POWER SUPPLIES

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. For e ample a !" regulated supply#

$ach of the blocks is described in more detail below#

TRANSFORMER
%teps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC. Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC. %tep&up transformers increase voltage, step&down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step&down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage '()*" in +,- to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft&iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is 'almost- e.ual to the power in. /ote that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step&down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary 'input- coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary 'output- coil to give a low output voltage.

Transformer circuit symbol turns ratio 0 "p 0 /p "s /s

and

power out 0 power in "s 1 2s 0 "p 1 2p

"s 0 secondary 'output- voltage /s 0 number of turns on secondary coil 2s 0 secondary 'output- current

"p 0 primary 'input- voltage /p 0 number of turns on primary coil 2p 0 primary 'input- current

RECTIFIER
Converts AC to 3C, but the 3C output is varying. There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to 3C. The bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full&wave varying 3C. A full&wave rectifier can also be made from 4ust two diodes if a centre&tap transformer is used, but this method is rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the positive '5- parts of the AC wave to produce half&wave varying 3C.

SINGLE DIODE RECTIFIER

A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying 3C which has gaps when the AC is negative. 2t is hard to smooth this sufficiently well to supply electronic circuits unless they re.uire a very small current so the smoothing capacitor does not significantly discharge during the gaps. 6lease see the 3iodes page for some e amples of rectifier diodes.

Single diode rectifier

Output: half-wave varying DC

(using only half the AC wave)

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special packages containing the four diodes re.uired. 2t is called a full&wave rectifier because it uses all the AC wave 'both positive and negative sections-. 7.8" is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses *.9" when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. :ridge rectifiers are rated by the ma imum current they can pass and the ma imum reverse voltage they can withstand 'this must be at least three times the supply ;M% voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages-. 6lease see the 3iodes page for more details, including pictures of bridge rectifiers.

Bridge rectifier

Output: full-wave varying DC

(using all the AC wave)

SMOOTHING (FILTER)
%moothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the 3C supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying 3C voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying 3C 'dotted line- and the smoothed 3C 'solid line-. The capacitor charges .uickly near the peak of the varying 3C, and then discharges as it supplies current to the output.

/ote that smoothing significantly increases the average 3C voltage to almost the peak value '7.8 1 ;M% value-. For e ample <" ;M% AC is rectified to full wave 3C of about 8.<" ;M% '7.8" is lost in the bridge rectifier-, with smoothing this increases to almost the peak value giving 7.8 1 8.< 0 <.8" smooth 3C. %moothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges, giving a small r !!le v"l#a$e. For many circuits a ripple which is 7*= of the supply voltage is satisfactory and the e.uation below gives the re.uired value for the smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give fewer ripples. The capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing half&wave 3C. %moothing capacitor for 7*= ripple, C 0 ! 1 2o "s 1 f

C 0 smoothing capacitance in farads 'F2o 0 output current from the supply in amps 'A"s 0 supply voltage in volts '"-, this is the peak value of the unsmoothed 3C f 0 fre.uency of the AC supply in hert> '?>-, !*?> in the +,

REGULATOR
"oltage regulator 2Cs are available with fi ed 'typically !, 7( and 7!"- or variable output voltages. They are also rated by the ma imum current they can pass. /egative "@ To make things really simple lets start with a simple power supply and it is also the one they usually give you in your first electronics pro4ect. Aell the reason is .uite obvious because all electronics circuits re.uire a 3C power supply to work. Bou really do plug in the wires of your electronic items in AC mains supply but they do have AC to 3C converters too provide 3C to the circuits. All this is done with a power supply in the right place.

P % & a$ra' f"r ()*+

7. +nregulated voltage in

(. Cround

Voltage regulator

). ;egulated voltage out

This circuit is a small 5!" power supply. The circuit will provide a regulated voltage to the e ternal circuit which may also 2 am re.uired in any part of the e ternal circuit or the whole e ternal circuit. The best part is that you can also use it to convert AC voltage to 3C and then

regulate it ,simply Bou need a transformer to make the AC main drop down to a safe value i.e 7(&7! volts and then us a rectifier to convert AC into 3C. This circuit can give 5!" output at about 7!* mA current, but it can be increased to 7 A when good cooling is added to 9D*! regulator chip. The circuit has over overload and terminal protection. The capacitors must have enough high voltage rating to safely handle the input voltage feed to circuit. The circuit is very easy to build for e ample into a piece of overboard. 2f you need other voltages than 5!", you can modify the circuit by replacing the 9D*! chips with another regulator with different output voltage from regulator 9D chip family. The last numbers in the chip code tells the output voltage. ;emember that the input voltage must be at least )" greater than regulator output voltage to otherwise the regulator does not work well. 3ont forget to check the pin diagram before connecting the 2C.

TRANSFORMER ONL,

The l"w v"l#a$e AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. 2t is %"# suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

TRANSFORMER - RECTIFIER

The var. %$ DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. 2t is %"# suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

TRANSFORMER - RECTIFIER - SMOOTHING (FILTER)

The /'""#h DC output has a small ripple. 2t is suitable for most electronic circuits.

TRANSFORMER - RECTIFIER - SMOOTHING REGULATOR

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic circuits.

C r01 # D a$ra'2

C r01 # De/0r !# "%2

The ()*E(8*"AC line voltage is applied to the transformer primary. %tep down transformer is used to convert ()*"AC to 7("E7A output voltage in the transformer secondary. This 7("AC

supply is applied to the bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier voltage rating should be double the "rms of secondary AC and higher forward current rating. The bridge rectifier has four diodes in that, available as singular. This is the most important and it produces full&wave varying 3C or pulsating 3C. This rectified output is smoothed by using shunt capacitor filter 'C7-. The larger the filter capacitor lowers the ripple. The larger capacitor C7 across the input bypasses AC ripples to ground. The pure 3C output reaches the regulator 2C. The 9D*! "oltage regulator 2C '+7- gives !" E7A regulated output. The capacitor 'C(- across the output improves transient response. Fow power red F$3 is used in the output for power indication. 2t has voltage drop of 7.D" and gives brightness at (* mA. This is done by current limiting resistor ';7-. ; 0 '"out G "f- E 2 Ahere, "out Goutput voltageH "f& led voltage dropH 2& led forward current. From this we get ; as 7<*$. Ae use the standard value of ((*$. The higher value of limiting resistor gives low brightness but longer life time. %o, here 89*$ is used.

IR SENSOR
2nfrared '2;- light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light, measured from the nominal edge of visible red light at *.98 micrometers 'Im-, and e tending conventionally to )** Im. These wavelengths correspond to a fre.uency range of appro imately 7 to 8** T?>, and include most of the thermal radiation emitted by ob4ects near room temperature. Microscopically, 2; light is typically emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational&vibration movements. 2nfrared light is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. /ight&vision devices using infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected. 2n astronomy, imaging at infrared wavelengths allows observation of ob4ects obscured by interstellar dust. 2nfrared imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, observe changing blood flow in the skin, and overheating of electrical apparatus. An infrared sensor is an electronic device that emits andEor detects infrared radiation in order to sense some aspect of its surroundings. 2nfrared sensors can measure the heat of an ob4ect, as well as detect motion. Many of these types of sensors only measure infrared radiation, rather than emitting it, and thus are known as passive infrared '62;- sensors. All ob4ects emit some form of thermal radiation, usually in the infrared spectrum. This radiation is invisible to our eyes, but can be detected by an infrared sensor that accepts and interprets it. 2n a typical infrared sensor like a motion detector, radiation enters the front and reaches the sensor itself at the center of the device. This part may be composed of more than one individual sensor, each of them being made from pyroelectric materials, whether natural or artificial. These are materials that generate an electrical voltage when heated or cooled.

These pyroelectric materials are integrated into a small circuit board. They are wired in such a way so that when the sensor detects an increase in the heat of a small part of its field of view, it will trigger the motion detectorJs alarm. 2t is very common for an infrared sensor to be integrated into motion detectors like those used as part of a residential or commercial security system. Most motion detectors are fitted with a special type of lens, called a Fresnel lens, on the sensor face. A set of these lenses on a motion detector can focus light from many directions, giving the sensor a view of the whole area. 2nstead of Fresnel lenses, some motion detectors are fitted with small parabolic mirrors which serve the same purpose. An infrared sensor can be thought of as a camera that briefly remembers how an areaJs infrared radiation appears. A sudden change in one area of the field of view, especially one that moves, will change the way electricity goes from the pyroelectric materials through the rest of the circuit. This will trigger the motion detector to activate an alarm. 2f the whole field of view changes temperature, this will not trigger the device. This makes it so that sudden flashes of light and natural changes in temperature do not activate the sensor and cause false alarms.

2nfrared motion detectors used in residential security systems are also desensiti>ed somewhat, with the goal of preventing false alarms. Typically, a motion detector like these will not register movement by any ob4ect weighing less than 8* pounds '7D kg-. Aith this modification, household pets will be able to move freely around the house without their owners needing to worry about a false alarm. For households with large pets, sensors with an D*&pound ')< kgallowance are also made.

O34e0# De#e0# "% 1/ %$ IR l $h#

2t is the same principle in AFF 2nfra&;ed pro imity sensors. The basic idea is to send infra&red light through 2;&F$3s, which is then reflected by any ob4ect in front of the sensor. Then all you have to do is to pick&up the reflected 2; light. For detecting the reflected 2; light, we are going to use a very original techni.ue# we are going to use another 2;&F$3, to detect the 2; light that was emitted from another led off the e act same typeK This is an electrical property of Fight $mitting 3iodes 'F$3s- which is the fact that a led produces a voltage difference across its leads when it is sub4ected to light. As if it was a photo& cell, but with much lower output current. 2n other words, the voltage generated by the leds canJt be & in any way & used to generate electrical power from light, it can barely be detected. Thats why as you will notice in the schematic, we are going to use a @p&Amp 'operational Amplifierto accurately detect very small voltage changes.

C"'!"%e%#/ !"/ # "% %$2

The correct positioning of the sender F$3, the receiver F$3 with regard to each other and to the @p&Amp can also increase the performance of the sensor. First, we need to ad4ust the position of the sender F$3 with respect to the receiver F$3, in such a way they are as near as possible to each others , while preventing any 2; light to be picked up by the receiver F$3 before it hit and ob4ect and returns back. The easiest way to do that is to put the sender's- F$3's- from one side of the 6C:, and the receiver F$3 from the other side, as shown in the )3 model below. This )3 model shows the position of the F$3s. The green plate is the 6C: holding the electronic components of the sensor. you can notice that the receiver F$3 is positioned under the 6C:, this way, there wont be ambient light falling directly on it, as ambient light usually comes from the top. 2t is also clear that this way of positioning the F$3s prevent the emitted 2; light to be detected before hitting an eventual obstacle.

Another important issue about components positioning, is the distance between the receiver F$3 and the @p&Amp. Ahich should be as small as possibleL Cenerally speaking, the length of wires or 6C: tracks before an amplifier should be reduced, otherwise, the amplifier will amplify & along with the original signal & a lot of noise picked up from the electromagnetic waves traveling the surrounding.

?ere is an e ample 6C: where the distance between the F$3 and the @p&Amp is shown. %ure this distance is not as critical as you may think, it can be up to )!mm without causing serious problems, but trying to reduce this distance will Always give you better results. Actually, when 2 design the 6C:, 2 start by placing the receiver F$3 and the @p&Amp, as near to each others as possible, and then continue the rest of the design.

RELA,
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. ;elays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low&power signal 'with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits-, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re&transmitting it to another. ;elays were used e tensively in telephone e changes and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power re.uired to directly control an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. %olid&state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. ;elays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faultsH in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called Mprotective relaysM.

Rela. W"r5 %$ Pr %0 !le2 Ahen a coil of wire is wound on a non&magnetic material such as plastic, paper etc., it is called a air&core solenoid or simply a solenoid .if a soft iron core is inserted into the coil, it becomes an electromagnet. This electromagnet is the basic component for relay and many other electromechanical devices such as electric bell, circuit breaker etc.

O!era# "% Ahen a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or breaks a connection with a fi ed contact. Ahen the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force appro imately half as strong as the magnetic force to its rela ed position. +sually this is a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate .uickly. 2n a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. 2n a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing. 2f the coil is energi>ed with 3C, a diode is fre.uently installed across the coil, to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a spike of voltage and might cause damage to circuit components. %ome automotive relays already include that diode inside the relay case. 2f the coil is designed to be energi>ed with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This Nshading ringO creates a small out&of& phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle by analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic deviceH a solid&state relay is made with a thyristor or other solid&state switching device. To achieve electrical isolation, a light&emitting diode 'F$3- is used with a photo transistor. T.!e/

La#0h %$ rela.

Fatching relay with permanent magnet A latching relay has two rela ed states 'bi&stable-. These are also called MimpulseM, MkeepM, or MstayM relays. Ahen the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an over&center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the coil is rela ed, or with a remanent core. 2n the ratchet and cam e ample, the first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. 2n the two coil e ample, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the advantage that one coil consumes power only for an instant, while it is being switched, and the

relay contacts retain this setting across a power outage. A remanent core latching relay re.uires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change state.

Ree& rela.
A ree& rela. is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside an evacuated or inert gas&filled glass tube which protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosionH the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under the influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid. ;eed relays can switch faster than larger relays, re.uire only little power from the control circuit, but have low switching current and voltage ratings. 2n addition, the reeds can become magneti>ed over time, which makes them stick JonJ even when no current is presentH changing the orientation of the reeds with respect to the solenoidJs magnetic field will fi the problem.

Top, middle# reed switches, bottom# reed relay

Mer01r.-we##e& rela.
A 'er01r.-we##e& ree& rela. is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with mercury. %uch relays are used to switch low&voltage signals 'one volt or less- where the mercury reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for low&current signals where surface contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high&speed applications where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position&sensitive and must be mounted vertically to work properly. :ecause of the to icity and e pense of li.uid mercury, these relays are now rarely used. %ee also mercury switch.

P"lar 6e& rela.

A !"lar 6e& rela. placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase sensitivity. 6olari>ed relays were used in middle (*th Century telephone e changes to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician could first ad4ust them for ma imum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical current that would operate the relay.

Ma0h %e #""l rela.

A 'a0h %e #""l rela. is a type standardi>ed for industrial control of machine tools, transfer machines, and other se.uential control. They are characteri>ed by a large number of contacts 'sometimes e tendable in the field- which are easily converted from normally&open to normally& closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller '6FC- mostly displaced the machine tool relay from se.uential control applications. A relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical e.uipment# for e ample, a timer circuit with a relay could switch power at a preset time. For many years relays were the standard method of controlling industrial electronic systems. A number of relays could be used together to carry out comple functions 'relay logic-. The principle of relay logic is based on relays which energi>e and de&energi>e associated contacts. ;elay logic is the predecessor of ladder logic, which is commonly used in 6rogrammable logic controllers.

Ra#0he# rela.
This is again a clapper type relay which does not need continuous current through its coil to retain its operation.

C"%#a0#"r rela.
A 0"%#a0#"r is a very heavy&duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads, although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from 7* amps to several hundred amps. ?igh&current contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to o idi>eH however, silver o ide is still a good conductor.P(Q %uch devices are often used for motor starters. A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi&metal strip, or where a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to operate au iliary contacts. These au iliary contacts are in series with the coil. 2f the overload senses e cess current in the load, the coil is de&energi>ed. Contactor relays can be e tremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief concern.

S"l &-/#a#e rela.

A /"l & /#a#e rela. 'SSR- is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long&term reliability. Aith early %%;Js, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given %%; could handle. The minimum voltage drop for such a relay is e.ual to the voltage drop across one transistor 'R*.<&(.* volts-, and is a function of the material used to make the transistor 'typically silicon-. As transistors improved, higher current %%;Js, able to handle 7** to 7,(** Amperes, have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely triggered by transients.

%olid state relay with no moving parts

S"l & /#a#e 0"%#a0#"r rela.

A /"l & /#a#e 0"%#a0#"r is a heavy&duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink, used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loadsH where fre.uent onEoff cycles are re.uired. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or 3C control signals from 6rogrammable logic controller '6FCs-, 6Cs, Transistor&transistor logic 'TTF- sources, or other microprocessor and microcontroller controls.

(! A or 8* A solid state contactors

B10hh"l6 rela.
A B10hh"l6 rela. is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil&filled transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil. it is connected in between conservator tank and main tank. it is use in above 9!* kva transformer. This relay is developed by ma buchhol>

F"r0e&-$1 &e& 0"%#a0#/ rela.

A f"r0e&-$1 &e& 0"%#a0#/ rela. has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together, so that when the relay coil is energi>ed or de&energi>ed, all of the linked contacts move together. 2f one set of contacts in the relay becomes immobili>ed, no other contact of the same relay will be able to move. The function of forced&guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check the status of the relay. Forced&guided contacts are also known as Mpositive&guided contactsM, Mcaptive contactsM, Mlocked contactsM, or Msafety relaysM.

Overl"a& !r"#e0# "% rela.

$lectric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over&loading the motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor windings. @ne type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in series with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Ahere the overload relay is e posed to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient temperature is provided. 6ole S Throw %ince relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energi>ing the coil in one of three ways# N"r'all.-"!e% '/@- contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activatedH the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. 2t is also called a Form A contact or NmakeO contact. N"r'all.-0l"/e& '/C- contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activatedH the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. 2t is also called a Form : contact or NbreakO contact. Change&over, or double&throw, contacts control two circuits# one normally&open contact and one normally&closed contact with a common terminal. 2t is also called a Form C contact or NtransferO contact. The following types of relays are commonly encountered# %6%T G %ingle 6ole %ingle Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or disconnected. 2ncluding two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. 2t is ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology N%6/@O and N%6/CO is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity. %63T G %ingle 6ole 3ouble Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others. 2ncluding two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total. 36%T G 3ouble 6ole %ingle Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. $.uivalent to two %6%T switches or relays actuated by a single coil. 2ncluding two for the coil, such a relay has si terminals in total. 2t is ambiguous whether the poles are normally open, normally closed, or one of each. 363T G 3ouble 6ole 3ouble Throw. These have two rows of change&over terminals. $.uivalent to two %63T switches or relays actuated by a single coil. %uch a relay has eight terminals, including the coil.

T63T & Tuadruple 6ole 3ouble Throw. @ften referred to as Tuad 6ole 3ouble Throw, or 863T. These have four rows of change&over terminals. $.uivalent to four %63T switches or relays actuated by a single coil or two 363T relays. 2n total, fourteen terminals including the coil

RELA, DRI7ER A +F/(D*) is an 2ntegrated Circuit '2C- chip with a ?igh "oltageE?igh Current 3arlington Transistor Array. 2t allows you to interface TTF signals with higher voltageEcurrent loads. 2n $nglish, the chip takes low level signals 'TFF, CM@%, 6M@%, /M@% & which operate at low voltages and low currents- and acts as a relay of sorts itself, switching on or off a higher level signal on the opposite side. A TTF signal operates from *&!", with everything between *.* and *.D" considered MlowM or off, and (.( to !.*" being considered MhighM or on. The ma imum power available on a TTF signal depends on the type, but generally does not e ceed (!mA 'R!mA U !"-, so it is not useful for providing power to something like a relay coil. Computers and other electronic devices fre.uently generate TTF signals. @n the output side the +F/(D*) is generally rated at !*"E!**mA, so it can operate small loads directly. Alternatively, it is fre.uently used to power the coil of one or more relays, which in turn allow even higher voltagesEcurrents to be controlled by the low level signal. 2n electrical terms, the +F/(D*) uses the low level 'TTF- signal to switch onEturn off the higher voltageEcurrent signal on the output side.

The +F/(D*) comes in an 7D&pin 2C configuration and includes eight 'D- transistors. 6ins 7&D receive the low level signalsH pin V is grounded 'for the low level signal reference-. 6in 7* is the common on the high side and would generally be connected to the positive of the voltage you are applying to the relay coil. 6ins 77&7D are the outputs '6in 7 drives 6in 7D, 6in ( drives 79, etc.-.

ULN8)*9
The eight /6/ 3arlington connected transistors in this family of arrays are ideally suited for interfacing between low logic level digital circuitry 'such as TTF, CM@% or 6M@%E/M@%- and the higher currentEvoltage re.uirements of lamps, relays, printer hammers or other similar loads

for a broad range of computer, industrial, and consumer applications. All devices feature openG collector outputs and freewheeling clamp diodes for transient suppression. The +F/(D*) is designed to be compatible with standard TTF families while the +F/(D*8 is optimi>ed for < to 7! volt high level CM@% or 6M@%.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The transmitter part of the sensor pro4ect is an 2nfrared '2;- Fed which transmits continuous 2; rays to be received by an 2; receiver. The output of the receiver varies depending upon its

reception of 2; rays. %ince this variation cannot be analy>ed as such, therefore this output can be fed to a comparator. ?ere operational amplifier 'op&amp- of FM ))V is used as comparator. Ahen the 2; receiver does not receive signal the potential at the inverting input goes higher than that that at non&inverting input of the comparator 'FM ))V-. Thus the output of the comparator goes low and the F$3 does not glow .Ahen the 2; receiver receives signal the potential at the inverting input goes low. Thus the output of the comparator 'FM ))V- goes high and the F$3 starts glowing. ;esistor ;7 '7**-, ;( '7*k- and ;) '))* - are used to ensure that minimum 7* mA current passes through the 2; F$3, photodiode and normal F$3, respectively. ;esistor ";( 'preset0!k- is used to ad4ust the output. ;esistor ";7 'preset07*k- is used to set the sensitivity of the circuit. The output for the ir sensor connect the realy circuit