia

infertile
1

All the various kinds of sand,

What

of the northern part

What makes
1

it

desert
I

clay, loam, marl, earth, or dirt

with

Definition anil constitution of

soil.

Area of the northern deserts

Of the Oases

which the Globe

304.

is

covered.

Area of the
erts
1

infertile

portion South of the

northern des-

What was

all soil

made of?
to

Area of the central deserts

Of the Oases

'?

Area of the fertile regions on the South 1 Has Africa any fertile land 1 Where ? Its area 1 Any deserts in Africa 1 Where 1 Combined areas

Of rocks broken up and ground down

der
1
;

pow-

so that

all soil is

pulverized stone.
soil.

305.

Even those elements of

Where
Africa
t

is

Africa most fertile

Area of the Oases of South

Derived from decaying animal and vegetable sub-

Has Australia any

ly desert
1

fertility

Any

deserts

Their area

stances, originally
306.

came from the powdered

the rocks to soil
1

rocks.

Does the want of heat or of rain make Australia so large-

What reduced

SOIL.
298.

which before man was created were more frequent and terrible than now, broke
First, earthquakes,

The
have
soil.

forces that

made

the

the great rocks, and cracked them

The

fact of

soil.

down
Importance of

to boulders

and pebbles.
and
tides

Is perhaps

the most important

307.

fact in the Earth's physical geogra;

The

currents

of the ocean.

the fact of

soil.

phy first, because soil is universal ; and second, because all living things depend upon
it

for existence.
299. Soil
is universal.

During those long periods in which the different parts of the Globe were all under water, wore away and crumbled the larger rocks to gravel and
sand.

For the broad backs of the

.with a garment;
so

308.

continents,

and the
it

The

rains.

lowest level of the ocean-bed, are clad with

universal,

as as
to

Have helped make

lions of little

soil

rain-drops are like mil-

indeed,
its

is it,

hammers

that

pound the

soil to finer

under the name of earth to have given

our Globe.
300.

name

grains.
309.
All running streams.

The only

exceptions to its universality.

The brook
away

that cascades from the mountains, and

Are ledges here and

tions

there, a

few mountain-tops,

the majestic river that drains a continent, both wear

the rocks to dust
;

and iron-bound sea-shores; and these are excepbecause

soil is

so the idle rivulet

works

so nearly universal.

as hard as the prison-convict at pulverizing stone

310.

301.

The bed of

the sea.

Seat and

cold.

Is spread with soil even to the lowest depths as

copiously

as

the surface of the lands; and the

fails
it

sounding-lead rarely

to bring

up

soil

with

it

Help make soil. In the Polar Zones mountains split and huge boulders burst with the cold. Ledges heating in the sunshine, crack and seam, and gradually crumble away.

from whatever depth

may

reach.

34

SOIL.

311.

The

atmosphere.

319.

panful of ashes.

Eats into or corrodes the rocks, so that they moulder and rust away to dust. How soon the bright, fresh face of the new-split stone grows

Containing perhaps a million grains, was every

atom of

it

taken from the

soil

by

plants,
it.

and the

plants could not have lived without

320.

somber and gray, because the stance and its fresh beauty
!

air eats

away

its

sub-

So that every panful of ashes.

312.

Little plants.

Shows that plants find in soils just what they want to eat, and in just the form they want it.
321.
Soils are

fine roots,

Lichens and mosses penetrate the rocks with and break off atoms from them. Like-

adapted

to water.

They

suffer the

wise

when
the

the plants die, they rot the stone beneath

feed the deep springs; at the

them, and thus dig graves for themselves, and

soil at

make

considerable of

it

them so as to same time they hold near the surface where plants can
to penetrate

water

same

time.

get

it.

313.

Lastly.
soil,

322.

When
soils

the water dries off from the surface.

Earth-worms eat
achs to finer dust.

and grind it in their stomNearly all of our best soil has

The
up

draw the water from the deep ground So that

million
in

to the surface, in order that the roots of plants

been prepared
314.

in these little living grist-mills.

may
in it!

reach

it.

a dry time, every acre of

Enormous power.
Outlay of powand time in
soil.

ground has a

little

suction-pumps working

Has been outlaid in making soil. To crush one cubic inch of stone of
average hardness requires a power
that

er

323.

Soils are

adapted to

air.

making

They
so as to

suffer the air to penetrate their substance

fit it

would

lift

twenty

tons.
years.

are compact
315.

Ten thousands of

and yet they enough to resist the power of air-inmotion, or wind how nice and critical the adaptato

be the food of plants

making soil for earthquakes, and running waters, and rains, and heat and cold, etc., were making soil long before man was created.
in
;

Have been consumed

tion

324.

Soils are

adapted to plants mechanically.

Thus they allow

pass through them
;

the most delicate

likewise the

radicle* to

316.

Soil

is

making

still.

through as an elephant's thigh,

huge root thick to crowd passage

Every earthquake- and earthworm, every drop

of rain, every ocean-current, and river, and moss-

through their mass.

325.

But a storm

arising.

speck on the Earth, helps make more

317.

soil.

They

lay so strong a hold upon the roots, that

So that

soil teaches.

the furious blasts of wind can not overturn the tree.

Together with God's

there shall be a "
is

Thus they
spoken
revelation,

yield or resist just as necessity requires,

!

that

New

and as
326.

if

they had a reasoning soul

adapted to animals.

Earth," for the

new Earth
Soils are
all

continually preparing beneath our feet.

318.
Soils

In that
have been maHejust
right.

animals so far as

made

to

walk upon

them
The
soils.

at

all,

ivalk with ease

and

comfort.

An

adap-

For first, every

tremble
testifies

plant whose leaves

fitness

tation as perfect
of

and admirable
taste, or of

as of light to the

in the

breezes of the World,

greenness, and luxuriit

eye, of

water to the

beauty to the soul

by

its

of man.

ance, and health, that

soils just right.

finds the
* Radicle

i.

e. little

root.

SOIL.

35

327.

The earthworm.
tribes

335.

Why was

the

work

so imperfectly done'?

And
slugs,

innumerable of grubs, and

find sustenance

snails,

and
bed

First,

because with the forces employed, the

;

and bugs,
in the

and

shelter,

and board,
dirt
is full

ground; so that every spadeful of

kindness.
t

of

GodVloving

328.

What has been

said of the universality of soil

work could not be thoroughly done and no more force could be put on, because when the work was done, nothing would be left for it to do, and so it would be waste power.
336.

That, as a general statement, the

But second, God's garden

whole Globe, continents,

and ocean-bed,
with
soil.
Is it not
is

islands,

why boiub universal.

covered

thick

fully

329.

a waste to have

soil so

abundant 1

The Earth is God's garden, and he has not yet made his garden; he has many forces at work upon it even now, and therefore we cannot expect to find the work already done.
337.

Certainly not upon the lands, because though not

all

now

used, the soils already

all

have been, and

may

And

third,

man's probation.

sometime again be
330.

used.

Not upon the ocean-bed.

The soils have been left imperfectly mixed, so that man might be constrained to mix them. That imperfect mixing means, and says to man, sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread."
338.
Soils need cultivation.
is

it

Because that may sometime come to the light, as has already done in bygone ages, and the soil
for use.*

"

By

the

would then be wanted

331.

Even now
plants

used.

There
in

no exception
it.

the finest
Soils

need

culti-

For
miles
live

innumerable root
sea,

the

dirt at the

and richest need

"

Therefore,

vation.

bottom of the
;

and

that, too, at the

less

depth of

herein the soils again

say to man,

and animals not

in
it,

numerous burrow and

By

the sweat of thy

brow

shalt thou eat bread."

to be

and die

finding homes, food, and graves

339.

What justification would seem

needed

therein.

Justification of the outlay of so

332.

Why

were any spots

if

left

bare of

soil f

much power through

in

so

much time

Vindication of the existence of

soils.

Because

rocks nowhere came to the surface,

making

soil.

Power, material,

we

should be greatly troubled to procure hard and

in sufficient

and time are so precious that

them.
340

God

enduring building-materials

abundance

does not allow even himself to squander any of

and without extraordinary

333.

labor.

The rocks and ledges show what 1

rocks and ledges as clearly discover the or-

What justification
soil

is

there

The
dering:

hand of a benevolent Providence as does

itself.
!

Without
for nothing,

the Earth would be waste and

its

good

the almost universal fact of soil

Civilization

would
334.

not be possible without stone

and preservation would be a dead loss of materials and power so soil had to be made at whatever outlay.
and
creation
;

Were

the soils thoroughly mixed together?

;

They were not

for large tracts

341.

What

lesson

is

read to us by the

soils

of sand, or clay, or gravel abound,

Why

imperfect-

ly mixed.

without such intermixture with one

another as
is

needed for

plants.

* See Book Second.

God The lesson of patience. The lesson of the soils. worked and waited, and worked and waited, through countless ages, Shall till his forces had had time to make the soil, man then refuse to work and wait ?

36

THE

WESTERN

CONTINENT.
10,000,000
to the

THE DISTRIBUTION OP FERTILITY.

342.

fall

Western Continent with

its

its isl-

The Area

of the Deserts.
is,

ands, and 20,000,000 to the Eastern with

in

islands.

We have
343.

already learned,

round numbers,

344.

Infertile

and Barren

land.

12,000,000 square miles.

Occupies the remaining 12,000,000 square miles;

4,000,000 of which
;

The sura

total of the fertile lands.

Is

about 30,000,000

square

miles

of

which

fall to the Western and the mainder to the Eastern Continent.

re-

CHAPTER
Physico-Descriptire

VII.

View of the Western Continent.

THE WESTERN CONTINENT.

345.

350.

Second.

The extreme
What
is

simplicity and the vast continuous

a Physico-Descriptive View

length of
851.

its

mountain-chains.

A view which

embraces only Physical or NatuThird.

in their

ral features, with the design of setting them forth

comprehensively, clearly, and

346.
Position of the

proper order.

The

continuousness and unity of

its

plateau-ele-

vations.

Western Continent 1
352.

Fourth.

It lies

between 72

1ST.

Lat. and 54 S. Lat, and

between 35 and 168

347.

W.

The grandeur
tems.
353.
Fifth.

of

its

river-systems and lake-sys-

Lou.

Form of the Western Continent %

of

The form
point

two

triangles,

whose

vertices both

Its
354.

exemption from large deserts.

Sixth.

South, the vertex of die one touching the

base of the other.

348.

The
355.

general and marked

Seventh.

fertility

of

its soil.

Dimensions of the Western Continent 1

8,700

miles in length,

3 250 miles in
;

breadth,

The humidity
falls.

of

its

climate and

its

heavy

rain-

15,020,000 square miles in area

miles, at the
349.

least

breadth 30

Isthmus of Darien.
356.

The Grand

Divisions of the

Western Continent.

Characteristics of the

Western Continent.
its

First,

an enormous length as compared with

two

The Western Continent is divided by nature into Grand Divisions or Continents, known reNorth America and South America.

breadth.

spectively as

NORTH

AMERICA.

37

A WINTER SCENE IN NORTHERN NORTH AMERICA.

NORTH AMERICA.
357.
Position of

360.

Cause of the irregularity of

its

form,

North America'!
Lat.,

It lies

between 72 and 10 N.

and between

Vast indentations of the sea, such as Hudson's St. Lawrence, Gulf of Mexico, etc. together with the large peninsulas Florida and CaliBay, Gulf of
fornia.
;

56 and 158
358.

W.

Lon.
%

In what Zone chiefly

361.

Dimensions of North America.

in

By

far the larger part of

North America

is

in

5,600 miles

length; 3,100 in breadth; 8,600,000

;

the North-Temperate Zone.

359.

square miles in area

tion
;

1,690 feet in average elevamiles, 1

coast-line,

Form

24,500

mile to

each 350

of North America

")

square miles of area.

rests

of an irregular triangle, whose base on the Arctic Ocean, and whose vertex touches South America in 10 N. Lat.

The form

362.

Characteristics of

North America.

Extensive and

fertile plains,

long and narrow

plat-

38

NORTH
infertile

AMERICA.
371.

eaus with a desert or

rivers
383.

surface, magnificent
climate.

Highest peaks.

and

lakes,

and a rather excessive

Their highest peaks are Mount Brown,

feet
;

16,000

The

three divisions of its territory.

and Mount Hooker, 15,700

Mountains of the West Coast.

feet high.

The Atlantic

Declivity,

The Central Plain,

372.

and the Pacific Declivity.

364.

The Mountains
Sierra-Nevada pf
all

of the

West Coast embrace

the

The

Atlantic Declivity.

California,.and the

Cascade-Range

The

Atlantic Declivity embraces

the territory

of Oregon, running from the southern point of the

between the Atlantic Ocean and the Appalachian Mountains characteristics, a moderately fertile soil,
;

peninsula of California to the peninsula of Alaska.

373.

numerous but not large

of the sea, and great

Their loftiest peaks.

rivers, frequent indentations

facilities

for

commerce and

Are Mount Hood,

weather, 14,750 feet
feet in
;

12,000

feet;

Mount Fair-

manufacturing.
365.

The Central

and Mount St. Elias, 17,900 height, the loftiest mountain-summit in North

Plain.

America.

The

Central Plain extends from the Arctic Ocean

to the G-ulf of

Mexico, and from the Appalachian

374.

The Sierra-Nevada.
;

to the highlands
366.

East of the Rocky Mountains.

Rise from 7,000 to 8,000 feet

the gold region in California.

they

lie

East of

Characteristics of the Central Plain.

;

Mean
feet.

elevation of

General evenness of surface

a very fertile
;

soil

the Cascade- Range, 5,000 to 6,000

375

numerous and large

al

rivers

and lakes

great miner-

The Alleghany

or Appalachian Mountains.

resources in coal, lead, iron, and copper.

367.

The

Pacific Declivity
all

Run along the eastern side of the continent, from 34 N. Lat. to the Gulf of St. Lawrence 1,500
;

The Pacific Declivity embraces West of the Pocky Mountains;

rugged
surface, an infertile
sea.
soil,

the territory

characteristics, a

scanty rivers, and

from 3,000 to 6,000 feet in height loftiest peak, the Black Dome in North Carolina, 6,476 feet, surrounded by eleven other peaks, each higher than Mt. Washington in New Hampshire,
miles in length
;

few indentations of the

368.

until recently
376.

deemed

the highest.
of

Mountain-Systems of North America.

:

The Plateaus and Highlands

North America.

Three The Rocky Mountains, The Mountains op the West Coast, and the Alleghany or Appalachian Mountains.
369.

Consist of the Plateaus of the

ains, the

Rocky Mount-

Arctic Highlands, and the Appalachian

Plateau.
377.

The Rocky Mountains.

of North

The Plateaus

of the

Rocky Mountains.
lie

The mountain-spine
about 5,000 miles
;

America, extend

from the Arctic Ocean to the Isthmus of Darien,

The

plateaus of the

Rocky Mountains

upon
wid-

mean

elevation in the North, 1

both sides of the mountains, extending

est parts

in the

mile, in the central parts, l

miles

through Mexi1 to

co they consist of isolated peaks from

high.
370.

400 miles Eastward from the mountains, and on the West to the Pacific Ocean, and from the

2 miles

Arctic Ocean to the Isthmus.

378.

Their

characteristics.

Their dimensions.

Are

abrupt,

craggy, naked

summits covered
all

Their elevation rises from 2,000 to 9,000 feet

total area, 3,500,000

with snow, desert-valleys intermingled, with large

square miles

over one-third of

and active volcanoes

in

Mexico.

the

Grand

Division.

SOUTH
379.

AMERICA.
337.

39

The Arctic Highlands.

The

St.

Lawrence.

Elevated tracts along the coasts of Greenland;

extent and elevation not

Carries off the surplus of the Great Lakes, and

known crowded thick with craggy mountain-pinnacles, gorged with glaciers,

;

brings an immense volume of water to the

It
is

ocean.

2,250 miles long from the western end of

its

Lake

and thundering
380.

in continual avalanches.

Superior to
388.

mouth.

The Appalachian or Alleghanian Plateau.

the-

The

Mississippi.
is

Extends from

North of Alabama to

New

Drains a basin-area of 1,333,000 square miles,

2,400 miles long, and
is

York, 800 miles; elevation

in the South, 2,000 feet,

;

the largest river in North

descending to 500 feet Northward

breadth from

America.
389.

50 to 100 miles, the whole lying between the ridges

of the Alleghany and Cumberland, and the BlueRido-e Mountains.
381.
River-St/stcms of

The Graxd Lake-System

of North America.

Extends from the Great Lakes

See

Map

4,

page

of the United States inclusive, in a

North America.
belt Northwesterly

93.

to the Arctic

cific,

Three the Atlantic, the Paand the Arctic, so called

;

Ocean, and Northeasterly into Labrador.

See

Map

3,

page

390

In detail.
;

from the oceans that receive

respective waters.
382.

their

the principal

Combined area of its lakes 150,000 square miles members of the System, Superior,

Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario, Winnipeg, AthaThe

Arctic System.

basca, Slave, and Great Bear.

Embraces the northern part of the continent chief rivers, the Mackenzie, Coppermine, and Back rivers.
with the adjacent islands
;

SOUTH AMERICA.
391.
Position of

383.

The

Pacific System.

South America

Occupies the territory West of the Rocky Mountains

;

It lies

between 10 N. Lat. and 54

S. Lat.,

and

chief rivers, the

Columbia and Colorado.

between 35 and 82
392.

W.
?

Lon.

384.

The

Atlantic System.

In what Zone chiefly

;

Embraces the

central, eastern,
it is

and southeastern

The Torrid Zone

Form

hence South America

is

emi-

portions of the Continent;

by

far the largest,

nently tropical in character.

393.

because the water-shed mountains (Rocky) lie so near the Pacific as to throw the greater part of the drainage of the Continent into the Atlantic.
is

of South

America

Triangular, the vertex pointing South

its

form

but slightly modified either by indentations of the

385.

The dividing

ridge.

sea or
394.

by

out-juttings of the land.

its coast-line ?

elevation, running E. N. E. from the Rocky Mountains at the parallel of 51 N. Lat., separates the Atlantic and Arctic

A highland
Systems.
336.

of moderate

Hence what of

It is short in proportion to the

it,

area bounded by

being

1 mile for

each 420 square miles of surin total length.

1

face,
Atlantic System's chief rivers.
its

and 14,500 miles

The

395.

Dimensions of South America

The

Atlantic System sends the major part of

St.

4,600 miles in length; 3,000 miles in breadth;

6,420,000

waters to the ocean through the

Laiorence on

square miles in area; and 1,150 feet in

the East, and the Mississipipi on the South.

mean

elevation.

40

UTH

AMERICA,

':

Eg"

..-

"'>'

'..

"'''MJtik
''.
' .

111111111111111 '-' - ".':,..-.;..,;

;

.-,,

SS?s-

A SOUTH-AMERICAN SCENE

396.

Characteristics of

South America

Vast
and
tility

plains,

deserts,

enormous volcanoes, small plateaus magnificent rivers, small lakes, and fer-

two miles in the North, three miles in the tudes, and one mile in the South.
401.

mid

lati-

of

The

loftiest

soil.

peak.

397.

Natural divisions of her territory.

First, the

Atlantic Declivity, embracing

;

all

the

Nevado * of Aconcagua, 23,944 feet high, and covered with an unfurrowed surface of resplendent snow.
402.
Volcanoes of the

Is the giant porphyritic

territory

East of the Andes

characteristics,

an
Andes.

exceedingly level surface, large rivers, a and extreme humidity of climate.

398.

fertile soil,

Are noted
for their

for their vast elevation,

numbers, and
chief are

And

secondly.

tremendous eruptions.

The

Are-

ry

The Pacific Declivity, embracing all the territoWest of the Andes; characteristics, a mountainsoil,

quipa, Cotopaxi, Antisaiia, and

403.

Aconcagua.

The Brazilian Mountains

ous and broken surface, an unproductive

aridity of climate,
als.

great

and vast wealth

in

precious met-

Consist of a broad belt of low ridges running Northeasterly, parallel with the coast, from the latitude of 30 South to the Equator.

399.

Mountain-Systems of South America

404.

The Andean and Brazilian Systems, and

Mountains of Guiana.
400.

The Mountains

of Guiana.

the

Extend from the mouth of the Orinoco nearly to the mouth of the Amazon their loftiest summit,
;

The Andes.
;

Maravaca,

is

11,000 feet high.

Are the mountain-spine of the continent 4,600 miles long; breadth from 200 to 400 miles; height

* Nevado, snowy, snow-crowned.

&P

ST?

2o3F]RM

& EKVATTIOIf otmt: C<

Socielr
Is.'

]>ang*eroiis

-AtcbipfeliiSO

An'a

2.4i l 0.tHH*stj.nt.. ot'smkintjSea.hftUit

S outli American Hate au 4.400 jn-lr 350 m.b.

jtycjxu/e

'^
S o. Shetland
-

154O.00H uq.m. IXemMttn 3.500ft

I

SOUT R AM.ERIC*^
length

Is

4.600m.
3.000 m. 6.420,000 sqm.
,.
-.-.-

Area of Continents
Area of Pacific 78.000.000

47,321
s<f.DU;

mad0i, Jrea
MearvUlevco.
O'nxUextlH,
'Goast lute

Area of Polar Oceans 10,000.4

Area of Lands 54=820,00
Area of the Eaxthi96,820,00
Ifl

1150ft.
23,5444k

14.500 m.

Uiongitude Sjo West

OTKMFg -BEEIEES SIOH of the BE A-1EB

3.500
'i.-DJO

10 5

m
m.

*W.000sq.m.
671ft.

15.810ft. 170OO7IV.

Greatest Length 6.602

in.

- Grst-Breadttt 6,394

m-Jrea

2O.0O0.000 sa

j.m. - Islands
ic

7.500.000 sq^sx.
JOenff&l

AFRICA
sq.m.
JiTKadtti

21.000.000 s<j.m -Indian 20.000.000

IL-Inland Seas. Lakes etc. 7. 000000 ?sq,in

Jb-ea

6,600m. 4,700m. J&oaoOOMfm,.

20M>0 ft..
140()0

PWaters 142000.000 s<.Hfr"""

amfftera. --.---.rlitOOfi.
Greate/rtFi:--

TMeanJ^evanon of the Continents

1(3.2 ft-

CoasrUme
90Km5ludel(i> East
12

...\

EaeSTDiThEngraver&Prniter TUTasaau-St .NY.

SOUTH
405.

AMERICA.
Questions upon the
NO.
Precisely what and
2.

41

Grand Plateau-System of South America.

Map
PAGE
is

of the Continents.
43.

As

before remarked,

is

4,400

miles long, 350

broad, 1,540,000 square miles in area; an enormous

upland towering with gigantic mountains, surfaced

with deserts, perforated by volcanic funnels, and

how much

shown upon Map No. 2

are there shown
1

What two What

ang'e
1

dimensions of the lands

Ans.

Their Extent and Height.

is

forming as

it

were a gloomy background

for the

magnificent and smiling panorama of the rest of

the continent.
406.

the form of North

America

Is

it

a regular

tri-

How
The
See

large

is

North America North

River-Systems of South America.

elevation of

How long America 1 How do

1

its

coast-liDe

you distinguish

Two;
Systems.
407.

the Atlantic and Pacific

the highly elevated parts on the

Map

"?

Map

3,

page

What
What

occupies the western part of North America

is its

extent and height

1 1

The Atlantic System's chief

rivers.

What
river in
sions
Is
1

occupies the center of North America

Its

dimen-

First, the

Amazon, the most magnificent

the World.

The stream
is

drains 2,500,000 square

North America mostly plain or plateau

is

miles of territory,
to the ocean a

3,900 miles in length, and rolls

three-fold greater

What
itudes
i.

the height of the

Rocky Mountains in

different lat-

volume of waters

than any other river upon the Globe.

408.

Height of the Coast-Range

1
?

Secondly, the

La

Plata.

How
largest river in

high

is

the country along the Atlantic Ocean

1

Next
"World,

to the
is

Amazon, the

the

Along the Gulf of Mexico

Lat. 45
1

In the center of the plain,

2,350 miles in length, drains an area of

1,262,000

square miles, and

its

How
What

do you
is

know

the exact height in these cases

is

navigable to the
the height of the North-American Plateau between
1

sources of
409.

tributary streams.

20 and 30 N. Lat.

The

Pacific System.

Average elevation of the Alleghanian Plateau

to

Contains only insignificant streams, owing

the
cli-

narrowness of the slope and the dryness of the

mate.
410.

The form and dimensions of South America'?

The Lakes
small in
of South America.

Its elevation ?
1

Dimensions of the South-American Highlands

breadth, area
1 1

Length,

Are
ber,

size,

and few

in

numSee

Map

page

Dimensions of the Central Plain

and are

chiefly confined to its

93.

How

do you distinguish the highlands from the plains

in different latitudes'?
%

mountain-regions.
411.

Height of the Ancles

Lake

Titieaca.

Elevation of the Brazilian Plateau in different parts

On

the loftiest part of the South- American Ta-

Height of the mountains upon the plateau'?

ble-land, 170

miles long,

70 broad,

720 feet deep

What

is

the

name

of the plateau and mountains in the

%

near the shores, 4,000 square miles in area, and

elevated 13,000 feet above the sea.
412.

northern part of the Central Plain

Where

is

the water-shed ridge betwixt the northern and

I

southern part of
Lagoons or lake-like marshes.

he Central Plain
is

What

special
1

name

given to the northern part of the

Gather
in the

in

the rainy season along the eastern base

Central Plain

to the central parti

of the Andes, covering a vast extent of country

dry season they waste away into bogs, cov-

ered with reeds and coarse wild grass.

42

EUROPE.

CHAPTER
Playslco-Bescrlptlve

VIII

View of the Eastern Continent.

THE EASTERN CONTINENT.

413.
Position of the Eastern Continent.

EUROPE.
424.
Position of

Europe.

It extends

from 17

33'

east longitudes to 170

W. Lon., through all the W. Lon., and from 78 16'

range of 113
in longitude. in lati-

It

27'

W.

extends from 36 to 71 N. Lat., and from 9 Lon. to 60 36' E. Lon. a range of 35 in

;

N.

Lat., to 34 50' S. Lat., a

latitude
425.

and of 70
Form

in longitude.

tude,
414.

and of upwards of 200

In what Zone chiefly
1

of Europe.

In the North-Temperate.
415.

It is so irregular as scarcely to

be comparable to

any geometrical figure

Form of the Eastern Continent.
tex to the
trian426.

it

constitutes a sort of ver-

immense
renders

triangle of
its

Europe- Asia.

It presents the

form of two vast irregular

gles united at the Isthmus of Suez.

416.

What

form so irregular 1

Dimensions of the Eastern Continent.

First,

outreaching

peninsulas,

Greece,

Italy,
;

Spain,

10,000 miles in length,

8,000 miles in breadth

Denmark, and Norway and Sweden

of the ocean, the

sec-

ond, inreaching branches

iterranean, White,
427.

Med-

33,000,000 square miles in area; coast-line 61,800

miles, 1 mile to each
417.

and Baltic Seas.

533 square miles of area.

Eastern Continent.
its

Characteristics of the

Dimensions of Europe.
;

First, the

consolidation of

land-masses with-

Length 3,500 miles

3,500,000 square miles
coast-line 17,000 miles

breadth 2,400 miles

;

area
feet

in comparatively
418.

narrow

limits.

mean

elevation 671

Secondly.

1 mile to

each 156 square

miles of area.

The
face.
419.

large proportion of plateaus upon

its

sur428.

Natural boundaries between Europe and Asia.

Thirdly.

The
420.

irregularity and complexity of

its

mountain-

In point of fact there are none, though the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, and the Black and Cas-

systems.
Fourthly.

pian Seas, furnish a semblance of natural division.

429.
Characteristics of

Europe.

The comparative
421.
Fifthly.

smallness of

its

rivers

and

lakes.

A plain
and
ate

surface, very small plateaus, short

and

moderately elevated mountains, numerous

extent of deserts

rivers

The enormous
422.

upon

its

surface.

lakes, a soil considerably fertile,

and a temper-

Sixthly.

and humid

climate.

The general
423.

aridity of its climate.

430.

Natural divisions of her territory.

Grand
;

Divisions of the Eastern Continent.

The Plains upon

the North, and the Mountain-

Three

Europe, Asia, and Africa.

districts upon the South.

ASIA.

43

431.

The

plains of Europe.

438.

Lake-Systems of Europe.
;

Extend from the western border of France, through Holland, Germany, and Russia to the Ural
Mountains.
432.

'Two

the Alpine
;

System, and

the

System of

the Baltic

beautiful lakes are found

among

the

highlands of Scotland.
439.
local designations of these plains.

The

The Alpine System.

for their piuturesqueness, beauty,

Are noted
Landes
in

and

France, sandy downs covered with

;

great elevation.
440.

heath or with pine

Heaths

in

Germany, covered

with the heath-plant, with gravels and occasional

The

Baltic System.

bogs

Steppes

in Russia,

covered with sands, heathsalt incrustations.

Consists of a vast

number

of lakes situate in the

;

plants,
433.

wiry grass, gravel, and

countries adjacent to the Baltic Sea

Sweden and
;

Finland are complete net-works of lakes

The Mountains on the South.
in a belt of disconnected ranges,

and the

coasts of Russia have several large

and innumera-

Extend

from the
Italy,

ble small lakes.

Pyrenees of Spain, through the Appenines of

the Balkan of Turkey, to the
;

the Alps of Switzerland, the Carpathians of Austria,

ASIA.
441.

Caucasus and

Asia occupies what

the Caspian Sea

is

the highest mountain in

Europe

The remainder
of which
442.

of the great continental triangle

constitutes the vertex.

Mont Blanc
434.

of the Alps, 15,810 feet.

Europe

The

Plateaus of

Europe
;

Asia's position.

Are few and

small

the

Plateau

of Spain covis

It extends

from 27 E. Lon. to 170

W.

Lon.,

ering the whole interior of that peninsula,

eleva-

and from
443.

1 15' to 78 20' N. Lat.

1

ted from 2,000 to 3,000 feet

varia,

the Plateau of Baand of the Valdai Hills in Russia, are small and of low elevation.
;

In what Zone chiefly

In the North-Temperate Zone.

444.

The form of

Asia.
;

435.

Europe's River-Systems.
;

An

irregular triangle

modified

first,

by

out-jut-

Northern and the Southern, separated by the Alps and German Mountains in the West, and by a low elevation of the European
the

Two

ting peninsulas, Kamschatka, doostan, and Arabia; and

Corea,

India-;

Hin-

secondly,

by indenting

branches of the ocean, the Sea's of Okhotsk, Corea,

China, and Arabia
;

Plain in the East.

436.

the

Bay

of Bengal and the

The Southern System's chief

rivers.

Persian Gulf.
445.

The Southern System

Dimensions of Asia.

contains for principal riv;

ers the Volga, 2,200 miles long

the Danube, 1,630

Length from East

to

West, 5,600 miles

;

breadth

miles long; Dnieper, 1,200 miles long; and the Dow, 1,100 miles long.
437.

from North to South, 5,300 miles area 17,500,000 square miles average elevation, 1,600 feet coast; ;

line,

30,800 miles

mile to each 459 square miles

The Northern System's

chief rivers.

of area.
446.
Characteristics of Asia.
;

The Northern System

the Rhine, 760 miles long

contains for chief streams,

;

the Elbe, 690

;

Seine,

430

Enormously elevated plateaus

deserts
salt lakes

stupendous, but

and the

Loire,

570 miles long

important rather in
their

tumultuously irregular mountain-chains; immense

;
;

view of the

civilizations

upon

banks than of

and a climate excessive and

in-

their magnitude.

clining to aridity.

44

ASIA.

v:

f;i

llllffl

;
' ,

/
of Asia.

uBL

WBRHKM
THE CACTUS HEDGE,
447.

A TROPICAL SCENE.

Natural divisions of

its

territory.

450.

The Center

the North, the Plateaus and Mountains of the Center, and the mingled Plains, Plateaus, and Mountains op the South.
of
448.

The Plains

enormous and lofty plateaus enby towering mountains, and extending from the Black Sea to the Khin-Ghan and Yun-Ling
circled

Is occupied with

Mountains,
The
Plains of the North.
451.

This Plateau-System embraces what

Extend from the Ural Mountains Eastward to the Pacific, and from the Altai Mountains to the
Arctic Ocean.
449.

Plateaus oe Asia Minor, Armenia, and Persia, extending Southeast from the Black Sea to the Great Plain of Hindoostan.
the
452.

Embraces

Their

characteristics.

Also,

what

Are, an exceeding low and

barrenness, with occasional
gish rivers,
intensely
Steppes.

level surface, general

The

so-called

Oriental Table-la\d, lying be-

fertility,

swamp's, sluglakes,

numerous

salt
;

and fresh
these

and an
called

cold

climate

plains

are

tween the Altai and Himalaya Mountains on the North and South, and between the Belor-Tag Mountains on the "West, and the Khin-Ghan and Yun-Lina: Mountains on the East.

ASIA.

45

453.

The

entire system's area.

It occupies not far

from 8,000,000 square miles

;

roll enormous volumes of water to the ocean during the remain-

over nine months of the year, but

der of the year.
462.

elevation from 3,000 to 13,000 feet

miles

1,500,000 square

of

it

are

covered with shingly gravel and

The

Pacific System's chief rivers.

shifting sands, irreclaimable desolations.

454.

The Amoor,
2,600
;

2,300 miles long

;

the

Hoang-Ho,

The Central Mountain-Chains.

the

the Yang-tse-Kiang, 3,200

and the Cambo-

Mountains of Armenia, the HindooKoosh, the Himalayas, the Kuen-Lun, the ThianShan, the Altai, and the Aldan Mountains.
455.

Are

dia, 2,000 miles long.

463.

The Indian System's chief

rivers.

The Ganges,

1,460 miles long; the Indus, 1,700;

;

The Himalayas.
the
1

the Iraivaddy, 1,200

;

the

Brahmapootra

the Ner-

budda, and the united Euphrates and Tigris.

their
464.

Are
length

loftiest

mountains on the Earth

breadth 225 miles
;

,500

miles,
;

average

Asiatic Lakes.

elevation 3 miles

height of loftiest peak,

Mount
is

Are comparatively few

ber,

in

numSee

Map 4, page

Everest, 29,002
Globe.
456.

feet,

the highest mountain on the

and small

in size

the largest
the Altai

Lake Baikal, among

;

Mountains
Characteristics of Central Asia.

area 15,000

square miles
in fish,

its

waters

are clear

An

immensely elevated and rugged surface, an

soil,

over six
465.

and fresh, abound months in the year.

Salt Lakes of Asia.

but are frozen

exceedingly barren
excessive climate.
457.

and an intensely arid and

The

Southern Asia.

Is

occupied with plains, highlands, mountains,

Are situated about the Caspian, itself a salt lake some are in Persia, in Afghanistan, in Armenia, and in Asia Minor Lake Tiberias and the Dead Sea
;

deserts,

and tracts of great

fertility,

mingled togeth-

are in Palestine.
466.

er in extraordinary variety.

The supposed

origin of these lakes.

458.

In detail, Arabia.

A salt sea probably once existed in

area in

the depressed

Is an elevated plain covered with driving sands,

which these lakes stand

these brine-lakes, and

it

has evaporated,

an

arid,

sun-burned wilderness, with oases of wondotting

its

and

left

left

the

surrounding
re-

drous

fertility

bronzed surface with oc-

country crusted with salt-crystals

mains.

and marine

casional verdure.
459.

Hindoostan.

Contains the Plateau

of

toe

Deccan

in

its

AFRICA.
467.

southern portion

and a very extensive plain

in its

northern, channeled

by mighty
;

What

does Africa occupy

rivers,

and covered

with a magnificent vegetation

Orient,"
460.

the "

Garden of the

The

second and smaller of the two great trian-

and

the "

Land

of fable and song."

gles that constitute the Eastern Continent.

468.

Geographic

position.

River-Systems of Asia.
;

Three

the Arctic, Pacific, and

See

Map 3, page

Africa extends from 37 20' N. Lat., to 34 50' S. Lat., and from 51 22' E. Lon. to 17 32' W.

Indian' Systems.
461.

Lon.
469.

The

Arctic System's chief rivers.

In what Zone chiefly

The

Obi, 2,530 miles long; the

Yenesei, 2,900;

and the Lena, 2,400 miles long.

These are frozen

The Grand

Torrid Zone; Africa

Division of the Earth.

is

the most tropical

46

AFRICA.
Africa's general form.

470.

and yet they

the

all

occujjy depressed areas.

Moreover,

Triangular, the vertex pointing South, the base

resting on the Mediterranean Sea; modified neither

the northeast point of the Southern Table-Land,

Plateau of Abyssinia, has an

elevation of 7,000

by

indentations of the ocean, nor

by

out-juttings

feet.

of the land.
471.

479.

The Mountains of

Africa.

Dimensions of Africa.
;

Form
4,700 miles in breadth
;

a broken girdle that encompasses no small

5,600 miles in length

part of the entire continent.

480.

area, 11,300,000 square miles

feet; coast line 14,000

mean

elevation 1,800
to

The

several links in this chain.

miles, 1 mile

each 623

square miles of area.

472.
Africa's general characteristics.

Are, the Atlas Mountains on the North, the Abyssinian, Lupata, and NieUveldt Mountains on

Very
immense

large plateaus, a burning and arid climate,

deserts, small rivers

East and South, and the Eanges West, from 14 N. to 10 S. Lat.

the
481.

on the

and

lakes,

and a coast

In addition to these chains.

is

closed against the sea.

473.

There
its territory.

a range in the
is

mid

latitudes of the con-

Natural divisions of

tinent,
its

Desert Plain on the North; and an Enormous Table-Land on the South.

474.

supposed to extend nearly across entire breadth, but what course it takes in the
cannot be affirmed with certainty.
The Atlas Mountains on the North.
elevation of about 5,000 feet
fertile

which

interior
482.

The Plains

of the North.

Embrace
gravels,

the Sahara and

Nubian Deserts, an area

flints,

Have an average

of 3,000,000 square miles, covered with

slabs,

they are bordered by a

483.

country on both

sides.

and

shifting sands;

waterless

oceans of

desolation with here and there an oasis-island

dewy

The Lupata Mountains. considerably removed from the coast

is
;

with fountains, and fresh with unfading verdure.

475.

Are

their

The Central

Belt.

A region of
though with

seaward slope mense lakes lie

and dense population
its

fertile

at their

and well-watered, and imfeet on the inland side. Kil-

great

fertility

stretches across the continent in

mid

latitudes,

mandjaro, 20,000 feet high, the highest mountain in Africa, is situate upon one of their inland spurs.
484.

limits not definable in the present state

of geographic knowledge.
476.

The River-Systems of
;

Africa.

The Table-land on the South.

The whole
Lat.

of Africa from the parallel of 6 N.

to the Cape, is

Are Two the System of the Atlantic Ocean, and the System
op the Indian Ocean.
485.

See
64.

Map

3,

page

Southward
is

supposed

to be

one

continuous plateau, whose

the sea
477.

mean
feet.

elevation above

The

Nile.

not less than 2,500

the whole region
is

The

chief river of the Atlantic System, rises near

Why

supposed to be elevated.

the Equator, drains the plateaus and highlands adjoining, flows in the lower part of its course

Because the country from the shore inland rises successive terraces, and because observations taken at various points upon the general surface, indicate an elevation from 2,000 to 4,000 feet.
in
478.

through

a narrow valley, receives no tributary for 1,400 miles above its mouth, and empties into the Mediterranean after a course of 2,600 miles.
486.

Examples.
is

The Niger.
the Blacks, rises
first

Lake Ngami

2,000 feet above the sea

;

Lake
feet

The River of
ains of

Tanganyika, 1,800 feet

Lake Nyanza, 4,000

Soudan, flows at

among the mounttoward the center of

AFRICA.
Questions upon the
NO.
2,

47

the continent, and thence to the Gulf of Guinea, a

Map
PAGE

of the Continents.
43.
1

course of 2,300 miles, through a magnificently

tile

fer-

country.

What
487.

is is

the form of Europe-Asia the base of the triangle

1

The

chief river of the Indian System.

Where

The vertex

Is the Zambesi, navigable for 900 miles.

488.

Dimensions of Europe
tion?

Its elevation 1

Greatest eleva-

The lakes of

Africa.

Have been supposed

in

to be
;

few
See
93.

Length of Map 4,
page

coast-line

number, and small in size recent explorations have shown the

Special

names given

to

different parts

of the European

Plain

impression to be not entirely true.

489.

Name

the principal mountain-chains and their altitudes

The

largest

known

till

recently.

Tchad, on the northern slopes of the Great Southern Plateau,

'

What

are the dimensions of Asia

1

Its elevation ? Greats

is

150 miles long, 90 broad

feet
;

elevation
feet,

est elevation

above the sea, 850

Its waters are fresh
odiles,
490.

depth from 8 to 15

Where
Where
tude
1

is

the great Northern Plain of Europe-Asia?

1

Its

save in the wet season,

when
clear,

its

and

volume abound in

is

greater.
croc-

dimensions
is

Altitude 1
1

fish,

the Oriental Plateau

Its

dimensions and

alti-

and hippopotami.
Lake Maravi
S.,

Dimensions and elevation of the Plain of China 1

or Nyassi.

Dimensions,

etc.

of the Plain of Mantchooria

1

In Lat. 10

Lon. 33 E., has been discovered

Area of the Plain of Hindoostan

Plain of Arabia"?

Dimensions of the

to be a chain of lakes, stretching

North and South

at the foot of the western slope of the mountains.

491.

Where

are the Plateaus of Iran, Armenia, and Asia Minor

1

great lake

Tanganyika.

Their combined area

Their respective elevations

1

Has
30 E.

recently been discovered in about 6 S. Lat.,

Elevation of the Plateau of the Deccan

Lon.

300 miles long, 30 broad, stretching

feet

Height of the Himalaya Mountains

ains?

Of the Ural Mount-

North and South, and elevated 1,800

sea-level.

above
Height of the Yun-Ling and Khin-Ghan Mountains
1

The country

all

about

it

is

3,600 feet

in elevation.
492.

Name

the chief mountain-ranges and their elevations.

Lake Nyansa.
Dimensions of Africa 1

Eecently discovered, 300 miles -long, 90 broad, in 2 30' S. Lat., 33 30' E. Lon., is the largest lake
in Africa, is 4,000 feet

Mean elevation

Chief elevation
% 1

Dimensions of the Plain of North Africa

Its elevation ?

conjectured to be the
493.

above the sea, and has been main source of the Nile.

What

occupies the southern part of Africa

Dimensions and elevation of the Plateau of South Africa

Lake Ngaml
20
S.,

What bank
water upon

at

the

southern point of Africa 1

Depth of

it ?

In Lat.
wide,
is

Lon. 22 E., 60 miles long, 14

What Plateau
vation
1

in the northeast part is specified 1

Its ele-

a shallow reservoir for the surplus waters

interior area. Its waters are defrom the wet-season floods of the mountains on the North, for it never rains in the

of an

immense

What

plateau in the North

in the

Its area
?

and elevation

rived

entirely

What mountains

North

Their height?

Central ranges and their altitudes ?

region of the Lake.

2,000
feet.

Its elevation

above the sea

is

Coast ranges and their altitudes

PART
TH
.A.

II.

T ID R

AN OCEAN-SCENE,

THE

ICEBERG.

CHAPTER
The Extent of the Ocean.
Ocean-Hasin.

IX.
The Shape of the

The Depth of the Ocean.

THE EXTENT OP THE OCEAN.

494.

496.

Is it
?

not waste to have so

much

of the Earth's sur-

face, water

Total area of waters upon the Earth.

;

142,000,000 square miles

7,000,000 in lakes and

:

It

is

not, for
II.)
is

it

has been shown

the

inland seas, and 135,000,000 in the Ocean.

495.
Proportional extent of the Ocean.

(Chap.
land

that

amount
it
is,

of

The oe^an just large enough.

just right as
it

and
is

therefore

follows that the

amount of water

just

The Ocean

occupies somewhat less than three-

right also, for they are complements of each other.

fourths of the entire surface of the Globe.

THE
497
If the waters

DEPTH

OF

THE
503.

OCEAN.
Why
take a deep-sea sounding

49

were

to

be

increased.

is it difficult

to

Then
to

the tendency
its

climate too moist,

would be to make the Earth's surface wet and boggy, and

life

Because the
its

line is apt to part

by
Deep-sea soundings.

own

weight, or by the heave of

remove the conditions of bler plants and animals.

498.
If the waters

favorable to the no-

the sea, or

cated to

it

by the motion communiby currents. It is diffi-

cult to determine

when

the plumline

were diminished.

met has touched bottom, the

run out of
its

continuing to

The tendency would be to render land-climate too dry, and to augment the number and size of deserts to increase the severities of climate by lessening the tempering influences of the sea and thus to
;

own

weight, or being carried out by

submarine currents.
504.

What

of the average depth of the sea

exercise

disastrous influence

upon the habitable

Soundings, the

undulations of
Average depth.

conditions of the Earth.

499.

the tide-waves, and of waves engen-

dered by earthquakes, show that

Besides, marine
life.

the depth of the mid-ocean cannot

in

Everything that
are

lives

the sea

needs

air

and

be

less

than Three miles.*

Making
shoals,
it is
;

light in greater or less

measure, and these elements

;

505.

subtractions.

found

at

the surface

diminished surface

For
at

and
it

for the

diminished depths near

would
waters
things.
500.

lessen the aeration

and illumination of the

of these
living

the lands,

within limits to set the average depth

necessary

to

the health

Two

miles

may

be greater, but

it

cannot be

less.*

The extent

of the ocean and man's culture.

its

506.
lia-

Amidst

this uncertainty, is

what

is

certain

The

vastness of the ocean and

consequent

That the sea

to
fit it

of just the depth

in
Sea just enough.

bility to destructive

storms have compelled

man

to

for

all

purposes required

deep

construct great ships, and

steamers like floating

the present order of things.

507.

worlds

have compelled him to the exercise of his

faculties,

and have thus helped make him a thinking

To show

this

more

fully.

as well as toiling being.

501.

First, if the sea

ent,

were much deeper than at presall

water would

in

probability leak

down

into

In conclusion. " set a

the hot interior of the Earth

much more

frequently

When God
erto shalt thou

bound

to the waters that they to the ocean, " Hith-

and abundantly, and thus earthquakes would be

might not pass over," and said

more numerous and

508
It

destructive.

come but no further, and here shall thy proud waves be stayed," he displayed consummate wisdom of adaptation not less than omnipotence of power.

Secondly, as to diminished surface.

could not be

much deeper with

at the

amount of water, without having

a

the same same time

much
509.

smaller surface, whereas, as before shown,

is

all

the present surface

needed.

THE DEPTH OP THE OCEAN.

502.

Thirdly, as to living things.

is

The sea-bed
Greatest known depth of the ocean.

replete with minute forms of

life

that can live only

under the depth of water now

Between
east of

six

and seven miles

in
The

furnished
maximum
icean-depth.

a greater depth

would destroy them.

the deep "boot-shaped" area South-

Newfoundland.

*See Book Second of Series.

50

THE
On

SHAPE

OF

THE

OCEAN-BASIN.
517.
First modification of this general form.

510.

the other hand, a diminished depth. in

Would

the

first

place
this,

destroy these living

if

If the slope of the land

coast,
ter,

from the interior to the

be found not far from

things; and more than

diminished by

half,

be abrupt,

it will

continue abrupt underwawill

would cover
511.

all

the habitable portions of the lands.

and great depths

shore; as off the western coasts of the Americas.

Moreover, as to climate.

The tempering
would

influence exerted
;

by

the sea upon

518.

Second modification.

climate would be lessened

for the shallow

ocean

If the seaward slope of the continent be gradual,

freeze over in cold regions,

and become ex-

the

same

will

continue

under water, and great

ceedingly

warm

in

hot

thus the comfort and per-

depths will be found only at a great distance from

shore
ert.
;

haps the

life

of marine plants and animals would be

as off the western coast of the

Sahara Des-

destroyed.
512.
Lastly, as to navigation.

519.

So that what appears

Navigation would be nearly impossible

the ocean then would be on account of
ness.
513.

in

oceans
etc.,

That the continents

rise

from the bed of the sea

indeed,

so perplexed with bars, shoals, reefs, rocks,

its

as

with as various degrees of abruptness as do highlands from the general level of the lands
;

shallow-

the continents are nothing but highlands planted

Comparative depth of the ocean.

upon the sunken

ter-

plain of the sea-bed.

The depth
restrial

of the ocean compared with other

is

520.

ITnevcnncss of the sea-bed.

magnitudes
or

very

slight,

being at the great-

The
hills,

surface
all

of the
the

sea-bed

is

est only -jijW h of the Earth's diameter,

and only

Unevenncss

of

marked by

irregularities,

the sea-lied.

2ttW
514.

less,

of the breadth of the ocean.

mountains,

plateaus,

and

shallow puddle.

plains, that diversify the surface of the land.

521.

It

would be thought a very shallow puddle that

!

The
the

causes of these irregularities of surface.

should be 166 feet across, and only one inch deep

and yet such

depth of the
515.

is

the ratio

of the breadth to the

ic

Are

same

as the irregularities of the land;

sea.

surface, referred to in a previous chapter

volcan-

forces

producing upheaval and depression of

strata.

Total volume of the ocean.

areas,

and a breaking-up and distortion of the

The
reasons for these irregularities.

270,000,000 cubic miles, T "> of the solidity of the Globe a volume demonstrably just right; as

522.

might indeed be expected, since when he made up

the Earth,

Are

as strong as for the

same on the

lands, be-

low of

his

measured the waters in the holhand," and he certainly would not make
in the

God

"

cause during the existence of the Globe, these submerged areas have come and may again come to

any mistake

measuring

and the same conditions of surthere be necessary as are now and then would face necessary upon the lands.
the light and air
;

THE SHAPE OP THE

516.

OCEAN-BASIN".

523.

Why

the ocean-basin

is

shaped as

it is.

General shape of the ocean-basin.

The reasons

for the present shape

It sinks gradually and in long descending slopes from the shore-line downward to the middle depths

of the ocean-basin are exceedingly

strong, inasmuch as that shape
essential to the comfort
is

Why
basin
it is.

ia

the oceanshaped as

of the sea; so that the sea-bed

is

a stupendous

and even

sunken

plain.

the

life

of myriads of organic existences.

THE
521.

SHAPE

OF

THE

OCEAN-BASIN.

51

What organic

existences

530.

The shape of the ocean-basin and

navigation.

It is

perfectly well ascertained that upon each

First, the

bed of the sea

the

rising beShape of the

to navigation.
sea-

successive furlong of the sea-bed, from the shoreline

gradually

to
its

shore-line,

downward

to the central

deeps of the ocean,

comes
shoals,

in

higher parts,
etc.,

reefs,

bed with respect

numerous and
found.
525.

different species of living things are

solitary rocks,

which

expose ships to great

Where only they can
different species

peril

going to

and from
live.

port.

531.

These

can exist in only the pre-

These dangers.
in

cise conditions furnished

by these

ing only where a high tide

some livcan reach them, and othslopes

;

Are

part avoidable bjr proper caution and

watchfulness, and in part they constitute a share

ers flourishing at the depth of miles.

526.

of the inevitable

difficulties
;

laid

upon those who

go down
Their classes, uses,
etc.

to the sea in ships

to

in either case furnish-

ing a salutary discipline

algse,
532.

man.

First,

Plants; from
tall,

fine

sea-mosses to giant

Secondly.

and covering square roods of ocean with resplendent crimson and purple leaves secondly, Animals; slugs, and snails, and jelly-like ra1,500 feet
:

The

existing form of the sea-basin

becomes a

great security to ships near the land, by giving

diata,

by

nondecillions
as

eating
offices

through soundings, information of danger during

the darkness of night, and the fury of tempests
;

and eaten
as plants

in turn,

the

and serving mals on the

527.

important

and

ani-

land.

seaman learns from soundings where he where his dangers lie.

533.
If the

is

and

As

to their numbers.

lands rose with vertical faces from vast

Some

idea thereof

may be formed from

shells of only

the fact

depths.

that enormous plateaus in the sea are

composed of the minute

species of shell-fish
;

known to be two or three

cause

Shipwrecks would be vastly more numerous, beit would be impossible to ascertain the bear-

and from the fact that the

fails to

ings of the lands with such certainty as at present

sounding-plummet rarely
organic,
life

bring up traces of
it

from whatever depth

may

reach

in

any part of the ocean.

528.

and vastly more destructive of life and property, because the ship and its contents wonld sink at once into unfathomable depths.
534.

Common

marine blue mud.

Moreover,

in the

event of storms near the land.

mud so abundantly spread found to be charged with organic forms, the presence of which gives it its charThe common
blue
is

Vastly more ships would founder than at present,

over the sea-bed,

because the waves rolling

full

in

upon the land

with

mid-ocean magnitude, and rebuffed by the

acteristic color
529.

and

smell.

vertical shores,

would

raise so terrible a

commo-

tion that nothing could withstand their fury.

If the shape of the marine basin were changed con-

siderably.

535.

What

therefore do

we conclude
is

The consequences could be no otherwise than

inous to these living creatures
these
;

ru-

That the marine basin

even
if

shaped

in perfect ac;

becomes a reason of

the preservation of incalculable moment

it is.

cordance with the necessities of the case he had the power to modify
it
it,

so that

man

could

why

the shape of the sea-basin should be as

not contrive to shape

any

better.

52

THE

SALTNESS

OF

THE

OCEAN.

CHAPTER
The
Saltness of the Ocean.

X.

The Temperature of the Ocean.

THE SALTNESS OF THE OCEAN.

536.

541.

What

of rivers also

All the rivers that flow into the sea carry salts The fact of the
saltness of the ocean.

with them; and since evaporation takes up nothing

The
fact and deof uceanic

The
such

oceanic waters are impregsalts

gree
saltiness.

but pure water from the

sea, the

waters thereof
salt.
is

nated with various chemical

as

must of course become and remain

542.

carbonate of

lime,

sul
Physical cause

phate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, etc., etc.

;

why

the tropical ocean

so

salt.

the chief saline ingredient

is

chloride

By

reason of

its

high temperaCause of the different degrees of saltness in different parts ocean.

of sodium, or
537.
Iii

common

salt.

ture the tropical ocean evaporates

The proportion

of oceanic salts.
-J
'

the tropical ocean

part by weight, in the

Temperate Zone oceans

and in the Frigid about Ty h part. In other words, from two to very nearly four per cent, of the entire weight of the
ocean consists of
538.
salts.

Jg-* part,

more freely than the extra-tropical, and therefore contains a larger residuum of salts, and of course becomes and is Salter.
543.

of the

Whereas the extra-tropical ocean.

Receives through the rains a large portion of

the fresh water evaporated from the tropical ocean,

The ocean not

saturated.

and hence

its
is

salineness
the ocean

is

diminished.

No
with
six

part of the ocean contains so

much

salt as

it

544.

Why
it

salt"?

can dissolve; in other words, no partis saturated

salt.

Water
its

First,

is

generally

thought
Reasons
the ocean

at freezing-point dissolves thirty-

why
is salt.

per cent, of

weight of

salt,

and boiling water

that the salineness of the sea pre-

vents

it

from becoming corrupted

dissolves forty per cent.

539. It
it is
is

with the decomposing animal and vegetable mat-

How

did the ocean

become

salt 1

ter floating therein.

545.
Origin of
the

impossible to

determine
it

What cannot be

questioned.

not improbable that

its

got the
dur-

marine

salts.

That the

saltness of the sea has

greater part of

saltness

septic * influence,

such an antiand contributes largely to the pu-

ing that geologic period

hot,

when the waters being

rity of the ocean, especially in hot climates.

546.

had great solvent power, and when the Earth's

salts

Nevertheless,

lakes.

surface being continually upheaved and broken, ex-

posed the
action.
540.

contained

in its

upper strata to

their

must be remembered that lakes remain pure from age to age without any considerable saline intermixture, and that, too, in hot climates, and alIt

As

to mines of salt.

though a larger proportion of decomposing matter

salt exist in the
its
is

It is

very probable that mines of

contained in their waters.

bed of the sea, which help maintain by gradual melting.

salineness
* Antiseptic

anti-putrefactive, resisting putrefaction.

THE
547.

TEMPERATURE

OF

THE

OCEAN.

53

The

salts

and marine

life.

taken up than

is

needed, and deluging rains are pre-

These

salts

enter into the structure and are eslife

vented from swamping the lands.

555.
If the sea

sential to the

of innumerable animal and vege;

were as

salt

in all parts as in the tropics.

table forms
fact, for all
548.

dwelling in the sea

to

all

of them,

in

Then evaporation would be

question
in

quite

out of the
;

absorb the

salts.

the

extra-tropical regions
to

for

there
affinity

The

coral insect, or polyp, for example.

would not be heat enough

of the salt for the water.
556If,

overcome the

Absorbs the salts of the sea into itself, and secreting them from its pores in the form of a hard shell or skeleton, builds up huge islands in the
ocean,
its

on the other hand, the whole ocean were not

Salt-

er than the frigid oceans

now are.

palatial

mansion while

living, its

kingly

Then

the tropics would be

drowned

in

enormous

mausoleum when dead.

549.
If the sea

rain-falls resulting

from over-copious evaporations

were

not saline, or

were

less saline

than

it is.

These myriad forms of

life

would

all

perish,
;

or

plants and animals

557.

and thus suitable conditions of living for tropical would be destroyed.

The
salts

would
as
if
all

suffer in proportion to

the diminution

just

and the
salts

ocean-currents.

land-creatures would perish or

would

suffer,

The marine
rents are

are

among

the most efficient

;

the air about

its

them were

to

be deprived of any

producers of the ocean-currents

the ocean-curparts of the sys-

one of
550.
salt?

chief elements.
does not the whole ocean become at last too

Why

tem of

among the indispensable the World and therefore

;

the marine salts

are indispensable parts also.

fast as the salts accumulate,

Because as
imals which
salts,

they are

558-

In conclusion.

absorbed and used up by the various plants and an-

In the fact of the oceanic saltness, and the different degrees thereof,

need them; the more abundant the

and

in the various

means emdiscover

the
salts

better the living things thrive,

and the

ployed to keep that saltness just right,

nevolence of an

we

more
551.

they want.
does not the tropical ocean become too
salt 1

the hand of a wonder-working, not less than the beall-lovino-

Why

God.

Because the ocean-currents carry the

saline saline

warm

over-

mix them with the cold underwaters, and bring back the under-saline to
waters, and
over-saline.

THE TEMPERATURE OF THE OCEAN.

559.

mix with the

552.
saltl

The mean temperature

of the ocean.

Why

does the

tropical

ocean have a double share of

The mean temperature

ocean

of the
to

would be expected
such
is

be

Average temperfltureof the ocean.

Because the marine existences that need salt are much more numerous in it than in the extra-tropical oceans,
553.

59|, because

the

mean
all

temperature of the atmosphere at

the surface of the Earth
;

and need much more

and

-of

the

salts.

and

parts of the sea

Thirdly, the salts

evaporation.
;

are sooner or later exposed to the atmosphere.

there560.

Salt has an attraction or affinity for water

fore since salt will not evaporate, salt
izes

But water
is

evaporates.

water vapor-

Evaporation
59|

a cooling process,
is

and hence the

not so high as

more slowly than

fresh.

average temperature of the ocean

;

the precise figure

is

not known.

554.

Evaporation checked.
this
is is

means evaporation from the hot oceans kept within bounds, so that no more moisture

By

561.

As

to the internal heat of the Earth.

It does

not affect the temperature of the

sea,

any

54

THE

TEMPERATURE
and as in and measura;

OP

THE

OCEAN.
more
by more

more than of the land or atmosphere

the case of the latter two,
ble effect
its

brought to bear upon

copious evaporations.
569.

it,

the

it

resists

sensible

may be regarded

as zero; hence marine

is

temperature, like atmospheric,

determined by the

Secondly, on the other hand.

will

heat of the Sun and of the fixed stars.

562.

Water

turn to ice rather than cool below 28,

to

(salt water),

Temperature of the

deep-sea.

the heat in
Temperature of the under-ocean.

and the ice serves as a blanket and the cold out.

keep

The entire

under-ocean, in

all lat-

itudes, climes,

and ages, preserves

570.

Third, the ocean-currents.

the one uniform temperature of 40

on the scale of Fahrenheit.

563.

Carry the hot water to the cold, and the cold to the hot, so that they commingle, and their extremes
are mitigated.

The physical
at the

cause of this.
is

Water

temperature of 40

denser and

571.

Sow

does the ocean become heated to the depth of

heavier than at any other temperature, and hence

sinks to the bottom, displacing water either

hundreds of feet 1

warmer

or colder than
564.

itself.

The fresh water evaporating, leaves an over-salt and highly heated stratum of water upon the surface this sinks by reason of its salineness, and
;

Surface-temperature in the Frigid Zones.

carries the heat with

572.

it.

The temperature of the

waters of the Polar Oceans

surface-

The process

continues.

Varies
|

Surface-temperatures.

from 28 to 36
the

sinking to 28 in

Till the

whole surface-ocean becomes heated more

In the tropical ocean
is

the Winter; and rising to 36 in

or less above the temperature of the under-ocean,

Summer

in those portions of the

ocean which

or 40.

some

elevation of

are cleared of ice by currents early in the season.

565.

temperature
feet.*

effected even to the depth of 7,200

For the greater

part, however.

573.

The grand

fact of ocean -temperature.

The temperature does not

season
heats,
;

the melting

ice

above 28 at any consumes the Summerrise

rise

Is the fact of the

uniform temWhy
sea
is

and thus prevents any above 28.

566.

of temperature

perature of the deep-sea in all Zones

the deep-

and ages ;
in

for

it

can be shown that

temperature
it is.

as

weighty consequences hang upon

Oceanic surface-temperature
the
tropics.

this fact.
574.

Eanges from 70
as 89

to 89.

The Gulfs

of Mexico

What power do

all

land-animals have 7

and G-uinea alone exhibit so high a temperature

;

the average temperature of the tropical

The power
climate, either
in

of providing against the severities of

ocean
567.

is

about

80.

by burrowing, building
etc.
;

nests, hiding

dens and caves,

575.

so that all are comfortable.

Total range of oceanic temperatures.

Since marine animals have no such power.
in
;

61

from 28 to 89; exceedingly small in view

of the fact that the total range of climatic temperature

568.
is

They have been placed purposely

in

an element

289.

which a uniform and constant temperature may

be found.
The physical cause why the range
is

To

secure the comfort of these creatures

so small.

is

a sufficient reason for having the deep-sea temit is.

any elevation of its temperature by evaporating, and using up the heat that
First,
resists

water

perature as

would

raise its temperature;

and the more heat

is

* See

Book Second of

Soriee.

THE
576.

TEMPERATURE

OF

THE

OCEAN.

55

Does

it

secure their comfort

;

583.

Therefore, reasons,

It

appears to
this

for fish in general prefer to

;

be

in

As

strong reasons obtain for the existence of

water of

temperature
alert,

and when
in

in

it,

are

these surface-extremes, as for the existence of the

more healthy,
temperature.

and vigorous than

any other

uniform deep-sea temperature.

584.

What

of certain species of marine animals

577.

Moreover,

fish

caught

in cold waters.
little

They

love and flourish in the se-

Whose temperature
food
,

varies but

from 40, are

verest of the

surface-extremes of
as the

Some species require extremes.

the sweetest, most palatable, and wholesome for

temperature
in the

whale,

the

good

food,

and the same conditions that make a fish make him a well-to-do and thriving

walrus, the narwhal, and the seal,

Polar

the flying-fish, the dolphin, and the

creature
578.

porpoise, in the tropical oceans.

or steaming-hot. 585.

The surface-waters being icy-cold

to run his
fish,

Their only chance for

life.

The fisherman has

deep water to find any
in the

lines
all

down

into

These species cannot

live in

any other temperaor hottest waters

for they

congregate

ture than that of the coldest

comfortable deep-sea temperature, showing

it.

therefore, to furnish these creatures with a

home,

is

that they choose

579.

a sufficient reason for the surface-extremes of ocean-

But

the majority of fish have to

come where

ic

temperature.

To
food,

the surface of the sea after

and air, and light; and there they are exposed to all the extremes and
severities

Why there are surface - extremes of temperature.

Questions upon the

NO.

of oceanic surface-

Map
1,

of Oeean-Temperature.
25.

temperatures.
580.

PAGE
1

What
like

shall be said to this t

What
insects, are sub-

is

the oceanic heat-equator

Trace the course of

oceans
1

it.

Fish,

men, animals, birds,

Give

its

temperature
is

in the different
1

ject to the
suffering.
581.

law of labor, endurance, privation, and

Which ocean

the warmest

What do
signify
1

the underscored figures with degrees attached,

In other words.

Name
Fish have a physical probation, or training, just
as
all

the temperature of the Atlantic Ocean for each 20

of latitude as
Indian.

shown upon the Map. Of the

Pacific.

Of the

other creatures have

a probation that sub-

jects

them

them to somewhat of suffering, but makes healthier and happier in the main.
The surface extremes needed,
then.

What

is

the surface-temperature of the Polar oceans'?

of the deep-ocean in all latitudes
?

Average temperature

582.

What

is

the range of oceanic temperatures

These surface-extremes, then, are just what is needed to give the dwellers in the sea a salutary physical discipline to make them hardy, healthy,
;

How far South does ice come in the North How far North in the South Atlantic ]
What
is

Atlantic

the temperature of the Gulf of Mexico

Of the

and happy.

Gulf of Guinea'?

56

THE

TIDES.

CHAPTER
The
Tides.

XI
Co-tidal Lines.

Rationale of the Tides.

THE
58G.

TIDES.
tides.

591.

Six hours after the time above supposed.

tide b
d,

General phenomena of the

The
reach
Facts and features of the tides.

The waters of
about
six hours,

the sea rise for

would reach c, and the tide a would and low tides would be at the points a

and

b.

and then subside

for about six, completing the rise

592.

In six hours more.

and

fall in

12 hours, 25 minutes.
of rise.
;

The high
d,

tide

a would come round to

a,

b,

587.

The amount

high tide b would reach

again.
593.

making low

tide at c

and the and

In mid ocean 2i feet

near the land

it

varies
Tidal time.

from none
588.

in

some

localities to

70 feet in others.

Cause of the difference.

A spot
shore.

upon the Earth's

surface,

passing from
it

The configuration of
tunnel-shaped
its

the

Example

beneath the Moon, comes round beneath

:

again in

the

tide-wave entering in great volume the wide-mouthed,

24 hours, 50 minutes

hence, there being two tidewill

Bay

of Funcly, and compressed at

waves on the Earth

at once, high tide

follow

high tide every 12 hours, 25 minutes.

594.

upper
589.

part, rises to the height of 70 feet.

What
is

of tidal motion

Converse example.
It

The Gulf of Mexico and

tide-wave
is

undulatory, or wave-like
al

the Mediterranean Sea

;

have only a very slight tide

because the oceanic

the form moves onward, but not the

Character of tidmotion.

obstructed from entering the one by a

water; as a slack rope upon being

shaken, rolls in waves, but does not

narrow mouth, and the other by islands and submarine plateaus.

move forward out

595.

of the hand.
however.
in

Near

the land,

The waters run

falling.
596.

toward the shore

like a river,

and back again, according as the

tide is rising or

Cause of the flux and reflux near the coast.

"When the great

its

tide

wave approaches
rolls

the coast,

undulation

is

broken by the acclivity of the seashore-ward by the

a current tocalled the

bed, but the top of the toave

590.

Draw and explain

figure

the diagram.

force of
is

momentum, and thus makes

is

The round

marked E
line
;

in the center

the

ward
tide.
597.

the shore; this inflowing

Flood-

Earth; the dotted

face of the waters

at

a b c d represents the sura and b, the waters bulge,

;

When

the great tide-wave retires.

left

representing high tides

at c

and d they are de-

Then

the waters on the shore are

;

higher than

pressed, representing low tides.

those out at sea

and hence the former flow out

THE
toward the
ing
is

TIDES.

57

latter, to restore

the level

this outflow-

600.

In shallow waters.

the Ebb-tide.
Velocity of tidal

As
motion.
nels,

on banks, shoals, shores, and

in river-chan;

598.

the tide-wave

moves very slowly

at once
fast

several high

Is greatest at the Equator, about one thousand

and low

tides exist

on the river Amazon,

river
in succession.

miles

an

hour;

only

the

great primitive tide-

one tide not moving

enough to get up the

it

wave, that which keeps beneath the Moon, has so

great a velocity.
599.

before several others enter

601.

Cause of the tides.

;

The

Atlantic tide-wave.

A secondary tide-wave propagated from the great

primitive tide-wave,

The action of the Moon upon the Earth the Sun also has considerable influence, but it will not
be considered
in this

moves about

five

hundred miles

book.

an hour, along the channel of the mid ocean.

ft

602.

Draw and
the

explain the diagram.*

606.

Why

are there tides

M,
their

common
them

Moon, and E, the Earth, revolve about centre of gravity, G, and would fly
other but for gravitation that
at-

First, millions

beyond reckoning
Reasons

of vegetable and animal forms can

exist only

why

there are tides.

away from each

tracts
603. est!

to

each other.
the flying-off tendency on the Earth great-

upon tracts swept semiby the tides ; 60,000 clams of average size have been dug from one acre
diurnally

Where

is

of clam-flat in a single season, and leaving at that a

score of
little

ones behind for each grown one

At
dency

b,

because

it is
;

farthest from the

common

cen-

taken.
607.

tre of gravity, Gis

whereas at a the
it

flying-off ten-

small, because

is

nearer the

common

Upon

the

same

acre.

centre of gravity.
604.

Half a

hundred

species
etc.,

of

sea-weed, marine

Consequently.
a,

mosses, marsh-grasses,
will

might be found repre;

At

which

is

near the Moon, a tide

;

be drawn

sented in half a million individuals

and blue-shelled
in-

up by attraction and at b a by the flying-off tendency.

605.

tide will be

thrown up

muscles, and cockles, and snails dotting the leaden-

hued mud with their pink and brown dwellings, numerable for multitude
608.

Whereas the

solid

mass of the Earth.

Secondly.

Will remain stationary, because attraction and

the flying-off tendency balance each other.

The

tides carry out into the

open sea the impuri-

ties that
*

accumulate
;

in

the shallow waters of bays,

The teacher must

explain, illustrate,

a_nd enforce; it

cannot be done

fully in the book.

and thus prevent them from becoming pools of corruption, and breeding pestilence.
harbors, and rivers

58

CO-TIDAL
This
the more important.

LINES.

609.

is

tion, is

in

the eastern part of the tropical Pacific

Because our great commercial cities are situated upon these shallow waters, and empty all their sewerage into them. London pours 126,000,000 cubic yards of sewerage into the Thames annually, and
but for the drainage of the tides the whole river "would soon come to reek with all the odors of a
cess-pool,
610.

Ocean.
616.

The undulation from

that point.

So moves that places on the west coasts of the Americas have their tide later the further they are
from the Line.
617.
It

moves most

rapidly.

To
In
cold

the Northwest and South, because the Pacific

seasons and countries.

seems, by the absence of islands, to be deeper in

ice that

The
forms

tides

break up and carry off the

those directions than to the East across the

pelagoes.
618.

archi-

in

harbors and ports, and would greatly ob;

struct navigation

by bringing warm waters from

also prevent the ice

the open sea they

to great thickness.
611.

from forming

The Indian tide-wave.

rapidly along
;

Moves most
is

its

central part,

by
the

Thus when the land

reason of the greater depth

covered with snow.

lags

behind

at

Millions of birds find food

by the

retreating tides,
it is

upon the flats left bare most momentous fact to

chance for
life.

ends, and thus toward Asia.

619.

is

bow-like in form, with the bulge

the birds, for

612.

their only

The

Atlantic tide- wave.

How do
1

tides contribute to man's discipline as a

work-

ing being

Has the same form, from West Indies, Cape Blanco

Inland seas,

the same cause; the

in

Africa,

and New-

harbors

They wear away the embankments that protect they wash out or pile mud upon anchor;
;

foundland have high tide at the same time.

620.
lakes, etc.

age-grounds

they greatly increase the labors of

causing them
to

Have

only a slight tide, because their small ex-

loading and unloading vessels,

shift their positions

panses are attracted at all points at the same time

constantly

they subject them

with equal force, and therefore are not drawn up

at

to the risk of severe strains

while aground at low

any particular point into a heap of tide-wave.*

water, and

make

the entrance into and the exit from

harbors perplexed with rocks, trebly dangerous.

Questions upon the Tide-Map.

613.
All these difficulties.

NO.

1,

Man
toil

PAGE

25.

can overcome by the exercise of combined

;

and thought, but not without their exercise so that the difficulties compel him to intelligent labor, and thus contribute to his discipline and improvement.

Where and what is the Cradle of the tides ? What is the assumed hour of high tide in the Cradle on the Map 1 Would not any other hour answer as well ? What are those curving lines called % What are co-tidal
lines
1
x

What do the Roman numerals signify 1 What points on the western coasts of

the Americas have

CO-TIDAL LINES.
614.
Co-tidal lines.

high tide at 4 o'clock, as assumed on the

Map 1
one and the same

What
wave
1

points have

it

at 6 o'clock
see.

Is it

Follow the line and

Are

lines

tide at the
615.

drawn through places that have high same hour.

Cradle of the
tides.

What

is

the shape of the co-tidal lines in the Indian and

%

Atlantic Oceans

The

Or point from which they radiate

in

every direc-

* See Book Second of Series.

TEMPORARY
Where does
dle, or

OCEAN

CURRENTS.
Bay
of Bengal
% 1

59

the tide-wave

move most
1

rapidly, in the mid-

In the

In the Arabian

Sea

In the

on the borders of the oceans

Why 1
1

Gulf of Mexico
the

What
at the

other points have high tides on the Atlantic Ocean

same hour with Newfoundland

is

What

the depth of tide in the mid-ocean

German Ocean, or North Seal In the Sea of Corea 1 In the Gulf of Okhotsk 1 In the Bay of Biscay"? In the British Channel 1 In Baffins, Bay ]
of Fundy'!

What Bay

is

the depth of tide in the Mediterranean Sea

In

In the

CHAPTER
Classification

XII

and Causation of the Ocean Currents.

TEMPORARY CURRENTS.
621.

625.

Bright sunshine.

Expands
Three kinds of ocean- currents.

the waters

by heating them

whereas

clouds cut off the direct sun-heat, and the waters

Classification of

Temporary, Periodical, and Constant.

622.
ocean-currents.

cool

and contract

hence currents are induced from

the one region to the other.

626.

Temporary Currents.

Winds induce temporary currents.

Those which are temporary in duration and variable in direction are caused by rains, snows, melting ice, periods of sunshine or clouds, winds, or by
whatever
circumstances
temporarily disturb
the

Driving the surface-waters before them, thus forming a current;

when

the winds stop bloioing, the

waters set back toward that part of the ocean

whence they have been

are induced.
627.

driven, hence other currents

equilibrium of the waters.

623.

heavy

rain-fall.

These currents meeting land.

off

"Will

produce a current
;

in

any
beCausation of temporary currents.

Slough
rents
;

on either hand, forming

still

other cur-

given part of the ocean

first,

these temporary currents near the land are

cause

it

will raise the level thereof,

often very strong, and are peculiarly embarrassing

to the navigator, because they cannot be reckoned

and secondly, because the rain-water

is

fresher than the sea-water;

and both circumstan-

upon, and hence cannot be guarded against.

628.

ces will disturb the oceanic equilibrium.

Periodical Currents.

624.

Snows and melting

ice.

Will cause currents, because they add fresh water

to the salt waters of the sea,

and because they cool

the surrounding waters,, and in both cases disturb

the oceanic equilibrium.

Those which occur at a regular Causation of periodical currents. period of the day or year, are induced by tides, periodical winds, and by periodical variations of heat and cold incident to the change of seasons.

60

CONSTANT
Tides in their

OCEAN

CURRENTS.
635.

629.

ebb and

flow.

Thus are produced.

Cause

in

the passages of channels, in straits, and

Currents from the Equatorial to the Polar oceans,

flowing in general upon the surface of the sea, be-

harbors, periodical currents of great velocity and

power
tor,

and peculiarly embarrassing to the naviga-

cause of the warmth and consequent lightness of

their waters.
636.

because he has insufficient sea-room to take

to advantage.

them
630.

Return-currents from the Poles.

Induced by winds,

examples.
by the Monsoons

The

cold waters about the Poles, in general as

Periodical currents are induced

of the Indian

under -currents, flow down to the Line to supply the place left vacant by the heated waters; thus solar
heat accounts for the flow of the waters North and
South.
637.

Ocean, by the Etesian winds of the

"

Mediterranean, and by the

Northers " of the Gulf

of Mexico; these are mostly surface-drifts overly-

ing the stronger movements of the constant currents.

631.

The Map shows what

The Map

of the Ocean- Currents

As the Sun moves North and South.

variously heated and cooled

The ocean becomes

according to
rents forth
its

exposure, and consequently, cur-

shows that the currents do not of the Earth produoes currents. flow due North and South, but bear East and West the easting and westing are due to the rotation of the Earth.
638.

How

rotation

rium

and back are induced to restore equiliband of course, they will be periodical cur-

Explain more fully.*

A
Earth

body of water
in its rotation
;

in Lat. 60

moves with the

upon flowing

rents.

500 miles an hour, at the Line

632

Not

readily distinguishable.

1,000 miles an hour

and

therefore,

This

last class

of periodical currents are not dis-

down

to the Line, the

water must receive 500 miles

tinguishable to observation amid the complexity of

the oceanic movements, but
that they exist,
it is

an hour more of motion.

639.

nevertheless certain
scale.

As

to receiving the

motion

at once.

and operate upon a vast

The water
at once,

will not receive the additional

motion

and hence it seems to fall back, forming a current toward the

inertia
;

by reason of its own

CONSTANT CURRENTS.
633.
Constant Currents.

West.
640.

The general bearing

the

of Equator-ward currents.
it

Those which are constant in duration and generally uniform in direction

Causes of the constant currents.

Erom
the

foregoing reasonings

follows as a

general statement that all currents setting toward

and

force, are

due to Solar
sea,

Equator bear Westerly; hence the great

all

heat, to the

Rotation of the Earth, to Constant winds, to the Salts of the Evaporation.

634.

Equatorial Currents, whose waters have come from

and

to

the Polar oceans,

641.

bear West.
to

The body of water flowing back from the Line

How

solar heat produces currents.

is

Lat. 60.

The

tropical ocean

constantly
it
llavr. solar heat produces currents.

Must
will

lose

500 miles per hour of motion, but since

it

heated above the temperature of

the extra-tropical oceans
ters
;

not lose the motion at once,

will

seem

to

its wabecoming lighter by expansion, rise above the level of the general ocean-surface and run off to the lower levels at the Poles,

urge forward, forming a current toward the East.

*The teacher must
question.

illustrate

and explain

an

artificial

globe or substi-

tute therefor will greatly assist the pupil in comprehending the point in

CONSTANT
612.

OCEAN

CURRENTS.
647.

61

The general bearing of Poleward

Currents.

Secondly.

As

a general statement, all currents

;

setting

The

over-saline masses of the

warm

oceans,

and

toward the Poles, bear to the East

in general, the currents resulting

as, for ex-

the under-saline masses of the cold oceans, tend to-

ample, the Gulf-Stream, the Japanese Current, and

ward each

other, to intermingle
;

and restore
force.

saline

from the breaking-

equilibrium

the force which operates

in this

case

up of

the Equatorial Currents at the western shores

seems to be a chemico-mechanical
648.

of the oceans.

The amount

of power.

643.

The

Trade-winds.

"With which the unequally saline masses

move

Accelerate Equatorial

the

motion of the

Currents

toward

the

Causation of cur rents by winds.

toward each other,

degrees of saltness

is
;

proportioned to their different

in

West, blowing constantly over a

breadth of 30 on both sides of the Line.
644.

as the Gulf-Stream, the

a volume of ocean as large moving force from this cause

alone
649.

is

myriads of horse-powers.

The westerly bearing

of the Trades.
Evaporation.

due to the same cause as the westerly currents but air moves more freely the bearing of and hence the Trade-winds are more water, than rapid than the currents, and therefore accelerate
Is itself
;

Produces currents as follows enormous volumes of water are taken up from the tropical oceans, and are precipitated upon the extratropical
;

Causation of cur rents by evaporation.

them.
645.
tudes.

hence currents from the one to the other

The strong and

prevailing west winds of

mid

lati-

are set in motion to restore the level.

650.

More

specifically.

Accelerate the easterly bearing of

currents in those latitudes.

the

ocean-

Thus, the Gulf-Stream

flows with

much

greater rapidity toward Europe

The whole surface of the ocean in the Tradewind region is lowered " fifteen feet annually by evapenormous deficit is made good by amount of seven feet at least, the remaining eight feet being furnished by rains.
oration " and this
;

during a westerly gale than during an easterly.

646.

currents to the

The

Salts of the Sea.

Operate

in

two modes
;

for the pro-

duction of currents

first,

as

shown
heat-

Causation of currents by the marine saltB.

651.

Combination of the different currents.

before, they are the

means of

The

currents induced by evaporation and the ma-

ing the sea to considerable depths,

rine salts, in general unite

and are one with those

these several causes co-

and thereby disturbing equilibrium, and establishing

currents.

produced by solar heat

operating for the induction of currents.

62

DESCRIPTIVE

VIEW

OF

THE

OCEAN-CURRENTS.

CHAPTER
Physico-Descriptive

XIII

View f the Constant Ocean-Currents.

PACIFIC CUR.BENTS.
652.

657.

This counter current.

Unites with the current setting

The
largest current of the Pacific Ocean.

down from

the

Antarctic Ocean, and called the Antarctic Drift,*

The Pacific Equatorial Current flows Westward across the Equatorial region of the Pacific from ten to twenty miles a day breadth, 3,500
;

and they united both as

flow

to directions

Northeast to the

western

coast of

and waters, South

America.
658.

miles; depth, like that of the other equatorial currents, not yet

known, but understood to be hundreds

Upon

striking the coast of South America.

of fathoms.
653.

On

the eastern coast of Asia.

This current divides into two branches. One flows North along the coast of Asia, East of the

The combined volume of waters divides, sends one branch round Cape Horn called the Cape-Horn Current, and the other up the coast of South America, bearing the name of the Peruvian-Coast Current, or Humboldt's Current.

Japan

Islands, sends a

branch through Behring's

Straits into the Arctic Ocean,

and

is finally lost

to

observation in the ocean on the northwest coast of

North America.
654.

INDIAN CTJBKENTS.
659.

Name and

characteristics of the northern branch.

Passing into the Indian Ocean.

The northern branch

Current
per day
go-blue.
655.
is

of the Pacific Equatorial

The Equatorial Current

draws
its

of the Indian

Ocean
in

called the

Japanese

Current, or the
velocity,
;

waters

in

part from the Pacific Equatorial

Pacific Gulf-Stream;
;

maximum

120 miles
indi-

through the East-Indian Archipelago, and

east from that ocean
tralia.

part

temperature, 75 to 80

color,

deep

from the Antarctic Ocean by a current setting North-

by the western coast of Aus-

Disposal of the southern branch.

660.

Course and disposal of the Indian Equatorial.

The southern branch

of the Pacific Equatorial

It crosses the

Current in part forces passage through the EastIndian Archipelago into the Indian Ocean, and in
part flows Southeasterly
Pacific
656.

Indian Ocean in a broad stream,

by Australia into the South-

and Antarctic Oceans.

The
latter portion.
-

which divides East of Madagascar, and sends one branch to the Cape of Good Hope on the East of that island, and one branch through the Channel of

Mozambique, called the Mozambique Cue-

rent.

Re-crosses the ocean as a counter or return current,

and

is

called the

South-Pacific Countee

* For the explanation of the fact that the Antarctic Drift, though a very
cold current,
is

CjEEElTT.

a surface-current,

see Book Second of Series.

T-

"

MAP

NfS.C&CEAF-CXTOLEIf
EXPLANATION. 7mrtH
Monsoon aviwi/;? it
01

r-Vel

/iffzirvs iieiir 1he m-ows. Jbitei

uncertainty

?.'

to Wocity.

&
vntfr

BIVEB.- SYSTEMS
shown b >w
<?t\y

pei'

in miles, by

to?y jnarfts dejtole

Engraved &. Prime d by Rae Smith..NevYoTk-

DESCRIPTIVE
661.

VIEW

OF

THE
667.

OCEAN -CURRENTS.
The
central current of the Atlantic.

63

Velocity of the

Mozambique Current.
is

The Mozambique Current

in the ocean,

the swiftest current

The Atlantic Equatorial Current, gathering

its

running

in

the narrowest part

139

waters both from the South and the North, cross-

miles a day, or nearly sis miles an hour.

662.

es the

ocean with an average velocity of 47 miles

per day, and divides into two branches at the east

Joined by a periodical current.

point of Brazil.
668.

A periodical
Bay

current induced

the Indian Ocean, and called

by the Monsoons of the Bengal and Mal-

The southern branch.

abar Current, flows one-half of the year from the

of Bengal and the Sea of Arabia, and unites

Follows the coast of South America Southwestits volume is small, its flow is weak, and is gradually lost to observation about the latitudes 30 to 35 S. drift from this current continues to

erly

with the Mozambique Current.

half of the year
It
is
it

During the other

flows back again into those seas.

move South, and

of slight depth.

falls into and in part composes the South-Atlantic Counter Current.

663.

At the southeast point of

Africa.

669.

The South-Atlantic Counter Current.

off
till

The two
torial,

currents arising from the Indian Equa-

and flowing, the one on the East and the other on the West of Madagascar, unite, and attempt to double the Cape of Good Hope, under
the

Enns
America,
tic Drift,

Southeast from the coast of South

meeting and uniting with the Antarc-

name

of the

Agulhas Current.
disposal of the Agulhas Current.

in part enters the

rent,
664.

moves Northeast toward South Africa, Indian Ocean as a counter curand in part flows up the western coast of Afit

Name and

rica.
670.

This current, named after the Agulhas Banks at

the southern point of Africa,
is

The

northern branch of the Equatorial.

too

large

to find

passage for

its

whole volume over the banks

hence a portion of
it is

into

the Atlantic, and

turned

back as a counter current

Indian Ocean.
665.

into the south part of the

Disposal of this counter current.

This South-Indian

Counter Current, crossing

Flows along the northeast coast of South America under the names of the Guiana Current and the Caribbean Current pours into the Gulf of Mexico, where the waters are all commingled in a vast complexity of inconstant and irregular currents; and issues from the Gulf round- the southern point of Florida in the rapid, powerful, and cel;

the ocean, unites with waters flowing from the Ant-

ebrated Gulf-Stream.
671.

Ocean the combined volumes flow Northeast toward Australia, and finally empty into the
arctic
;

General course of the Gulf-Stream.

Indian Equatorial Current.

The Gulf-Stream,
the

so

named because

it

issues

from

Mexican Gulf, flows Northward between the

Islands and
Florida, follows the coast of
to the

Bahama

ATLANTIC CURRENTS.
666.

the United States, bends

the

Eastward, crosses

North

Atlantic, spreads its waters over the

whole

Ross's Current.

doubles Cape

That portion of the Agulhas Current which Good Hope, having first united with
clown from the Antarctic

ocean near Europe, sends some of them into the Arctic Ocean round North Cape, and the rest down

by the Azores
672.

into the Atlantic Equatorial Current.

waters setting
flows

Ocean,
Its velocity.

down

the western coast of Africa toward the

Line, under the

name

of Ross's Current,

and emp-

At

the

Narrows of
:

Florida,

from two to

five
fifty-

ties into the Atlantic

Equatorial Current.

miles an hour

1,100 miles from the Narrows,

64

DESCRIPTIVE
a

VIEW

OF

THE

OCEAN-CURRENTS.
call

five miles

day; 3,000 miles from the Narrows,

navigators
its

the Indian Ocean the Black Ocean,

salt

thirty miles a day.

673.
Its temperature.

waters being very

680.

and therefore dark.

color.

Another explanation of the

Narrows, 86; at 1,100 miles, 81 at at the Azores 74. These are its 3,000 miles 78
the
;

At

The

color

is

by some ascribed

to the presence of

infusoria, exceedingly
flourish in water,

minute animal forms that

Summer or highest temperatures ; peratures are from 5 to 15 lower.

674.

its

Winter-tem-

and more especially and abundant;

The warm and cold

lies

streaks. in

The warm water

allel

along

streaks alternating

the G-ulf-Stream is known to be charged with multitudes of these microscopic creatures, but it is not known that they are of a sort to
ly in

warm water

with streaks or bands of cool water, extending par-

color the water indigo-blue.

681.

with the axis or general course of the stream.

Permanence of the bands.
are permanent, and hold the

The Japanese Current.

Asiatic Gulf-Stream
is

675.

The
same
rel-

equally remarkable
called

The bands

for its deep-blue color, hence

it is

by the Jap;

anese the
are

though they move with the whole body of the stream in its oscillatiotis North and South.
ative positions
at all periods of the year;
676.

Kuro Siwo, much warmer and

or Black Stream
Salter

its

waters

than those of the adja-

cent ocean, hence their darker hue.

682.

What oscillations
in

The inshore cold

drift.

The Gulf-Stream
;

Summer flows

close to

New-

foundland, but in "Winter 4

South of it, in its course East so that the stream vibrates or oscillates North and South with the passage of the Seasons.
677.

Between the Gulf-Stream and the United-States coast, a drift of cold water moves slowly Southward, visible at the surface as far as the mid latitudes of Florida where it clips down beneath the overflowing waters of the Gulf-Stream, and becomes subma;

rine.

The

cause of the streaks

;

683.

but mountain-chains on the ocean-bottom beneath are supposed to crowd' up

the deep, cold waters from below toward the surface,

Is not

well-known

What

this drift

is.

It

is

a continuation of the Arctic Current which

giving rise to the cold bands.

lines,

The warm
and forms the

water occupies the intermediate

strikes the Gulf-Stream at Newfoundland, crowded up from the deep-sea by the acclivity of the seabed and its own momentum and accordingly it is
;

warm
678.

bands.*
The
color

continuous with the rest of the cold current which

underlies the Gulf-Stream.
of the Gulf-Stream. 684.
Its effects.

Is a

deep indigo-blue, perfectly distinguishable

from the ordinary sea-green or ultra-marine color of the ocean in mid and high latitudes.
679.

It gives to the east

winds of the United States

their peculiar asperity, originates the violent con-

trast of temperatures
Causation of the color.

which causes the

terrific

temfish-

pests
" saltmakers
it

of the Gulf-Stream, and furnishes

fish.

our

The depth
to
their brine to

of color

is

undoubtedly owing largely

;

markets with the sweetest and best of

685.

the saltness of the waters

know
The
Asiatic inshore drift.

be getting strong when

turns blu-

ish ;" the tropical ocean,

by reason of

its saltness, is

Between the Japanese Current and the Asiatic

coast a cold drift exists, correspondent in every respect to the Atlantic cold drift
;

of a deeper hue than the extra-tropical; the native

hence the excel-

* See Book Second of Series.

lent fish, the blinding fogs, the

harsh winds, and the

DESCRIPTIVE

VIEW

OF

THE
692.

OCEAN-CURRENTS.
In proof.

65

ravaging pulmonary diseases of the eastern Asiatic

coast.
686.

Enormous icebergs

are seen driving up Baffin's

Bay
The Northwest-Branch Current.

against

the

outward-bound surface-current,

The Nortiiwest-Branch
"W.,

Current

strikes

off

Northwest from the Atlantic Equatorial in Lon. 30 and Hows to Lat. 20 N. in a perceptible cur-

and even breaking passage for scores of miles, through surface-ice ten feet thick. These are driven by the northward-bound under-current.
693.

rent; further
687.

North

it

becomes

lost to observation.

deep-sea lead.

Dropped down through the Gulf-Stream

Circuit of rotation.

into the

waters beneath, moves

cold current setting

It will
tic
is

be seen that the whole of the North Atlan-

by the toward the Caribbean Sea;

Southwest,
carried

forms a vast circuit or whirl of waters ; a drop supposed to traverse the entire compass thereof

enormous icebergs are frequently seen in the GulfStream plowing passage to the Southwest, driven

in

about three years.

688.

by the
North Atlantic.
is

resistless

momentum

of the

moving mass of

under-ocean.
Not peculiar
to the

The same

rotatory tendency

observable in the

694.

Sometimes brought

to the surface.

other oceans, but not so strikingly as in the North

Atlantic, because the latter
is

The
surface

deep-sea movements are often lifted to the

so

hemmed

in

by land

by

shoals

and

shores.

The

cold inshore

as to confine the whirl to definite limits.

689.

currents before mentioned, are simply the uplifted

Currents from the Arctic Ocean.

edge or hem of the great submarine movements, pushed up the acclivity of the sea-bed.

The

watei's that flow into the Arctic

in

Ocean

find
695.

egress therefrom

the Arctic Currents that flow,

When upon

soundings.

one on the East of Greenland, and the other on the

Even though

in the tropical

ocean, where from

West, Southward to Labrador, and strike the GulfStream East of Newfoundland.

690.

the shallowness of the

water a high temperature

alwaj^s

might be expected, the navigator nearly

surrounding ocean

finds a temperature 5 to 10 lower than that of the

The Horse-Shoe Bend.

The Horse-Shoe Bend is an enormous flexure made in the Gulf-Stream off Newfoundland, by the
in-pouring Polar currents
;

showing that the cold waters up upon and urged over the submarine plateau by the deep-sea movement.
;

have been

lifted

it is

the receptacle of

in-

numerable icebergs

is

overhung with dense fogs

air of the

696.

Moreover, deep-sea soundings.

precipitated from the

humid

Gulf-Stream,

and

is

the terror of the navigator.

the Equator, invariably reveal a temperature from 40 downward to 30 these cold

;

Even beneath

waters must have come, of course, from the Polar

oceans to exhibit so low a temperature, for the

mean
is

temperature of the atmosphere at the Equator

SUBMARINE CURRENTS.
691.

not lower than 82.

697.

Submarine Currents.
exist in various parts of the ocean.

Submarine currents

universal.

Are known to They flow out of

Currents of greater or less rapidity and volume

exist universally in the
for universal

the Mediterranean and

Eed Seas

masses of the under-ocean;

intelligible the universal sur-

one flows into Baffin's Bay, another underlies the

Gulf-Stream, another flows beneath the Japanese
Current.

deep-sea movements are required to

complement and make

face-movements
;

the

particular

cases

specified

66

WHY THE OCEAN -CURRENTS

fill

EXIST.

above are cited merely because they have been

observed and studied.
698.

their duties,

to confusion

and the whole system would and ruin.

fall in-

Their temperatures.

Submarine currents are sometimes warmer and

sometimes colder than the surface-waters
ral the
;

Questions upon Chart No.

What does
represent
1

1.

in

genethe Chart at the beginning of Chapter XII.

warmer currents

are at the surface, but in

very high latitudes the colder currents are at the

surface.*
699.

How are

the high temperatures denoted

The low

Why

are there submarine currents

"What

office

and duty they

may have in the

depths

What is denoted by the figures with degrees attached 1 Do they denote the deep-sea or the surface temperatures 1 What are the different temperatures noted in the line
figures off South Carolina
%

of

of the sea

we do

not know, but they are indispensa-

What temperatures

off

North Carolina

ble parts of the great system of oceanic circulation,

How
coast
1

do you account

for the

low temperatures near the

as high as those

and without them the surface-currents could not

ful-

Are the temperatures marked on the Chart

*I or a fuller exhibition of these under-currents, see
ries.
,

Book Second

given in the text 1

of Se-

Several small counter-currents have not been noticed in this brief

Ans

They are not

because the former are Winter-tem-

discussion.

They

will

be fully presented in Book Second of Series.

peratures, while the latter are Summer-temperatures.

CHAPTER

XIV.

Measons for the Existence f ceaii-Ciwrents.

WHY
700.

OCEAN-CURRENTS EXIST.
reason for the existence of ocean-currents.

are kept from

freezing over,

and the

latter

from

greatly overheating, which they certainly would do

The

first

but for the currents.

702.

The proper distribution of heat and cold through the oceanic mass is
First argument.

As

to the amount of heat carried in a single current.

effected

by the ocean-currents, and

no other instrumentality
that distribution can be effected.
definitely.

there

is

whereby
701.

carries into the extreme Northand Arctic Oceans heat enough to keep one-hundred and eighteen rivers as large as the

The Gulf-Stream

Atlantic

More
ice

Mississippi flowing continually boiling hot, or eight

The

formed

in the cold

oceans

is

carried

by

rivers as hot as molten iron

*
!

currents to the

warm, and the tepid waters of the tor:

rid oceans are carried to the cold

thus the former

* See

Book Second of

Series.

WDY THE OCEAN-CURRENTS

703.

EXIST.

6Y

As

to the

amount of

cold.

710.

Franco and England.

as far

The Arctic Current alone that flows down by Labrador, reduces the temperature of thousands of
square leagues of ocean through a range of 15 or

Though

North as Canada and Labrador,

possess a humid, temperate, and genial climate, be-

cause the neighboring seas covered with the Gulf-

and through the iinder-oeean pours an almost icy temperature into the steaming boiler of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.
20,
704.

Stream waters, temper the

711.

cold.

Even Norway.

Is clad with green,

Icebergs, also.

and waves with harvests,

in

the latitude of South Greenland cased and horrid

Five-hundred icebergs have been counted at once

in the

with eternal

ice,

because the sea near

Norway

is

Arctic Current, bearing

down

into the Gulf-

covered with waters brought by the Gulf-Stream.

712.

Stream; some of them two miles round and fivehundred feet high, and weighing singly upon computation, 10,000,000,000 of tons.
705.
If there

Northwestern North America.

Enjoys a climate softened by the diffused waters of the Pacific Gulf-Stream; so that
comfortably habitable even
will
in

warm
it

is

were no currents.
this

60 N.

Lat.,

and

First,

but for

interchange of temperatures,
inevitably freeze into glairy

bear the hardier grains even so close beneath

the cold oceans

would

the Polar Star.

713.

continents, or solid blocks of ice

bottom
perish,
706.

and every living thing smothered and frozen.

;

from surface to in them would

More

generally and universally.

is

The

capacity of water for heat

;

500 times great-

er than, that of air

Secondly, the torrid oceans.

so

when

10,000,000 cubic miles

of tropical

ocean heat up 50, the heat thus ab-

Would

turn

to

sweltering,

steaming caldrons,

stracted from the burning torrid clime reduces the

whose prodigious evaporations would drown the adjacent lands, and whose high temperature would render them unfit for the residence of marine life
707.

temperature of 5,000,000,000 cubic miles of atmos-

phere 50^
sation
711.
!

how amazing and

beneficent the dispen-

No

rhetorical exaggeration.

Borne away

to the Frigid Zones.

The foregoing statements are no

therefore, on the score of heat

rhetorical exag;

The warm water borne away

gives out
its

to the Polar realms,

geration, but are capable of rigid demonstration

heat,

and

raises

the temperature of

and cold
not.

alone,

it is

5,000,000,000

cubic miles

of atmosphere

50
is

so

question of

life

and death

to nearly all

marine

life

that the subtraction of heat in the one case

to its addition in the other, ly a blessed thing, because

equal

whether there
708.

shall

be currents or

and
it

in

both cases equalmillions of crea-

makes

Secondly, the climate of the Earth.

tures comfortable and happy.

715.

more temperSecond argument. and agreeable by the dispersion of heat and cold from region to region, through the agency of the ocean-currents.
Is rendered vastly ate
709.

Thirdly, the

salts

of the sea.

Are

re-distributed

from the

reThird argument.

gions of accumulation by the oceancurrents, so that

all

For example.
intensely dry

parts of the sea

left over-sa-

The

climate of Chili and

Peru

are kept sufficiently saline, and no part

is
line.

rendered quite tolerable even

because the

air

in the Summer-heats, from the sea sweeping over the cold

is

716.

Where the

salts

accumulate.

current on the coast,

20 colder than

if

no cold

current were there.

As before shown, the salts tend to accumulate in the warm oceans, therefore these oceans tend to be-

68

WHY

THE

OCEAN -CURRENTS

EXIST.

over-saline, and actually would turn to brine, were not the tendency corrected.

come

chards and herring crowd the

voracious armies

British

Channels,
their

and whitings cram the German Ocean with

717.

First correction of the tendency.

all

seeking the food-treasures

Nature endeavors
storing: the

to correct the tendency,

first,

by
is

brought them by the Gulf-Stream.

723.

warm

oceans with vegetable and animal

salts
;

Whales.
in schools

forms that absorb the

insufficient,

but the correction

Gather
Isles,

along the borders of the Gulf-

because

it fails

to restore their share of

Stream, and block up the passages of the Azore

seeking the " sea-nettles,"
little

salts to the

colder oceans,

which need their

less

gelatinous ra-

share, just as
er share.
718.

much

as the

warm oceans

their great-

diate animals

bred by

billions,

and brought to them

by the Gulf-Stream.
724.

Therefore, second!}'.
salts

The Japan
fisheries

fisheries.

Nature manages so adroitly that the surplus

are

The

of Japan are to Asia what

;

New-

made

to set currents in motion,

which draw

off

from the

warm

oceans their over-saline waters, and

cold, under-saline oceans, so that

pour them into the

both are kept
719.
fit

North America and for the same reason, because the Kuro Siwo brings into the shallow depths of that archipelago enormous
foundland's are to
food-supplies for the congregated millions of hun-

for plants

and animals to

live in.

If there

were no currents.

gry

fish.

The

vegetables and animals in the

warm oceans

725.

Without the currents.

would suffer, and perhaps die from overmuch salt, though to a certain limit they thrive better the more
salt there is
;

The various species preyed upon would die where they are bred, and rotting on the flood would
poison
species

whereas

in the

cold oceans they would

the skies with stench

suffer

from deficiency of

salt.

How

strong, then,
!

and the predatory would starve to death, for they cannot ex;

the reasons for the existence of currents

720.

plore the

warm
fire
!

oceans for food, since

it is

to

them

The

real

importance of

this office.

as a sea of
726.
rents.

Inasmuch

as the distribution of the salts does not

Analogous

office of

aqueous and atmospheric cur-

touch our immediate interests,

underrate the importance of
it
;

we

shall

probably

but to millions upon millions of plants and animals it is a matter of

life

Just as the winds bring to the hungry millions of

plants the

carbonic acid which

is

sweet food for

thus do even

and death; and so God keeps the currents moving forever, however indifferent we may be
about
721.
it.

them, so do the ocean-currents bring to the hungry

dwellers in the sea the food they love
;

the motions of the dead elements illustrate God's

loving kindness.
Fourthly, food for fish.
is

In the form of infusoria

in

borne
Fourtli

727.
argu-

Furthermore, navigation.

the

warm

currents tD feed the

living in

ment.

Is powerfully influenced

by

the
Fifth

vast

swarms of creatures
and
fish like

currents

voyages

may be

greatly

argument:

the cold oceans; whales, walruses,

seal,

lengthened or shortened, according

hills for

the dust of the

multi-

as the currents are taken to advantage or disad-

tude.
722.

vantage.
Examples.
728.

Their general

effect.

Newfoundland's

grand restaurant
George's
Shoals,

is

crowded
pil-

Perhaps, in general, currents obstruct the navigator rent that aids

with hungry cod-fish, hungry millions of mackerel

swarm upon

the

hungry

more than they help him for at best, a curhim going one way, will delay him
;

WHY THE
going
in

OCEAN-CURRENTS
and

EXIST.

69

the other, or compel

him
it.

to devious

to every living thing

its

tedious by-passages, to avoid

729.

entire

upon the Earth, throughout compass of land, water, and air, and
its

throughout the whole period of

More
particularly.

duration.

Near

islands, reefs, shoals, etc.,

they expose him

cast-

to the greatest risks encountered

on the ocean,

ing him upon the rocks in spite of his watchfulness

Questions upon the

NO.

Map
3.

of the Ocean-Currents.
64.
1

and skill the passage of the Narrows "of Florida is more dreaded by the navigator than the crossing of the whole of the wintry Atlantic.
;

PAGE

Where

is

the Pacific Equatorial Current

its

What
730.

is

velocity

Is it as rapid
its

along the edges

?

Probationary agencies.

What shows

the direction of

flow

Its

breadth?

So

that the ocean-currents

impose upon those

What do
signify
? is

the interrogation-marks near some of the figures

that do business

the sternest part of their physical probation

pelling
ties,

upon the great waters, perhaps ; com-

Where
Australia

the Japan Current

Its velocity ?

them to the highest exercise of their faculand making their occupation dignified and

Bearing of the waters among the islands on the North of

?
is

even sublime.
731.

Where
Its

the Indian Equatorial Current

?

Its velocity

The conclusion

of this argument.

breadth
is

The

currents help the navigator in

some

What
instances,

the

name
?

of the current in the Northern part of

the Indian Ocean

Why

a double-headed arrow

and in others by laying more responsible duties upon him, help educate him, and make him a thinkSo that in this matas well as working ins: o bein\ o es
ter of navigation, a twofold reason obtains for their

How
car
?

swift

is

the current at the northern part of Madagas-

Velocity of the

Mozambique Current

?
?

What current at the southern

point of Africa

ItsTelocity

Breadth of the Atlantic Equatorial Current

Its velocity 1
?

existence.
732.

Where
work down
the Earth.

is is
?

the Northwest-Branch Current the Guinea Counter Current

?

Its velocity

Lastly,

Where
in
Sixth argument.
'

Why called CountMexico

?
?

The

currents

have done more

to a suitall

er Current

than any other single agency

Is there a regular current in the Gulf of

working down the Globe

able

What
?

current runs out

Velocity?

of

the

Gulf of Mexico
of
it ?

Its

condition

of surface;

the present lands

depth

What becomes

and the currents swept over them, as now over the bed of the sea, rasping away the roughness thereof.
have been covered with water,
733.

What

currents strike the Gulf-Stream from the North at

?

Newfoundland

Whence

flow the Arctic Currents'?

into

J)o any currents flow

the Arctic Ocean

Where ?

The

duration of the work.

The work began thousands of ages before man was created mountains have been worn away, vast rents and chasms and abysses have been filled by these tireless workers, and so man finds the surface
;

Questions upon Chart No.

What does
resent
?

2.

the Chart at the beginning of Chapter

XIV. rep-

of the Earth smoothed off beneath his feet.

734.

How
Conclusion of the whole argument.

are the high and low temperatures respectively de-

noted

The

reasons for the existence of ocean-currents

Is the

warmest water at the surface, or deep

?

in the sea 1

are as strong as the benefits arising

from them are

less directly

To what depth are temperatures represented

great; those benefits extend

more or

What

is

the lowest temperature noted

The highest

70

RIVERS.

RAPIDS OF THE

ST.

LAWRENCE.

CHAPTER
Rivers.

XV.
Distribution of Rivers.

Reasons for the Existence of Rivers.

RIVERS.
735.

toward a

line of lowest depression

the line will be

Rivers the effect of causes.

the channel of the river.

737.

whatever region it TItj causation of l'ivers. and of whatever magnitude, from the brooklet that scarcely can moisten the gills of a minnow, to the stream that drives back the tides of the ocean, and anchors

Every
be,

river in

The

basin etc. of a river.

is

may

The
it

basin of a river
its

the entire area drained

is

by

and

tributaries;

the bed of a river

the gut-

ter or depression filled

by

its
is

waters at their ordithe line of greatest

deep-keeled navies on

its

shallows
it

nary volume; the channel

depth
738.

is

the effect of

in the bed.

causes
736.

no river

is

because

happens to be.
The
magnitude, or volume of rivers.
is
.

The two causes

of rivers.

upon the and secondland after evaporation and ly, a slope of land tending downward from two sides
First, a surplus

of waters remaining
infiltration; *

As

a & general statement,

'
.

proMagnitude of
rivers.

portioned to the size of their basins.

but varies with the humidity of the climate, or still more exactly, with the surplus of
evaporation

* Infiltbation,

the subsidence or

" settliDg" of water into the grouDd.

and

infiltration.

EIVEKS.
I

71

739.

Example.

745.

The flow,

or rapidity of rivers.

The
as 3 to

basin of tho
2, its

Amazon

is

to that of the Nile

;

Depends,
to their

first,

upon the abruptThe flow of

rivers.

volume

to that of the Nile as 10 to 2

ness of declivity from their sources

the Nile flows through a dry, sandy country, where

its

mouths

and secondly, up-

waters are both evaporated and filtrated away

on the straightness and smoothness of their channels.

746.

whereas the
tion.
740.

Amazon

flows
;

through

forests,

wet

land, and under rainy skies

hence the dispropor-

In general.

In a straight, smooth channel a descent of three

More
definite statement.

inches to the mile gives a velocity of three miles

The large surplus of evaporation and infiltration makes the Amazon larger than would be expected from the size of its basin whereas the Nile, by reason of the small surplus of evaporation and infiltra;

an hour
renders

a descent of twenty-six feet to the mile

;

renders a river unnavigable

it

a steeper inclination

a rapid;' still more abrupt descents, apvertical, a cataract.

proaching the
747.

tion,

is

much

smaller than
its

might be anticipated

The

flow most rapid,

where

from the extent of

741.

basin.

Among
tropical

their mountain-sources,

and there

it

does
ri-

Constancy of magnitude.

no harm, for the hardness of the land prevents

parian
for
*

Rivers are rarely constant in volume

rivers are swollen in the

ravages

and navigation

is

not obstructed,

Wet-Season; extra-tropical
any season of the year.

by the Spring snow-melting, and by heavy non-periodic rains occurring at

742.

it is not attempted by reason of the small amount of water hence, also, their lower portions are more favorable to navigation at once from greater volume and slower flow of waters.
;

Volume

varies just as required.

748.

The

deltas

of rivers.

Eivers swell and shrink so precisely to the necessities

Enormous accumulations

of

mud
Deltas and
bars.

of the case as to carry off every gallon of sur-

about their mouths are deposited

the stream

plus and no more; the most perfect hydraulic en-

ginery managed with the most consummate

could do the

skill

from the sediment borne along by they are called deltas from
;

their resem-

work no

better.

God's machinery

blance to the Greek letter Delta.

749.

always works to perfection.

743.

^
its

The amount of mud, examples.

Mississippi deposits

The volume of

rivers,

examples.

The
the

upon

delta annually

The annual volume of waters discharged by

Mississippi

a mass of sediment that would cover 122 square

miles one foot deep.
ly twice

would cover 363 square miles to the depth of 1,000 feet; of the La Plata, 544 square miles; of the Amazon, 1,452 square miles to the same depth.
744.

The Ganges discharges

near-

as

much, or a volume eighty-two times

into the

greater than that of the Great Pyramid of Egypt.

The Hoang-Ho pours out

2,000,000 cubic feet of

Yellow Sea
;

mud

every hour

hence the

No

space wasted.
is

turbid color and hence the

name

of that

immense

Universally the volume of rivers

into a comparatively

compressed

estuary.
750.

narrow compass, so that no

Kiver-bars.
all

space

is

wasted

a shaving 24 inches wide

and ~\ lh

Nearly

rivers deposit

mud

at their

mouths
;

in

of an inch thick, planed off from the floor of a hall 1,000 feet wide, would leave a depression represent-

greater or less quantity in the form of bars

the

mud

is

deposited at the

mouth of the

river

because

ing the ratio of the Mississippi's bed to the breadth of North America.

* Riparian, pertaining to the hanks or borders of rivers.

72

WHY

RIVERS

EXIST.

PASSAIC FALLS.

the waters flow slowly at this point, the sediment

dispensable

are rivers

to

the habitability

of the

has time to

settle,
it

and the water has not force

along.

Earth.
754.

enough
.

to drive

No

other

means

of drainage.
is

751.

Thus

rivers are continually at work.

"Wearing down the lands to a

level of the lands is calculated to

level.

The mean

Since the volume of rivers

made up

of such
at-

waters only as evaporation cannot take into the

be lowered twelve

mosphere, nor

infiltration

draw from the surface

is

inches in 10,000 years by this agency, and the bed

through the secret passages of the ground, there

ters

of the ocean to be raised three inches in the same

time.

no other possible means whereby these surplus wacan be got out of the
The lands without

way

than by rivers.

755.

rivers.

WHY
752.

RIVERS EXIST.
drains

Rivers and the Earth's drainage.

Without rivers to drain them, the lands would become uninhabitable morasses, or lakes, or seas
therefore the reasons for the existence of rivers are
First argument.

Rivers are the

of

the

Earth; drains that dig themselves,

take care of themselves, and never
get out of order
;

as strong as the habitable necessities of the

World

can make them.

that always are found

where they

756.

Rivers and commerce.

is

are needed, and never where they are not needed,

and that age

753.

after

age do

their

work

The ocean

the heart, and rivers

Second argument.

perfectly.

are the arteries of commerce, and

Dam up
sea.

a river.

river-commerce

And

in time its basin

becomes a bog, a

lake, or

tant, since

it

is peculiarly imporopens to the center of the lands, and

an inland
er its

The waters
would

of the Mississippi Riv-

thus binds civilizations and nationalities together

er if obstructed,

in three

years suffice to covin-

with closer

entire basin to the depth of one foot; so

ties, and enriches and cultures them intercourse. mutual with

WHY RIVERS
757.

EXIST.

73

Example.

upon him a heavier burden of labor and

763.
First,

care.

In what would otherwise be the remote and un-

they benefit him.

subdued
pi
tion,

interior of a vast continent, the Mississipciviliza-

has created a vast and swiftly growing

carries

The annual overflows of the the Amazon, and of many other

sustain the

Nile,

the Orinoco,
create and

rivers,

back and forth upon

dollars
in

its

waters hund-

enormous

fertility

of the countries bor-

reds of thousands of travelers,

millions

and hundreds of
has
cities,

dering them.
764.

of
its

merchandise yearly,

adorned
has only
758.

borders with beautiful

beginning.

and as yet

Alluvial regions not now inundated.

made a

Such
are not
in

alluvial tracts

on the borders of rivers as

Till

within a few years.

now

subject to inundation, were deposited

Man

has reaped comparatively few advantages

steam-navigation, alone
;

former ages by the overflowing waters, and owe

from river-commerce, for

can make
it

their fertility to this fact.

765.

rapid and easy

so that

we must
from

take

Secondly, inundations destructive.

into the account not only the advantages that have

resulted,

The
ive
;

overflows of rivers are often terribly destructin

but those also th

it

may

result

river-

sweeping away

sudden and indiscriminate

liv-

commerce
759.

in estimating its full

importance.

ruin the crops of a season, houses, granaries, barns,

the labor of years, with multitudes of innocent

Thirdly, manufacturing.

commerce the greatest Third argument. have, flourishes upon unnavigable rivers on this very account some rivers were left unnavigable through
to
civilizer

Next

ing creatures.
766.

we

Sometimes hurt the lands.

They sometimes carry off the choicest soil, and sometimes sift vile sand or barren clay upon fertile
acres, so

falls,

rapids, rocks, etc., because such rivers are the

that scarce brakes

and sedge can grow

favorite sites of manufacturing,

and because without them manufacturing would lack a cheap motor.

760-

upon them.
767.

Against these mischances.

The

loss

and the

gain.

Man
for commerce, the
fur-

has to guard with sharper vigilance, labor

The more
better
it is

unfit a river

may be

with more urgent industry,

and

direct

his labor

for

manufacturing ; the power thus

with profounder

skill

hence the vast levees and

sleepless watch-

and most available man has him and the working animals of an immense amount of toil, and does a vast amount that could not otherwise be done at all so that whatever man loses in one way is made up in the other.
nished
it is

the cheapest

bulwarks erected on the borders of rivers at countless cost,

relieves

and maintained only by

toil.

fulness
768.

and untiring
These
labors.

Have compelled man

faculties,

to a higher exercise of his

761.

The matter could not be

to

bettered.

and

in so

far

have benefited him, not

his discipline, his

di-

If

man were

make

the

World over

exactly to
riv-

rectly, indeed,

but through

tempo-

his mind,

he would probably have just as many

ral probation.
769.

ers obstructed with

impetuous rapids and broken

Rivers objects of beauty.

with tumbling cataracts as

deeming the manufacturing power thus gained ample compensaare

:

now

"Whether
rents

trickling

from

their

cold

fountain-

springs, leaping in airy cascades, or foaming in tor;

tion for the

762.

commercial

facilities lost.

whether rolling voluminous masses from the

in
silent

River-inundations.

brink of precipices in the many-voiced cataract, or

Affect man's interest in two ways;

River-overflows
first,

marching
and their
results.

majesty across the channeled

his

by an immediate increase of resources and second, by laying

;

breadth of mighty plains, rivers are objects of various and exceeding beauty.

10

74

THE

DISTRIBUTION

OP

RIVERS.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF RIVERS.

772.

Rivers

classified.

Eivers
classes,

may be

divided

into

two general

Oceanic and Continental; the form-

er discharging their waters into the sea, the

1
Bj
pf lU
jfe

latter into inland lakes,

773.

swamps, or

deserts.

Classification of oceanic rivers.

Oceanic rivers are

into Systems

classified
Oceanic river-

named

after the
re-

ysteuie.

oceans that receive their

spective

waters.

river-system

embraces

both the contained rivers and their combined

basins.
774.

Extent of the Atlantic System.

The
W*-

Atlantic System embraces upon the

several

Grand

Divisions

and upon various

19,425,000 square
of the longest

islands, an aggregate of

gj#

miles.

The combined length

its rivers,

twenty-three of

35,000 miles.

The

largest three rivers on the Globe belong to

it,

the

Amazon, the La

Plata,

and the Mis-

sissippi.
775.

What makes

the Atlantic System so large

Pirst, the position of the

water-shed mountall

ains of the Americas, that throws nearly

their drainage into the Atlantic
;

and second,

the inter-penetration of the Eastern Continent

THE AMERICAN FALLS BY MOONLIGHT.

by branches of the Atlantic Ocean, securing

to that

ocean a large part of

its

drainage.

770.

The

fact accordant with God's general plan.

776.

Extent of the Pacific System.

Pacific

The same Power

brilliant dyes, that

that clothes the ground with

fresh, bright verdure, that paints the flowers with

System embraces upon the several Grand Divisions and upon various islands, an ag-

The

kindles the clouds of morning

and evening with

ineffable splendors, has with a like

its

gregate of 11,125,000 square miles; total length of principal rivers 15,000 miles; the longest three
are the

exquisite adaptation to the sensibilities of the hu-

Amoor, the Hoang-Ho, and the Yang-tse-

man
tiful

soul,

ministers to our higher

To sum up the argument.

made even

the drains of the Earth beauculture,

Kiang.
777.

Extent of the Indian System.

in the

771.

The Indian System embraces

far

In proportion to the benefits direct and indirect

accruing from rivers to the World, are the reasons
strong for their existence.

from 5,450,000 square

its

miles,

aggregate not about one-fourth

part so great as the drainage of the Atlantic.

The
;

combined length of

chief rivers 9,040 miles

the

THE
largest rivers

DISTRIBUTION

OP

RIVERS.

75

are the Ganges, the Indus, and the

miles of North

America, and 270,000 of South

Brahmapootra.
778.

America, are inland drainage.

783.

Extent of the Arctic System.

in

Aggregate of the Earth's river-drainage.

The Arctic System embraces

about 7,400,000 square miles
;

the aggregate
its

Inland drainage about 11,420,000 square miles;

oceanic drainage 43,400,000 square miles
tal
;

combined length of
;

sum

toall

principal streams, 12,595 miles

its

largest rivers are

54,820,000 square miles, which

is

the area of

the Lena, the Yenesei, and the Obi.

779.

the lands.

Combined areas of

all

the oceanic river-systems.

43,400,000 square miles

of which 4,500,000 are

upon
780.

islands.

Questions upon the

NO.
or inland
3,

Map
PAGE

of River-Systems.
04.

The

largest system of continental rivers

drainage.

How many
a boot-shaped area of not
Continental er-systems.
riv-

different river-systems are there in

North Amer-

Forms
less

ica'?

How
What

are they designated or represented to the eyel

are their several areas
"?

than 5,000,000 square miles in

the central part of Asia.

pian and Aral Seas
stretches
781.
lie

The

Oas-

Is there

any inland drainage

in

North America

in the ankle,

and the toe

Eastward

to

Lon. 120 East.

How many drainages are there in South America^ How are they respectively designated to the eye 1
Their several areas
1 1

second vast system of inland drainage.

Where

is

South America's inland drainage

Is situated in northern Africa, extending far

down
What
river-drainage occupies the western part of the Old

into

South Africa.

The northern

portion

is

rather

a riverless region than an area of inland drainage.

The southern
ceptacles

part contains several large lakes, reIts total

World 1 To what drainage does Europe

chiefly
1

belong

"!

of the surface-drainage.

area

How many
drainage
1

drainages has Africa

Has Africa any inland

?

4,450,000 square miles.

782.

Area of Africa's several drainages

Australian inland drainage.

How many
What What
tralia 1

drainages has Asia

f
t

Name

them.

Their respective areas

Another vast system of inland drainage occupies

the central regions of Australia, an area of 1,500,-

drainage has Australia

areas have the several drainage-systems of Aus-

000 or 2,000,000 square miles.

200,000

square

76

LAKES.

WHY LAKES

EXIST.

CHAPTER XVI
Lakes.

Reasons for the Existence of Lakes.

Distribution

of*

Lakes.

LAKES.
784.

reason of the dry climate, and

infiltration

great on

No lake an
lake,

accident.

account of the sandy

790.

soil.

Every

whether swelling to
rides
to

Lake Torrens
a basin of

in Australia.

The causation
of lakes.

the vast inland sea upon which the

With
little

unknown but

vast dimensions,

is

commerce of an empire
is

and
the

better than a

swamp

for a

large part of the

wrecked, or

shrinking
is

pool which

year, through the

791.

same causes as above.

thirsty

ox might drain,
;

the result

of antecedent

Salt Lakes.
those whose waters are im-propor-

causes
785.

no lake

is

an accident.
lakes.

Are
remaining upon the
;

The two causes or antecedent condition of

pregnated with so large a

tion of salts as to
line to the taste
;

First, a surplus of moisture

be

distinctly sa-

land after evaporation and

ly,

infiltration

and second-

the

waters of all lakes contain

a slope of land descending on all sides to a point of lowest depression the point will be the bed of
;

more or
792.

less of salts.

The

largest salt lakes.

the lake.
786.

Situated in western Asia about the Caspian Sea,

rivers.

Lakes resemble

itself

a salt lake, and in the western part of the Unit-

In

all

the conditions required for their formation,

line,

save that the waters of the river converge to a

those of the lake to
a.

ed States, seem to be the remnants of evaporated seas, from the fact that the whole adjoining country
is

point.

The same
;

principle of
is

thickly strewed with marine remains.

793.

drainage operates in both cases

in fact, a lake

Smaller

salt lakes.

nothing but an obstructed

787.

river.

Owe their
or masses of
the tract covered

salineness to local accumulations, mines

salt,

The

basin of

a lake.

or to

its

general diffusion through

Comprehends the whole country that contributes

to
its

the soil of the adjoining country.

volume

the bed of a lake,

all

by

its

waters.

788.

The magnitude of lakes.

794.
in-

WHY LAKES EXIST.

Are lakes of any importance
in the

Is in general proportioned to the size of the basin,

scheme of na-

but depends on the surplus of evaporation and

filtration
;

ture

hence the largest basin

may

not have the

smallest

First, lakes help

drain the Earth.

is

Wherever
still

largest lake, nor the smallest basin the

lake.
789.

river

is

not practicable, and there

a surplus

of water, the surplus runs

down

to the lowest point

The Caspian Sea

or Lake.

in the whole region, gathers into the smallest com-

Has an enormous

basin, yet its

volume
is

is

com-

pass possible, and thus getting out of the

way

as

paratively small, because evaporation

great

by

much

as

it

can, forms

lake.

THE
795.

DISTRIBUTION
801.

OF

LAKES.

11

The

practical result.

Gomhination of lake-system and river-system.

tract of country not unfrequently be;

By

thus giving up a few square

miles to the col-

The same

lected waters, perhaps ten thousand square miles

longs to a lake-system and a river-system

thus a

are brought into and kept in an improvable and habitable condition, that

large part of the country occupied by the Great

would otherwise be too wet

Lacrine System of North America belongs also to

the Arctic and the Atlantic river-drainage.

and boggy
796.

for use.
flourishes

Commerce

upon

large lakes.

802.

There

is

no inconsistency

in this.

The commerce of the Great North-American Lakes vastly exceeds the entire foreign commerce of North America, and yet it has not reached a hundredth part of its possible greatness.
797.

Because the aggregation of its waters in lakes makes the region a lacrine system and their ultimate collection into rivers makes it a river-system. Therefore a lake-system is by no means synonymous
;

with inland drainage.

Lacrine commerce important.
803.

The

Lacrine commerce
cause
it is

geographic distribution of lakes.

is

especially

important,

be-

in the center of regions generally desti-

tute of great rivers, and remote

from the ocean, and

in-

Lakes are most numerous along those parallels of latitude in which

aqueous deposition
ly the
*
is

Geographic

dis-

from which the ordinary means of commercial tercourse seem in a measure removed.
798.

considerable
;

tribution of lakes.

but evaporation limited

accordingfor the

Small lakes have their uses.

Lake-Zone of both Continents lies most part in the mid and high latitudes.
804.

Every
snail,

silver-sided

minnow,

every

fresh-water

Why

so

every green-coated frog, every spire of watergrass, every sharp-edged bulrush, every fragrant
lily,

Because

in these latitudes the

preponderance of

cold weather favors aqueous deposition and checks

every trailing-leafed willow, that lives

in

or

evaporation.

Moreover, humid winds from the

around a tiny pond, becomes an argument existence which cannot be gainsayed.

799.

for its

tropics bring great quantities of vapor to be deposited in these latitudes.

805

Because of the good they do.

The

local

distribution of lakes.

God

has seen

fit

to create, perhaps millions of

is

lit-

tle lakelets,

every one of which

is

full

of comfort

and happiness, and

being
to
is

essential to the very life of

;

myriads of living creatures

creatures

whose

well-

thus visibly an object of care and concern

Lakes are numerous in mountainous localities, because enormous amounts of rain fall in such, which, being shed by the rocky surfaces, and being prevented from flowing off by the roughness of the country, accumulates in the ravines and gorges below, and constitutes lakes.
806.

him who made them.

We have thus

accounted for what

THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES.

800.

For two
itudes,

universal geographical facts

namely,

that lakes are found most

Lake-Systems.
clus-

and

in

numerous in the mid latmountainous regions ; the two most

Lakes are frequently found

What a
system
not.
is

lake-

general and comprehensive facts in the distribution

of lakes.

tered together in considerable num-

and

is

bers over quite extensive regions

these clusters with their basins are
called
*

Aqueous Deposition, Atmospheric moisture

precipitated in the form

Lake-Systems, or Lacrine Systems.

of rain, snow, etc.

78

DESCRIPTIVE

VIEW

OF

THE

OCEANS.

SEA AND SHORE.

CHAPTER XVI
Physico-Descriptive

Ic

View of the

several Oceans.

807.

How

mariy oceans are there

fact,

808.

The names thereof!

Indian, Arctic,
is

In point of

there

is

only one ocean, but for

for

Atlantic, Pacific,

and Ant-

ready reference convenience of description, and ocean is subuniversal the to different parts thereof,
divided into five oceans.

arctic
Ocean.

The

Atlantic

often called the

Western
Eastern

Ocean; the Pacific

the

Oriental,

or

DESCRIPTIVE
ATLANTIC OCEAN".
809.

VIEW

OF

THE

OCEANS.
Atlantic as respects
in

79

815.

The North and South

fish.

The

boundaries of the Atlantic Ocean.

Fish are more abundant and various

than in the South Atlantic.

the North

In the former, the

It extends
tic Circle,

from the Arctic Circle to the Antarcand from the Eastern Continent Westward

whale, herring, cod, and pilchard fisheries are pros-

ecuted; in the
tionale
:

latter,

only the whale fishery.

Ea-

to the "Western Continent.

810.

the North Atlantic has

more banks,

shoals,

The

dimensions of the Atlantic.

and

islands,
;

upon and about which

fish find feeding-

grounds
Length, 9,000 miles
area
;

moreover, the main part of the Equatorial

deflected into the

least width, 1,750 miles

in
;

extreme width, 5,000 miles 27,000,000 square miles

;

Current
all its

is

North Atlantic with

food-supplies.
Polar
ice.

depth varies from

to

sixty

feet

on

the
816.

Banks of Newfoundland,
but over six miles.
811.

depths unfathomed,

Comes
Atlantic's basin.

8 nearer the Line in the

;

South than

in

The form of the

the North Atlantic

valley

the bergs and fields of the

latter.

former are larger than of the

Is that

The bergs

of an immense

longitudinal

of

are sometimes ten miles long and one hundred feet in

quite uniform breadth, stretching

Circle to the other.
812.

from one Polar

average height

the fields often one hundred miles

long and from ten to forty feet thick.

817.

Temperature of the Atlantic.

The

Atlantic

is

noted.

The
ical

Atlantic
;

is

characterized by extremes of temis

First, for its great length as

compared with

its

perature

its

tropical part

warmer,

its

extra-trop-

breadth

secondly, for the Sargasso Sea, an area

colder than the corresponding parts of the Paits

of several million square miles in the

tic,

North Atlana

cific;

narrowness causes the influence of

conti-

covered with Fucus nutans, or

" Gulf- Weed,"

nental climatic extremes to be

more
it

sensibly felt
is

sort of plant that

818.

grows

in the water.

than in the other oceans

moreover,

open to
Thirdly, winds.

Polar currents upon both the North and South, as

no other ocean
perature.
813.
Its

is

hence

its

greater range of tem-

The

Atlantic

is

noted for the irregularity of

its

its

winds, and the violence of

equator of heat.

gales

a characteristic

itself owing to the narrowness of the ocean, which makes the disturbing influences of the land felt

The

line

of greatest average heat in the waters

lies for

across
819.

its

entire breadth.
for example.
is

of this ocean, 84,

the most part 5 North

of the terrestrial Equator.

Eationale

land preits

The Atlantic Trade-wind,

ponderates in the Northern Hemisphere, hence

The Trade-wind
hara Desert in the
is felt

of the Atlantic

turned back to

temperatures

in

low latitudes are high, and naturally

supply the strong draught setting toward the Sa-

bring the thermal equator of this narrow ocean

considerably North of the Line.
814.
Soilness of the Atlantic.

Summer

time; the disturbance

half-way across the ocean.

In spite of these irregularities.

820.
it

The

Atlantic

is

Salter
;

than the Pacific because

The Trade-winds prevail

tropical parts

pretty generally over the

;

receives

more
is

rivers

the immediate and local effect

its

of rivers

to

diminish the oceanic salineness,

is

and the southwest Eeturn-Trades of the North-Temperate Zone so

of this

ocean

remote and general influence

lineness.
is

to

increase the sa-

Salter

same account the North Atlantic than the South Atlantic.

the

On

preponderate that voyages to Europe are made in twenty-three days, but return-voyages occupy forty
days.

80

DESCRIPTIVE
The
Atlantic winds unduly estimated.

VIEW

OP

THE

OCEANS.
moreover, the regularitj' of
cur-

821.

temperature
atures.
827.

its

The
ocean

irregularity

and violence of the winds of the

rents effects a

more uniform

distribution of temper-

Atlantic are probably over-estimated, because this

is

the thoroughfare of the World's commerce,

The
is

Pacific's ice-drift.

and

especially because that

commerce

is

brought

in contact

with the furious tempests of the Gulf-

Stream.
822.

Whereas the

Pacific Gulf-Stream.

ice-drift in the North Pacific, and narrowness of Behring's Straits and the opposing current preventing the ingress of ice from the Arctic Ocean. The South Pacific re-

There

no Polar

the shallowness

About which
pests prevail,
is

equally terrible and frequent tem-

ceives
828.

enormous masses from the Antarctic Ocean.

Salineness of the Pacific.

not at

all

notorious for them, be-

cause commerce does not frequent the region, and

of course does not suffer from them.
823.

The

Pacific

is

not so salt as the Atlantic, and

not so salt as the Indian

Ocean by nearly one-

fourth part of the average oceanic saltness.

In point of importance.

The

Atlantic Ocean

is

and always must

be pre-

829.

The

Pacific

is

noted.

eminent among the oceans, because the great habitable plains of the Earth

First, for the regularity of its winds,

currents,
to the

upon which alone extensive

lie

and tides

this characteristic is itself

this ocean,

owing

empires can find room, cause

it

upon

its

slopes,

and be-

immense expanse of

and
is
;

its

consequent

reaches into the continents with so

many
rivers,

freedom from the disturbing influences of the lands.

arms, receives the waters of so

many mighty

Hence navigation upon the

seamen
for its ease

Pacific

famed among

and thus draws into

and
civilization of

commerce the resources the World.

its

and

tranquillity

and hence the

name
830.

of the ocean, the Pacific, or peaceful.

Secondly, archipelagoes.

The

archipelagoes of the Pacific are so extensive,

vast, that they are

PACIFIC OCEAN.
824.

and are composed of islands so

vision, called

sometimes classed together as a separate Grand DiBoundaries of the Pacific Ocean.

Oceanica.

The
the

existence of these ar-

It
cle,

extends from the Arctic to the Antarctic Cir-

chipelagoes might be anticipated, since the larger

the

and from the Western Continent Westward to

ocean, the

greater

number of

out-crop-

the Eastern.
825.

ping plateaus and mountains.

of the Pacific. 831.

The dimensions

Thirdly, volcanoes.

Greatest length from East to West, 12,000 miles

The
its

Pacific

is

noted for the stupendous chain of

breadth from North to South, 9,000 miles;

78,000,000 square miles.
Its greatest

its

area,

volcanoes that stretches like a burning belt around

eastern and -western coasts, forming an immense

depths are

along a line running Northeast and Southwest in

its

volcanic semi-circle.
832.

eastern part.

It

is

comparatively shallow over

the whole of the Great Oriental Archipelago.

826.

Two

popular errors.

The common
Temperature of the Pacific.
cific

inference that the waters of the Pa-

are higher than those of the Atlantic, based

fact of the constant current
level in the

The
tropical

Pacific
;

is

characterized

by uniformity of

upon the

round Cape

temperature

its

tropical parts are cooler, its extra-

Horn, and of the higher

Gulf of Pana-

warmer than

the corresponding parts of -the

:

ma

than in the Gulf of Mexico

is

entirely incorrect.

other oceans.

Rationale
oceanic,

its

vastness

makes

it

Also the notion that Cape-Horn tempests are the

severest known,
is

more completely

and hence

less variable in

groundless

they

may seem

so

DESCRIPTIVE
to the navigator

VIEW

OF

THE
839.

OCEANS,
and

81

who

has just come from the Trade-

Rain-falls

saltness.

wind regions of
833.

this serene ocean.*

or indentations.

The prodigious

rain-falls received

upon

this ocean,

As respects branches

The

Pacific has no considerable indentations on

the Western Continent, and but very few harbors

and more especially upon the bordering lands, are due to the high temperature of the waters, and the consequent copious evaporation. Hence, also, the
extreme saltness of
its

thereon suitable for commerce

ern Continent sends out into
peninsulas, and receives
gulfs
831.
it
it

whereas the East-

waters,

owing

to

the large

in

numerous and large enormous indenting

residuum of
840.

salts left in the

is

process of evaporation.

The Indian Ocean

noted.

and

seas.
its

First, as
other name.

has been already implied, for the high

its

Hence

temperature and saltness of

waters, for

its

im-

Hence the
the Eastern

Pacific,

from both geographical and

is

mense evaporations and heavy

841.

rain-falls.

commercial connections and considerations,

Ocean,
i.

called

Secondly, Monsoons.
is

e.,

the ocean of the Eastern

The Indian Ocean

ricanes.

noted for

its

system of Mon-

Continent.
835.

soons or Season- Winds, and for

its

tremendous hur-

As respects importance.
Pacific

These hurricanes owe

its

their peculiar vio-

The
lantic.

Ocean always

will

be of vastly

lence to the high temperature of the atmosphere

less

importance on the scale of

civilization

than the At-

over this ocean, and to

position with respect to

It has few harbors on the American coast, and no broad and fertile country back of them. China is the only region on the Pacific Ocean where an expanded empire can establish itself.

the adjacent sun-burned continents.*

842.

As

respects importance.

The Indian Ocean might be made

is.

of vastly

more

importance as respects commercial uses than

it

now

The country about

;

it

possesses enormous re-

THE INDIAN OCEAN.

836.

Boundaries of the Indian Ocean.

numerous harbors open upon the ocean, and gigantic rivers pour into it its winds are quite constant and are very strong no part of it is barred
sources
; ;

It extends from Asia to the Antarctic Circle, and from the Indian Archipelago on the East, to Africa

by

rigors of climate

but

its

commercial capabilities
use.

are put to comparatively

little

on the West.
837.

Dimensions of the Indian Ocean.

Greatest length from East to West, 6,602 miles

greatest

THE ARCTIC OCEAN.

813.

breadth,

6,394 miles;

area,

20,000,000

Boundaries of the Arctic Ocean.

square miles.
838.

It is situated within a circular area, 3,266 miles in

is

Temperature of the Indian Ocean.

diameter within the Arctic Circle

its

greatest

length or breadth cannot, of course, exceed 3,266

The mean temperature

it is

of the Indian Ocean

;

miles.
first,

higher than that of any other ocean

because
844.
Its precise area. it
;

open to Polar currents only on the South and secondly, because it is closely hemmed in by tropical lands, and is therefore swept by winds of very
high temperature.
Its equator of heat has a tem-

Is

unknown, because
land
lies

cannoi be ascertained
;

how

much

within the Arctic Circle

3,000,000

square miles out of the 9,841,000 which are contained within the Circle, have been determined
actual exploration to be ocean.

perature of 86, 3 higher than that of the Pacific, and 2 higher than that of the Atlantic.
* See Book Second of Series.

by

* See Book Secoud of

Series.

11

82

DESCRIPTIVE
This ocean
is

VIEW

OF

THE

OCEANS.

845.

noted.

main ocean, and therefore present themselves

the form of
its

in

floes,

For the enormous ice-masses in broken ice, and bergs, that forbid
its

fields,

naviga-

and native magnitude not having so many shallow and crooked channels through which to
their full
;

tion, and to a large extent even

846.

exploration.

force passage.
852.

This ice

is

not found.

Where and how

the land only
;

are icebergs formed

North of Europe, and not on the North On of Asia in the Summer, owing to the influx of warm waters from the Gulf-Stream. North of Bearing's
the
Straits also, quite a large area is kept

On
ice,

glaciers,

snow, and water commingled,

off in vast bulks that

immense masses of fill up valleys near

it,

the sea, and growing or flowing out over

are

more

or less

broken
853.

make

icebergs.

open by the
Straits.

warm

current setting through the

Inference from the Antarctic's icebergs.

From
847-

the fact of icebergs in the Antarctic Ocean,

The

ice escapes.

By the currents

setting out of this ocean

between

Iceland and Greenland, and

down
all

Baffin's

Bay
ice,

must be land in it, and from the number of the bergs there must be considerable land to afford space for the making of them.
it

follows that there

these being the only channels of egress for the

are choked and covered therewith

the year.

854.

As

respects importance,

what

of the Polar Oceans.

Both of the Polar Oceans might be displaced by

land,

THE ANTARCTIC
848.

OCEAN".

and man's immediate interests suffer little from Walled in by ice, and formidable for terrible rigor of climate, navigation in them is rethe change.
after blubber-bearing

Boundaries of the Antarctic Ocean.

duced to a precarious chase

;

It lies within

the Antarctic Circle

how much
is

monsters, or
"

land

is

situated in the South-Polar

Zone

entirely

search for Northwest Passage" or an " Open Ocean."

to

a life-squandering

is

unknown, and hence the precise area of the ocean unknown.

849.

855.

Notwithstanding

all this.

These oceans are indispensable

The
indications as to land.
is

to
;

the maiyvtenance

of nature in centered
of them

its

present conditions

and the removal and of the

exist-

Are

that a large triangular continent

would herald and

necessitate the destruclife,

at the South Pole, the projecting vertices of

which

tion of the present orders of

have been outlined, but whose general contour cannot be determined by reason of the
850.
ice.

ing state of things.*

In regard to the Antarctic's

is

ice.

Questions upon the

NO.
2,

Map
PAGE
1

of the Oceans.
43.

famed for the tremendous and almost boundless fields and packs of ice floating from it into the oceans on the North. Such is their size that ships have skirted their borders for weeks, and have been encompassed for months in the wilderness of
This ocean
floes

Dimensions of the Pacific

Ocean

Where Where

is is

the line of great depths %

the Great Archipelago?

Do you
1

understand the

depths to be very great in this archipelago

and broken

in fact, the

surround the larger masses ice-islands have been repeatedly taken

ice that
;

Where is the most easterly tract of sinking sea-bed 1 What is its area 1 What surrounds New Caledonia 1
Are the Solomon's
Isles rising or sinking
1

for earth-islands
851.

and

for continents

What

island-systems at the southeast and northeast points

f

Why

larger than those of the Arctic Ocean

fields

of the Pacific

Because the bergs and

of Antarctic ice
in

have fewer obstructions to overcome

reaching the

* See

Book Second

of Series.

DESCRIPTIVE
Dimensions of tbe Atlantic Ocean
Greatest
?

VIEW

OF

THE
brings
is

OCEANS.
there

83

known depth

Where

What What
Depth on the
Does

it

Depth, Lat. 15 South, Lon. 22 West?

Grand Banks ? Depth South of Greenland ? At the Azores ? Depth of the Gulf of Mexico ? Of Baffin's Bay ? Depth of the Mediterranean Sea ? Of the North Sea
the Black Sea
?

Bend ? What makes it? down the eastern side of the Atlantic ? Why not Which way do the currents set on that side Does any ice come from Baffin's Bay ?
the Horse-Shoe
ice float
?

Does
?

ice float

through Behring's Straits into the N. Pacific

set
?

Of

Why

not

Which way does the current

Of the Bay of Biscay

How
Dimensions of the Indian Ocean
?
?

far

North does

ice float in the

South Pacific

Depth of the Red Sea

Of the Caspian Sea

?

Where does it come farthest North ? What brings it so far North at that point

Dimensions of the Polar Oceans

Why

do we not know their exact size

What throws
?

the ice-drift line toward the Pole, Southeast

?

of South

America

Questions upon the Oceanic Ice-Drift.

What What What

soi't

of a current

is

there, cold or

warm ?
Africa
?

carries the ice so far

down toward
?

repels

it

Southeast of Africa

MAP
How
far

1,

PAGE
it

25.

What, then, determines the

?

ice-drift chiefly ?
it

South does

ice float in the

North Atlantic
?

From which

Polar Ocean does

?

appear that the

ice

can

To what

point does most of

come

escape most readily

PART
CHAPTER
Temperature.

III.

THE ELEMENTS OE CLIMATE

XVIII.
Modifications of Temperature.

The Causes

thereof.

TEMPERATURE.
856.

dependent upon
life.

its

suitableness for comfort and

The
its

climate of

a country.
Definition

Is

prevailing condition with

and
cli-

860.
elements of mate.

What determines

the temperature of the Earth

respect

to

heat, moisture,

winds,

First, its internal condition in point of heat; sec-

rains, storms, etc.

The

three most

ond, the
third, the
stars.
861.
is

important elements of climate are

amount of heat received from the Sun; amount of heat received from the fixed

Temperature, Winds, and Rains.

857.

Why

most important

While the Earth was

all molten.

Because the habitableness of the Earth

largely

Its

surface-temperature

was of
Earth's internal

and chiefly dependent upon heat and moisture, and their equitable distribution by winds.
858.

course like that of a glass-furnace,

thermal condition.

Precisely

what

is

here referred to by the word tem-

because of the volumes of heat poured forth from the melted matter into the
mosphere.

at-

perature %

The temperature
atmosphere Earth.
at.

or heat of the

862.
Definition

But the Earth has cooled

its

so

much.

and

the surface

of

the

The word,

as here used,

causes of the temperature of the Earth.

That
into

mass no longer sends forth any heat the atmosphere; and therefore the temper-

has no reference to the heat of the land, or water, or of the atmosphere at great elevations,
859.

ature of the atmosphere has ceased to be sensibly

and

actively modified

by the Earth's

internal heat.

but at the surface of the Earth only.

863.

How,

then, can temperature be said to

1

depend upon

Why
s

dwell upon the temperature at this particular

that internal heat

point or level

If the

mass of the Earth were

fall in

to cool

down yet
its sur-

Because

plants, animals,

and man,

all

organic

life,

more, then the temperature of the Earth at

face

are exposed to

this particular temperature,

and are

would

proportion

so that the tempera-

TEMPERATURE.
ture quiescently depends upon that internal heat,

85

thermometer, at midday,

in

the direct sunlight, will

even though
864.

it is

not actively modified by

?

it.

indicate the temperature of 212.

871.

Has the Globe stopped cooling

This fact shows what

The Earth has

twenty-five

not cooled down any for at least hundred years, and probably none for of years.*
its

That more of
ed
in

direct heat

from the Sun

is

receiv-

the higher strata of the

atmosphere than

many thousands
865.

reaches the lower, and therefore, that some heat

What stopped

cooling

must be detained
1

in

passing through the atmos-

phere.

The heat

received from the

Sun
Heat from the Sun and fixed
stars.

and the fixed stars; which

indeed, are suns themselves
stellar
866.
;

latter,

872.

The

practical importance of this fact.

so that

If the atmosphere did not detain any of the di-

heat

is

solar heat.
heat
is

rect sun-heat, then bodies at the

surface of
;

the

How much

received yearly from our

Sun

Earth would be heated

1

to at least 212

vegetation

would

all

Heat enough
measured
above.
867.
still

be boiled to death, and every animal be

to melt a stratum of ice over the

feet thick
;

killed with the sunstroke.

873.

whole Earth one-hundred and three

or

otherwise, enough to raise the tem-

The remaining three-fourths of the

the Earth
;

heat.

perature of the Earth from 60 below zero to 59^

Reach the surface of

immediately
reflected

some of

it

is

from various

objects,

and the

How much
to

is

received yearly from the fixed stars

ice

rest is absorbed.
874.

Enough

melt a stratum of
entire

83i feet thick,

stars shine

What

then becomes of

it 1

and covering the

Globe.

The

day and night alike, and with full perpendicular force upon all parts of the Sphere, hence the amount
of their heat.
868.

That which is reflected passes off from the Earth toward the etherial regions, warming the atmosphere on its passage that which is absorbed, having
;

heated the surface of the Globe,

?

is

radiated from

This solar-and-stcllar heat does what

the heated bodies, follows the reflected heat, and,

It actively, sensibly,

and measurably modifies and

alone as determining the

heating the atmosphere on

in space. 875.

its

passage,

is

dispersed

elevates the temperature of the Earth, so that henceforth

we

shall

consider

it

Thirdly, immediate contact.

Earth's temperature.
869.

The heated
is

bodies raise the

temperature of the
;

How

the Earth's temperature

raised.

somewhat by immediate contact but the temperature is raised chiefly by the heat radiated from
air

First,

about one-fourth of the

heat that attempts to come

down
is

through

the

Earth's

atmosphere
stars,

How the Sun and star heat raises the temperature.

the heated bodies.

876.

What seems

curious in this matter

from the Sun and fixed

the temperature thereof.
870.

That the heat radiated from

terrestrial

matter

detained in the atmosphere, and consequently raises

should raise the temperature of the

atmosphere so

much more than

the
direct heat of

How

is

this fact

known 1

the same heat when coming from Sun and passing through the very same atmos-

phere.

On the top of lofty mountains the the Sun is considerably greater than
of the Earth.

at the surface

877.

Is there

anything analogous to this

Thus, upon the top of Teneriffe the

A plate of
to pass

glass suffers the direct heat of the

itself readily, so that
;

Sun
is

through
it

the glass

* See Second Book of Series.

not heated by

but the same plate of glass hung

86

MODIFICATIONS
body heated by the Sun,
and
will

OF

TEMPERATURE.
and
shall also consider

before a

not suffer the

itself,

called Varieties of Climate

heat, radiated

from that body, to pass through

the physical causes of those modifications.

885.

but

will detain the heat,

will therefore itself be-

The

first

modification of terrestrial temperature.

come
878.

heated.

Arises from the ovalness of the

The atmosphere,
like the plate of glass.
its

Eartlis

orbit, in virtue

of which the

First
tion.

modifica-

Permits the direct sun-heat to pass through

mass, and accordingly
is

Earth

is

3,000,000 miles nearer the

not heated, but detains the

Sun

at

one season than another.

In consequence of this fact.

radiated hent at the surface of the Earth, just where

it is

needed, and

is

heated thereby.
this quality.
is

886.

879.

Importance of

The
exceedingdetain

direct,

mid-day, mid-summer heat of the

is

This quality of the atmosphere

ly important, for
if

Southern Hemisphere
sphere,
887.

greater than the direct,

the atmosphere could

it

mid-day, mid-summer heat of the Northern

Hemi-

the direct heat so that

could not reach the Earth,

by about

one-fifteenth of its

whole

intensity.

or could not detain the radiated heat, and

become

But, a shorter Summer.

thereby heated,
880.

we should

perish with cold.

During the Summer of the Southern Hemisphere,

while the Globe
it is

Earth's temperature raised in three modes, then.

nearer the

Sun than

the average,

First,

by the
;

direct passage of heat through the

moves faster, and thus the

is

Summer

of the South-

atmosphere

secondly,

by
;

radiation and reflection

thirdly,

ern Hemisphere

shorter than of the Northern

from the Earth's surface

by the

direct con-

Hemisphere, by about eight days.

888.

tact of the air with heated bodies.

881.

Consequently, what of the Summer-heats

To what

point

is

the Earth's temperature raised

In consequence of this unequal length of

Sum-

The temperature
Globe at
age
59j-
its

of the whole
is

mer, both Hemispheres receive very nearly equal

Average temperature of the Earth.

surface

on the aver-

amounts of heat during that Season;

the direct heat of the

for although

above zero on the scale

This has no reference to the temper-

Sun

is

more

intense in the

of Fahrenheit.

Summer

of the Southern Hemisphere, the

is

Summer

ature of the lands or of the waters, but of the atmos-

of the Northern Hemisphere

889.

longer.

phere at the Eartlis surface.

882.

How

is it in

Winter

The

total

amount

of elevation of temperature.
is

The Winter
for

Experienced by the Earth,

59
is

119 above

about 119

er than the

Hemisphere is longWinter of the Northern, so that its exof the Southern

;

60, the

supposed temperature

tremes of cold tend to be greater

this

but probably

of space about the Earth.

tendency

is

corrected

by

the overplus of

Sum-

mer-heat, so that on the average of the whole year,

the one Hemisphere gets as

much

heat as the other.

MODIFICATIONS OF TEMPERATURE.
890. 883.

Amount

of the modification in question.

what have we
sources

considered thus far in this chapter

and amount of the heat received by the Earth, the modes of its operation, and the average temperature produced thereby.
884.

The

ture

The total by the

effect exerted

upon

terrestrial
is,

tempera-

ovalness of its orbit,

is

that the direct

Summer-heat
sphere, and

greater in the

Southern

Hemi-

the extremes of Winter-cold likewise

in the

What

shall

we now

consider

tend to be greater

same Hemisphere.
all.

But

The

modifications of that average or general tem-

the average of temperature between the two

ispheres
is

Hem-

perature, which result in or rather constitute the so-

not affected at

MODIFICATIONS
891.

OP

TEMPERATURE.
In

87

The second modification of

terrestrial

temperature

March and September,

and hence
be
it

it

appears that the Sun

Arises from the inclination of the

shines just to the Poles, he will therefore be vertical

Second modification of the Earth's
average temperature.

Earths axis to the plane, of its

orbit :

at the Equator,

will

be

Summer

there.

an important modification, amounting to the entire production of the

In June he

will

vertical at the

Tropic of Cancer,
therefore have
vertical at
will

and the Northern Hemisphere

will

Change
892.

of Seasons.

Summer.
the change

In

December he

will

be

Cap-

Draw and explain the diagram illustrating

ricorn,

and the Southern Hemisphere

have

of Seasons.

Summer.

^V

893.

The

third modification.

895.

Draw and

explain the diagram illustrating the influits

due to the shape of the Earth. In consequence of that shape, when

Is

ence of the Earth's shape upon

Third modification.

temperature.

the

Sun

is

over the Equator, eight-

thousand rays
as

fall upon a given area beneath, whereupon an equal space at the Poles, only five rays

are received.
Accordingly, the temperatures.

894.

If the influence of the

shape of the Earth alone

be considered, the temperature at the Poles would be to that at the Equator as 5 to 8,000, or 1 to So that it appears that the shape of the 1,600. Earth modifies or tends to modify its temperature
very greatly,

N represent the

Poles

E Q the

Equator
;

the

dotted line the height of the atmosphere

AB

and

88

MODIFICATIONS
falling respectively at the

OF

TEMPERATURE.
902.

C T> equal beams of heat Equator and in Lat. 45.

896.

Seat also mitigated.

The

water,

by absorbing

the heat of

Summer,

What

it

shows.

tempers the oppressiveness of that Season, storing

It

shows that the beam

AB
C

falls

upon a smaller

away 'for use the burning heats

tudes of living things.
903.

that

would other-

surface than the

will

beam C D,

therefore the space

AB
hot-

wise be sufficient to distress and even destroy multi-

be hotter than the space

hence

it is

ter at the

Line than in Lat. 45.

Moreover, the

So that oceanic or sea climate.

ray that passes by the North Pole barely touches

the Earth; hence the extreme cold.
897.

Is

noted for
;

its

equableness, for the absence of ex-

tremes

it is

the real temperate climate of the Earth.

Accordingly, small islands situate far out upon the

Moreover, depth of atmosphere.

The beam C

and the ray

greater depth of atmosphere

er cause of cold

P N pass through a than A B hence anoth;

ocean

in

some cases experience an annual range of

;

temperature of not more than 10

Islands, for example.
904.

as the Society

at the points

~D

and N, or

in

Lat. 45 and at the Pole; the ray

PN

penetrates

Sea-board countries.
prevail, tire in-

a forty-five times greater depth of atmosphere than

Over which winds from the ocean

climate
905.

B, and

is

diminished

in intensity

thereby about

variably characterized by equability of climate; the

one-thousand three-hundred times.

898.

may be warm
Example

or cold, but

it is

uniform.

The fourth

modification.

in illustration.

The

fourth modification of the

Fourth modifiis

The annual range

cation.

of temperature in western Eu-

Earth's general temperature

due

rope, over which the southwest winds of the Atlantic prevail,

is

to the various distribution of the

only 70, and that, too, in the very

Earth's surface into land and sea.

899.

same
range
ter

latitude with Central Asia,

is

where the annual

oceanic, the lat-

130.

The former has an

Land exposed

to the Sun.

a continental climate.
Further example.

Land when exposed

heated upon
its surface,

to the

Sun becomes rapidly

906.
it is

but upon the withdrawal of

at

the Sun, the heat speedily escapes because

The yearly range

the United States
is

of temperature on the coast of

the surface only, and the temperature falls suddenly

90

whereas
is

in

the same

lati-

and to a low
900.

figure.

tude

in the interior, the

range

120.

Hence

continental or land climates.

907.

The

fifth

modifier of terrestrial temperature.

Are noted

for extremes, for a heat in

Summer and
They are the The annual

Is, elevation

above the level of the

Fifth modification.

a cold in Winter, alike intolerable.

real excessive climates of the Earth.

sea.

Since the atmosphere detains

the heat at the surface of the Earth,

the temperature
level;
is

range of temperature
tral

in central

Asia

is

130, in cen-

higher there than at any other

feet,

North America 120.

Water when exposed
to the Sun. its

upon ascending 300

;

the annual temperfeet, 3

;

ature falls 1
901.

595

feet, 2;

872

etc.

Instead of heating upon

surface alone, be-

908.

Mountains and table-lands.

at the

comes, in the manner shown in

ed to considerable depths

Answer 571, heatwhen the Sun withdraws,

Even
filled

Equator mountains three miles high

Highly elevated
table-

are covered with eternal snow, and their ravines are

whether for an hour, for a night, or for a Season, this heat is frugally and slowly dispensed, and the severity of cold is thereby mitigated.

with frightful glaciers.

lands are notorious for cold.

Thibet, whose averis

age elevation

is

12,000

feet,

pinched with dread-

THE
and
buried

STABILITY

OF

TERRESTRIAL
911.

TEMPERATURE.

89

fill

frosts,

is

though
palm.
909.
Is,

in the latitude
oil,

ing in wine and

snow for half the year, of the Barbary States flowand nourishing the tropical
in

Draw and

explain the diagram illustrating the effect

of slope

upon temperature.

The

sixth modifier of terrestrial temperature.

the slope of a country, or the

it

aspect which

presents to the Sun.

Sixth modification.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the

warmest exposure, or

slope,

is

to

the Southwest, the coldest to the Northeast.

910.

The

slopes of the Alps.

The beam C
waving with growinga period of
;

falls

upon the Equator-ward

as

Looking toward
the year

Italy, are

slope

of the mountain as perpendicularly

the

corn and rustling with

vine-leaves, at
is

beam

AB

falls

upon the surface of the Equator,

is

when

the northern slope

coated with ice

and hence an Equatorial temperature

whereas the dotted
at the Pole,
line falls

induced

because upon the former the Sun shines perpendicularly as

at the

on the northern slope of

falls

upon the Sahara's sands, upon the latter same angle as on the snows of Nova Zembla.

the mountain at the same angle as a ray

nearly

and hence a Polar temperature

prevails.

CHAPT
The
Stability

XIX
Isotherms*

of Terrestrial Temperature.

STABILITY OF TEMPEBATTTBE.
912.

duce them

and have thus shown the origin of the

Varieties of Climate.

How

far

have we discussed temperature

first,

914.

Sole and total effect of the modifications.

We

have considered

the
Re-statement of
is

The
facts.

total

and

entire effect of the modifications

general temperature of the

the sources and

Earth,

amount of the heat

it,

simply to vary the distribution of that heat, and thus to produce all the varieties of climate found

which determines

the modes in

upon the Earth.

and the
915
Stability of the supply of heat.

which that heat

raises the

temperature,
is

point to which the temperature

913.

raised.

The
Secondly, modifications.

three grand sources of heat

I

Stability of the

before mentioned,

remain

stable

supply of heat.

We have considered the modifications of that general temperature, together with the causes that pro-

from age

to

age

the internal heat

of the Earth, the heat of the Sun, and the heat of

12

90

ISOTHERMS.
Therefore
IS

the

fixed

stars.

it

follows that terres-

922.

The changes, how great

trial TEMPERATURE
916.

STABLE also.*

The changes
most, and in no

thus induced are very limited at the

What, then, are we sure of?

way infringe upon

effect is a scale.

the general char-

Of

the

present average temperature upon the

acter or stability of terrestrial temperature.

The

Globe, so long as the present constitution of things

continues
;

most that man can

mere

trifle,

measured

a fact of unspeakable importance, since

fall

upon nature's gigantic

923.

the rise or

of terrestrial temperature through

Precisely what

is

meant by

stability

of temperature.

only one score of degrees

disastrous influence

would exert the most upon the vegetable and animal

That the average temperature of the Earth

of heat and cold

will

not rise above and will not fall below the average

occupants of the Earth.

917.

For example.

the

Let the temperature of the Earth fall so far that average temperature of the under- ocean be reduced only 12, and it would turn to ice, and all
it,

now experienced upon the Globe. meant that there are no varieties of temperature upon the Earth for in fact, temperature ranges both above and below the average point.
It is not
;

924.

The limits

of the range of temperature.

things perish, both in

of rain.

and upon the land

for

want

The

extremes are
;

169, the

Sun

shining upon

tropical-desert sands
918.

and,

120, the severest coid

Total range from

The climate

of

a.

particular country.

ever noted in the Polar regions.

A particular case of climatic
instability.

Notwithstanding the

stability of

extreme to extreme, 289

to 80.

from

average Polar to
;

the Earth's temperature,

the

cli-

average Tropical temperature,

80

i.

from 0

mate of a particular country may cultivanot always be the same

;

tion,
es,

the clearing of forests, the draining of marsh-

the reclaiming of sandy, desert tracts, modify

925.

ISOTHEEMS.
What
are isotherms
1

climate.
919.

In detail, forests.

Lines drawn round the Globe through places

Forests, for example,

shade the ground from the

the escape of heat in

having the same average annual temperature.

926.

heats of

Summer, and check

more

The

thermal equator.

Winter; hence the removal of forests makes both

the heat and the cold
hotter,
920.

severe,

the Summer

Or

line of

maximum

heat, 82| for the year, does

and the "Winter

colder.

not coincide with the terrestrial Equator save at two points, 103 50' E., and 149 29' W. Lon.
927.
Its chief deviations

Lagoons, bogs, marshes, etc.

from the

terrestrial Equator.

Absorb heat
give out heat the climate
;

in

Summer, and
excessive,
i.

freezing in Winter,

Occur

over the land-locked,

and consequently

hence the draining of them makes

e
,

more

highly heated portion of the Indian Ocean; over

the sandy deserts of Africa, and the plains of the

both heat and cold

more
921.

intense.

Orinoco, the reverberation of heat by whose sands

On

the other hand, deserts.

renders the temperature exceedingly high.

928.

Desert tracts heat and cool more rapidly than or-

The isotherms

of the Northern Hemisphere.

:

dinary cultivated surfaces

hence the intolerable

Deviate from the parallels as follows
consequently the

heat of tropical deserts, and the not less intolerable

cold of extra-tropical deserts
:

they sink
sink

re-

on the highlands of Central Asia,

rise

very high on

claiming of deserts renders climate less excessive.

*See Book Second of
Series.

the western coasts of the Eastern Continent,

again on the eastern coasts and lofty highlands of

America, and

rise

on

its

western coast.

ISOTHERMS.
The
cold for any single observation during the

91

929.

rise.

year.

Is clue to
fall

the influence of

warm

currents

the

The

eastern

rjole

js

higher temperature than the

to the influence of vast bodies or high elevations

;

western, but the intensest cold ever noted

the eastern pole on the

was near
Siberia.*

of land facts easily understood in connection with what has been already presented in foregoing chapters.
.

snowy wastes of

930.

The isotherms

of the Southern Hemisphere.

Questions upon the

NO.
4,

Map

of Isotherms.

by sinking toward the Equator over the cold currents which set up the western coasts of the Grand Divisions, and also over the lofty highlands of South America and secDeviate from the
parallels, first,
;

PAGE

92.

Trace the course of the atmospheric thermal equator.

plain

Ex-

ond, by rising toward the Pole over the

rents.
931.

warm

cur-

why it recedes from and again approaches the Equator. What is its mean temperature 1 Where does it rise farfrom the Equator
1

thest

Where

cross the Equator

in the

Trace the course of the isotherm of 60

The Poles of maximum
cold.

Northern
1

Hemisphere
it

Why

does

it

sink over Central Asia

1

Does

In the Northern Hemisphere, are found in 100 W. Lon., and 95 J E. Lon. Their latitude is not
precisely ascertained, but the
to be in 78
932.

rise or

sink over the eastern part of the Atlantic

its

Why

Explain

oscillations
%

North and South as

it

crosses the

Western Continent

Western

is

thought

N.

Lat.,

and the Eastern

in 74

N. Lat.
Do
the isotherms of the Southern Hemisphere rise or sink
1

They deviate from the Pole of the Earth.

on the western borders of the several oceans

Why

1 1

By

reason of the

frigorific influence

exerted up-

Why
ively
1

do they

fall

on the eastern borders of the oceans

1

on temperature by land in high

count of that influence,
tic
it is

latitudes.

On

ac-

Where are

the poles of cold

Their temperature respect-

warmer over

the Arc-

Ocean than over the lands situated to the South of it, and hence the poles of cold fall upon or near
the land.
933.

Are they on the land or sea about them 1

The shape of the isotherms

What is

said on the
1

Map

of the average temperature of the

several Zones
cold.

The Antarctic pole or poles of

;

The average temperature of the whole Earth 1 What is the total range of natural temperatures
near-

Have not yet been located they probably lie

er the
poles.*
934.

Annual range of temperature Annual range of temperature

in

the Western Continent 1

terrestrial

Pole than the Arctic thermal

in the

Eastern Continent

Precisely what do the poles of cold indicate

The greatest cold for

the year

not the greatest

Range of temperature on the coast of the United States 1 Rauge of temperature on the northwest coast of Europe 1 Where has the greatest heat ever been observed 1 Where the greatest cold 1

* See

Book Second

of Series.

* See

Book Second

of Series.

92

WINDS.

HURRICANE AXD WATER-SPOUI

HAPTER
Geneva! Views of the Winds.

XX.
why
the

Measons

Winds Blow.

GENEKAL VIEWS OE THE WINDS.

985.

937.

The leading feature of the winds.

Causation of wind.

A portion
fied

of air becoming rare-

by

heat, rises,
its

and colder
place
;

air

Definition, causation, and characteristics

of wind.

rushes in to take

the cur;

Their universality in time and space ; they have been blowing ever since the Creation, myriads of and ages before man was made, blowing over land cranny of this sea, and through every nook and
great World.
938.

rent thus induced, constitutes wind

wind, then,
936.

is

air in motion.
a consequence.

The

velocity

of wind depends

upon what

Wind simply

The winds being

so boisterous and turbulent, obattention,

upon the difference betwixt the density of the air the hot air and the density of the cold
First,
;

trude themselves upon our

but in the

or-

der of nature they are simply consequences of variation in tJte temperature and density of the atmosphere.

Secgreater the difference, the swifter the wind. path its in obstacles all of ondly, upon the absence

winds hence, upon mountain-tops and the ocean,

blow with the greatest

rapidity.

WHY THE WINDS BLOW.

939.

93

Velocity measured by miles.

945.

The vegetation of high

latitudes.

Ranges through every Four

miles

rate of motion,

from that

scarcely perceptible to three-hundred miles an hour.

an hour constitutes a gentle breeze

miles, a very higli

twelve miles, afresh breeze; twenty-five miles, a

brisk wind; sixty

During the long nights of Autumn, gives out a amount of carbonic acid, which is poisonous in the lungs of animals this is carried by the winds to the tropics, and is absorbed by vegetables, as
vast
;

wind; one-

their food.
946.

hundred

miles, a violent gale; higher rates, hurri-

The vegetation of a Hemisphere.

canes and tornadoes.

910.

In like manner

when

the vegetation of one

Hem-

The force

of wind.
its

isphere dies and decays, the exhalations thereof are

velocity.

Is proportioned to the square of

carried

by the winds to feed the growing vegetation

ten-mile breeze strikes with the force of half-a-pound

to the square foot
;

of the other.

But

for this arrangement, the air in

vitiated,

a three-hundred-mile hurricane,

one Hemisphere would become

and the

four-hundred and
911.

fifty

pounds

to the square foot.

plants in the other would suffer for food.

947.

Hence the
perceive

effects

of wind.

Plants need

exercise.

We
trate

how

it is

possible for winds to pros-

mighty

forests, to

rend the cordage of ships,

up rocks and tons of earth from the solid ground, and to sweep up water from the sea till the air becomes another ocean
to tear
!

Every plant needs more or less agitation or exercise to keep in good health: the oak in the open pasture and the ash on the mountain-side owe the whalebone toughness of their fiber to the winds that keep them constantly in motion.
918.

912.

The

velocity

and force of wind just

right.

Hot-house plants.

In general, the velocity and force of wind are precisely proportioned to the

For want

of exercise are morbid growths, are

ails,

destructive gales,

wants of the World ; both and stagnant, dead calms are rare,

subject to a thousand

and rarely

live long.

"

In

the Botanical Gardens of Paris the

occurring only frequently enough to

ful for the

make us

grate-

ordinary rates of the wind's motion, and

and precious trees them," and with the best

949.

more delicate are shaken every day to exercise

results.
wind.
;

not frequently enough to impair the habitableness

of the

Animals exposed

to

World.

Are
calities

noted for vigor and high health

for

ple, cattle

and horses pasturing

in high,

examwindy lo-

WHY THE WINDS

943.
.

BLOW.

Why

do the winds blow at

all ?

toughness, spirit, and Man's complexion when exposed to the wind, bronzes with deeper tints and glows with rudare remarkable for
strength.
dier hues.

First, to ventilate the

Earth and
First reason.

heavens; poisonous exhalations ac-

950.

Secondly, as to heat and cold.

cumulate
crops,
in

in forests,

amid growing
in

The winds blow

every

to diffuse the
difSecond reason.

the streets of mighty cities

heat and cold accumulating in

cranny of the great Globe, and winds are needed

to clear
911.

ferent Zones, so as thereby to tem-

them

out.
of the exhalations
%

per opposite climatic extremes

tant that without
cal
its

an

office

so impor-

What becomes

performance neither the Tropi-

They
for food

nor the Polar regions would be habitable.

are carried over the lands and are absorbed

951.

by the various kinds of plants so that the atmosphere never becomes vitiated in the mass, or
;

How

does this appear

for

any great length of time.

times more heat

Because when the Sun is on the Equator, 1,600 falls upon the regions beneath than

94

WHY THE WINDS

958.
;

BLOW.
Without
this

upon equal spaces at the Poles and unless the heat were distributed, the temperature would be as 1,600
to
1.

motor.

In vain during the ages past would the ocean

have spread from clime to clime, no keel could

Thirdly, as to moisture.

952.

have plowed
Third reason.

its

stagnant expanse.

Even

in this

The winds blow

it

to

distribute

moisture over the Earth; to waft

age of steam, not a twentieth part of the World's commercial work could be profitably done if the
cheap power of the winds should
fail us.

from sea

to

and from Zone Zone, so that water may be as universally

to land,
it is

dis-

959.

Moreover, a grand victory for man.

tributed as
953.

universally needed.
It has

been to subdue to

his use so fluctuating

an

Evaporation
is

in

the Torrid Zone.

agent as the wind; the adaptation of means to

Torrid Zone upon that Zone,

this

Evaporation
that
it if

so abundant in the
fall in

end constitutes no small part of

zation.
960.

his material civili-

the vapor were to

rain
;

would have more than enough according!}' great quantities of vapor are borne away by winds, and
deposited in extra-tropical regions
;

Let the winds stop blowing.

are

so

that

Taking no other
able

result into the account,

human

these have

enough

rain,

and the tropics none too

industry and civilization would receive an irremedi-

much.
954.

that

move

wound, because one of the mightiest forces the World's labor would be stricken out

Land and sea

is

as respects evaporation.

of being.
the ocean
981.
fall

Evaporation

more abundant from

if all

The winds and man's

temporal probation.

than from the land ;

the vapor should

up-

on the sea again, no good would result; whereas the land needs it, and through the agency of winds,
obtains
955.
it.

The winds blow in

tion

furtherance of
Fifth reason.

man's physical and temporal proba;

they sometimes blow to speed

the pestilence, and to waft the

wing
and to whelm

Even the
far

interiors of

the continents.

of the death-angel
gration
;

to haste the destroying confla;

However
of moisture,
it

removed from the

and shed
it
;

sea, get a share

to

wreck the freighted ship

for the higher

sea,

currents

of air bear

the dwellings, the works, and the lives of the tornado's ruin.
962.

men

in

upon even the central table-lands and mountains whence arise springs, rivers, lakes, and the whole magnificent system of water-supply established over the whole Globe.
from the
956.

To

particularize all the reasons

why

the winds should

blow.

Would be
The winds of
hot,

impossible, for the reasons are co-ex-

dry deserts.

tensive with the Earth's expanse, co-existent with

its

Contain a vast amount of moisture; nothing but

cold
is

duration, and

numerous

as the infinite multitude

needed

to

make

it

fall in

abundant rains

so

of beneficent effects resulting from them.

963.

that the winds are not responsible for their aridity.

The winds no

idlers.

957.

Fourthly, as to commerce.

The winds have wafted the sails of commerce for thousands of years,
speeding the march of material and
intellectual
civilization
;

The
Fourth reason.

universe has

no harder workers than the

winds, for so long as they are, they work,

work
impar-

without money, and without price

tial,

tireless,

doing good to

all,

invisible,

a motor
it

omnipresent, and

cheap

as

it

is

ever-active like the Deity.

mighty and
its services

universal, for

never asks anything for

-r

8
r.

co-

in

U
CB

<

<
J2-

s.
-J

<
a: <f _i

o
0.

CLASSIFICATION

OF

THE

WINDS.

95

CHAPTER
Classification

XXI.

of Winds. Constant, Periodical, Variable, and Special Wind*.

CONSTANT WINDS.
964.

970.

Cause of the Calm-Belt.

Classes of winds.

Constant, Periodical, and Variable.

965.
Constant winds.

is caused by the mutual opposiand counteraction of the Trade-winds rushing together from opposite quarters. On the lands it seems to be largely produced by the substitution of

The Calm-Belt

tion

Are
tion,

those which are constant in duration, direcforce,

vertical (up-and-down) currents for the progressive

and

or exhibit but comparatively

little

motion of the Trades

ground, and the cold
971.

the hot air rising from the

variability in these respects at different seasons.

966.

air sinking

from above.

The most remarkable

constant winds.

The

cause of the Trade-winds.

The Trade-winds
South

of commerce prevail on both

The hot
in

air

along the Line

rises,

sides of the Equator, from 20 to 30

thereof, according to the

North and

from either hand to supply the

partial

and winds rush vacuum.

Season of the year;

The supply
rent of air

of heat being constant, the rising curconstant, and of course the in-rushing
also.

they are constant, however, only over the oceans.

967.

is

winds are constant,

Their
direction.

972.

The

bearing of these currents.

Is

from the Northeast on the north

side,
;

from
bend-

the Southeast on the south side of the Line

ing more and more to the "West as they approach

the Line.
968.

These currents setting toward the Equator, bear West, in accordance with the law exhibited in Chap. XII. combining the motion toward the Line with the bearing toward the West, we account
to the
;

The Equatorial Calm-Belt.

their line of

for their directions as

973.

above stated.*

Between the Trade-winds and along

junction, lies the Equatorial Calm-Belt, 6 wide

As the Sun

passes North and South.

moving forth and back with the Sun from 12

N. to 5
969.

The Trades and

South with
it

S. Lat.
the lands.

the Calm-Belt move North and through 17 or 18, passing, however,

further to the

On

the cause of this inequality

vibrates

The Calm-Belt
cal at

across a

still

greater
is

land in

North than to the South of the Line is the predominance of the Northern Hemisphere and its conse;

breadth of latitude, for whenever the Sun

verti-

quent high temperature in low latitudes

hence the

any given place on the lands, the regular course of the Trades is observed to be broken up this is true as far North and South as the
:

winds setting toward the point of greatest heat,

meet North of the Line.

Tropics.

* Let the teacher be sure the pupil gets hold of this.

96

CLASSIFICATION
What becomes
of the
air

OF

THE

WINDS.

971.

emptied into the Calm-

bodies moving from the Equator to the Poles bear

Belt?

toward the East.

upper regions of the atmosphere,
980.
Its

It rises into the

and flows

off

on either hand to the lower atmosthat the

consequent

direction

in the Northern

Hemis-

phere.

pheric levels at the Poles as upper currents, on the

same

principle

current of a river flows

its

In the Northern Hemisphere the motion toward

the North and toward the East results in a motion

down
975.

the inclined plane of

bed.
1

toward the Northeast;

in

other words, the prevail-

How

far does

it

continue to he an upper current

ing winds will be Southwest,

the so-called

South-

supposed as far as the Tropics, Cancer and Capricorn at these points the air is supposed to
It is
;

west Return-Trades.
quarter of the

Winds are named from the compass from which they come cur;

meet upper currents setting toward the Equator

from the Poles
other,
;

rents of water, from the point to which they flow.

981.
Its direction in the

the opposing

currents

stop each
Southern Hemisphere.

bank up, and form the Calms of Cancer and

Capricorn.
976.

In the Southern Hemisphere the motion toward

the South and toward the East results in a motion toward the Southeast; in other words, the prevailing wind will be a Northwest wind, the Northwest

Particulars respecting these Calm-Belts

The Calm-Belts of Cancer and Capricorn have an average width of 6 they move North and South
;

Return-Trades.
982.

with the

Sun through

several degrees; their calms

Their ultimate destination.

are not so complete and unbroken as those of the

Equatorial Calm-Belt.
977.

These surface-winds ultimately reach the respective Poles.

The Horse-latitudes.

the

The air there accumulating constitutes Polar Calms, and from them flows down to
;

of Cancer on the Atlantic are known seamen as the " Horse-latitudes " because vessels bound from northern ports to the West Indies have not unfrequently been compelled to throw

The Calms

the Tropics again as upper-currents

as before shown, the

at these points,

to

upper currents meet with upcurrents from the Equator, and the two systems banking up, form the Tropic Calms.
983.

their cargo of horses

ter;

overboard from want of wa-

the voyage being greatly protracted

by the

Whether the Return-Trades are constant.

calms.
978.

Though
What becomes
of the air

not so constant as the Trade-Winds, yet

in the

accumulating

in

these

they prevail

calms

pecially on the ocean, in the ratio of

it

mid Temperate latitudes and estwo to one

;

Immense volumes of
;

are

drawn away toward

the Equator to supply- the continual draft of the Trade-winds and the rest of it passes into and traverses the Temperate Zones as a Poleward-tend-

over any other wind so that, as elsewhere remarked, voyages to the East in those latitudes are shorter by one-third than voyages to the West.
984.

Barometric indications of the Calms.

ing surface-wind.
In the Tropic-Calms the barometer stands con979.

The

bearing of this surface-wind.

its

stantly higher than elsewhere as

upon the Globe, just

This surface-wind on

passage toward the Poles

*

bears toward the East in accordance with the principle

might be anticipated from the accumulation of Whereas it stands low at the Equatoair therein.
rial

exhibited in Chap. XII.

namely, that

all

Calm-Belt, the pressure being diminished by

the rising tendency of the whole mass of the Calm*Do not

fail

to see that the pupil understands this.

Belt atmosphere.

CLASSIFICATION

OF

THE

WINDS.
As
1

97

JVJ^aJfas-

988.

to the southwest

Monsoon, what

appears

That
is

it

prevails while southern Asia

intensely heated

by the Summer of the

Northern Hemisphere, and while southern Africa and the southern part of the

Indian Ocean are cold with "Winter.

989.

Causation of both the Monsoons.

air setting

In both cases, the

from the

cold to the hot region causes the

Mon-

soon or Season-ivind.
990.

Calms in the Indian Ocean.

The calms

of the Indian

Ocean

oc-

cur at the change of the Monsoons,

nite

and over its whole expanse the defiand limited Calm-Belts of the other oceans are not found upon this, save the Calms of Capricorn, partially.
;

991.

The Etesian Winds

of the Mediterra-

nean Sea.

Prevail during the

Summer,

setting

from the North toward the hot Sahara

DIAGRAM OF THE CONSTANT WINDS AND CALM-BELTS.
Desert they are simply a strong draft from a colder to a warmer region.
;

PERIODICAL WINDS.
985.

992.

The

" Northers "

of the Gulf of Mexico.

During the Winter blow from the snowy

Periodical Wixds.
as prevail regularly atDefinition and causes of periodical winds.

conti-

nent out over the

unparalleled fury.
993.

warm

waters of the

Gulf with

Are such

certain periods of the

day or Sea-

sons of the year.

986.

Land and Sea

breezes.

Monsoons of the Indian Ocean.

in

Are common to all coast-regions the Summer, blowing from sea to

clay,

From
the

April to September the winds blow from

Land and sea breezes, and their causation.

land during the

and from land

Indian

Ocean

Northeasterly

upon southern
;

to sea during the night.

994.

Asia, constituting the

southwest Monsoon from September to April they blow southwesterly from Southern Asia out upon the ocean, constituting the

They

originate as follows.

northeast

and September are months of calms and dreadful tempests.

;

Monsoon

April

During the day the air over the land becomes highly heated, and cooler air from the sea flows in
and displaces
it;

at night the air over the land be-

987.

As

to the northeast

Monsoon, what appears

That the northeast Monsoon blows while southern Africa is intensely heated by the Summer of the southern Hemisphere, and while southern Asia
is

comes quickly cool, and accordingly flows out upon the sea, and displaces the warm air thereon.
995. Universally.

Whenever

a region becomes periodically heated

cold with winter.

either for a longer or a shorter time, there a period-

ic

98

CLASSIFICATION

OF

THE

WINDS.
of the Polar rnjinns.

ical ivind ivill bloiv,

that

and blow to mitigate extremes would otherwise become intolerable, or at least uncomfortable and unhealthy.

1001.

The winds

Also are variable

in that

they are

inconstant as to duration, direction,

and

force, but they are feeble

long

and deep

cairns prevail

the greater portion of the

VARIABLE WINDS.
Variable Winds.

year.
1002.

Cause of the calms.

Such as are inconstant as to duration, direction, and force, prevail chiefly in the Temperate Zones.
997.

The
Variable winds, and tueir causation.

prevalence of calms

is

due

to

the constancy

of temperature in those regions; winds arise from

variations of

temperature

but during the nine

cold months, variations are rare and slow, and hence

Temperate-Zone surface-winds and upper currents.

the winds are weak.

1003.

"We have already seen that the surface-winds of the Temperate Zones in general blow with considerable constancy from the Equator toward the
Poles
;

This

is

very well.
it is

Because

in those cold regions

not necessary

whereas their upper currents in general set

to have great agitations of the atmosphere, either

for its purification, or for the fulfillment of the va-

with considerable constancy from the Poles toward

the Equator.
998.

rious offices devolving

not be understood

upon the winds.

What must

That

this drift of the

is

upper and lower currents

it is

SPECIAL WINDS.
1004.

respectively,

uniform and constant, but that

The wind

of the African Deserts.

rather the prevalent and general tendency; for

it is

the fact these currents so modify each other and are

so modified

Called the Simoon on the Sahara,

by causes peculiar

the Samiel in Arabia, the

Kham-

Examples of special winds.

to these Zones, that the

winds of these Zones are exceedingly variable.

999.
First,

sin in

Egypt, the Sirocco

in Sicily

and
they modify each other.
ity,

Italy, is characterized

by extreme heat and

arid-

The upper

currents descend to the surface,

op-

which are so intense as to cause great distress to animals, and to wither vegetation to dust.
1005.
Is it poisonous ?
is

pose the surface-winds, drive them back, or are

driven back by them
;

or

still

otherwise,

they

fre-

quently rotate

about each

other over

immense

This wind

not poisonous, though so reputed

or

breadths of country, and each place upon that coun-

the great heat thereof sometimes overpowers per-

have the wind blow from every quarter of the compiass in succession during the period of rotatry will
tion.*

sons enfeebled by fatigue, exhaustion, or

devitalized

illness,

mal
1000.

life is

by plethora; its 'general effect upon anifavorable by removing dampness and ma-

laria
Secondly, the currents are modified.

from the atmosphere.

The Harmattan.

1006.

The upper and lower

currents are modified and

Is a draft

rendered inconstant by causes peculiar to the Temperate Zone, such as the change of Seasons, the variation in the length of day and night, the hot tropics

which

in the

Winter

sets

from the Sacool and

hara- arcross

Guinea, out over the highly heated

It is

waters of the Gulf of Guinea.

healthy.
1007.

on the one side and the cold Polar regions on the

other.

It

is,

in fact, a

Winter-monsoon.
situate in hot countries.

Winds from mountains

Are dreaded
* See Book Second of Ser'es.

for the terrible

contrast of temper-

atures caused

by them.

The Black-wind

of the

CLASSIFICATION
Alps, the Gallego of the Pyrenees, the

OF

THE
miles

WINDS.

99

Pampero

of

thirty
miles.
1012.

height of gyration from one to five

the Andes, are winds of this class, and are noted

for their fury
1008.

and inclemency.

How
are

produced

Northeast winds.

They
of air in

On

the eastern shores of both continents in the

produced by the conflict of vast bodies motion in a word, they are two hurri;

mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, are notorious for chilliness,

canes in conflict or in combination, and hence their

fury.*
1013.

and

for the

dreary storms that

accompany them

a characteristic

due

to the pass-

Other names.

age of the winds from the Polar regions over expanses of icy ocean, and to the existence of Polar
currents close along the shore.
1009.

Are

applied to them,

as

Cyclone,
;

Eevolvingall

Storm, Gyratory or Eotating Tempest

to the rotatory motion.

alluding

The hurricanes of the

tropics.

Called West-India Hurricanes in the

Atlantic,

Mauritius Hurricanes

in

the Indian Ocean, and Ty-

phoons in the

Pacific, are

tempests of such awful ve-

Questions upon the

NO.
5,

Map
PAGE

of the Winds.
97.
1

locity and power that masses of lead weighing thousands of pounds, and iron cannons, have been

How

are the Northeast Trades designated or represented

.

blown hundreds of yards by them, and whole forests have been licked up from the ground, leaving
scarcely a vestige behind.
1010.

The Southeast 1

How
What What

are the Calm-Belts represented

is

said of
1

them on the Map

1

Where What is

are they

said of the

Trade- winds Their motions, etc.

are

Monsoons

Where

is

the largest system of

Mon-

They

rotate about

center,

and at the same time

;

soons

move progressively along the surface of the Earth there is a lull or dead calm at their center.
1011.

Their dimensions.

Whole length of course from one-thousand to three-thousand miles breadth of whirl from fifty
;

to one-thousand miles

breadth of lull from five to

* See Book Second of

Series.

How are the Indian-Ocean Monsoons designated ? Where does the Simoon prevail 1 The Samiel 1 The Khamsin 1 The Sirocco ? Where does the Pampero Mow 1 Where the Gallego 1 The Black-Wind 1 The " Northers " 1 Where are the hurricane-districts 1 How are they desigWhat is said of them on the Map 1 nated on the Map What systems of winds lie exterior to the Trades 1 What is said on the Map of the Return-Trades ? What of the Polar winds 1
"?

100

GENERAL

VIEWS

OF

RAIN.

RAIN AND INUXDATION.

AFTER
CJeneral Views of Main.

XXII.
The
Fitness of the

The Distribution of Main.

System of Mains.

GENERAL VIEWS OP RAIN.

1014.

heat, hence

from

ice

and snow

it

makes very

slowly,

What
is

from boiling water very rapidly.

is

rain

watery vapor, precipitated from the atmosphere in the form

Rain
of drops.
1015.

1017.
General
views
of evaporation.

Expansion of vapor.

Vapor from water

from water
at 40,

at

212 expands to one-thou-

sand seven-hundred times the bulk of the water;

expands to three-thousand times

is

What

is

vapor

the bulk of the water; in other words,

three-thou-

Vapor

consists of minute particles of water, sepin

sand times lighter than water.

1018.

arated so far from one another by heat that

the

mass they are

1016.

How

far will

vapor

rise in the

atmosphere 1

invisible like gas.

To
Vapov forms
at what temperature ?

heights varying with the temperature at which

the vapor
is

was formed.
it

Vapor from

boiling water

At

all

temperatures from below zero to boiling

its

as light as atmosphere at the height

of three

the rapidity of

formation

is

proportioned to the

miles,

hence

can

rise to the

height of three miles.

THE
Vapor formed
rise

DISTRIBUTION
part
;

OF

RAIN.

101

1019.

at lower temperatures.

for the

whole Earth, forty-seven and two-

Can

higher

still,

because

it is

lighter

vapor
it is

thirds parts.*
1028.

from water at 40 can

rise five miles

because

as

Weight and volume of the evaporated water.

to supply the rains

rare as atmosphere at that height.

1020.

The water yearly evaporated

five

How

high

does the

vapor

rise

of the Globe would cover one-hundred and eighty-

The

highest clouds are seven or eight miles high;

thousand square miles to the depth of one

its

these are formed of the vapor

freezing-point,
1021.

evaporated below

mile;

total

weight
raise
it

is

about
the

sixty-five trillion

and even below

zero.
t

tons

and

to

to

mean height

of the

clouds,

What makes

the vapor rise into the atmosphere

would require about three-trillion horsepowers, working ten hours every day.
1029.

The

particles of the

vapor repel one another, and

interstices of the atmos-

Wonderful adaptation.
this

therefore as fast as the vapor makes, the particles

That

enormous volume can thus be

last

lifted

crowd one another up the

phere.
1022.

miles high into the atmosphere, be blown about in

every wind under heaven, and at

deposited

How

does the vapor exist

iu the

atmosphere'!
it is

in tiny

drops that refuse to break the stem of the

It
"
is

is

not "dissolved in the atmosphere; "

not

lilv

or the hollow tube of the grass-spire!

chemically combined with the atmosphere

"
;

but

simply

"mechanically mixed with the atmos-

phere," like grains of

1023.

powder with mustard-seed.

1030.
air.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF RAIN.

Almost constant
rain.

Even

if

there were no

Vapor would
freely, indeed,

rise just the

same, or

much more
atmosphere

Prevails at the Equatorial CalmBelt.

1031.
Calm-Belt or tropical rains.

for the pressure of the

checks evaporation.
1021.

The

cause thereof.

Evaporation most ahundant in

Evaporation iu
1

The Trade-winds sweeping

the different Zone?.

a broad expanse of

what Zone

steaming ocean, bring immense quantities of vapor

into the

In the Torrid Zone, because there

heat
is

Calms; the vapor rising with the ascending

is

most abundant.
Annual amount of
is

currents reaches the cold air above,

condensed,

and
1025.
tropical evaporation.

falls

amid tempests of thunder,

What tempests

lightning,

and

wind.
1032.
1

Enough water

yearly evaporated in the Torrid

Zone to cover its entire surface to the depth of about nine and one-half feet. The vapor is chiefly
raised from the ocean
;

The Calms

are broken

by frequent spasmodic

tempests of short duration but of unparalleled fury

so that the passage of the
ror,

not less than fifteen feet an-

nually from the Trade wind portions thereof.

1026.

Calms is always the terand frequently the destruction of the navigator.

Range of the Calm-Belt
rains
rains.

Extra-tropical evaporation.

1033.

The

annual amount of evaporation in the

is

Temit is

The Calm-Belt
Ring

move North and South with

Cloud-

perate Zones

tivo feet;
is

in

the Frigid Zones

the Calms, so that a perpetual oscillating

very small,
1027.

how much

not very definitely known.

for the several Zones.

encircles the Equatorial regions of the Earth.

Cloud-Ring's range greater than Calm-Belt's.

Proportional

amount

1034.
fol-

May
lows
:

be expressed with tolerable accuracy, as

;

The Cloud-Ring
*

vibrates

or spreads

across a

Torrid Zone, thirty-seven parts

Temperate
Compare with
1049.

Zones, ten parts; Frigid Zones, two-thirds of one

102

THE

DISTRIBUTION
Erst,

OF
A

RAIN.

greater breadth than the Calm-Belt;

because

1042.

tropical rainy day.

is

of the swelling-out or intumescense of the vapors

The morning
clouds gather
till

cloudless

-till

carried aloft

and secondly, because the upper curPoleward, carry a part of the moisit

12 M.,

when

the

10 A. M. then windows of heav;

rents setting

en are opened, and deluges descend

the clouds disperse, the

till

4 P. M.
firm-

ture along with them, dropping

on the way

in the

Sun breaks
till

out,

and the

form of
1035.

rain.

ament glows
1043

clear

and serene

the next day.

On

the land in particular.

Average number of rainy days.

suffice in general for the deposition
;

The Calm-Belt and

oceans
Zone,
;

the Cloud-Ring vibrate across

Eighty days

a greater range of latitude on the land than on the so that nearly

all
is

of tropical rains

their violence
it

compensates for the

all

the land in the Torrid

shortness of time;

if

watered

at

all,

watered by the Cloud-

very rarely rains

day, and

hardly ever at night.

1044.

Ring

rains.

Temperate-Zone
variable,

rains.

1036.

Character of tropical rains.

it

Hence
period

follows that tropical rains are period-

Are
night,
is

or

non-periodic

Tomperate-Zune
rains.

ical in character,

occurring for each place at the

occurring at any time of the day,

or year
;

when

the

Sun

is

vertical thereat,
is

and when,

their average fall

;

therefore, the
1037.

Cloud-Ring

overhead.

thirtj'-four inches

more than

is

evaporated, the

surplus being brought from the tropics by winds.

Rains at the Tropic
Circles.

Places at the Tropic of Cancer have their rains

in

1045.

Quantity in each Temperate Zone.

our midsummer

at the Tropic of Capricorn dur-

The South-Temperate Zone

inches,

receives twenty-nine

ing our midwinter

the

Sun being

vertical at the

and the North-Temperate thirty -nine inches;

is

Tropics at those periods of the year.

1038.

the cause of the difference

belt
is

as follows

the rain-

Two

rainy and two dry seasons.

tivo

on the average, several degrees North of the Line, and therefore its waters fall
situated,

Near the Equator two rainy and

and back from Tropic to Tropic,
twice every year.
1039.

dry seasons

more abundantly and extensively

to the
1046.

to the

North than

a year are experienced, because the Sun, going forth

is

South of the Line.

The
fall
fall in different latitudes.

vertical there

Amount

of rain-fall for the whole World.

The

varies in different latitudes of the

;

Tem-

The average annual amount

Earth
1040.
is

of rain for the whole

perate Zones

in the

lower latitudes the rains are

sixty inches, or five feet.

tropical both in the periods, duration,

and amount
quan-

of

fall

in the higher latitudes they are less in

Amount

of tropical rain.

tity,

more

irregular as to periods, and longer in du-

The average annual tropical rain-fall is ninety-six More than this is evaporated, but winds carry it away to be deposited in other
inches, or eight feet.

ration.
1047.

Accordingly, the number of rainy days.

in

Zones.
1041.

Varies from ninety days

low latitudes to two

hundred
Tropical rain-fall on the lands.

in high.

The
follows

tropical rain-fall on the lands

:

is

modified as

1048.

Rain

in the Frigid

Zones.

one-hundred and

fifteen inches fall annual-

Occurs during only two or three

ly in the tropical parts of the

six in the tropical

World, seventyparts of the Old World.

New

months and
its

in the

lower latitudes

Frigid-Zone rains.

amount

is

very inconsiderable.

THE
1049.
Proportional

FITNESS

OF

THE

SYSTEM
1055.

OF

RAINS.

103

amounts

for the several Zones.

:

Thirdly, geographic position.

Torrid-Zone rain, be expressed as follows thirty-two parts Temperate-Zone rain, fifteen and
;

May

The geographic
fects the

position of a country largely afrain

falling

amount of

upon

it;

the inte-

one-sixth

parts;

Frigid-Zone

rain,

one-half part.

riors of the continents

do not receive more than one-

Total for the Earth, forty-seven and two-thirds

parts.*
1050.

half or two-thirds as
1056.

much

rain as the coasts.

a country.

The

elevation or altitude of

What

modifies the general distribution of rain"?

The

elevation of a country above the sea greatly

its rain-supplies.
is

The
is

general distribution of rain

modifies
Modific^tion of the general distribution of rain.

The mean
lifted

height of the

modified by Winds, Mountains,

rain-clouds

not probably over one mile, hence

Geographical Position,
titude.
1051.
First, sea winds.

and Al-

highly elevated regions are

above the

rain-

bearing stratum of atmosphere.

Plateaus are gen-

erally arid, the rain being deposited

on their lower

slopes.

country swept by moist sea-winds receives a

is

larger share of rain- than

due

to

it

from

its lati-

tude alone

thus tropical South America owes

rains,
its

its

FITNESS OF THE SYSTEM OF RAINS.

1057. Characteristics of tropical rains.

abundant
Atlantic.
1052.

moist

climate, its

exuberant

vegetation, to the vapor-laden Trade-winds of the

The
Whereas winds from
deserts.

tropical rains,

we have

seen,
Reasons

why

are distinguished for a great

of deposition in a short of
rain
;

amount time, and

the tropical rains are as they are.

Greatly diminish the proportion

that

at a regular period of the year.

1058.

would otherwise fall to neighboring countries the winds of the Sahara often wither to dust the vegetation ot adjoining regions, drinking up all the
moisture from the face oi nature.
1053.

What can be shown

all

That

these characteristics are severally, prebe,

cisely as

they should

to

be

in

adaptation to

the necessities of the case.

Secondly, mountains.
1059.
First, great deposition.

Mountains modify the distribution

ting
it

ol rain

by

cutit

off

from some countries, and accumulating

upon

others.

Thus

the Himalayas cut

oft'

from the
all to

parched deserts of Central Asia the abundant vapors of the Indian Ocean, and compel them
fall
;

where heat and evaporation are so great, where vegetation is so profuse, and much of it of a sort requiring abundIs absolutely necessary in the tropics,

ant moisture
1060.

as rice, for a single example.

skies, its
1054.

upon the Plain of Hindoostan hence its humid voluminous rivers, and affluent vegetation.
Example second.
rainless regions of the western coast of

comparatively short time should suffice.

Por

tropical vegetation requires a great

it,

amount
it,

of hot sunshine to mature

and needs
if

too,

The

South

during the rainy season; but

long,
sides,
it

the rains
;

were

America

are produced by the cutting off from

them
rains

could not have sufficient sunshine

rains, if

and be-

of the vapor-bearing Trade-winds of the Atlantic

heavy

long continued, would

swamp

by the mountains

in

portions of

Peru

the land.
1061.

it

scarcely once a century, whereas on the other side

Hence only a few hours a day.

in the

of the mountains Brazil

rain-falls.

is

drenched with enormous

Even
tion
;

Wet

Season, are occupied in deposi-

the Sunshines blazing-hot the rest; accordthe

ingly
*Compare with
1027.

Wet

Season

is

the true tropical

Sum-

mer

or vegetating time.

104

THE
A

FITNESS

OF

THE

SYSTEM
1069.

OF

RAINS.

1062.

regular period of the year for rain.

all

Characteristics of the Frigid-Zone rains.

Is necessary, because tropical vegetation, like other, needs a period of rest,

The Frigid-Zone
light,

and has

it

in the Dry-

are

rains are very

confined to a short seathe

loioer

Season; hence the intense dryness of that Season,

in

son,

and

to

latitudes

Why the Frigid-Zone rains areas they are.

order that vegetation

1063.

may

rest the better.

with good reason, for heavy rains

Characteristics of the Temperate-Zone rains.

The Temperate-Zone

rains are distinguished for

would do the minute vegetations of the Polar realms no good at any time, and any rain could do it no
good, save
in

moderate deposition, occurring non-periodically, and

continuing a great length of time.
1064.
Deposition in the

the two months of

Summer, and

in

the lower latitudes where something grows.

Temperate Zones.

In the Temperate Zones moderate

deposition suffices, since

heat

the Tern perate-Zone rains are as they are.

Why

Questions upon the Rain-Map.

NO.
6,

OPPOSITE PAGE.

and evaporation are moderate, and since their vegetation does not need very heavy rains at any period, and would be damaged by them.
1065.
Non-periodicity.

Where is the darkest shading upon this Map 1 and why t What title is given on the Map to this dark-shaded zone"? What does it say respecting the number of rainy days, etc. 1

How much
Is there

rain in the tropical

in

New World 1
this

In the Old
?

no rain
this

Where does

zone 1 Where zone reach farthest North 1

any part of

Is an essential characteristic of

Temperate-Zone
What What
zone
Is
1

rains; for the vegetation of these Zones requires

rain-zone lies North of the periodic rain-zone

is

frequent though moderate waterings through the

ivhole period of
1066.
its

said of the

number

of rainy days, etc., in this

growth.

Duration of the Temperate-Zone rains.

The Temperate-Zone
following reasons
1067.

rains

occupy a long period

fall
;

it rainless 1 What What do the letters W. R. and S. R. mean ? Where do they have heavy S. R. 1 Winter Rains

any part of

t,

of time during the year for their

for this the

may be

urged.

What What
Is

rain-zone
of
its

lies

South of the periodic rain-zone

1
'

rainy days, rain-fall, etc.

in this

First, vegetation.

Where do they have W. R.

any part of
it

zone

The
and

characteristic

vegetation of the Temperate

rainless

What 1
1

Zones, the grasses and grains, the delicate shrubs

tree-foliage, flourish better

What does

the rim of shading about Australia signify

under a sky humid

What sort of rains prevail in the Polar regions 1 At what time of year 1 Probable average quantity ? What does the line of figures stretched up and down the left of the Map show 1

with protracted rains, than one parched with protracted droughts.

1068-

Secondly.

Temperate-Zone rains being of necessity very light, the land could not get rain enough unless the rains were long.

What
Is
it

are the quantities for the different latitudes specified

rainy in Hindoostan
1

In Arabia

In Brazil

In

Florida

PART

OEGANIO EXISTENCE.
CHAPTER XXIII
The General Adaptations of
Plants.

The Variety of

Plants.

Food-Plants.

PLANTS.
1070.
this

1074.

Our business

in this part of the

book.

What we hare

considered in the

first

three Parts of

Is not to consider at length the structure, functions,

hook.
far in this
The World
on
in-

and habits of organic beings, but

to

show
sj's-

book we have considered the Earth and Lands, the Waters, and Climate.

Thus

the adaptation of those beings to the general

complete without
living things upit.

tem of the World, the facts of the distribution of those beings, and the means by which that distribution has been

and
is

is

effected.
%

1071.

What

is

true of all these

1075.

What

a plant

That without living things to use and enjoy them, they would be comparatively useless therefore we are prepared to find living things upon the Earth, and to find them adapted to the above physical facts; namely, to the Earth and the Lands, to the
;

An

organic

body

destitute

of
Plants and their adaptation to the World.

sensation and spontaneous motion,

that lives chiefly upon carbonic-acid

gas and mineral substances.

1076.

Waters, and to Climate.

1072.

The

principal parts of plants.

;

Living things

classified.

Are
each
General
cation of things.
classifi-

the root, the trunk, or stem, and the top

perfectly adapted to the other,

All living things are

in the
all

summed up

is

and

all

to

term Organic Existence, and

living

the inorganic world which

we have thus

far sur-

belong to one or the other of

veyed.
1077.

the following classes, Plants and

The

root, for

example.
fibrils

Animals.
1073.

Subdividing into numerous delicate

organic.

or radsoil,

The term

icles, is in-

perfectly adapted to the nature of

'

be-

Means possessed

or composed of organs or

cause the radicles find passage through the pores of

the
soil,

struments suited to the performance of certain duties thus the lungs, head, stomach, or roots, branch;

penetrate to

all

parts of
in

it,

and have

little

mouths with which

food to the plant.

to

suck

a part of the

soil for

es,

and

leaves, are organs.

14

106

THE
These
little
little

VARIETY

OF

PLANTS.

1078.

mouths, and water.

in ivater for the plant
;

sary to the growth of even a single plant, and that

These

mouths drink

they
plant

all
;

are therefore perfectly adapted to every

as well as absorb earthy matter

so that the root

is

correspondent^,

we
,

perceive that plants are

adapted to water as well as to earth.

1079.

as admirably adapted to the foregoing inorganic

Hence we see one

elements, as they to
reason.
is

Why water is

them so that the adaptation mutual and perfect throughout.

1085.

so universally found in the surface;

matter of the Earth

namely, because plants

may be

The sura of the adaptations.

everywhere, and wherever they

tainly

may be,

they will cer-

Is as great as the entire

number

of plants that
live

want water
until

for

without water they starve as

have

lived, that are living, or that

all

may

upon the

well as choke, because they cannot absorb the earthy

Globe, multiplied into

these plants

the possible relations which

matter

water has dissolved

it,

after

which the

may

hold to the inorganic elements.

roots drink in both together.

1080.

The

concentering of the roots.

The

roots, like brooks,

;

center into one channel,

1086.

THE VARIETY OF PLANTS.

How many
distinct species of plants are

the trunk, or stem

arteries

composed of innumerable along which the sap flows; it is compacted

this is
it

known

together very strong so that

es

can hold the branch-

125,000

different

species
classified

have
;

and leaves up to the light and heat, and sustain them against the ivinds and rains ; thus the trunk
is

been discovered and

since there

but

The variety of plants awl examples thereof.

are extensive regions

adapted to the inorganic world.

1081.

which have never been botanically

explored, undoubtedly thousands more exist.

More about

the

leaves.

These are very thin, and are large in surface or in number, so that the influence of light, and' heat, and air, may be effectually brought to bear upon the sap moreover, the under sides of the leaves are full of pores through which the watery part of the
;

1087.

What

is

a species

All the individuals of a kind, that are and remain

permanently
points
species

identical, unchanged in all essential by time or circumstance; in other words, a

comprehends

all

the individuals springing

sap escapes, being driven off by the Sun's influence.

1082.

from a common parentage.

1088.

The pores

absorb also.

What
if

of plant-varieties

Through these
the oxygen
is

pores, also, large quantities of the

Nearly

not quite every species of plant con-

carbonic-acid gas of the atmosphere are absorbed torn from the carbon and expelled,

tains several varieties, or sub-species,

much

resemit
;

bling the original stock, but not identical with

the carbon unites with the sap, and

ing, substantial food for the plant.
1083.

makes

it

nourish-

thus

hundreds of

varieties

of apples,
exist at

potatoes,,

pears, of rice, maize,

and wheat,

one and

Sunlight and sun-heal are necessary for plants.

the same time in different parts of the Earth.

1089.

For the
carbon,
plant.

light

and heat turn the water and the

sap fitted for the nutriment of the

Probable number of

varieties.

etc., into

If each species be

supposed to embrace only ten

moreover,

or laid

The light and heat, moreover, are secreted away in the plant when the plant is burned,
; ;

sub-species, the supposition involves the existence

of 1,250,000 plant-varieties;

each suc-

the light and heat are set free

hence the glow and

ceeding age sees

tivated,

new

varieties introduced
;

and

cul-

warmth when wood

1081.

is

burned.
see
1

and the old dropping out of use

or at least, indefinite,

in fact,

an

What now do we

infinite,

number

of varieties

That

earth, water, air, light,

and heat are neces-

can be produced by culture.

FOOD-PLANTS.

107

1090.

Moreover, no two plants.

1094.

That these reasons are both good.

fact, first,

Even

of the same sub-species are exactly alike

infinite

Appears from the

ists

that not a plant ex;

hence an

multitude of diversities

arise, for

that

is

not food to some creature

and second,

the diversities will be as numerous as the individuals

;

that each limited tract of country has

some plant

a variety more wonderful in view of the fact

all

upon
else.

it

that flourishes better there than anywhere

that

plants feed

upon and are composed of four

elements, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen.

1091.

What

question here rises

POOD-PLANTS.
Question concerning the varity of plants.

In view of the astonishing varie1095.

What

is

& food-plant

ty of plants, the question

irresisti-

bly

rises,

why has

so

enormous a

Any plant that constitutes or

nishes

furFood-plants,

variety heen created ?

1092.
First, animals.

food to

man
is is

in

general

terms, every plant

for every plant
less

a food-plant,

and their adaptation to man's

wants.

eaten more
or other.

or

The majority of animals reckoned by species, and a vast majority reckoned by individuals, feed upon
plants,

by some creature
The
staples

and the

different

species relish

and require

1096.

of man's food.

different sorts of food;

hence the variety of plants

Eirst, the grains,

oats,
roots,

rice,

wheat, maize, barley, rye,

;

to

meet their wants.

1093.

and

millet,

potatoes, yams, the arrow

Third, tree-pro,

all

produced by grasses secondly,

-root,

and the ma-

Secondly, the vegetating power of the Earth.

nioc from which cassava and tapioca are prepared.

1097.

The vegetating
and under
ture
;

capacities

of

the

Earth vary
soils,

greatly in different regions, climates,

different conditions

seasons,

and systems of culhence the need of variety in plants to meet

Dates from the palm, bananas from the plantain,

the cocoa-nut, the bread-fruit, and sago
;

in the ag-

these various capacities.

gregate, the food of hundreds of millions of men.

108

FOOD-PLANTS.
grains are the

The

main

staple of

human food

in

hotter parts of the Temperate Zones, then wheat,

rye,

particular, wheat, maize,

1098.

and

rice.

and barley

in

succession; the latter growing

Five characteristics of food-plants.

nearly to the Polar Circle.

1101.

First, their small size

and general manageablela-

Each

staple suited to the climate. in

ness

second, their abundant yield in return for

third, the rapidity of their

In general, the staple that flourishes

any

cli-

bor

growth, and speedy

mate
it

is

best fitted for

human food

in

that climate

maturing; fourth, the predominance of fruit over

stalk,

so that each region has not only one staple, but for

husk, or leaf;

fifth,

the

suitableness of their

the best staple.

1102.

husks and leaves for food to animals.

In illustration.
in
1099.

Suppose the food-plants

to

be changed.

Bice and millet and the fruit-staples flourish

healthiest

man's food-plants required ages for growth, grew to a vast size, yielded only a small share of
If fruit,

the tropics, and the}' constitute, on the whole, the

and had to be gathered

like the

acorn or the
!

these

walnut,
1100.

how much man's labors would be increased

Different climates.

give

food in those regions by the side of grow the capsicums and hot spices needed to them sufficient tonic and invigorating qu.ility,
;

Are

favorable to different food-

and to guard man against the malaria of the Wet Season, and the attacks of worms and parasitic inThe food-plants of different cjimates, and their suitableness.

plants; but every climate in

which

sects.
1103.

man
ples
:

can need vegetable food, has

Likewise.

at least one of the staples. rice

Examthe tropics, maize in the

By the

side of the cocoa-nut

and

millet in

tamarind and the croton, furnishing close

of those articles of food.
1104.

and palm grow the at hand

purgatives counteractive of the astringent quality

Whereas

in the Polar Zone.

is

No

proper food-plant
;

produced, and none

is

wanted there man craves no other food than flesh and blubber and oil and blood, and they alone
suffice his needs.
1105.

In the Temperate Zones.

Man's food-supplies are characterized by remarkable variety, so as to meet the necessities of the

varying Seasons, and the alternating extremes of

climate
;

substantial grains, well-keeping

tritious fruits

mer, juicy,
in grateful
1106.
Is

and nuand roots for Winter; and for Sumwholesome vegetables, and cooling fruits
abundance.

man's food stinted

in variety 1

Although the
since the wants of

staples of man's
Variety of man's

food are thus few

are

in

number, yet
in
all

food.

man

climes

in

the main alike, he nowhere suffers from

;

lack

of variety

especially

since

numerous

addi-

THE
tional articles of food

DISTRIBUTION

OF

PLANTS.

109

are

furnished by shrub and

witJwut cultivation, and nearly

care and laborious attendance.
1110.

all

require constant

and root; so that not only are the wants of man supplied, but also his tastes and appetites are
tree
gratified.
1107.

This

is

not

all.

These accessories, how raised

Not only must man cultivate, but also domesticate and develop the food-plants, for in their wild state
of food, as the

Many
fruits,

of these collateral

articles

they yield a very meager and unpalatable harvest;

the crab-apple, the native pear, peach, and plum,

for

example, grow upon trees and large

live for
;

shrubs that
little

many

years, and require but

toils

the wild potato, dwarfed in

in flavor, are examples.
1111.

size,

acrid

and pungent

labor and care

soil,

thus man's

are lessened,

the deep

as well as the surface-soil, contributes

Man's

office.

to his necessities,

and the chances of famine from

It appears, then, that in the

man

is

co-worker with

God

casual droughts or floods are diminished.

1108.

management and development

This high vocation

of the vegeta-

Favor shown man.

ble

kingdom.

calls to exertion

of

Thus we perceive

that man's

cares and

toils in

body and mind exertion which makes man stronger, wiser, and better being.
1112.

supplying his bodily wants have been purposely

and
In conclusion.

indulgently lightened; to the end, probably, that

he might be able to look after his intellectual and

spiritual interests.
1109.
Still,

The
fully

entire matter of the food-plants has

critically

been care-

and

adjusted to the convenience, ne-

cessities,

and probationary needs of mankind.

So
as
it

what of man's burden

true that a

that even in the plants

we

eat,

God

has

made

It is

still

weighty though salutary

for

were a special revelation of

dence.

his

power and

provi-

burden

rests

upon him,

no food-plant flourishes

CHAPTE
The distribution of
Plants.

XXIV.
several Zones.

The Floras of the

THE DISTRIBUTION OP PLANTS.

1113.

nute, so that only a little force is required to

move

What agents have

distributed plants

them from
r

place to place.

The main agents

in the distribution of plants are

1115.

In particular.

the winds, waters, birds, animals, and man.

1114.
Size of the

The seeds

of forest-trees and of such plants as

seeds of plants.

are not used for food

by man, and cannot therefore

;

The

seeds of the great majority

expect any care at his hand, are of this sort

How
carry

hence
takes

the winds

of plants are, as

compared with the

the. BCeds.

the species are perpetuated even though

man

plants themselves, exceedingly ini-

no concern about them.

110

THE
Feathery appendages,
etc.

DISTRIBUTION

OF

PLANTS.
upon

1116.

Guiana, with some leaves and withered

1123.
Rivers.

fruit

it.

The seeds

of multitudes of plants, particularly of

the humbler and less-esteemed sorts, are furnished

In their inundations, leave upon the ground the

seeds of plants

with wings, or
so that
if

sails,

feathery or hairy appendages,

grown near

their fountain-head,

nothing else will carry them about, the

so.

and

take up the seeds of the overflowed region, and

carry them to others near their terminus.
1124.

winds cannot help doing

1117.

Autumn-winds.
Inland seas,
etc.

The winds

of

Autumn, the season when the seeds

Seeds floating upon the waters of ponds and
lakes and inland seas, cast ashore
left

are set adrift, are notably strong and continuous, so

that the seeds are well distributed
;

indeed, the air

by breakers, or
in

of

Autumn
1118.

is all

alive with flying seeds.

on the sands by the lowering of the waters

How
first

they are planted.

dry times, are driven inland by the winds where they can take root.
1125.

shower of rain that wets the plumy vans of the seed, bears it to the ground, and then the
pattering drops
it

The

Why

the seeds are not

killed.

hammer
;

it

into the

soil,

or impact
plant and

Very many
shells,

seeds,

and especially those

left to

the

about with

dirt

the rains of

Autumn

mercy of the elements, are covered with compact

or dense integuments, or water-proof husks,
so that the long immersion does not destroy their

cover more seeds by far than man.

1119.

How

far they are carried.

Minute seeds
semble smoke,
puff-ball

and

vitality.

some are

so minute as to re-

as, for

example, those of the

common

1126.

Migratory birds.
Birds and mals.

are carried

across the oceans by winds;

Feeding by myriads upon the

ani-

the seeds of multitudes of South-American plants are wafted to Europe, and African seeds are trans-

seeds of plants, and traversing hun-

dreds of miles in a few hours, contribute to the rapid

plants.

ported to South America.

1120.

and very extensive

diffusion of

The ocean-currents.
seeds of plants flourishing in
Waters carry the

The
the

1127seeds.

Graminivorous animals.
diffuse plants

West

Indies

are carried by
of

Help

through the means of the

millions to the northwest coasts

seeds thereof, not perhaps with great rapidity or

Europe, and even to

Norway and beyond North

over extensive ranges at once, but with great thor-

Cape, by the Gulf-Stream.

1121.

oughness.
1128.

Without

avail.

The more

effectually.

In

this particular

case, the

seeds never

come

to

Because the seeds

growth

in the

droppings of the

ani-

anything because of the uncongeniality of the vegetating conditions of those countries, the rigor of

mals are favorably situated for germination and

to a

the climate, the long

and dismal rains, the cold and

stubborn
1122.

soil.

and by the fact of its position, the plant is good degree protected from being browsed upon during the early and tender period of its life.
;

West

Africa.

1129.

Above any other animal.

Very

frequently sends over to Brazil and even to

Man

has been instrumental in

difStan's agency in diffusion of plants.

the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico the seeds that

ripen on her shores, or on the banks of her great
rivers
;

fusing plants, and especially foodplants, over the

the

Earth

both his

in-

some years ago an immense tree, grown

the Senegal,

terests

and

his opportunities

and

upon the banks of

was

cast ashore in

capacities contributing to this end.

THE
1130.

FLORAS.
means above shown.
it

Ill

Maize, for example.

in

Having considered the means,

Original^ found

America, has been carried by

now remains
;

to consider the facts of that distri-

man

to nearly every region

where

it

can flourish,

bution

in other

words, to survey the floras of the

and now forms the main

the greater portion of the

staple of food to perhaps

several Zones.

human

family.

Over

sis-

hundred

million bushels are yearly raised in the

United States.
1131.

POLAR AHD TEMPERATE-ZONE FLORAS.

1137.

The

potato.

What

is

a,

flora ?

That grows spontaneously only along the western Andes in South America, is now raised in every latitude from one Polar Circle to the other, and in every sort of soil, from parched sands
slopes of the
to

The

flora of a

Zone or country

is

all

the plants

of that Zone or country taken together, and regard-

ed as a whole.
1138.

The

flora of the
;

Polar regions.

drenched and water-logged clays.

1132.

Is very limited

lichens,

mosses,
The flora, of the
Polar Zone.

Wheat,

etc.

coarse grass, reeds, rushes, stunted

firs,

"Wheat, barley, and rye, indigenous in western

Asia, thence have spread to nearly every clime

larches,

and

pines, with a

few

running vines and berry-bearing plants, constitute

the chief
1139.

wheat from Hudson's Bay to the Equator, rye to Norway and Finland, and barley to the frozen bogs of Lapland. Rice has passed from its native swamps in Hindoostan to the peninsulas of south Europe,
to the moist lowlands of both

members
Cause of
its

thereof.
meagerness.

The

flora of the Frigid

light,

Americas, and even

cause heat,

Zones is thus stinted, beand moisture, the grand stimulants

of vegetation, are scantily dispensed to those Zones.

to the remotest islands of the Pacific Ocean.

1133.
Coffee.

Yet

it is

ample

for all required purposes, since there

are very few animals in the cold Zones that can eat

From Arabia or India has followed the Sun around the Globe, and now produces its aromatic berries in
nearly every tropical meridian where the lands have
displaced the ocean.
1134.

vegetable food.
1140.

The Temperate-Zone

flora.

Exhibits a grand advance upon

the Polar in the
cies, in

Temperate-Zone
flora.

number of
its

its

spe-

Tea.

the larger size and higher

individuals,

From

time immemorial raised

in

China, and the

use throughout
is

development of

and

in their

more
light,

countries adjacent, has spread in

the civilized world
;

its

graceful forms, heavier foliage, and deeper coloring;

but

its

culture

confined to

cause: the more

heat,

those populous countries by the cheapness of labor,

abundant dispensation of and moisture to the Temperate Zones.

Its forests.

not by any climatic or physical necessity.

1135.

1141.

Fruits and flowers.

all

Are
Temperate Zones,

stately

and magnificent, consisting of oaks,

dropping their leaves in Winter; firs, spruces, hemlocks,

Nearly

the richest and most valuable of the

maples, beeches, birches, elms, hickories, lindens,

poplars, etc.,
all

cultivated fruits and flowers of the

originated in western Asia, and have been distribu-

intermingled with evergreen

pines,

ted thence by the interested hand of man.

1136.

and cedars.
Grasses.

The

original distribution of plants. is

1142.

Each

plant

supposed to have been located at a

Numerous
and
leaf,

species of grass, so delicate in stalk

particular center,

and

to

have spread from

it

by the

so tender in fabric, and nutritious in qual-

112

THE

FLORAS.
1149.

ity,

as to be excellent food for graminivorous ani-

Tropical forests.

mals, clothe the Temperate Zones almost universally,

To

the unaccustomed eye are fearful for their

where the country

1143.

is

not preoccupied with forests.

Characteristic

growth.

tremendous affluence of vegetation. The trees are enormous in height, their foliage immense in volume,

and of the deepest coloring.

These delicate, eatable grasses are the distinctive and characteristic product of the Temperate Zones;
they
will
1150.

Trees most noted.

not

grow

in

the tropics

by reason of the

The

banian, spreading to a forest

;

the baobab,
;

prodigious rains and inundations of the

Wet

Season,

longest-lived of trees

the fragrant sandal

;

the teak

and the parching, long-continued heats of the Dry

Season.
1144.

that turns the edge of steel

as ore
;

the iron-wood, heavy

;

the lance-wood, elastic as whalebone

and

Flowers.

palms, towering to the height of three-hundred feet,

their foliage

The
ing,

flowers of the Temperate Zones are remark-

streaming upward like arrows shot

!

able rather for delicacy than for splendor of color-

down from heaven

1151.

strength

of

perfume, or largeness of size

Vines and grasses.

among
violet,
1145.

the most

common

are the rose, pink,

lily,

Vines, stupendous in size and variety, cover the

forests with their growth,

honeysuckle, narcissus and aster.

Fruits.

and crown them perpetIntall

ually with resplendent and fragrant blossoms.

In the Temperate Zones fruits are noted for

"

stead

of slender grasses,
in vast

reeds twenty feet

variety
;

keeping well," rather than

for

lusciousness
;

of

abound, and canes

especially the

flavor

or extraordinary richness of variety

the

apple, king of fruits, here

comes

to perfection, the
fruits.

bamboo, the king of grasses, touching the height of sixty feet in the growth of a single year.
1152.
Fruits.

most

beautiful, constant,
In addition.

and wholesome of

1146.

In indescribable abundance and variety, and of

the most luscious flavor, succeed one another in perpetual
rotation,
all

Are

pears, plums, peaches, apricots, melons, the

fig;

sugared

the olive, which

is

at

once

fruit,

butter,
to

blossoming and ripening on the

;

and meat; and grapes which ripen their clusters full perfection beneath a Temperate Sun.
1147.

same plant

the year round

the orange, the lem-

on, the banana, the pine-apple, etc.

1153.

The

time of growth.

Tropical flowers.

The Temperate-Zone

flora flourishes
is

during only

The

characteristic flowers of the Torrid

a part of the year, because heat

supplied in re-

larger than those of the other Zones, are

Zone are more gor-

quired amounts during only a part of the year.

This

is

just as

it

should be, for the plants

rest,

an annual period of
of fallowness.

all need and the ground a season

geous in coloring, and of a richer and stronger perfume there being single flowers of the genus lily,
;

three feet across.

1154.
Spices,

gums.

etc.

The cinnamon,

the clove, the nutmeg, the pepper,

also the

THE TORRID-ZONE FLORA.

1148.

the allspice, etc.

aromatic

gums and

bal-

sams, the fragrant and costly resins, the frankinThe

flora of the tropics.

cense, the

camphor; the

richly scented oils

Vastly excels the combined floras of the other

cense-breathing essences
juices of trees
cal

are

and

in-

elaborated from the

tropi-

Zones

in variety

of species, in the numbers, sizes, and

by

the

wondrous chemistry of

high development of individuals.

heat and moisture.

GENERAL
1155.

VIEW

OF

ANIMALS.

113

Cause and growth-time of this profuse vegetation

The magnificent vegetation of the

tropics
is

due

to the prodigal out-

Rationale of the Torrid-Zone flora.

may be made of the greatand as little wasted as possible. God will not squander water and sunshine, cheap as they are.
so freely to that Zone,
est avail,
1157.

pouring of heat and moisture upon

it
;

Secondly.

accordingly

its

growth-time

is

the

Wet

Season,

The
ficient

tropical flora

is

because heat and moisture are then most lavishly

dispensed.
1

thus abundant to furnish suf-

quantity and variety of food to the innumer-

able tribes of animals that inhabit the Torrid Zone-.

tropical vegetation should be as
it is.

156.

777/;/

The supply
is

is

none too great, for sooner or

later

it

The

flora of the

Torrid Zone

is

thus abundant, in

eaten, either wholly, or in part,

by animals high

order that the

light, heat,

and moisture vouchsafed

or low, great or small.

CHAPTER XXV.
Animal*.

Adaptation of Animals to the Inorganic World. Adaptation of Animals to Plants. Adaptation of Animals to .flan.

GENERAL VIEW OF ANIMALS.

1158.

hog, dog, sheep, and ox, in different countries and

climates,

What

is

an animal

and

at different

periods,

exist

upon the

An

organic body that when living

Earth.
is

possessed of
plants seem
1161.

sensation and voluntary motion.

to have sensation
tion,

Some
is

Two grand

adaptations.

and the power of voluntary mo-

All animals, species, varieties, and individuals

alike,

but their contractile power

due simply to

are adapted,

first to the

inorganic world, and

irritability.
1159.

secondly, to other parts of the organic ivorld.

of species. 1162.

Number

Adaptation of animals to water.

Adaptation of animals to the inorganic world.

The number
cies are well
sects.

of species

of animals
;

is

variously

estimated from 150,000 to 320,000

150,000 spein-

known, and of these 120,000 are of

flies

Every animal uses water in greatsome drink it, er or less quantity some eat it in their food, some ab;

Sis hundred different species of

district ten

have
Ger-

been noted in a

miles

square

in

but not one, it from the air however dry or husky it may look or
sorb
;

feel,

can

live

many.
1160.
Varieties.

without
water.
1163.

it;

therefore

all

animals are adapted to

Every

species of animal has several varieties, or

Adaptation to

air.

sub-species,

resembling but not identical with the

:

original stock

hundreds of

varieties of the horse,

Every animal needs and uses more or less of air the reptile in smothering mud, the fish in the mid;

15

1U

THE

ADAPTATIONS
worm

OF

ANIMALS TO
1160.

PLANTS,

die depths of the sea, the

in the heart of the

Adaptation to the Seasons.

;

hardest tree, need air as well as the goat on the

Spring approaches

birds build their nests, wild

windy mountain,
therefore
1164.
all

or the condor in
air.

mid heaven;

beasts seek out lairs and dens, insects prepare cells

are adapted to
light.

wherein to lay their eggs

through the

warm Sum-

mer
Adaptation to

the tender

young
to

are reared and fed, cherished

air
;

by the Sun and mellow

Autumn

The

eyes of

all

animals are adapted to light

little,

the

wing
die,

their

way

softer

climes,

staring orb of the owl, the

bright,

fur-cur-

ground, some

in the clefts of trees

comes, some some hide in the and rocks, some

tained glass-bead optic of the mole, the heavy, gelatinous eyeball

but

all

find the

Seasons long enough and none

of

the shark,

fronting eye of the eagle,

and the sunbeamare adapted to light in its

too long.

Beautiful and mutual adaptation!

various and varying intensities.

1165.

Adaptation to sound.

ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS TO PLANTS.

;

The
a mile

ears of

all

animals are adapted to sound

the
1170.

hare and the rabbit hear the tread of the huntsman

off,

The second grand adaptation

in

of animals.

the haddock scarcely perceives the roar

As remarked
and to

Answer

1161, animals are adapt-

of the thunder, or the exploding cannon; but in so

far as either

ed to other parts of the organic world, to plants

has ears, those ears are perfectly adapt-

man ;

their adaptation to plants will first be

ed to sound.
1166.

considered.
1171.

Adaptation to heat.

Graminivorous* animals.

The coverings

of animals,

bristles, hair,

wool,
hide,

Such

as eat grasses, grains, leaves, roots, bark,

fur, feathers, quills, prickles, scales, shells,

tough thin membrane, all are fitted to the various degrees of heat in which different animals live.
1167.

or whatever grows in the vegetable kingdom,

make

up the larger number of animals as respects the number of both species and individuals; so comprehensive
is

the adaptation of animals to plants.

Adaptation to the ground.

all

Nearly
like the

animals walk upon the ground, and to

1172.

No

plant escapes.

that end are shod with horny hoofs, wide-splayed

earners, to

The

solitary speck of

moss

in

walk the sand, or pointed

like

tle jelly-like

creatures living upon

mid ocean has litit and eating it

and strong like the horse's, to bear the shock of weight and speed or else they are slippered with tough integuments, pain-proof and elastic, or soled with
the goat's, to pick passage
rocks, dense
;

among

sea-weeds at the depth of two miles support myriads of microscopic animals

of the Polar
regions,
selves, support creatures
;

the " red-snow " plants

fine as

though
still

dust them-

smaller; the lichen on

plates of shell, so that they

all

can walk comforta-

the mountain-peak furnishes

bly upon
1168.

animals that without

it.

it

home and food to little would be homeless and

foodless.

Adaptation to day and night.

1173.

Further statement that no plant escapes.

and content do the various tribes of living creatures compose themselves to rest upon the approach of night, and with what freshness and alacrity greet the return of' day! so
tranquillity

With what

The monkshood,
thistle,

the nightshade, the swamp-su-

mac, the noxious dog-wood, the tough leaf of the

the pungent tuber of the wild onion, are
all

that

all

creatures are adapted to day and night Jn

their order,

and to the sweet alternation of

light

* Strictly speaking, the graminivorous tribes embrace only the ^rasaeating animals; the term graminivorous
is

here used in

its

most compre-

and shade.

hensive sense.

THE
preyed upon
mals eat the
"

ADAPTATIONS
am
and

OF

ANIMALS

TO

PLANTS.

115

forty species of

common

nettle,

twenty thousand attack wheat."

1174.

Extent and manner of Uie adapt-

ation.

The adaptation extends

and grinding;
appetites,
to the

to the lips

for grasping, to the teeth for biting

stomach for

digesting, to the whole form, habit,

and constitution of the

animal.
1175.

The

ox, for
lips,

example
sharp, projecting

Has broad

front teeth, large grinders, and a

number of stomachs, by means of

all

which he secures and reduces to

his

wants a great amount of food. HiiSKss

The sheep.
a sharp-pointed nose, nimble
sure-footed and active, in a

1176.

^535?
word
is
it

Has
lips, is

adapted
so

1180
eating.

The vegetable-eating animals adapted

to the flesh-

to the rough, rocky pastures in which

delights.
1177.

much

One
The horse and the hog.
lifted

class of animals

is

adapted

to another in a remarkable

man-

The special and adaptamutual

tion of graminiv-

ner

the graminivorous animals are

The horse being

which he owes

high upon long legs, to

orous and carnivorous animals.

suited to be the food of carnivorous,

his fleetness

and special usefulness,

in rooting

and the carnivorous are made

needs and has a long neck wherewith to reach the

so as to devour the graminivorous.

1181.

ground
food
;

whereas the hog delights

for

hence his legs are short that he

is

may

be

The adaptation how extended

is

in

range

near the ground, and his neck

strong.
1178.

short and very

The ocean
is, full

one vast scene of slaughter, the

air

of rapine

and bloodshed; there

creatures
is

is

not a
in

The

spadeful of dirt but has

elephant.

in

it

lying

wait to
Is long-limbed

kill

others,

and there

not one second of

and short-necked, and accordingwith which to reach the

time in the year

when

the note of distress might

its

ly has a long proboscis

not be heard from some creature rendering up

life

ground and
1179.

his food.

to another.

Without particularizing further.

1182.

The adaptation

intended.

The

adaptation of

graminivorous animals
is

to
in-

For

the predatory species

can

live

only upon

plants extends to this

that there

not a single

animal food; they are armed with talons, fangs,

claws, with

dividual of the 125,000 species of plants but contributes

speed,

strength,

rapacity of temper,

to

the

support of sovie animal

is

and of

with the arts of ambush, with courage and patience

of pursuit, and with
ing, desperate,
all

course the animal

adapted to the plant as well as

the

skill

and power of dar-

the plant to the animal.

and murderous

assault.

116

THE
What
question

ADAPTATION
1

OF

ANIMALS

TO

MAN.

1183.

is

forced upon us

super-fecundity were not checked, millions would

How
and

could a benevolent

God

suffer

such crea-

die in the lingering agonies of starvation.

1190.

tures to exist, and thus permit perpetual anguish

distress to mingle with the content
all

No danger

of extinction.

and happi?

Even

ness prevalent through

1184.

animated nature

those species most preyed upon are in no

;

danger of extinction
ring, cod-fish,
;

rabbits,

mice, and rats, her-

The

first

answer.

every There is no immortality in this "World animal must die by slow decay, disease, or violence, and since animals cannot receive the attentions which soften the sufferings of lingering disease or decay, the death of violence would certainly seem
preferable, because
least of distress.
1185.

and mackerel, are as numerous as ever.

1191.

flies,

bugs, and worms,

Our conclusion.

The

adaptation in question, namely, of graminiv-

orous to be the food of carnivorous animals, and of

carnivorous to devour the graminivorous,
is

being

speedy,

it

involves the

beall

nevolent adaptation on the whole and in view of

the circumstances.*
Even
if
if

not chosen.

Even
yet
it

the natural dread of death

would

pre-

vent the animal from choosing the violent death,

ADAPTATION" OF ANIMALS TO MAN.

1192.

would avoid much suffering by the

choice,

The physical

qualities of animals.

and

so

God

has chosen

it

for him.

Such as
men rescued from
wild beasts.

their size, strength, swiftAdaptation of animals to man.

118(1.

Secondly,

ness, etc., are in perfect adaptation

to the necessities of

power a stupor deadens and that the pains of laceration are the faculties, scarcely felt observation would seem to show that the same is true of animals, and that they are conTestify that while in their
;

man.

Thus
larger,

if

wild animals were

much

stronger, swifter,

and tougher than they are, they would be antagonists too mighty for man.
1193.

scious of but
in pieces.

little

suffering, even while being torn

The

domestic animals also.

If possessed of the
1187.

supposed

qualities,
;

Thirdly, animals cannot reflect.

is

less

handy, manageable, and serviceable

difficulty,

would be would be
in

Therefore violent death

not anticipated or

subdued with more

and could be kept

dreaded by them

the rabbit and hare are as hap-

only precarious subjection.

1194.
Flexibility

py as the

flying-fish as

mouse as happy as the cat, the happy as the dolphin, and the sparrow as happy as the hawk.
fox, the
1188.

of constitution.
flexibility

The

domestic animals have great

of

Fourthly,

all

animals need employment.

go into, and adapt themselves unto every region in which man wants
constitution, so that they can

The

preservation of themselves and their

young

them.
has

employment to the species preyed upon the toils of hunting and watching are sufficient employment to the carnivorous tribes. Every animal has to work hard for his living.
furnishes
1189.
Fifthly, the over-increase of animals.

Thus the horse has gone to England, and grown to the huge-dray horse to Iceland,
;
;

and has dwindled to the pony to Barbary, and has become the winged courser that outstrips the wind.
1195.

The

ox.

On
bulk
;

the fat pastures of Belgium, elephantine in

Many
all
;

species of animals tend to

over-increase of

on the frosty

hillsides of

Norway, stunted

to

numbers, so that the Earth could not support them

the

carnivorous tribes restrain this

over-inif

* The author the question,

is

responsible for only the language of this discussion of

crease,

and thus prevent much

suffering, for

the

Why carnivorous animals exist?

the ideas are Paley's.

THE
a steer

ADAPTATION

OF

ANIMALS
animals,

TO

MAN.

Ill

on the pampas of South America, gaunt,

and thus he accomplishes vastly more, and

and
for mental culture.

sinewy, and swift as an antelope

self to his condition.
tle in

has

shaped himIceland cat-

gets time and saves strength for higher activities,

for thought
1202.

In

Norway and

the Winter thrive upon frozen

is

fish.

So adapt-

Secondly, such animals.

able

the constitution of domestic animals to the

The domestic animals

are peculiarly valuable to

necessities of
1196.

man.

man because
ties,

they combine so
docility,

The hog.

many

useful qualistrength,

intelligence,

amiability,

In different regions, fattens upon maize, yams,

manioc, millet, mast, cocoa-nuts, and bread-fruit

swiftness,

universality of distribution,
all

suitableness

of flesh for food, and of

parts of their bodies to

upon

fish,

molluscs, the offal of seals and whales;

innumerable uses.
1203.

upon
all

frogs, snakes,

into

pork which

man can and

and vermin, and converts them does eat, and finds

The number

of domestic animals.

tolerably
1197.

good food!
qualities of animals.

Like the staple food-plants, the domestic animals are few in the number of species the ox, the horse,
;

The mental
in as

the sheep, the hog, the camel, and the .reindeer are the most important.
for these suffice the

Are
man.

perfect adaptation to the necessities of

Yet

there

is

no need of more,

If wild animals

knew more than they

do,

leading loants of

mankind;

the

they could with even their present physical capabilities,

bid defiance to man.

If the domestic animals

knew more, they would not submit to the yoke of man, and would mock his assumption of authority; nothing but man's superior intelligence makes him
securely lord of the lower creation.
1198.

ox for strength, the horse, reindeer, and camel for draught and speed the ox, sheep, and hog for food and in part for clothing.
;

1204.

The

qualified favor

shown man.
in giving

Great favor has been shown man

him

The

strong point of adaptation.

such helpers, but a qualified favor, for he does not have their help without labor and painstaking; no
animal will work for
Two main
facts

The most admirable

adaptation of animals to
fact,
first,

fact in the

man unless

compelled to

every

man

is

the
all

adaptation of animals toman.

in the

animal
1205.

is

born

ivild.

that

any animals

at

Develop

them

also.

can be domesticated, and second,

that such animals can be domesticated.
1199.
First,

Man
subdue

has not only to train and

his helpers, but also to de-

Man has to develop the domestic animals.

awj animals.

velop their crude and narrow native

capacities to the full compass of his

If

man

could not subdue to his use any animal could not do

it

whatsoever, civilization would be out of the question, for

own

requirements.

Thus

a sheep gaunt as a grey-

man

he could not lay

waters, etc.
1200.

off

all the work alone, and upon inanimate forces, winds,

hound and haired

bearing a fleece
like a swine.
like

like a dog,

can be cultured to
to taking

down, and

on fatness

Accordingly man's

first

step from barbarism.

1206.

The wild hog.

Consists in the subduing of animals to his uses;

In his native forests a formidable beast, heavytusked, coarse-bristled, fierce, cunning, and fleet as

animals that plow and harrow the ground,

draw

dirt and stone, haul out timber, and lend help in a thousand situations where no machine would answer

a zebra, can be converted into the Suffolk pig, buried

in fat,

and evermore sleeping

Universally.

in

deep content

the purpose.
1201.

1207.
civilization.

The higher the

The domestic
off

animals, from the camel to the cat,

So much the more labor does man lay

upon

without exception,

owe the high development of

118

THE

DISTRIBUTION
and
ju-

OP

ANIMALS.
work where God
it

their admirable qualities to the painstaking

ing up the
it

leaves
is

it,

and carrying

dicious
1208.

management of man.
Man's
position.

to perfection.

This burden
compels
will not let

indeed weighty, but

to the exercise of

it is

salutary, for

man

As

in respect to the food-plants, so in respect to

his faculties,

and

him be a mere

plod-

domestic animals,

man

is co-ioorker

with God. tak-

ding, unthinking being.

THE CORMORANT.

CHAPTER XXVI.
The Distribution of Animals.

The Polar, Temperate-Zone, and Tropical

Faunas.

DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.
1209.

have spread into every clime

this universality is

in

which

man

lives;

The

original distribution of animals.

mainly due to the care exercised

The
to

different species are

supposed

to

have been

by man

in their behalf,

though

in part to their pe-

located at particular points or centrer, and from

them

culiar flexibility of constitution.

1211.

have spread by their locomotive power into such

.

The ox.
auroch, the original stock of the domestic

regions as are favorable to their reception.

1210.

The
ox,
it

The

distribution of domestic animals.

is still

found

in

Poland and Lithuania

thence
in par-

The domestic

animals, in one species or another,

has spread throughout the whole World

THE
ticular, carried to

POLAR

AND

TE

M P E 11 A T E - Z

NE

FAUNAS.
nimble deer

119

South America, the species has gone wild again, and covers its grassy plains by
millions.
1212.

ton, slayer of the

wolverines, foxes,
in lustrous

sables, otters, ermines,

and beavers, clad

furs; the reindeer,

the camel, cow, and sheep of the

at

The

horse.
still

snowy North
wanders wild

the musk-ox, odorous with lasting

The

original stock of the horse

;

upon the steppes of Tartary thence transferred to all parus of the Earth, it has become the invaluable Vast droves of horses thrive in recovered native freedom on the plains of South
servant of man.

perfume; and the dog, and food to man.

1219.
Birds.

once companion, slave,

In the Summer, multitudes of sea-birds,

-ducks

and geese, together with cormorants,

skuas,
etc., line

penguins,

America.
1213.

the shores of the Polar waters, living

The

sheep.

upon

fish,

mollusca, and sea-weed, and devoured in

The original stock of the domestic sheep is found among the mountains of Corsica and Sardinia, under the name of the musmon, a fierce, huge-horned,
swift-footed
latitudes,
1214.

turn by carnivorous animals.

1220.

Characteristics of the Polar fauna.

The fauna
uniformity
;

of the Polar regions

the

is is

noted for
small,

its

animal.

Thence
all

it

has spread to

all

number

of species

but of

and throughout

meridians.

individuals enormously great, and

all

are noted for

The hog.

their light coloring / the bears are clad in dubious

in his original

Is

still

found

freedom and

fierce-

white, the wolves and foxes in gray, the sea-birds

in

ness

among

the forests of the

German mountains.
is

snowy plumage

even the

fish are pale-hued,

and

Thence he has emigrated so widely under the guidance and care of man, that he
universal as
1215.

shine with no splendor on their scales.

1221.

now

almost as

The Polar fauna how supported'?

little

man

himself.

Since the lands yield

food, the fauna of the

The dog and

cat.

Polar Zones
sea.

lives

upon the food supplied by the

its

Natural enemies subdued and reconciled by man,

Either directly or remotely nearly every aniin this

have been with him so widely and so long, that

their native country
in
is

mal

fauna owes

living to the ocean.

unknown

the

dog runs wild

1222.
Life in the Polar oceans.

South Africa, and the cat harbors in many varieties in the copses of Europe and Asia.
packs
in

The waters
ing creatures,

of the Polar seas are replete with

liv-

the whale

in seven different species;

the narwhal, with a tusk like the weaver's

beam
by

POLAR AND TEMPERATE-ZONE FAUNAS.

1216.

the walrus, the seal, the sword-fish, and the shark.

A fauna.
of a Zone or country embraces
all

Here
the

are bred the migratory fish that go forth

The fauna

millions,

feeding the nations as they march; the

cod-fish, the pilchard, the herring, the

haddock, and

animals belonging to that Zone or country.

1217.

the whiting.
1223.

The Polar-Zone fauna.

The fauna

of the

Temperate Zones.
speinTemperate-Zone
fauna.

Consists almost entirely of car-

nivorous

animals
;

graminivorous
little

Polar-Zone fauna.

Exhibits a greater
cies,

number of

with a smaller number of

animals could find but

to eat

dividuals in each species.

As

even

if

placed in those Zones. The most important animals.

of quadrupeds
in
;

general statement, the animals are

of a higher type, of
wolves,

1218.

more graceful forms and move

The Polar bear, toughest

ments, of brighter colors and more brilliant plu

gaunt with famine and' hunting

packs

the glut-

mage.

120

THE
Temperate-Zone carnivora.
grizzly bear, terrible for tough-

TORRID-ZONE

FAUNA.

1221.

The

ness, activity,

and strength the brown

;

bear of Europe, the black bear of

America; the panther, whose spring

is

like the arrow's flight; the

cougar,

more terrible in their combined numbers than the lion the wise fox, and the crafty
subtle as a serpent; wolves,
;

lynx.
1225.

Teraperate-Zone graminivora.

The
ox
in

sheep, the goat, the deer, the

numerous varieties, the moose or elk, and chiefly the bison fit inhabitant and monarch of North Amer ica's majestic plains all feeding upon

grass and chewing the cud.

1226.

Wild

cattle, etc.

Vast herds of wild cattle and horses thrive upon the savannahs and grassy
fact

Temperate Zones; a which shows how favorable these Zones are for grazing purposes, since
prairies of the

the congregated millions get no food or care from man.

THE RHINOSCEKOS

'

THE JUNGLE

KING.'

THE TORRID-ZONE FAUNA.

1229. 1227.

Follow in order.
;

The

tropical fauna.

Surpasses both the others

species, in the

in its

vast variety of

Jaguars leopards
thirsty

agile

and

beautiful,

but blood-

high development and general per-

fection of its individuals, in the elegance of their

forms, in the brilliancy of their colors, and the splen-

and treacherous; the ounce, the jackal, the chetah, the puma, the hyena that feeds upon rankest carrion, and robs the sepulcher of its dead.
1230.

dor of their plumage.

1228.

Tropical graminivora.

Tropical carnivora.

Assume

proportions

and

characteristics

which
the rhi-

At

the head, the lion, the incarnation of majestic

render them formidable;

the elephant in troops,

;

and terrible beauty, the swing of whose tail will knock down the strongest man, and the tap of whose paw break in the whole broadside of a
horse's ribs
!

wasting the

fields

of a province in a day

nosceros, voracious as a swine, and cased in a hide

as thick as an oaken

plank
all

the hippopotamus,

The

tiger,

" the

arrow"

still

more
feet,

sleeping in

mud and

ooze

day, and trampling and

all

sanguinary, that can spring a reach of forty

devouring in the cane-brake or the corn-field

night.

and canter

for miles with a buffalo

between

his jaws.

THE
1231.

TORRID-ZONE
1234.

FAUNA.
The venomous

121

The

horse, etc.

species.

The horse
the

in perfection,

such as clothes himself

like

Hooded

serpents, triangle-heads, horned snakes,

with speed; the giraffe, outspeeding the simoon of

desert; the zebra,

aspics, the elaps, the rattlesnake

here reaching the

banded

a serpent, unass,

acme of destructiveness

many

of them envenomed

tamable as beautiful; together with the wild

the buffalo
javelin
;

with a poison so violent and rapid as in two or

three hours to rot the flesh of the victim from off
his

the antelope, swift as the flight of a

and the camel, ugly to behold, but worthy to be crowned the real king of beasts for usefulness.
.

bones

*
!

1235.

Add

to the foregoing.

A
Tropical birds.

host less
lovely
; ;

ingloriously

distinguished, but not

fist

1232.

more
and for the
:

scorpions big as one's

and black
;

as a coal

toads of monstrous size and aspect

ants,
;

liz-

Are
trich,

distinguished for size, variety,

their

ards,

all-devouring

centipedes,

cockroaches,

splendor of

plumage
;

examples

the

os-

alligators, crocodiles

the locust, the " slayer of na-

strong as a horse

the condor,
;

spreading a
irised

tions ;"

fifteen-foot stretch of pinion

the peacock,

and spiders covered with hair and tinted with the most baneful coloring.
1236.

and the bird of Paradise, lustrous with the yellow hue of the topaz, and the
with rainbow-splendors
;

The

insect-tribes.

bright green of the emerald.

1233.

Are almost numberless

bly numerous
in

in species,

and inconceivaforests

individuals; the
.

Tropical serpent-tribes.

swarm
and

with them

each hour of the day and night gives

species, each with its peculiar buzz,

Embrace

nearly

all

the various species most ter-

place to
sting,

new

rible for deadliness of bite,

malignancy of temper,

and venom.
Cause of this abundant development.

and great size. The constrictors, that secure their prey by squeezing them to death, are represented
in the

1237.

boa of Africa, the python of India, and the anaconda of South America all growing to thirty feet in length, and to a strength that can crush a
;

First, the tropical

fauna owes
the hot

its

high development

to

and
Causation of the high development
of tropical fauna.

humid

climate of the Torrid Zone,

buffalo to death.

because in such a climate animals

can breed all the year round.
1238.

Preservation of the young, etc.

The

softness of the climate tends greatly to the

increase of numbers, since the new-born

eggs unhatched are not

killed

young and by a moment's negliin other

gence on the part of the parent, as

Zones

hence thousands of species, like the ostrich, crocodile, alligator,

and

insects innumerable, leave their

maternal duties to be performed by the sun-heat.

1239.

Abundant

food-supplies.

Thirdly, the profuse vegetation of these regions

furnishes inexhaustible food-supplies close at

hand

*Hooded serpents, the cobra

trigonocephali of the Antilles.

di capello of India.

Triangle-heads, the

Horned snakes,

the cerastes of Africa.

Aspics, the famous Egyptian snake.

Elaps, a terribly poisonous reptile

of Guiana.

122

MANS PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS.

and mul-

so that millions of creatures thrive

tiply,

which

in the other

Zones would starve to

death, or linger along unable to rear young.

1240.

Why
?

is

the tropical fauna

so abundantly

developed

First, in

order that the magTor-

Why
ical

the tropiis

nificent vegetation of the

rid

fauna

as

it

Zone may not run to waste,

avail;

or be of less than the highest

possible
light,

secondly,

in

order that the

heat,
it,

and moisture

so lavishly poured
stir

out upon

the juices of plants,

may do something more than may be beneficent in

the

highest degree.
1241.

Animals that harass and destroy.

in this

THB LOCUST
in all

"

THE SLAYER OF NATIONS.

Are more numerous

Zones
the
;

than

other

so,

because they have more material here to work

;

in

accordance with the law that the

in

evil
;

and
al-

upon and

to the

end that they may contribute to

good go hand

hand

in equal

proportion

man's physical probation.

CHAPTER XXVII.
Man's Physical Characteristics.
Man's Intelligence and Position.

MAN'S PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS.

1242.

What
is

is

man I

136 pounds avoirdupois, and the mass of his body would fill a cubic measure sixteen inches on a side.
1244.

Man
mon

an animal because he has the structure,

His size adjusted to what

composition, instincts, appetites, and passions comto animals.

His size appears to have been very carefully adjusted to the labors required of him in his present
condition
;

Man'ssize adapted to the ease

1243.

What
is

of man's

size ?

Man

a very large animal, for of

'

if

every

man were
it

as large as Goliah,

the 150,000 species of animals,

far the greater

by number are vastly smaller than he more definitely, the

;

Siz 6 of

man

how

difficult

would

be for him to take care of the

animal, man,
tall,

domestic animals, to graft trees, to reap harvests, and gather crops, and to ply the numberless petty
arts

is

on an average

five feet eight

inches

weighs

growing out of

civilization

MANS PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS.

1215.
If every

123

man were

small as

Tom Thumb

could he brave and conquer the winds and waters, how cultivate the stubborn soil, how cut

How

out detriment.

which the generality of animals will undergo withThis applies to man only in his natural condition for by the exercise of his reason,
;

down

great forests, drain marshes, smelt and forge

and by putting to use the various appliances about

him, he can out-endure
1251.
all

refractory ores, how, in a word, bear

inevitable toils of
life,

up under the

other animals.
delicate.

rendered inevitably hard by

?

How man

comes

to

be

the constitution of nature

1246.

The
;

delicacy of

Man's
is

durability or longevity.

Providence, that
son
Man's longevity.
;

man is in part designed of he may be compelled to use his rea-

Man

a long-lived animal
live longer.

very

few animals
enty,

He

some;

ox, he

had he been tough as a bear, and strong as an would have been tempted to rely upon his

times lives one-hundred years

frequently,

sev-

physical energies alone.

but the average age of

man

is

1252

In that case.

about thirty years.

The average would be

still

higher but for the vast numbers that die in infan-

cy; a result due to man's extreme fragility at that

period of
life,

and

to

mismanagement and
of.

negli-

would always have remained a mere savage, or rather a mere beast, so far as regards the exercise of his nobler capacities, and could have accomplished but
little

He

gence such as no other animals are guilty

1247.

in

comparison with what he has

his reason.

accomplished by the exercise of

In point of strength.
1253.
is

Man
bulk

But secondly, man's misdoings.

in

weak

in

proportion to his
Man's strength.

compared with the majority of animals. In a few

weight, as

and

In so far as his delicacy results

ness,

avoidable sick-

remarkable cases he can

lift

four or five times his

weight, but in vastly the majority of instances not

and untimely death, it is the fruit of man's own misdoings such as gluttony, intemperance, careless exposure to heat and cold,
pain,
disease,
;

more than twice

1248.

his weight.

unrestrained

passions,

marriage-alliances
;

without

regard to health and temperament

Notwithstanding his weakness.
is

with a number-

loss

catalogue of vices, miscalculations, and errors

Man

the most effective working animal on the

effect due, first, to the perfection of his

of

life

and conduct.
In consequence of this misconduct.
is

Earth; an

structure, which enables

1254.

him

to accomplish
little

much
;

with

the outlay of comparatively

and due, secondly, to his intelligence, which enables him to lay out his power most judiciously and economically.
1249.

power

Man

a sickly animal

all

the
Man a sickly
imal.
an-

other tribes of animals together, are

not liable to sickness so

much

as

man.
The
temperature of the

human

body.

ed
Man's tempera-

in

Yet this disability has resultmuch good; seeking for remedies, man has got
more

Is 98

upon Fahrenheit's

scale,
ture.

a very large part of his knowledge of the properties of plants and minerals, and thus has become

38| higher than the average temperature of the Globe

;

hence man,
is

thoroughly master of the World.

obliged to
1255.

having no adequate natural covering,

still

higher good.
vir-

wear

clothing.

Sickness cultivates the noblest and loveliest

1250.

As
is,

respects toughness.

tues, patience, hope, resignation, higher

aniMan'B toughness.

than angel

Man

compared with other

virtues, for angels

have no scope for the exercise of

mals of his size and weight, exceedingly delicate, being utterly unable
to bear the heat, cold,' wet,

such

it

loosens the bonds that bind us here, and

thus gradually prepares us to exchange the present

for another state of being.

and general exposure

124

MANS INTELLIGENCE AND

POSITION.

MAN'S INTELLIGENCE AND POSITION.

1256.

tures the need of an intelligent animal to be

its

Man's

lord and master.

position.

Although other animals may be

swifter or tougher, yet

12
Man's position
eviuced by his bodily structure.

32.

First, soils.

man

is

lord

Soils all require cultivation that their capacities

of the lower creation,

by reason of

may be

developed and perfected

can cultivate

none but an

in-

the perfection of his structure, even

if

telligent animal

soils,

therefore soils

no other circumstance be taken into account.

1257.

imply the need of an intelligent animal.

1263.

More

specifically.

Secondly, the waters.

All the nobler animals are

made
this

after a certain
is

By
tion,

all

the actual and possible uses to which they

in the arts

type, the leading feature of which

a vertebral

may be put
day
offices of

and

sciences, in

naviga-

column, or backbone, and in

in full perfection ; in

man

model

is

seen

manufacturing, and the innumerable every-

animals the rough casts of the

in

man's

life,

imply the need of an

in-

model are seen, which

ness of beauty.*

man

is

touched to

full-

telligent animal that these uses

1264.
Thirdly, the winds.

run not

to waste.

1258.

Chiefly,

why

lord of the world.

Without an

intelligent

animal

to

use their motive

Man's chief claim to be lord of the lower creation rests upon his possession of a soul, a reason-

power, the winds would blow in vain so far as respects their noblest uses
;

therefore they imply the

ing intellect

wedded

to moral sensibilities,

and govin va-

need of an
1265.

intelligent animal.
metals.

erned by a conscience.
distinguish between
1259.

Animals bave mind

evil.

rious degrees, a few can reason, but not one can

The various minerals and

in the

good and
man.

Hidden

depths of the ground, secreted in

Our

definition of

devious veins, or bound up in dense conglomerates,

soul,

An

animal gifted with a

Definition of man.

would have been created all in vain, did not an intelligent animal exist to conquer them with fire and
forge,

possessing instincts, appetites, and

passions, allying

him
to

and compel them

to their various uses.

to beasts, to-

gether with

intellect,

moral

sensibility,

and con-

1266.

The organic world.

in like

science, allying
1260.

him

God.

The organic world,

man's intelligence
fits

manner, proves that

Thus,
care,

The only

intelligent animal.

him

for his position.

Man is the only intelligent animal, the only "one in whom the instinctive and the physical are subordinated to the intellectual and the spiritual.
did

food-plants need cultivation

to

and

and

will
;

come

nothing without cultivation and care

but no

God

other than an intelligent animal can bestow cultivation

more for man than vitalize him when he breathed into him a living soul.
1261.

and

care.

1267.

The uses
the

of

all

plants.

By

his soul

man

is fitted

for his position.

From
bramble
all

mushroom
life,

to the live-oak,

and from the

intelli-

As man's intelligence
es
is

to the banian,

through

all

the ages, and in

distinguish-

him from

the offices of

imply the need of an

all

other "animals, so

it

Man's intelligence fits him for

his position.
:

precisely ichat
;

makes him suited

so true
is

gent animal to put them to account.

1268.

to his situation

this that
its

Proved by animals.

even the inorganic world implies in

leading fea-

The
they

domestic animals imply the same need, that

may be subdued,

domesticated, and developed;

all

* See

Book Second

of Series.

the uses of all animals in

the offices of

eiviliza-

THE
tion

HUMAN RACES.
been miserably disproportionated to his mighty
ulties
;

125

imply the necessity of an intelligent animal to

fac-

bring those uses into exercise.

1269.

ization

Man's measure or degree of intelligence.

had it been less, his slender physical organwould not alone have enabled him to mainEarth; his intelligence,

Man

tain his stand as lord of the

has just the right measure

Man's amount
of intelligence just right.

not his strength, sustains him.

1271.

of intelligence; this appears because

he can by the exercise of it

all,

make

Man's triumphs.
faculties

and keep himself master of Iheworlcl.

1270.

His present
less.

have enabled him

fire,

to achieve

splendid triumphs over nature and the brute crea-

Had
it

his intelligence

been greater or

tion

earth, air, water,

steam, electricity, and

Had

been angelic, the petty cares and labors

life,

which inevitably make up the sum of

would have

magnetism, as well as plants and animals, have been pressed into his service.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
The

Human

Races.

Descriptive

View of the Races.

THE HUMAN" RACES.

1272.

fessional

man

is

readily distinguished from the

la-

Mankind one

borer, the temperate

species.

man from

the sot, the glutton

from the anchorite.

It
is

acknowledged that mankind

varieties of mankind and their causes.

The

belong to one and the same species,

1275.

Differences perpetuated.

and that the

position not at

so-called

Races are
;

These
children

differences are well

known

to

be perpetuaheavy-jointed
the

simply varieties of that species

all startling,

ted in the offspring; the peasant transmits to his

his

since the difference be-

dull

rude muscle,

his

tween

different races is
different

no greater than exists bethe

bones, his coarse features

children of the scholar rarely

and iron nerves;

fail

tween

varieties of

same

species

of

to exhibit the del-

plants and animals.

1273

icate organization, the chastened

form and features,

The

cause of these varieties, or races.

and high-strung nervous

1276.

sensibility of the parent.

diversity.

supposed to be the influence of different climates, diet, manners, and customs, education, religIs
ion,

Cause of degree of

government, and
Different

It is
in

an almost absolute necessity that the

differ-

short of a totally diverse

life.

ent races should be as they are, exceedingly diverse

in
characteristics,
his

1274.

modes

of living.

because of the universality of

so unlike influ-

It

is

well

known

that different

modes and

condi-

man and

consequent exposure to

tions of living will greatly

change the expression

for example, the pro-

ences, in different regions.*

of face and person, even in a single generation, and

in the lifetime of

one

man

* Tor a fuller discussion of this subject, see

Book Second

of Series.

126

DESCRIPTIVE VIEW OF THE RACES.

DESCBIPTIVE VIEW OF THE RACES.
1283.

The Mongolian

race,

1277

Names

of the races.

So named because the

seat

and
The Mongolian
race.

The

races are called, Caucasian,

Mongolian,

center of the race

is

Mongolia, com-

Ethiopian, Indian, and Malay.

1278.

The Caucasian

race,

So called because it is conjectured The Caucasian have spread from the vicinity of the Caucasus mountains as a geographic center, and because the finest specimens of
to

prehends the populations of Asia (except those of the Caucasian race before mentioned), also the Lapps, Finns, Turks, and Hungarians, in Europe, and the Esquimaux of America.
1284.

Their physical characteristics.

is

The person

short and thick-set

;

the hair coarse,

flat,

the race, so far as regards

mere physical

black, and straight

the face broad and

;

the

attributes,

are the Caucasian mountaineers

takes precedence,

features imperfectly discriminated

the outer angle

;

of the other races in both physical and mental capabilities.

of the eyes turned upward to the temples the complexion a tawny-yellow, intermediate between that of " wheat and dried orange-peel."
1285.

1219.

Their physical characteristics,

Their mental characteristics.

Are
lithe

as follows

the person

is

tall

and

slender,

Low

intellectuality in all the higher

departments

and easy in motion, and well-proportioned throughout. The head is oval, the facial angle f
large, the forehead projecting, the axis of the eyes

of reason, reflection, and imagination, obtuse moral

and emotional and ambition.

1286.

susceptibilities, inconsiderable spirit

right-angled to the line of the nose

the features in
The Ethiopian
all
race,

general fine-cut, the eyes and the whole countenance

expressive.
1280.

Occupy

Africa south of the

;

Complexion of the Caucasian race,

Varies from the fair and florid of the German or Englishman, and from the swarthy of the Greek or Spaniard, to the deep brown and almost black of
the

The Negro race. Sahara and of Abyssinia also Australia, Borneo, and several other The race is so named islands in the Pacific Ocean. because its finest and most characteristic specimens

are found in Central Africa or Ethiopia.

1287.

Arab
is

or Moor.

The

characteristic color of the

Their physical characteristics.

race

a fresh blonde with red cheeks. The Caucasian race

in point of distribution.
all

The body
1281.

large and strong, the limbs crooked,

the forehead low and sloping, the hind-head protuberant, the eyes
flat,
;

Nations of the Caucasian stock occupy

southwestern Asia as far as the Ganges
Africa.
1282.

Europe
parts

full,

black and expressive, the nose

except Turkey, Hungary, Lapland, and Finland

;

the lips thick, the upper

;

jaw projecting;

hair

all

coarse and woolly

1288.

characteristic color ebony-black.

of America settled by Europeans, and the north of

Their mental characteristics.

sensibilities,

Low intellectuality with very strong

The menial
characteristics of this race.

emotions, and passions

a cheerful and

happy tem-

development of the reflective, reasoning, and conceptive powers, keen susceptibility to the
finer

A high

perament, and a distaste for labor of mind or body.

1289.

This mental constitution.

emotions and sentiments, and highly organized

faculties.

As

it

has rendered

it

possible to subject the ne-

moral

gro to slavery, so has

it

enabled him to bear up units

der that slavery, and has alleviated

tThe facial angle, formed by
teeth,

hardships.

a line from the tip of the ear to the

No

race less cheerful and unreflective could have

and thence

to the eye.

thrived under the bondage of so

many

ages.

MAN AND CIVILIZATION.

1290.

127

The Indian

race,

MAN"
1296.

AND

CIVILIZATION.
is

Occupy all America except where

The Indian race. the Caucasian and Mongolian races have displaced them, as before shown. Physical characteristics, athletic frames coarse, straight, black hair, never cnsping or curling ; a copper-colored complexion black, piercing eyes high cheek bones broad face, and scanty

Under the above heading what

is

to

be shown?
Phys. geog. and

That man

compelled by the

physical geography of the earth to

material
zation.

civili-

take the primary and principal steps

toward
1297.

civilization.

Man

is

compelled to agriculture,

beard.
1291.

He
fact

is

compelled to agriculture by that universal

soils will

that

Their mental characteristics.

will not flourish

1298.

not be fruitful, and food-plants without cultivation.

fair

and emotions,

degree of intellectuality, low sensibilities cold, phlegmatic temperament, and

life.

Man

is

compelled to commerce,
all

unconquerable hatred for labor and civilized

1292.

Because no single region will yield

sential articles of food, or of raiment,

the esall

nor

the
art,

The Malay

race.

metals, nor

medicines, nor the materials of

Inhabit the islands of the Indian

elegance, and luxury.

The Malay
race.

Archipelago and of the Pacific, excepting those occupied

1299.

Man

is

compelled to manufacturing,

by the Ethi;

Physical characteristhe body slender, but sinewy and active the tics, top of the head narrowed ; the face somewhat wider than the negro's the hair and complexion black, though the latter often looks like old mahogany.
opian race as before noted.

man

Because nature yields only raw products, and cannot use raw products he has not strength
;

enough alone to work up the raw material, and so is obliged to harness the winds, waters, and steam to machinery to help him in a word, is compelled
;

to manufacture.
1300.

1293.

Their mental characteristics.

Origin of natural science.

Phys. geog. and
intellectual civilization.

power, very quick perceptions, strong emotions and passions, developing themselves in cruelty and debauched habit of life
reflective

Low

In his unavoidable labors upon the

minerals, metals, and the various ele-

treachery and cunning, with considerable energy

and

spirit

of enterprise.

ments of nature, man gathers much and exact knowledge of their qualities and capabilities, which reduced to system constitutes the
rich treasures of natural science.

1294.

This classification unsatisfactory.

1301.

Origin of society.

This classification
factory.

is

at best

vague and

unsatis-

The

races pass into one another

it is

by gra-

In the prosecution of his labors,

strained to unite in society, for such

man
is

is

con-

the constiessential to

dations so insensible that

almost impossible to
to

specify their distinctive features, or

line

draw the

tution of nature that union of effort

success,
society.

is

of demarkation between them.

Tabular view of the World's population.

and union of

effort is

not possible save in

1295.

1302.

Origin of education.

Of Of Of Of Of

the Caucasian race,

490,000,000
425,000,000
50,000,000
25,000,000
-

the Mongolian,
the Ethiopian,

Man

soon learns that mental discipline conduces

to success in even the

the Malay, the Indian,

total,

ployments,

10,000,000
1,000,000,000

commonest every-day emis power and capital ; thus education is necessitated by the physical geography of the earth, and the labors

that a well-trained mind

it.

Sum

srowina; out of

128

MAN AND CIVILIZATION.

The formation
of nations.

1303.

petual verdure, cool winds, and with houris reseas,

Peoples separated by oceans,

by extensive
;

splendent in beauty, with

all

sensual delights,

is

and lofty mountain-chains, or

deserts, rarely coalesce into

by wide-expanded
but
seas,

the natural religion of the ardent, sensuous tropical

one nationality

man.
1307.

when compacted together by surrounding

consolidation
;

Even

Christianity.
it

mountains or deserts, they tend strongly to national

so that physical

geography modifies

Breathes of the East where

originated, in its

the formation of nations.

1304.

forms and symbols,

regions

in its parables, poetry, senti-

ment, and illustrations, and as practiced in different

The government of
in its general
nations.
;

though one and the same

in essence, it

form and spirit, and in its special ordinances, must vary with the physical conditions of different regions. The system of
policy suited to the Switzer or the Circassian in his

Both

yet assumes varieforni shapes in adaptation to the

physical conditions of those regions.
1308.

The manners and customs of a

people.

mountain fastnesses, would not be adapted to the Chinese or the Hindoos inhabiting vast and fertile plains, or to the Malayan, or the Greek islander on his sea-girt domains.
1305.
Religions modified

Are largely dependent upon the physical geography of the region which they inhabit. For example, the maimers and customs, the habits and
fashions, the entire national

and individual

life

of

by physical geography.

the Finn, or the Tartar, or the Greenlander amid

his

Zabaism,

the

worship

of

Sun,

Moon, and
people living

Sandwich

snows, must differ from those of the Arab, the Islander, or the Greek, because their

Stars, is the natural religion of a

physical surroundings are so different.

1309.

under a cloudless sky glowing with the luster of almost supernaturally brilliant constellations, as on the plains of Persia. The worship of serpents and
beasts
is

Final conclusion.

natural in regions where

life is

continually
in

endangered by their venom and voracity, as Egypt, India, and all Africa.
1306.

Mohammedanism.
fills its

That

heaven with running streams, per-

We perceive that Physical Geography takes knowledge of the whole System of Earth and of Man ; of the Earth as a mighty assemblage of adaptations, and of Man to whom all these adaptations tend, in whom they center, and who is their crown and consummation.

W&h
K>

$* .<

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

029 708 012 Aj