Cognitive and Personality Running head: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SUSCEPTI ILIT! T" FALSE #E#"R!

Cognitive and Personality Di$$eren%es Leading to Di$$erential Indu%tion o$ False #e&ories Ari Sil'er&ann Cornell University

Cognitive and Personality A'stra%t

The )ur)ose o$ this study *as to e+a&ine ho* individual di$$eren%es in %ognitive and )ersonality $a%tors %ontri'ute to %o&&issions o$ $alse &e&ory, Seventy-eight Cornell University students *ere tested using the Deese-Roediger-#%Der&ott .DR#/ )aradig& to eli%it $alse re%all, 0ord lists varied in 1ualitative %o&)onents su%h as %on%reteness and asso%iative strength, Parti%i)ants %o&)leted a tas2 assessing $ield de)enden%e and surveys &easuring &ental a'sor)tion and %reativity, Results sho*ed si&ilar trends in $alse re%all rates to )revious studies, Findings also revealed signi$i%ant asso%iations 'et*een %reation o$ $alse &e&ories and $ield de)enden%e3 less detailed &ental i&agery3 and lo*er levels o$ sel$-assessed %reativity, Con%reteness level *as $ound to 'e an i&)ortant list-'ased $a%tor in e+)laining ho* individual di$$eren%es trigger $alse &e&ory %reation,

Cognitive and Personality Cognitive and Personality Di$$eren%es Leading to Di$$erential Indu%tion o$ False #e&ories False &e&ories %an %onsist o$ either re&e&'ering ite&s or events that never ha))ened3

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or re&e&'ering the& di$$erently $ro& the *ay they a%tually o%%urred, La'oratory &ethods have 'een su%%ess$ul in eli%iting $alse &e&ories $ro& )arti%i)ants in a variety o$ situations .see Roediger3 (556 $or a revie*/, T*o 1uestions do&inate resear%h on $alse &e&ories: are there s)e%i$i% ty)es o$ tests or situations that lead to higher levels o$ $alse &e&ory %reation7 Are there individual di$$eren%es that %ause so&e )eo)le to 'e &ore sus%e)ti'le to %reating $alse &e&ories than others7 The )ur)ose o$ this study is to e+a&ine the latter o$ these 1uestions in order to reveal i$ there are )arti%ular di$$eren%es in %ognitive )ro%essing or )ersonality traits that lead to the re)orting o$ &ore $alse &e&ories3 and to deter&ine ho* these %hara%teristi%s are asso%iated *ith 1ualitative errors in &e&ory, The Deese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm False &e&ories in this study *ere eli%ited 'y the asso%iative )ri&ing )ro%edure %reated $or $ree re%all 'y Deese .(585/ and e+)anded 'y Roediger and #%Der&ott .(558/3 re$erred to as the Deese-Roediger-#%Der&ott .DR#/ )aradig&, In this )ro%edure3 )arti%i)ants are given lists o$ *ords %ontaining %o&&on asso%iates o$ a non-)resented %riti%al *ord, The non-)resented *ords asso%iated *ith the other ite&s in the list are %alled target *ords or %riti%al lures, For e+a&)le3 the $ollo*ing list %onverges on the &issing *ord sweet: sour3 %andy3 sugar3 'itter3 good3 taste3 tooth3 ni%e3 honey3 soda3 %ho%olate3 heart3 %a2e3 tart3 )ie, A$ter a study )eriod3 )arti%i)ants are as2ed to re%all the *ords they *ere given, They are told to in%lude only *ords they are %on$ident *ere in $a%t )resent in the lists, Des)ite the i&&ediate re%all3 )arti%i)ants *ill o$ten $alsely re%all 9s*eet: and des%ri'e their e+)erien%e *hile re&e&'ering it .Roediger ;

Cognitive and Personality #%Der&ott3 (558/, These resear%hers *ere a'le to re)li%ate $alse re%all o$ target *ords in other lists as *ell, The DR# )aradig& is uni1ue in that &ost other &easures assessing $alse &e&ory in%lude stories3 visual sti&uli3 and )ersuasive in$or&ation=in other *ords an a%%u&ulation o$ detail=*hereas *ord lists do not3 at least at $irst glan%e3 eli%it a %o&)le+ s%enario to re&e&'er, It has ta2en a relatively long )eriod o$ ti&e $ro& the original introdu%tion o$ this &easure $or it to 'e%o&e a )o)ular assess&ent in the study o$ $alse &e&ory, Deese .(585/ *as only interested in ho* asso%iations 'et*een *ords a$$e%ted 'oth veridi%al and $alse re%all3 and not the a%tual intrusions o$ the target *ords, There$ore3 the $a%t that &any o$ his lists eli%ited only $e*

intrusions did not a$$e%t his )ur)oses3 and he did not e+tensively address these intrusion $indings .Deese3 (585> Roediger3 0atson3 #%Der&ott3 ; ?allo3 4@@(/, Later3 Roediger and #%Der&ott .(558/ de%ided to target $alse &e&ory in their resear%h and e+)anded the )aradig&, Sin%e this e+)ansion3 the DR# )aradig& has 'een used in a &ultitude o$ studies e+a&ining various as)e%ts o$ $alse &e&ory, Theories Explaining False Memory Reproductive vs. Reconstructive Memory artlett .(5<4/ is re%ogniAed as one o$ the $irst resear%hers to investigate $alse &e&ory, In his study3 he instru%ted the )arti%i)ants to read and later re%all a Native A&eri%an $ol2tale3 BThe 0ar o$ the ?hosts,C Along *ith nu&erous errors o$ o&ission in the story3 su'De%ts also &ade errors o$ %o&&ission3 in *hi%h they added &aterial to the story to &a2e it &ore %oherent .Roediger3 (556/, Although his s)e%i$i% results have not 'een su%%ess$ully re)li%ated3 artlett &ade a lasting %ontri'ution 'y )i1uing )eo)le:s interest in $alse &e&ory3 and in &a2ing the distin%tion 'et*een reproductive and reconstructive &e&ory, Re)rodu%tive &e&ory in%ludes the

Cognitive and Personality a%%urate )rodu%tion o$ %ontent $ro& &e&ory, Conversely3 re%onstru%tive &e&ory re$ers to the

)ro%ess o$ $illing in a'sent %o&)onents during the re%all )ro%edure, A%%ording to artlett .(5<4/3 the )ro%ess o$ re%onstru%ting &e&ory is &ar2ed 'y $re1uent errors, artlett also %lai&ed that &e&ories o$ hearing stories and )arti%i)ating in events involve error-)rone re%onstru%tion3 *hile si&)le &aterials su%h as *ord lists s)a*n a%%urate3 re)rodu%tive &e&ory, Fo*ever3 *ith the introdu%tion o$ the DR# )aradig&3 Roediger and #%Der&ott .(558/ suggested that artlett:s .(5<4/ distin%tion 'e a'andoned3 and that in so&e *ay all &e&ory is re%onstru%tive, Recoding The in$or&ation )ro%essing a))roa%h to %ognition 'egan in the (58@s and *ith it %a&e ne* ideas a'out $alse &e&ory, #iller .(586/ introdu%ed the %on%e)t %alled recoding to des%ri'e the )ro%ess that re%eives in$or&ation $ro& the outside *orld in one $or& and su'se1uently trans$or&s and re)resents it in a di$$erent *ay internally, "ne o$ the si&)lest &ethods o$ re%oding is the grou)ing or %hun2ing o$ a se1uen%e o$ in%o&ing in$or&ation, #iller de&onstrated this $eat 'y )resenting the $indings o$ S&ith:s .(58E/ investigation regarding te%hni1ues o$ re)eating long strings o$ 'inary digits 'y &entally %o&'ining the& in di$$erent ratios, Re$erring to this general )ro%ess #iller .(586/ states3 BThere are &any *ays to do this re%oding3 'ut )ro'a'ly the si&)lest is to grou) the in)ut events3 a))ly a ne* na&e to the grou)3 and then re&e&'er the ne* na&e rather than the original in)ut eventsC .), 5</, Sin%e re%oding is an a%tive )ro%ess )er$or&ed 'y the individual3 it is )ossi'le to %o&&it errors either during re%oding or during later de%oding o$ the in$or&ation, Activation Monitoring False &e&ories in the DR# )aradig& &ay 'e develo)ed 'y an auto&ati% s)read o$ a%tivation $ro& )resented *ords to %riti%al lures .0atson3 unting3 Poole3 ; Con*ay3 4@@8/,

Cognitive and Personality alota et al, .(555/ suggested that avoiding a $alse &e&ory re1uires the )erson to di$$erentiate 'et*een studied *ords and highly a%tivated %riti%al lures, There$ore3 $alse &e&ories in this )aradig& &ay also 'e due to a $ailure o$ &onitoring syste&s to di$$erentiate 'et*een a%tual )resentation and %riti%al *ord a%tivation, Source Monitoring Source monitoring .Gohnson3 Fashtroudi3 ; Lindsay3 (55</ re$ers to the set o$ )ro%esses used to deter&ine or attri'ute the origin o$ re&e&'ered in$or&ation, The Sour%e #onitoring Fra&e*or2 .S#F/ is an e+tension o$ the reality &onitoring $ra&e*or2 originally )ro)osed 'y Gohnson and Raye .(5H(/, A%%ording to the S#F3 there are three i&)ortant ty)es o$ sour%e &onitoring: e+ternal sour%e &onitoring3 internal sour%e &onitoring3 and internal-e+ternal reality &onitoring, E+ternal sour%e &onitoring re$ers to the dis%ri&ination a&ong e+ternally-derived sour%es3 $or e+a&)le3 dis%ri&inating 'et*een &e&ories o$ state&ents &ade 'y one )erson and those o$ state&ents &ade 'y another )erson, Internal sour%e &onitoring in%ludes distinguishing a&ong internally-generated sour%es3 $or e+a&)le3 di$$erentiating &e&ories o$ *hat one thought $ro& &e&ories o$ *hat one said, Lastly3 internal-e+ternal reality &onitoring involves dis%ri&inating &e&ories o$ e+ternally-generated in$or&ation .e,g, )er%eived ite&s and events/

$ro& &e&ories o$ internally-generated in$or&ation .e,g, thoughts and i&aginings/, #e&ories $or )er%eived events tend to in%lude &ore s)atial3 te&)oral3 and )er%e)tual in$or&ation than do &e&ories $or i&agined events .Gohnson3 Fashtroudi3 ; Lindsay3 (55</, There$ore3 a &e&ory %ontaining &ore visual and s)atial detail is li2ely to 'e Dudged as e+ternally derived, e%ause o$ this relationshi)3 those individuals *ho have the tenden%y to have &ore detailed &ental i&agery &ay &ore o$ten %o&&it a sour%e &onitoring error, In addition3 %onditions that )ro&ote the

Cognitive and Personality )er%e)tual si&ilarity o$ internally and e+ternally derived events *ill in%rease the )ro'a'ility o$ %on$using the t*o ty)es o$ sour%es, Fuzzy-Trace Theory

The $uAAy-tra%e theory .FTT> Reyna ; rainerd3 (558/ is a $ra&e*or2 $or the intera%tion 'et*een &e&ory and higher reasoning )ro%esses, A%%ording to the theory3 events are si&ultaneously stored in ver'ati& and gist tra%es, Ver'ati& tra%es are e)isode or ite& s)e%i$i% and are usually a%%o&)anied 'y $eelings o$ s)e%i$i% re%olle%tion3 *hereas gist or se&anti% tra%es eli%it a sense o$ $a&iliarity, #e&ory:s )er$or&an%e is 'ased on the retrieval o$ 'oth ver'ati& and gist tra%es, Falsely re&e&'ered o'De%ts or events usually $it *ithin the gist o$ e+)erien%e3 *hether they are asso%iated *ith auto'iogra)hi%al &e&ory3 eye*itness testi&ony3 or re%all o$ *ord lists . rainerd ; Reyna3 4@@4/, A%%ording to this theory3 ver'ati& retrieval is &ore li2ely to o%%ur *hen ver'ati& tra%es are do&inant %o&)ared to gist tra%es3 and vi%e versa, Ver'ati& and gust tra%es %an 'e e+)e%ted to have se)arate e$$e%ts on $alse &e&ory3 'e%ause ver'ati& tra%es are asso%iated *ith the ree+)erien%ing o$ ite&s or events in %onte+t3 %alled re%olle%tion3 *hile gist tra%e retrieval o%%urs *hen ite&s or events that *ere not originally e+)erien%ed are )er%eived to rese&'le a%tual e+)erien%ed ite&s, As the level o$ $a&iliarity in%reases3 B)hanto& re%olle%tionsC %an develo) . rainerd ; Reyna3 4@@4/, Phanto& re%olle%tions are de$ined 'y the resear%hers as Billusory vivid &ental reinstate&ents o$ events: o%%urren%eC . rainerd ; Reyna3 4@@43 ), (6I/, There$ore3 *hen &ulti)le *ords are asso%iated *ith a non-)resented *ord3 su%h as in the DR# )aradig&3 gist retrieval *ould su))ort $alse &e&ory 'e%ause o$ $a&iliarity3 *hile ver'ati& retrieval *ould sti$le $alse &e&ory,

Cognitive and Personality Distraction Prior studies have in%luded sti&uli to a%t as distra%tors during the &e&oriAation and re%all )ro%ess, The i&)a%t that these distra%tors have on &e&ory a'ility %an 'e e+)lained 'y the 0or2ing #e&ory .0#/ &odel, addeley and Fit%h .(5IE/ introdu%ed the 0# &odel3 a tri)artite syste& that is %o&)rised o$ the arti%ulatory loo) .AL/3 the visuo-s)atial s2et%h)ad .VSSP/3 and an attentional %o&)onent %alled the %entral e+e%utive .CE/, The AL is res)onsi'le $or the ver'al %o&)onent o$ short-ter& &e&ory and is thought to 'e %onstru%ted in t*o )arts J

an a%tive rehearsal )ro%ess and a )assive )honologi%al store . addeley3 (55@/, 0hile the AL has 'een the $o%us o$ &any studies3 in%luding those on IK )er$or&an%e .Ellis ; Fennelly3 (5H@/ and language a%1uisition .?ather%ole ; addeley3 (5H5/3 the VSSP is less understood as the visual &e&ory %o&)onent o$ the 0# &odel, Logie .(5H6/ tested the VSSP 'y )resenting irrelevant )i%tures to su'De%ts as they )ro%essed sti&uli3 either ver'al or visual3 in an atte&)t to later re%all the ite&s, In the ver'al )ro%essing tas23 )arti%i)ants: )er$or&an%e *as una$$e%ted 'y the irrelevant visual &aterial3 *hile this sa&e &aterial )rodu%ed di&inished results *hen a%%o&)anying visual )ro%essing, Learning $ro& this e$$e%tive &ethodology3 Kuinn and #%Connell .(556/ divided their )arti%i)ants into a rote instru%tion %ondition and a visual &ne&oni% %ondition, Those in the rote instru%tion grou) *ere told to %o&&it *ords to &e&ory 'y &entally adding ea%h *ord to the one heard )reviously, Those in the visual &ne&oni% grou) *ere told to learn a list o$ )eg*ords .one is bun3 t*o is shoe3 et%,/ and to use the& to %reate a visual i&age o$ ea%h *ord heard .$or e+a&)le3 i$ a )arti%i)ant:s )eg*ord $or one is bun and the $irst *ord )resented is lion3 they *ould i&agine a lion eating a 'un as a strategy $or re&e&'ering the *ord/, During *ord )resentation3 Kuinn and #%Connell .(556/ &at%hed the ti&ing o$ the ite& 'eing said *ith the

Cognitive and Personality )resentation o$ a visual i&age .si&ilar to Logie3 (5H6/, Fo*ever3 there *ere t*o distin%t ty)es

o$ i&ages dis)layed, The resear%hers %alled one ty)e dynamic visual noise 'e%ause the %hange in the dis)lay *as %onstant and evenly distri'uted, The other ty)e3 dis)lays %onsisting o$ line dra*ings that %hanged 'oth in%onsistently and rando&ly3 *as designed to engage attentional &e%hanis&s, They $ound that the latter3 irrelevant line dra*ings disru)ted &e&ory )er$or&an%e in )arti%i)ants in 'oth %onditions .rote and visual &ne&oni% instru%tion/, The &ore intriguing $inding *as that dyna&i% visual noise only disru)ted re%all in the visual &ne&oni% grou), These results suggest that the attentional disru)tion o$ the line dra*ings a$$e%ts the overall CE3 and the e$$e%t there$ore tri%2les do*n to 'oth slave syste&s3 the AL and the VSSP, Nevertheless3 it see&s that the VSSP is s)e%i$i%ally sus%e)ti'le to irrelevant dyna&i% visual noise, This idea is su))orted 'y the $inding that rote learning a'ility3 handled in the AL3 is undisru)ted 'y dyna&i% visual noise, Fen%e3 in this %ondition3 unli2e the visual &ne&oni% %ondition3 the AL *as a'le to &a2e u) $or any inter$eren%e in the VSSP, Individual Differences in Suscepti ility to False Memory Des)ite the great a&ount o$ resear%h 'eing %ondu%ted *ith the DR# )aradig&3 relatively $e* studies have loo2ed into *hether individual di$$eren%es in young adults a$$e%t the li2elihood o$ $alse &e&ories using this &easure .#ar&ure2 ; Fa&ilton3 4@@@> 0inograd3 Peluso3 ; ?lover3 (55H/, Nevertheless3 the studies that have 'een %ondu%ted have revealed that %ertain %ognitive and )ersonality %hara%teristi%s &ay 'e involved in the )ro%ess o$ %o&&itting errors in &e&ory, Absorption Mental !magery

In their *or2 on &e&ory and %ons%iousness3 Ga%o'y3 Lelley3 and Dy*an .(5H5/ hy)othesiAed that the ease *ith *hi%h a )erson is a'le to 'ring vivid events to &ind in%reases the

Cognitive and Personality (@ )ro'a'ility that the )erson *ill attri'ute it to 'eing a &e&ory, This theory is si&ilar to that o$ Forselen'erg3 #er%2el'a%h3 van reu2elen3 and 0essel3 .4@@E/3 *hi%h states that individuals *ith high $antasy )roneness3 disso%iation3 andMor a'sor)tion %ould 'e sus%e)ti'le to $alse &e&ories 'e%ause they &isinter)ret their detailed i&agery as true &e&ories, Tellegen and At2inson .(5IE/ de$ine a'sor)tion as the tenden%y $or an individual to have )eriods o$ %o&)lete attention that $ully utiliAe one:s re)resentational resour%es3 in%luding )er%e)tion and i&agination, The authors %lai& that a'sor)tion results in 'oth a heightened and an altered sense o$ reality, In order to assess individual di$$eren%es in a'sor)tion3 the resear%hers %reated the Tellegen A'sor)tion S%ale .TAS/, Parti%i)ants are as2ed to assess their agree&ent *ith ea%h o$ the <E ite&s on the s%ale .e,g, B0hen I listen to &usi% I %an get so %aught u) in it that I don:t noti%e anything elseC3 BSo&eti&es i&ages %o&e to &e *ithout the slightest e$$ort on &y )artC/, The higher an individual s%ores on the TAS3 the greater the )erson:s %a)a%ity $or &ental a'sor)tion, The TAS and other related &easures o$ &ental i&agery have 'een i&)ortant in assessing individual di$$eren%es in sus%e)ti'ility to $alse &e&ory, For e+a&)le3 Platt3 La%ey3 Io'st3 and Fin2el&an .(55H/ tested )arti%i)ants: &e&ories at 63 (43 and (H &onths $ollo*ing the ",G, Si&)son %ri&inal trial verdi%t3 %ou)led *ith ad&inistration o$ the TAS, The investigators $ound that higher s%ores on the TAS .higher &ental a'sor)tion/ *ere asso%iated *ith lo*er auto'iogra)hi%al &e&ory a%%ura%y, They %on%luded that su'De%ts *ere not ina%%urate 'e%ause they did not re&e&'er the event3 'ut rather 'e%ause their &e&ory o$ the event *as distorted, Additionally3 'e%ause the test $or &e&ory a%%ura%y *as )er$or&ed as &u%h as a year )rior to the TAS testing3 the authors argued that the relationshi) $ound 'et*een to t*o varia'les see&ed to 'e %onsistent over ti&e3 under the assu&)tion that the TAS &easures a trait rather than a state, In

Cognitive and Personality (( a si&ilar study3 Fy&an and Pentland .(556/ as2ed )arti%i)ants to atte&)t to re%all %hildhood events, ased on in$or&ation $ro& the )arents o$ the )arti%i)ants3 su'De%ts *ere intervie*ed a'out several true events and one $alse event, During a se)arate session3 the TAS and a si&ilar &easure o$ vividness o$ &ental i&agery3 the Creative I&agination S%ale .CIS> 0ilson ; ar'er3 (5IH/3 *ere ad&inistered to grou)s o$ )arti%i)ants, Their results sho*ed that higher i&agery levels in%reased the )ro'a'ility o$ %reating $alse &e&ories, In addition3 s%ores on the TAS and CIS *ere )ositively asso%iated *ith ea%h other, Findings 'y Do'son and #ar2ha& .(55</ also su))ort the hy)othesis that &ore detailed i&agers are &ore sus%e)ti'le to $alse &e&ories, They )resented su'De%ts o$ high and lo* visual i&agery3 &easured 'y #ar2s: .(5I</ Vividness o$ Visual I&agery Kuestionnaire .VVIK/3 *ith a short $il& $ollo*ed 'y te+t )assages des%ri'ing the events o$ the $il&, "nly so&e o$ the )assages *ere true, Parti%i)ants *ere then as2ed *hether %ertain in$or&ation %a&e $ro& the $il& only3 $ro& the te+t only3 )resented in 'oth3 or not )resented at all, The resear%hers $ound that lo*i&agery )arti%i)ants &ade &ore %orre%t dis%ri&inations than high-i&agery )arti%i)ants, They suggest that this result *as due to the high-i&agery grou):s tenden%y to attri'ute )i%torial i&ages s)ar2ed 'y the re%ognition test state&ents to the $il& 'e%ause their i&ages in%luded a lot o$ visual detail, This error re)resents a &ista2e in sour%e &onitoring .Gohnson3 Fashtroudi3 ; Lindsay3 (55</, Des)ite the resear%h de&onstrating a lin2 'et*een higher levels o$ i&agery and instan%es o$ $alse &e&ory3 so&e investigators have %lai&ed that i&agery %an 'e advantageous to the re&e&'ering )ro%ess, Ga%o'y3 Levi3 and Stein'a%h .(554/ )resent the distin%tion 'et*een datadriven )ro%essing and %on%e)tually-driven )ro%essing, In the &e&ory %onte+t3 data-driven )ro%essing re$ers to the &e%hanis& that analyAes a sti&ulus in)ut3 *hile %on%e)tually-driven

Cognitive and Personality (4 )ro%essing in%ludes the )ro%essing o$ %onte+tual in$or&ation and situational 2no*ledge, These latter areas are *here $alse &e&ories are &ore li2ely to o%%ur, Sti&uli involving lo*er levels o$ analysis3 su%h as *ritten letters and *ords utiliAe &ore data-driven )ro%essing and usually do not re1uire a high degree o$ %on%e)tually-driven )ro%essing, There$ore3 the )ro'a'ility o$ internallyderiving a $alse &e&ory3 su%h as )rodu%ing a %riti%al lure not )resented in a *ord list in the DR# )aradig&3 &ay 'e redu%ed *hen en%oding )ro%esses are li&ited to data-driven )ro%essing, In this %ase3 &ore detailed i&agers &ay %o&&it less errors o$ $alse &e&ory3 'e%ause sti&uli usually asso%iated *ith %on%e)t-driven )ro%essing are li&ited, In order to test the hy)othesis that detailed i&agery has 'oth )ositive and negative e$$e%ts on $alse &e&ory3 #ar&ure2 and Fa&ilton .4@@@/ utiliAed &ental i&agery as 'oth an individual di$$eren%e and an e+)eri&ental varia'le using DR# )aradig& *ord lists )resented in an auditory &odality, The investigators divided the )arti%i)ants into three grou)s: a re$erential i&aging .%on%e)t-driven/ grou)3 a $ont i&aging .data-driven en%oding/ grou)3 and a %ontrol grou), Ea%h grou) *as instru%ted to use di$$erent study te%hni1ues to re&e&'er the *ord list ite&s, Those in the re$erential i&aging grou) *ere instru%ted to $or& a &ental i&age that they $elt *as %losely asso%iated to ea%h *ord on the list, This instru%tion is si&ilar to that told to the visual &ne&oni% grou) in the study 'y Kuinn and #%Connell .(556/, For the $ont i&aging grou)3 a )i%ture dis)laying three sets o$ the al)ha'et3 ea%h in a di$$erent $ont3 *as )resented in the $ront o$ the roo&, For ea%h *ord3 the )arti%i)ant *as as2ed to )i%ture the ite& *ritten in one o$ the three $onts 'eing sho*n3 designated rando&ly 'y the instru%tor, The %ontrol grou) re%eived no instru%tions regarding ho* to study the *ords, Follo*ing the *ord lists3 a )i%ture test *as given to assess &ental i&agery a'ility, Their results sho*ed that re$erential i&aging led to higher rates o$ 'oth %orre%t and $alse re%all *hen %o&)ared to $ont i&aging te%hni1ues, #oreover3 this

Cognitive and Personality (< )attern *as only signi$i%ant $or good i&agers, In addition3 $ont i&aging led to $e*er $alse re%alls $or &ore detailed i&agers %o&)ared to less detailed i&agers, In $a%t3 the overall )ro)ortion o$ re%alling non-)resented target *ords *as lo*er $or &ore detailed i&agers than $or less detailed i&agers3 a 'orderline signi$i%ant $inding, There$ore3 these results su))ort the theory o$ Ga%o'y3 Levi3 and Stein'a%h .(554/ %lai&ing that *hen en%oding )ro%esses are data-driven3 in this %ase $ont i&aging o$ *ords3 &ore detailed i&agers are &ore su%%ess$ul, Roediger and #%Der&ott .(558/ suggest that asso%iative )ro%esses &ay lead to the )rodu%tion o$ $alse &e&ories, Instru%tion to i&agine re$erents &ay eli%it $alse re%all i$ the &ental i&ages %ontain )er%e)tual details that are %onsistent *ith the non-)resented *ord, Sus%e)ti'ility to %reating $alse &e&ories &ay then 'e a $un%tion o$ the a'ility to generate i&aginative details, A%%ording to this $or&ulation3 less detailed i&agers *ould 'e less li2ely to )rodu%e )er%e)tual in$or&ation that *ould eventually lead to asso%iative-'ased sour%e &onitoring $ailures .Gohnson3 Fashtroudi3 ; Lindsay3 (55</, "n the other hand3 &ore detailed i&agers &ay 'e su)erior than less detailed i&agers at i&agining *ords )resented in a visual &odality 'e%ause these sti&uli *ould not lead to the $or&ation o$ )er%e)tual details3 and are li&ited to data-driven )ro%essing .#ar&ure2 ; Fa&ilton3 4@@@/, The $o%us $or these detailed i&agers re&ains solely on re&e&'ering the a%tual )resented *ords, Prior $alse &e&ory resear%h has 'een %ondu%ted under the assu&)tion that i&agery is an undi$$erentiated %onstru%t3 %lassi$ying individuals as either good or 'ad i&agers, laDen2ova3 LoAhevni2ov3 and #otes .4@@6/ o$$er t*o distin%t su'syste&s that )ro%ess and en%ode visual in$or&ation in di$$erent *ays: o'De%t i&agery and s)atial i&agery, "'De%t i&agery in%ludes the re)resentations o$ literal a))earan%es o$ o'De%ts in ter&s o$ their )re%ise $or&3 siAe3 and %olor, S)atial i&agery re$ers to relatively a'stra%t re)resentations o$ the s)atial relations a&ong o'De%ts3

Cognitive and Personality (E lo%ations o$ o'De%ts in s)a%e3 and &ove&ents o$ o'De%ts, A study 'y Farah3 Fa&&ond3 Levine3 and Calvanio .(5HH/ de$ends these %lassi$i%ations 'y de&onstrating that these t*o i&agery syste&s are anato&i%ally and neurologi%ally distin%t, LoAhevni2ov3 Losslyn3 and She)hard .4@@8/ $ound that those *ho )re$er to use ver'al-analyti%al in$or&ation over i&agery3 %alled ver'aliAers3 ty)i%ally )er$or&ed at an 9inter&ediate: level on i&agery tas2s3 *hile visualiAers .those *ho )re$er to )ro%ess in$or&ation visually/ %ould 'e divided into t*o grou)s: those *ho e+%elled on s)atial i&agery tas2s .su%h as &ental rotation/ and those that )er$or&ed *ell on o'De%t i&agery tas2s .su%h as the degraded )i%ture test/, Fro& these results3 the authors %on%luded that o'De%t i&agers en%oded and )ro%essed i&ages holisti%ally3 as a single )er%e)tual unit3 *hereas s)atial i&agers en%oded and )ro%essed i&ages analyti%ally3 )art 'y )art, Another issue %on%erns inter)retation o$ the TAS in its entirety as re)resenting %a)a%ity $or i&agery, It is %lear $ro& an e+a&ination o$ the ite&s that so&e involve in%reased sensory and e&otional res)onsiveness to sti&uli3 either e+ternal .BI %an 'e dee)ly &oved 'y a sunsetC/ or internal sti&uli .BI$ I *ish I %an i&agine .or daydrea&/ so&e things so vividly that they hold &y attention as a good &ovie or a story doesC/3 *hile others involve so&ething that %an 'e 'est %alled e+trasensory )er%e)tion or )erha)s an error in sensorial &onitoring o$ the environ&ent .BAt ti&es I so&eho* $eel the )resen%e o$ so&eone *ho is not )hysi%ally thereC/, Though the di$$eren%es 'et*een these t*o ty)es o$ ite&s are %lear3 there has 'een relatively little e$$ort to analyAe the $a%tor stru%ture o$ the s%ale3 in )art 'e%ause the $o%us o$ resear%h e+a&ining this s%ale has 'een on its relationshi) to hy)notiAa'ility> $or the )ur)ose o$ dete%ting degrees o$ hy)notiAa'ility3 the Tellegen A'sor)tion S%ale in its entirety *or2s very *ell3 )ro'a'ly 'e%ause hy)notiAa'ility involves 'oth heightened sensory res)onsiveness %ou)led *ith a $or& o$ error &onitoring to deter&ine *hat is and *hat is not real, Fo*ever3 $or the )ur)oses o$ re&e&'ering

Cognitive and Personality (8 lists3 it &ay 'e that the a'ility to 'e%o&e %o&)letely engaged in an e+ternal sti&ulus is %riti%al to short ter& &e&ory as tested 'y *ord lists3 and di$$i%ulty in distinguishing *hat is real $ro& *hat is not &ay 'e detri&ental, Field Dependence Another individual di$$eren%e resear%hers have targeted as a )otential %ontri'utor to sus%e)ti'ility to %reating $alse &e&ories is $ield de)enden%e, The %on%e)t o$ $ield de)enden%e ste&&ed $ro& the arti%ulated versus glo'al $ield a))roa%h3 *hi%h e&erged $ro& resear%h on individual di$$eren%es in )er%e)tual and intelle%tual $un%tioning .0it2in3 ?oodenough3 ; "lt&an3 (5I5> 0it2in ; ?oodenough3 (5H(/, #easures to test $ield de)enden%e in%lude the rodand-$ra&e test .RFT/3 the 'ody-adDust&ent test . AT/3 and the rotating-roo& test .RRT/, All o$ these &easures assess di$$eren%es in )er%e)tion o$ orientation, For ea%h o$ these tests3 )arti%i)ants vary in the e+tent to *hi%h they re$er to the e+ternal visual $ield or to the 'ody itsel$ to lo%ate the true u)right, Strategies $or deter&ining true u)right are %onsistent a%ross tests3 su))orting the idea that these individual re$eren%e )oints are related to %ognition, Fro& these %ontrasting strategies3 the ter&s "ield dependence and "ield independence *ere esta'lished, The di$$erentiation theory states that less di$$erentiated individuals a))roa%h the *orld in a glo'al3 $ield de)endent style3 *hile &ore di$$erentiated )eo)le a))roa%h the *orld in an analyti%al3 $ield inde)endent &anner .0it2in3 ?oodenough3 ; "lt&an3 (5I5/, Later resear%h revealed that lo%ating the u)right *as $ound to 'e related to the se)aration o$ an organiAed $ield $ro& the *hole .0it2in3 ?oodenough3 ; "lt&an3 (5I5/, The e&'edded-$igures test .EFT/ *as introdu%ed in order to test the a'ility to se)arate organiAed $ields $ro& the *hole, In this test )arti%i)ants are as2ed to $ind3 or Bdise&'ed3C a si&)le $igure *ithin a %o&)le+ design .0it2in3 (58@/, Dise&'edding a'ility in this %onte+t *as related to stru%turing %o&)eten%e .0it2in3

Cognitive and Personality (6 ?oodenough3 ; "lt&an3 (5I5/, For e+a&)le3 a %o&&on as)e%t o$ ea%h o$ these tests is that the individual is $or%ed to restru%ture their )er%e)tions or sy&'oli% re)resentations in order to &eet the re1uire&ents o$ the tas2, Results revealed that $ield inde)endent )eo)le are 'etter at su%%ess$ully %o&)leting these &easures and are there$ore seen as su)erior at %ognitive restru%turing a'ility *hen %o&)ared to $ield de)endent individuals, Another &easure o$ $ield de)enden%e *as %reated 'y Piaget and Inhelder .(586/, The investigators initially develo)ed the *ater-level tas2 to test utiliAation o$ the horiAontal %oordinate syste& *ithin a s)atial net*or2, The tas2 in%ludes a dis)lay o$ 'ottles ea%h tilted at di$$erent angles, Parti%i)ants are either told that the 'ottles are $illed hal$*ay *ith *ater3 or that the level o$ *ater is indi%ated 'y a dot &ar2ed on ea%h 'ottle, Then3 )arti%i)ants are instru%ted to dra* a line re)resenting the *ater level in ea%h 'ottle, Although the authors had originally )ro)osed that this a'ility develo)ed 'et*een ages H and 53 the Piagetian *ater-level tas2 has $re1uently 'een used to &easure3 and has $ound %on%e)tual de$i%its in3 the s)atial )er%e)tions o$ %ollege students .e,g, Tho&as3 Ga&ison3 ; Fu&&el3 (5I<> Lenyon3 (5HE> Re'els2y3 (56E/, Even *ith a horiAontal line dra*n 'elo* ea%h 'ottle .#orris3 (5I(/3 or a su)eri&)osed grid on the tas2 sti&uli .Lelly ; Lelly3 (5II/3 large nu&'ers o$ su'De%ts %ontinue to $ail the tas2, Re)resentation o$ the horiAontal %oordinate3 &easured 'y the Piagetian *ater-level tas23 de)ends on over%o&ing the in$luen%e o$ the dire%t visual $ield and involves restru%turing3 a %ognitive a'ility that has 'een lin2ed to the $ield de)enden%e-inde)enden%e varia'le .0it2in ; ?oodenough3 (5H(/, ?enerating a &ental re)resentation is a 2ey s2ill in the %o&)onent-s2ills analysis &odel o$ *ater-level tas2 )er$or&an%e .Lali%h&an3 (5HH/, Further&ore3 dise&'edding s2ills in this test &ediate the generation o$ a &ental i&age 'y deter&ining the )osition o$ the %ontainer relative to its %onte+t, In $a%t3 )er$or&an%e on the *ater-level tas2 has 'een $ound to 'e

Cognitive and Personality (I asso%iated *ith RFT )er$or&an%e .0ille&sen3 u%hholA3 udro*3 ; ?eanna%o)ulos3 (5I</3 and the relationshi) a&ong the *ater-level tas2 and the RFT have %aused so&e resear%hers to assu&e that the t*o &easures are assessing the sa&e %onstru%t .A'ravanel ; ?ingold3 (5II> DeLisi3 (5H</, Su%%ess$ul )er$or&an%e on the *ater-level tas2 is asso%iated *ith the $ield inde)enden%e trait3 *hile $ailure to indi%ate the true horiAontal indi%ates $ield de)enden%e, Field de)enden%e-inde)enden%e is an individual di$$eren%e that a$$e%ts %ognition and stru%turing o$ &ental i&ages, 0ith res)e%t to $alse &e&ory sus%e)ti'ility3 0it2in3 ?oodenough3 and "lt&an .(5I5/ address sel$-nonsel$ segregation in their di$$erentiation theory 'y %lai&ing that $ield inde)endent .FI/ individuals are 'etter a'le to se)arate the sel$ $ro& the nonsel$ than the $ield de)endent .FD/ individuals, This &eans that FI individuals usually rely &ore on internally generated in$or&ation3 *hile FD individuals rely &ore on e+ternally derived in$or&ation, This distin%tion has i&)ortant i&)li%ations in sour%e &onitoring e$$e%ts, A%%ording to this theory3 FD individuals should 'e e+)e%ted to %on$use the origins o$ &e&ories &ore o$ten than FI individuals, In order to assess )arti%i)ants: &e&ory3 Durso3 Reardon3 and Golly .(5H8/ )resented su'De%ts *ith a series o$ senten%es3 so&e o$ *hi%h *ere %o&)lete and so&e o$ *hi%h had an o'vious $inal *ord o&itted, They *ere then as2ed to %o&)lete the latter senten%es ty)es 'y thin2ing o$ the &issing *ord, Field de)enden%e *as then assessed using the ?rou) E&'edded Figures Tests .?EFT> 0it2in3 "lt&an3 Ras2in3 ; Lar)3 (5I(/, Follo*ing this test3 )arti%i)ants *ere )resented *ith a re%ognition tas2 in the $or& o$ a *ord list, They *ere instru%ted to delineate the sour%e o$ ea%h *ord as Bthought3C Bheard3C or Bne*C3 de)ending on i$ they 'elieved the *ords *ere o&itted *ords3 non-o&itted *ords3 or novel3 irrelevant *ords, The resear%hers $ound that FI )arti%i)ants *ere &ore a%%urate at identi$ying the origin o$ their &e&ories than *ere FD )arti%i)ants3 indi%ating 'etter sour%e &onitoring o$ &e&ories,

Cognitive and Personality (H !haracteristics of "ists as !ontri utors to False Memory The intera%tion 'et*een individual di$$eren%es and &easures used to eli%it $alse &e&ory &ay )rovide i&)ortant ans*ers to the $ield o$ $alse &e&ory study, Initially3 Roediger and #%Der&ott .(558/ e+a&ined instan%es o$ $alse re%all 'y %olla)sing the results a%ross all the lists used in the study3 a &ethod used 'y &ost resear%hers to $ollo*, Un$ortunately3 this )ra%ti%e assu&es that every list has the sa&e e$$e%t on the )rodu%tion o$ $alse &e&ory, In order to test this assu&)tion3 Stadler3 Roediger3 and #%Der&ott .(555/ then atte&)ted to dis%over di$$eren%es 'et*een lists in eli%iting $alse re%all 'y $inding nor&s o$ <6 DR# )aradig& *ord lists, AnalyAing the 1uestion $urther3 Roediger3 0atson3 #%Der&ott3 and ?allo .4@@(/ e+a&ined 1ualitative %hara%teristi%s o$ 'oth individual *ord lists and their res)e%tive %riti%al3 non)resented *ords to assess their relationshi) to $alse re%all rates, Interestingly3 'ut not sur)risingly3 the authors $ound that the lists varied %onsidera'ly on a nu&'er o$ di$$erent varia'les, 0ith res)e%t to the *ord lists used in this study3 Stadler3 Roediger3 and #%Der&ott .(555/ $ound that $alse re%all ranged $ro& 68N $or the list asso%iated *ith the non-)resented *ord window3 8EN $or the list stru%tured around sweet3 do*n to (@N $or the list around #ing. Starting *ith Deese .(585/3 a nu&'er o$ resear%hers have e+)lored the %hara%teristi%s o$ the *ord lists the&selves .Deese3 (585> #%Evoy3 Nelson3 ; Lo&atsu3 (555> Roediger3 0atson3 #%Der&ott3 ; ?allo3 4@@(/, Deese .(585/ de$ined interitem associative strength as the average relative $re1uen%y *ith *hi%h all ite&s in a list tend to eli%it all other ite&s in the sa&e list as $ree asso%iates, Deese:s other %ontri'ution to the %on%e)ts involving *ord list %hara%teristi%s *as mean bac#ward associative strength . AS/3 the average tenden%y $or *ords in the study list to eli%it the %riti%al ite& on a $ree asso%iation test, #%Evoy3 Nelson3 and Lo&atsu .(555/ *ere the

Cognitive and Personality (5 $irst resear%hers a$ter Deese to loo2 at list-'ased $a%tors underlying $alse &e&ory %reation, They re)orted that lists *ith high interite& asso%iative strength yielded lo*er $alse re%all o$ %riti%al *ords relative to lists *ith lo*er interite& asso%iative strength3 *hereas lists *ith high &ean AS yielded greater $alse re%all than those *ith lo*er AS, In other *ords3 asso%iative %onne%tions a&ong )resented *ords in ea%h list de%rease the )ro'a'ility o$ $alse re%all3 *hile asso%iative %onne%tions $ro& list *ords to the %riti%al lure in%rease the )ro'a'ility o$ $alse &e&ories, Their $indings su))ort those o$ Deese .(585/, Nevertheless3 not all lists $ollo* these rules, For e+a&)le3 #%Evoy3 Nelson3 and Lo&atsu .(555/ re)orted that the #ing list has a relatively high AS3 *hi%h &eans that it should eli%it high levels o$ $alse re%all, Nevertheless3 nor&s $ound 'y Stadler3 Roediger3 and #%Der&ott .(555/ %onvey the o))osite3 revealing that the #ing list eli%ited the lo*est $alse re%all rate, In order to try and dis%over other varia'les that &ay e+)lain these relationshi)s $urther3 Roediger3 0atson3 #%Der&ott3 and ?allo .4@@(/ e+a&ined %riti%al *ord length3 *ord $re1uen%y3 %on%reteness3 and $or*ard asso%iative strength3 in addition to interite& asso%iative strength and &ean AS, 0ord length *as de$ined as the nu&'er o$ letters in ea%h %riti%al ite& and *as re)resentative o$ the relative distin%tness o$ ea%h *ord $or&, 0ord $re1uen%y *as ta2en $ro& the LuOera and Fran%is .(56I/ nor&s and *as de$ined as the nu&'er o$ %ases $ound in )rint )er &illion *ords, Con%reteness ratings3 re)resenting the tangi'ility o$ ea%h %riti%al ite&3 *ere o'tained $ro& the *ord asso%iation nor&s o$ Nelson et al, .(555/ and *ere s%aled $ro& (-I .( P least concrete to I P most concrete/, Interite& asso%iative strength and &ean AS *ere de$ined in the sa&e *ay as in )revious studies .Deese3 (585> #%Evoy3 Nelson3 ; Lo&atsu3 (555/, For*ard asso%iation strength3 a ne* list varia'le3 *as de$ined as the strength o$ asso%iative %onne%tions $ro& the %riti%al *ord to the study *ords3 a )ro%ess that %an 'e inter)reted as the

Cognitive and Personality 4@ inverse o$ that e+)laining &ean AS, Veridi%al re%all *as &easured using the average )ro'a'ility o$ %orre%tly re%alling o$ the studied *ords, The resear%hers $ound that %riti%al *ord length *as negatively %orrelated *ith $alse re%all, The longer the %riti%al *ord3 and there$ore the &ore distin%t it is3 the less li2ely it is to eli%it $alse re%all, The authors suggest that the higher level o$ distin%tiveness &ay %ontri'ute 'y si&)li$ying the &onitoring )ro%ess during retrieval, In addition3 they $ound that &ean AS *as the strongest %orrelate o$ $alse re%all3 %onsistent *ith )revious $indings .Deese3 (585> #%Evoy3 Nelson3 ; Lo&atsu3 (555/, Testing Modality A$ter %onsidering individual di$$eren%es and list-'ased $a%tors as )ossi'le ele&ents in$luen%ing $alse re%all using *ord lists3 the $inal issue to ta2e into a%%ount is testing &odality, The traditional DR# )aradig& &ethodology outlined 'y Roediger and #%Der&ott .(558/ in%ludes grou) testing 'y reading the *ords aloud at a rate o$ one *ord )er (,8 se%onds, #any authors have re)orted a dra&ati% redu%tion o$ $alse &e&ory rates *hen s*it%hing $ro& an auditory study )resentation to a visual study )resentation .S&ith ; Funt3 (55H> ?allo3 #%Der&ott3 Per%er3 ; Roediger3 4@@(> Lellogg3 4@@(/, For instan%e3 Ro'inson and Roediger .(55I/ tested )arti%i)ants using a %o&)uter3 *hi%h dis)layed ea%h *ord on the s%reen $or t*o se%onds, They re)orted )ro'a'ilities o$ overall $alse re%all at ,<( $or (8-*ord lists3 %o&)ared *ith a $alse re%all rate o$ ,88 $or (8-*ord lists re)orted 'y Roediger and #%Der&ott .(558/, S&ith and Funt .(55H/ suggest that visual )resentation o$ list *ords allo*s $or &ore distin%tive ite&-s)e%i$i% )ro%essing than does auditory )ro%essing, Parti%i)ants are 'etter a'le to dis%ern 'et*een visual events .in this %ase3 studied list *ords/ and internally derived events .%riti%al lures/ than 'et*een auditory events .hearing list *ords/ and internally derived events .%riti%al lures/, This relationshi) su))orts Gohnson and Raye:s .(5H(/ %lai& that visual )resentation leads

Cognitive and Personality 4( to 'etter reality &onitoring, It also relates to #ar&ure2 and Fa&ilton:s .4@@@/ study results sho*ing that data-li&ited en%oding leads to less $alse re%all, Rationale for the !urrent Study The )ur)ose o$ this study is to investigate ho* individual di$$eren%es in %ognition and )ersonality %ause so&e )eo)le to 'e &ore sus%e)ti'le to %reating $alse &e&ories than others, In addition3 another goal o$ the )resent resear%h is to e+a&ine ho* these di$$eren%es are related to 1ualitative dissi&ilarities o$ DR# )aradig& *ord lists3 using nor&s $or individual lists $ound 'y )revious resear%hers .Stadler3 Roediger3 ; #%Der&ott3 (555> Roediger3 0atson3 #%Der&ott3 and ?allo3 4@@(/, False re%all *as assessed using three DR# )aradig& *ord lists .list ite&s asso%iated *ith %riti%al lures #ing3 sweet3 and window/, 0ords *ere )resented visually3 'ut unli2e the %o&)uter &ethod .Ro'inson and Roediger3 (55I/3 )arti%i)ants *ere a'le to study all (8 ite&s at the sa&e ti&e, A distra%tor tas2 *as in%luded 'et*een list )resentation and *ord re%all, Individual di$$eren%es in a'sor)tion and &ental i&agery *ere tested using the TAS3 and $ield de)enden%e *as &easured using the *ater-level test, Lastly3 no )rior studies have e+a&ined the relationshi) 'et*een levels o$ %reativity and $alse &e&ory %reation in this ty)e o$ )aradig&, There$ore3 another ai& o$ the %urrent study is to un%over any )ossi'le relationshi) 'et*een these t*o varia'les, Creativity in this study *as &easured using the Creative Personality S%ale .CPS> ?on%y ; 0aehler3 4@@6/, It is hy)othesiAed that the overall $alse re%all rates $or ea%h list *ill $ollo* the sa&e trend as $ound 'y Stadler3 Roediger3 and #%Der&ott .(555/ $ound3 *ith the window list eli%iting the highest level o$ $alse re%all3 $ollo*ed 'y the sweet list3 and then $inally the #ing list, Nevertheless3 'e%ause o$ this study:s ad&inistration in the visual &odality3 it is e+)e%ted that these $alse re%all rates 'e lo*er than those $ound 'y Stadler3 Roediger3 and #%Der&ott .(555/,

Cognitive and Personality 44 Des)ite the )revious resear%h de&onstrating ho* higher levels o$ i&agery in%rease $alse &e&ory3 this resear%h has 'een li&ited to re%all o$ a%tual events .Fy&an ; Pentland3 (556> Platt3 La%ey3 Io'st3 ; Fin2el&an3 (55H/, Sin%e the %urrent study involves *ord lists3 and there$ore data-driven )ro%essing .Ga%o'y3 Levi3 ; Stein'a%h3 (554/3 it is hy)othesiAed that $alse re%all *ill 'e asso%iated *ith lo*er s%ores on the TAS3 re)li%ating )revious results .#ar&ure2 ; Fa&ilton3 4@@@/, ased on the theory o$ 0it2in3 ?oodenough3 and "lt&an .(5I5/ *hi%h states that FD individuals are &ore li2ely to %on$use the origins o$ their &e&ories3 and on the si&ilar results o$ Durso3 Reardon3 and Golly .(5H8/3 it is hy)othesiAed that FD )arti%i)ants *ill e+hi'it &ore $alse re%all than FI )arti%i)ants, #ethod $articipants The $inal sa&)le $or this study %onsisted o$ IH Cornell University undergraduate and graduate students3 in%luding 4E &ales and 8E $e&ales, Parti%i)ants ranged in age $ro& (5-4H .M P 4@,E years3 SD P (,8 years/, An additional EE su'De%ts too2 )art in the study3 'ut *ere not in%luded in the $inal sa&)le 'e%ause o$ their )revious e+)erien%e *ith si&ilar *ord lists and )ro%edures, The )ro%edure too2 )la%e during a regular &eeting o$ the %lass3 Nutritional S%ien%e <E(3 Fu&an Anato&y and Physiology on #ay 43 4@@I in #artha Van Rensselaer Fall3 roo& (66, Students *ere in$or&ed o$ the voluntary study 'e$orehand3 and re%eived e+tra %redit $or their )arti%i)ation, The University Co&&ittee on Fu&an Su'De%ts a))roved the &ethods $or this study, Materials #ord "ists

Cognitive and Personality 4< Three *ord lists $ro& the a))endi+ o$ Roediger and #%Der&ott:s .(558/ arti%le3 used in their se%ond e+)eri&ent3 *ere in%luded in this study, Ea%h list %onsisted o$ (8 *ords &ost %o&&only related to one %riti%al 'ut non-)resented *ord .#ing3 sweet3 and window/, These lists *ere 'ased on &aterials outlined in Deese:s .(585/ arti%le and *ere originally %reated $ro& Russell and Gen2in:s .(58E/ *ord asso%iation nor&s, Lists *ere )resented visually *ith all (8 ite&s dis)layed on one )age, 0ords *ere dou'le-s)a%ed and )rinted in the %enter o$ the )age, lan2 )ages *ere used $or the list re%all )ortion .See A))endi+/, In 'et*een list )resentation and re%all3 an i&age $ro& the The&ati% A))er%e)tion Test .TAT> #organ ; #urray3 (5<8> #urray3 (5E</ *as sho*n, Ea%h list %orres)onded *ith the sa&e TAT )i%ture3 'ut the lists *ere )resented in di$$erent orders, Three se)arate versions o$ these &aterials *ere used $or %ounter'alan%ing )ur)oses, In order to de%ide *hi%h DR# )aradig& *ord lists to use in this study3 it *as i&)ortant to loo2 at the nor&s o$ list-'ased $a%tors outlined 'y Roediger3 0atson3 #%Der&ott3 and ?allo .4@@(/ .See Ta'le 4/, The three lists varied greatly in $alse re%all rates3 *ith the window list having the highest rate o$ $alse re%all, In addition3 the veridi%al re%all rate *as si&ilar a%ross all three lists3 allo*ing $or the $o%us to o$ the varia'ility 'et*een lists to 'e on $alse re%all, Individual Differences Measures The test $or $ield de)enden%e-inde)enden%e *as &odi$ied $ro& a version o$ the *aterlevel tas2 %reated 'y Piaget ; Inhelder .(56I/, In addition3 the 1uestionnaire in%luded the CPS .?on%y ; 0aehler3 4@@6/3 and the TAS .Tellegen ; At2inson3 (5IE/, A %o&)rehensive de&ogra)hi%s survey *as in%luded at the %on%lusion o$ the other &easures .See A))endi+/, The $ield de)enden%e-inde)enden%e assess&ent used in this study *as designed to study )arti%i)ants: %a)a'ility o$ organiAing s)a%e *ithin a Eu%lidean re$eren%e syste& .Piaget ;

Cognitive and Personality 4E Inhelder3 (56I/, In this study3 )arti%i)ants *ere sho*n a dra*ing o$ I 'ottles atta%hed to a *all a'ove a horiAontal line3 indi%ating a B%ounter,C The 'ottles *ere de)i%ted as tilted at various angles *ith res)e%t to the line re)resenting the %ounter, A dot on ea%h 'ottle re)resented the height o$ the *ater level, Parti%i)ants had to dra* a line sho*ing the level o$ *ater in the 'ottles at the height o$ the dot, The CPS *as designed 'y ?on%y and 0aehler .4@@6/ in their study assessing the relationshi) 'et*een %reative )ersonality traits and &usi%al e+)erien%e, It %onsists o$ <@ state&ents &easuring %reativity .e,g, BI $ind &any solutions to one )ro'le&3C BI enDoy novel %hallenges in &y li$eC/, For the %urrent study3 t*o ite&s $ro& the CPS *ere o&itted and )hrasing *as slightly %hanged to others 'ased on dis%ussions o$ the %larity o$ the s%ale *ith other resear%hers in the la'oratory, The TAS is a &easure originally %onsisting o$ <E ite&s used to assess the e+tent to *hi%h individuals 'e%o&e i&&ersed in everyday a%tivities .Tellegen ; At2inson3 (5IE/, Follo*ing $eed'a%2 $ro& other resear%hers3 E ite&s *ere eli&inated 'e%ause o$ their a&'iguous %onstru%tion, $rocedure Parti%i)ants *ere tested as a grou) during a regular %lass &eeting, #aterials *ere sealed and )arti%i)ants *ere instru%ted not to o)en the& until a signal had 'een given, "ne o$ three di$$erent versions o$ the &aterials *as assigned to ea%h )arti%i)ant so that no )arti%i)ants seated ne+t to ea%h other re%eived the sa&e version, #ord "ists Parti%i)ants *ere told that they *ould 'e tested on their &e&ory $or *ord lists, 0hen the signal *as given3 they o)ened the &aterials )a%2et to the $irst list, Ea%h *ord list *as )resented

Cognitive and Personality 48 $or <@ se%onds3 a$ter *hi%h )arti%i)ants *ere instru%ted to turn to the ne+t )age *hi%h dis)layed an i&age $ro& the TAT, They *ere then given instru%tions to *rite a story e+)laining *hat *as ha))ening in the i&age, They *ere given t*o &inutes to %o&)lete this tas2, Parti%i)ants then turned to the ne+t )age and *ere allo*ed one &inute $or $ree re%all o$ the *ord list, They *ere told to re%ord all the *ords they %ould re&e&'er $ro& the list3 'ut to only *rite do*n those that they $elt %on$ident *ere )resent in the lists .i,e, they *ere told not to guess/, These instru%tions are in a%%ordan%e *ith those o$ Roediger and #%Der&ott .(558/, A 1uestion as2ing i$ the )arti%i)ant had ever had )rior e+)erien%e *ith *ord lists si&ilar to the ones used in the study *as in%luded on the $inal list:s re%all )age, Students not ta2ing )art in the study hel)ed to &onitor that all )arti%i)ants *ere o'eying the ti&ing instru%tions and not returning to )revious )ages in the &aterials )a%2et, Individual Differences Measures A$ter %o&)leting the $irst3 ti&ed )ortion o$ the study3 )arti%i)ants *ere told that they %ould %o&)lete the rest o$ the &aterials at their o*n )a%e, Fro& this )oint on all three versions o$ &aterials *ere identi%al, The $irst &easure *as the *ater-levels tas2 assessing $ield de)enden%einde)enden%e, Parti%i)ants *ere as2ed to dra* a line to illustrate the *ater level in ea%h 'ottle, This test *as $ollo*ed 'y the 1uestionnaire se%tion *hi%h in%luded the TAS .Tellegen ; At2inson3 (5IE/3 the CPS .?on%y ; 0aehler3 4@@6/3 and the de&ogra)hi%s survey, Ite&s on the CPS and TAS *ere inter&i+ed and ad&inistered as a single s%ale .See A))endi+/, Parti%i)ants: res)onses $or these &easures *ere given on a $our-)oint Li2ert s%ale .( P %ot at all li#e me to E P &'actly li#e me/, 0hen )arti%i)ants had %o&)leted the 1uestionnaire3 they *ere as2ed to turn in all &aterials and e+it the roo& 1uietly, All )arti%i)ants $inished the study *ithin the %lass ti&e )eriod o$ 8@ &inutes,

Cognitive and Personality 46 Data $nalysis Data *ere analyAed using the statisti%al analysis so$t*are G#PQ 8,@,( %reated 'y the SAS institute lo%ated in Cary3 NC, Results %verall rates of false recall False re%all rates $ound $or #ing3 sweet3 and window are in%luded in Ta'le (, The total rate o$ $alse re%all3 or the )ro'a'ility o$ re%alling at least one %riti%al ite&3 *as 66N, Sin%e the total nu&'er o$ )arti%i)ants re%alling #ing *as only E3 the %orres)onding list *as o&itted $ro& $urther analyses3 *ith the e+%e)tion o$ veridi%al re%all rates, It is interesting to note3 ho*ever3 that every )arti%i)ant *ho re%alled #ing also re%alled 'oth sweet and window, There *as no se+ di$$eren%e $ound in $alse re%all rates, Additionally3 there *ere no e$$e%ts o$ the order o$ )resentation o$ the lists on $alse re%all, %verall rates of veridical recall The rate o$ veridi%al re%all *as si&ilar a%ross the #ing and sweet lists3 'ut *as $ound to 'e lo*er $or the window list .See Ta'le (/, Field dependence The overall rate o$ $ield de)enden%e *as 4HN, T*enty-t*o )er%ent o$ $e&ales *ere $ound to 'e $ield de)endent3 *hile E@N o$ &ales *ere $ound to 'e $ield de)endent, Des)ite this dis%re)an%y3 there *as no signi$i%ant se+ di$$eren%e $or this %ognitive style, Relationship of field dependence to recall Falsely re%alling the *ord window *as signi$i%antly asso%iated *ith $ield de)enden%e3 R4.(3 % P IH/ P E,683 p P @,@<, Further&ore3 regardless o$ any other $alse &e&ory %o&&ission3 *rongly re&e&'ering the *ord window *as related to 'eing $ield de)endent, Field de)enden%e

Cognitive and Personality 4I *as also related to the veridi%al re%all $or ea%h list, Di$$eren%es in the nu&'er o$ %orre%t ite&s re%alled $or the #ing list .M P (,<3 SD P @,I/ revealed that those *ho *ere $ield de)endent had &u%h lo*er veridi%al re%all3 t.<E/ P 4,@@3 p P @,@8, This trend *as re)li%ated in the di$$eren%es 'et*een $ield de)endent and $ield inde)endent )arti%i)ants $or 'oth the sweet list .M P (,<3 SD P @,8/3 t.E5/ P 4,HI3 p S @,@( and the window list .M P 4,43 SD P @,8/3 t.E@/ P E,6@3 p S @,@(, Relationship of Tellegen a sorption score and factor scores to recall There *ere no signi$i%ant asso%iations $ound 'et*een overall TAS s%ore and the tenden%y to $alsely re%all %riti%al ite&s, Entrancement E+a&ination o$ the relationshi) o$ individual ite&s o$ the Tellegen A'sor)tion S%ale to the $alse re%all o$ s*eet and *indo* revealed that a nu&'er o$ ite&s served to distinguish those *ho Bre%alledC s*eet 'ut no ite& di$$erentiated )eo)le *ho did or did not Bre%allC *indo*, The s%ores $or these ite&s *ere %o&'ined to $or& a s%ale that *e have %alled Entran%e&ent3 'ased on the %ontent o$ the ite&s involved, These in%luded: 0hen I loo2 at %louds I usually see $igures3 su%h as ani&als or )eo)le, I$ I *ish I %an i&agine .or daydrea&/ so&e things so vividly that they hold &y attention as a good &ovie or story does, 0hen I listen to &usi% I %an get so %aught u) in it that I donTt noti%e anything else, It is so&eti&es )ossi'le $or &e to 'e %o&)letely i&&ersed in nature or in art and to $eel as i$ &y *hole state o$ %ons%iousness has so&eho* 'een te&)orarily altered, I %an so&eti&es re%all )ast e+)erien%es in &y li$e so vividly that it is al&ost li2e living the& again, 0hile a%ting in a )lay I thin2 I %ould really $eel the e&otions o$ the %hara%ter and T'e%o&eT herMhi& $or the ti&e-'eing3 $orgetting 'oth &ysel$ and the audien%e, I o$ten ta2e delight in s&all things .li2e the $ive-)ointed star sha)e that a))ears *hen you %ut an a))le a%ross the %ore or the %olors in soa) 'u''les/,

Cognitive and Personality 4H I %an 'e dee)ly &oved 'y a sunset, I li2e to *at%h %loud sha)es %hange in the s2y, So&eti&es I %an %hange noise into &usi% 'y the *ay I listen to it,

The value $or Cron'a%h:s al)ha $or these ite&s together *as @,H483 and re&oval o$ any o$ the ite&s di&inished that value3 as did addition o$ any other ite&s $ro& the TAS, 0e there$ore %onsidered these ite&s to %onstitute a s%ale *e have %alled entran%e&ent, As %an 'e noted $ro& the ite& %ontent3 these ite&s involve a'sor)tion into sensory in)ut together *ith the a'ility to %all u) that sa&e e+)erien%e through &e&ory and i&agination, Relationship of creativity score to entrancement Sel$-assessed %reativity and entrancement s%ores *ere highly %orrelated3 r(.I6/ P ,4I3 p S ,@@@(, No se+ di$$eren%e *as $ound $or %reativity s%ores, Relationship of creativity score to recall Parti%i)ants *ho did not have any $alse re%all had signi$i%antly higher s%ores $or sel$assessed %reativity .(6,@U@,8/ than did those *ho had one or &ore $alse re%alls .(<,<U@,8/ .)P@,@4</, Relationship of field dependence to self-assessed creativity Parti%i)ants *ho *ere $ield de)endent had signi$i%antly lo*er %reativity s%ores than did )eo)le *ho *ere $ield inde)endent .(<U@,8 versus (8U@,<3 t.IH/P4,5(53 )P@,@@E6, Relationship of personality scores to recall of sweet and window Sin%e the )ur)ose o$ this study *as to dis%over di$$eren%es in individual sus%e)ti'ility to %reating $alse &e&ories as they relate to di$$erent list-'ased $a%tors3 it *as i&)ortant to analyAe the results a$ter se)arating the sa&)le into the $ollo*ing three grou)s .See Ta'le </:

Cognitive and Personality 45 Those *ho $alsely re%alled 'oth sweet and window versus those *ho did not %o&&it any errors in &e&ory Those *ho only $alsely re%alled sweet versus those *ith no $alse re%all Those *ho only $alsely re%alled window versus those *ith no $alse re%all

Using this &ethod3 it *as )ossi'le to un%over any individual di$$eren%es in %ognition and )ersonality that &ay relate to list-s)e%i$i% origins o$ $alse &e&ory, Recalling sweet & window vs' neither These analyses dra* attention to the %hara%teristi%s o$ those )arti%i)ants re%ording 'oth %riti%al3 non-)resented ite&s .n P (5/ as o))osed to those re%alling no $alse ite&s .n P 46/, Field de)enden%e *as signi$i%antly asso%iated *ith $alsely re%alling 'oth sweet and window %o&)ared *ith no $alse re%all3 R4 .(3 % P 85/ P E,((3 p P @,@E, Those %o&&itting 'oth errors in &e&ory *ere there$ore &ore li2ely to 'e $ield de)endent, Creativity s%ores $or these grou)s also yielded signi$i%ant di$$eren%es .M P (,63 SD P @,H/, Those )arti%i)ants &entioning 'oth %riti%al ite&s s%ored lo*er on the CPS than those sho*ing no $alse re%all3 t.E</ P 4,@E3 p P @,@83 dis)laying less %reative %hara%teristi%s, Recalling sweet vs' neither Analyses $or these grou)s distinguish those %o&&itting errors only on the sweet list .n P (E/ $ro& those re%alling no %riti%al ite&s .n P 46/, Entran%e&ent s%ores *ere signi$i%antly lo*er $or the grou) $alsely re%alling the %riti%al *ord sweet .&ean U SE#: 48U4 versus <(U43 t.<H/ P <,(E<3 p P @,@@<4/, There$ore3 those only re%alling sweet .and not window/ s%ored signi$i%antly lo*er on the entran%e&ent s%ale o$ the TAS %o&)ared *ith those *ho did not error in &e&ory, Additionally3 the di$$eren%e in %reativity s%ores .(EU( versus (6U@,8/ revealed a signi$i%ant asso%iation 'et*een re%alling sweet and lo*er %reativity3 t.<H/ P 4,@83 p P @,@EI</,

Cognitive and Personality <@ Recalling window vs' neither For those *ho only $alsely re%alled window 'ut not sweet .n P (5/3 $ield de)enden%e re&ained signi$i%ant3 R4 .(3 % P IH/ P E,@I3 p P @,@E, This $alse &e&ory grou) also e+hi'ited a signi$i%ant di$$eren%e in %reativity s%ores .)*+,.- versus ).+,.-/ 'ased on the CPS3 *ith the re%ording o$ the %riti%al *ord asso%iated *ith lo*er sel$-assessed levels o$ %reativity3 t.E8/ P 4,5<63 p P @,@@843 'ut no di$$eren%e in entran%e&ent, Dis%ussion The )ur)ose o$ this study *as to investigate ho* individual di$$eren%es in %ognition and )ersonality are related to list-'ased $a%tors o$ the DR# )aradig& in %ausing sus%e)ti'ility to the %reation o$ $alse &e&ories, In order to a%hieve this goal3 three *ord lists originally used 'y Roediger and #%Der&ott .(558/ *ere )resented to )arti%i)ants to eli%it $alse &e&ory, Piaget and Inhelder:s .(586/ *ater-level tas2 tested $ield de)enden%e and the TAS and CPS assessed a'sor)tion and %reativity3 res)e%tively, Using the list-'ased $a%tors ta2en $ro& the nor&s o$ )revious resear%hers .Stadler3 Roediger3 ; #%Der&ott3 (555> Roediger3 0atson3 #%Der&ott3 and ?allo3 4@@(/3 signi$i%ant asso%iations *ere $ound 'et*een individual di$$eren%es in %ognition and )ersonality, False Memory Results su))orted the hy)othesis that $alse re%all rates *ould re$le%t the sa&e trend as )revious resear%h, The *ord #ing *as re%alled $alsely the least $re1uently3 *hile the *ord window *as $alsely re%alled the &ost $re1uently3 *ith the rate o$ sweet in%lusion $alling in 'et*een .See Ta'le (/, The hy)othesis that $alse re%all rates *ould 'e lo*er in the %urrent study than )revious studies .Stadler3 Roediger3 ; #%Der&ott3 (555/ )resenting DR# list *ords in the auditory

Cognitive and Personality <( &odality *as also su))orted 'y the results, These $indings su))ort the %lai& &ade 'y S&ith and Funt .(55H/ that visual )resentation o$ ite&s hel) )arti%i)ants distinguish 'et*een e+ternally generated events .list ite&s/ and internally derived events .%riti%al3 non-)resented ite&s/, Further&ore3 the results su))ort the sour%e &onitoring theory o$ Gohnson3 Fashtroudi3 and Lindsay .(55</ that states that visual )resentation aids )arti%i)ants in distinguishing the sour%e o$ their &e&ories, False re%all rates in the %urrent study *ere greater than those $ound in )revious studies using visual &odalities .Ro'inson ; Roediger3 (55I/, The &aDor di$$eren%e in the &ethodology 'et*een these t*o visual )resentations is the nu&'er o$ ite&s )resented at one ti&e, Ro'inson ; Roediger .(55I/ dis)layed ea%h *ord3 one at a ti&e3 on a %o&)uter s%reen3 *hereas in the %urrent study all (8 list ite&s *ere )resented at one ti&e, Theories a'out the $un%tions o$ the arti%ulatory loo) .AL/ have i&)ortant i&)li%ations regarding this di$$eren%e . addeley ; Fit%h3 (5IE/, I$ )arti%i)ants are $or%ed to study (8 ite&s at on%e3 there *ill 'e %o&)etition in the AL $or the rehearsal and storage o$ ea%h ite&, It is )ossi'le that 'y seeing all the ite&s at on%e3 )arti%i)ants $elt that they needed to grou) *ords in order to re&e&'er the& &ore e$$e%tively, Further&ore3 'y vie*ing the& at one ti&e3 the %o&&on asso%iation &ay 'e%o&e &ore a))arent3 and su'De%ts &ay grou) the ite&s 'ased around the asso%iation .#iller3 (586/, In the %ase o$ the %urrent study3 this re%oding )ro%ess led to $alsely re%alling the target *ord at higher rates than those $ound in other studies using visual &odalities, !magery There *ere no overall asso%iations $ound 'et*een $alse re%all and Tellegen A'sor)tion S%ale s%ores .TAS/, For&er studies relating detailed i&agery levels to $alse &e&ory %reation have used a%tual events and suggested in$or&ation to test &e&ory .Fy&an ; Pentland3 (556>

Cognitive and Personality <4 Platt3 La%ey3 Io'st3 ; Fin2el&an3 (55H/ rather than *ord lists, These events are %on%e)tually driven as o))osed to the *ord lists in the %urrent study3 *hi%h are re&e&'ered .)resu&a'ly/ using data-driven )ro%esses asso%iated *ith list learning, It is there$ore unsur)rising that no )ositive asso%iation *as $ound 'et*een overall TAS s%ores and $alse re%all, This %on%lusion su))orts the theory Ga%o'y3 Levi3 and Stein'a%h .(554/ that states that *hen en%oding )ro%esses are data-driven &ore detailed i&agers are &ore su%%ess$ul, #ar&ure2 and Fa&ilton .4@@@/ $ound that *hen en%oding )ro%esses are li&ited to datadriven )ro%essing3 &ore detailed i&agers e+hi'it less $alse re%all, These $indings led to our hy)othesis that lo*er levels o$ i&agery *ould 'e related to higher $alse re%all rates, This %lai& *as su))orted 'y results $ro& the sweet list3 i$ *e %onsider that the varia'le entrancement involves sensory i&agery3 es)e%ially i$ *e in%lude auditory e+)erien%es as Bi&ages,C Disso%iation is a highly dis%ussed %orrelate o$ &e&ory suggesti'ility .0right ; Livingston-Ra)er3 4@@4/3 'ut this resear%h has not e+tended &u%h into &ethodology using the DR#, A )revious study 'y 0inograd3 Peluso3 and ?lover .(55H/ used DR# )aradig& *ord lists and the Disso%iative E+)erien%es S%ale .DES> ernstein ; Putna&3 (5H6/3 'ut $ound that results $ro& these t*o &easures *ere un%orrelated, Si&ilarly3 0right3 Startu)3 and #athe*s .4@@8/ $ound no signi$i%ant %orrelation 'et*een DR# )aradig& $alse &e&ories and disso%iation, To the e+tent that the entran%e&ent s%ale re$le%ts a degree o$ disso%iative e+)erien%e .as re$le%ted in the ite&s that indi%ate %o&)lete involve&ent in a sensory e+)erien%e to the e+%lusion o$ all other e+)erien%e/3 an asso%iation *as $ound in the %urrent study, It is use$ul to e+a&ine *hat di$$eren%es e+ist 'et*een &ethodologies that *ould e+)lain these %ontrasting $indings, The DR# )ro%edure re1uires the )arti%i)ant to err in t*o distin%t )ro%esses, First3 the su'De%t &ust generate a &e&ory $or a %riti%al ite& that is not even )resented,

Cognitive and Personality << Se%ond3 they &ust &isattri'ute the sour%e o$ this &e&ory .sour%e &onitoring error> Gohnson3 Fashtroudi3 ; Lindsay3 (55</, Pro%edures involving suggested events only re1uire the &isattri'ution o$ the sour%e in order to eli%it $alse &e&ory, In order to e+)lain the relationshi)3 0right3 Startu)3 and #athe*s .4@@8/ %lai& that disso%iation is )ositively related to &isattri'ution3 'ut not to the generation o$ the ite&s3 and there$ore only a$$e%ts tas2s that re1uire solely &isattri'ution, In $a%t3 the resear%hers state that it &ay 'e the %ase that the )ro%ess o$ generating a &e&ory is negatively %orrelated *ith disso%iation, I$ this relationshi) is strong enough3 the overall %orrelation 'et*een disso%iation and $alse &e&ory &ay 'e negative, The $inding that lo*er entran%e&ent s%ores are signi$i%antly asso%iated *ith $alse re%all o$ the *ord sweet su))orts this argu&ent, ut *hy is it that only the sweet list dis)lays this relationshi) and

not the window list7 Sweet has the lo*est &easure o$ tangi'ility3 assessed using a %on%reteness s%ale 'y Roediger3 0atson3 #%Der&ott3 and ?allo .4@@(/3 *hereas window has one o$ the highest .See Ta'le 4/, In $a%t3 window has one o$ the highest %on%reteness ratings o$ all o$ the *ord lists analyAed 'y these investigators, The %o&'ination o$ lo*er entran%e&ent s%ores and a less tangi'le %riti%al *ord eli%its a )ositive %orrelation3 *hile *ith the )resentation o$ a &ore tangi'le lure3 those )arti%i)ants *ith lo*er entran%e&ent s%ores are &ore li2ely to realiAe that the a%tual %riti%al ite& *as not )resented in the list, Field Dependence Prior resear%h revealed that FD individuals are &ore li2ely to %on$use the origin o$ their &e&ories .0it2in3 ?oodenough3 ; "lt&an3 (5I5> Durso3 Reardon3 ; Golly3 (5H8/, The %urrent $indings )artially su))ort the hy)othesis that FD )arti%i)ants *ould sho* greater $alse re%all in the list learning )aradig&, Field de)enden%e *as &ost )ositively asso%iated *ith $alsely re%alling the *ord window3 'ut less than signi$i%ant %orrelations *ere $ound $or re%alling sweet,

Cognitive and Personality <E There$ore3 it is i&)ortant to %onsider *hat di$$erentiates the window list $ro& the other lists, An i&)ortant distin%tion is in %on%reteness3 or level o$ tangi'ility o$ the %riti%al *ords, 0indo* has the highest %on%reteness level o$ the three lists .Roediger3 0atson3 #%Der&ott3 ; ?allo3 4@@(/, 0hile studying these *ords3 it is &ore li2ely that )arti%i)ants are i&agining a *indo* 'ased on the tangi'ility o$ the ite&3 as noted a'ove, This i&agining is related to LoAhevni2ov3 Losslyn3 and She)hard:s .4@@8/ de$initions o$ s)atial versus o'De%t i&agery, S)atial i&agers tend to )er%eive sti&uli analyti%ally3 )ie%e*ise3 *hereas o'De%t i&agers )er%eive sti&uli holisti%ally as a single o'De%t, Relating this to the $ield de)enden%e-inde)enden%e trait3 0ilson3 ?oodenough3 and "lt&an:s .(5I5/ di$$erentiation theory states that FD individuals are &ore glo'al in their a))roa%h3 *hile FI individuals are &ore analyti%, It is there$ore )ossi'le that *hen loo2ing at a list o$ highly %on%rete3 or tangi'le3 ite&s3 those that are FD and there$ore &ore o'De%t i&agers are &ore li2ely to i&agine and re&e&'er the target *ord i$ it %o&)letes the i&age, For e+a&)le3 in the %ase o$ the window list3 *hen )resented *ith a list o$ its )arts .i,e, ledge3 sill3 )ane3 glass3 $ra&e3 sash3 s%reen3 et%,/3 those tending to i&agine sti&uli holisti%ally *ill %o&&only re%all window, "n the other hand3 those individuals analyAing o'De%ts )art 'y )art3 FI individuals3 *ill &ore o$ten not re%all window, e%ause the sweet list has a lo*er level o$ %on%reteness3 the sa&e relationshi) *as not $ound, /reativity Prior to the %urrent study3 no resear%h had 'een %ondu%ted to e+a&ine the relationshi) 'et*een sel$-assessed %reativity and $alse re%all in the DR# )aradig&, In addition3 &ost )rior studies relating %reativity and &e&ory have loo2ed to investigate the in$luen%e o$ *or2ing &e&ory and %ere'ellu& $un%tion on %reativity .e,g, #u&$ord ; Caughron3 4@@I/, The %urrent study3 ho*ever3 sought to e+a&ine the o))osite J ho* %reativity levels a$$e%t &e&ory, A )riori3

Cognitive and Personality <8 one &ight guess that re%alling a non-e+istent *ord is a %reative a%t, Fo*ever3 %reativity level3 as &easured 'y the CPS3 *as the only $a%tor signi$i%antly asso%iated *ith $alse re%all in all three grou)s: those re%alling sweet and window3 those only re%alling sweet3 and those only re%alling window, In all three instan%es3 %reativity s%ores *ere lo*er $or those %reating $alse &e&ories, The %reators o$ the CPS stated that a &aDor %onstru%t o$ %reativity that the 1uestionnaire targeted *as )ro'le& solving .?on%y ; 0aehler3 4@@6/, It is )ossi'le that those individuals *ho assess the&selves as 'etter )ro'le& solvers use &ore analyti% )ro%esses than their %ounter)arts, This )resu&)tion is su))orted 'y the o'servation that )eo)le *ho *ere $ield de)endent had signi$i%antly lo*er %reativity s%ores than did )eo)le *ho *ere $ield inde)endent, Further&ore3 analysis and o'servation are 'oth 2ey ele&ents o$ e$$e%tive )ro'le& solving3 and *ould also lead individuals to realiAe the a'sen%e o$ a %riti%al lure in a *ord list, 0imitations There *ere several li&itations in the %urrent study that are i&)ortant to %onsider *hen analyAing the $indings, These dra*'a%2s are related to the &ethodology as *ell as to the sa&)le, It is )ossi'le that the TAT i&age *as a%ting as &ore than Dust a distra%tor, 0ith the negative %onnotations asso%iated *ith these )i%tures3 it is )ossi'le that they instilled negative e&otions or stress in the )arti%i)ants )rior to the re%all tas2, This negative a$$e%t &ay in$luen%e the *ay in *hi%h )arti%i)ants en%ode in$or&ation, En%oding %an 'e a%%o&)lished in either o$ t*o *ays: ite&-s)e%i$i% )ro%essing or relational )ro%essing .Funt ; Einstein3 (5H(> Funt ; #%Daniel3 (55</, Ite&-s)e%i$i% )ro%essing involves en%oding ite&s 'y their s)e%i$i% $eatures and distin%tive 1ualities, Relational )ro%essing involves en%oding ite&s as they relate to other %on%e)ts, 0hile 'oth ty)es o$ )ro%essing &ay have their advantages3 ite&-s)e%i$i% )ro%essing in the %urrent study *ould 'e e+)e%ted to lead to lo*er levels o$ $alse re%all, The a$$e%t-as-

Cognitive and Personality <6 in$or&ation hy)othesis .Clore et al,3 4@@(/ )redi%ts that a$$e%tive %ues e+)erien%ed during tas2s hel) deter&ine *hether or not an individual utiliAes ite&-s)e%i$i% or relational )ro%essing, Positive a$$e%tive %ues are thought to en%ourage relational )ro%essing3 *hile negative %ues result &ostly in ite&-s)e%i$i% )ro%essing, Stor'e%2 and Clore .4@@8/ used &usi% to indu%e )ositive or negative &oods3 and $ound that individuals in negative &oods *ere signi$i%antly less li2ely to re%all %riti%al lures than individuals in )ositive &oods .and in the %ontrol grou)/, These $indings relate to rainerd and Reyna:s .(558/ FuAAy Tra%e Theory3 *hi%h suggests that true re%all %o&es $ro& ver'ati& retrieval *hile $alse re%all ste&s $ro& gist retrieval, Stor'e%2 and Clore .4@@8/ suggest that negative &oods redu%e relational )ro%essing and in turn i&)air gist )ro%essing, There$ore3 i$ the TAT i&ages *ere indu%ing negative a$$e%tive %ues3 it is )ossi'le that $alse re%all rates $ound in the %urrent study *ere relatively lo*er than i$ a neutral or )ositive i&age *as used, Nevertheless3 $alse re%all rates $or the %urrent study *ere lo*er than those in studies %ondu%ted in auditory &odalities and higher than those in studies %ondu%ted *ith di$$erent visual )resentations3 su))orting the original hy)otheses, Another li&itation to the %urrent study is the ho&ogeneity o$ the sa&)le, The %urrent sa&)le in%luded Cornell University students enrolled in a %ourse a'out hu&an anato&y and )hysiology, There$ore3 the &aDority o$ the students in this %lass *ere )ursuing a s%ienti$i% &aDor and 6@N designated the&selves as )re-&ed, Su'De%ts *ith s%ienti$i% training have 'een $ound to s%ore si&ilarly as a grou) in several %ognitive styles3 in%luding $ield de)enden%e and i&agery, For e+a&)le3 s%ientists and those *ith s%ienti$i% training have 'een $ound to 'e &ore $ield inde)endent than su'De%ts in nons%ienti$i% o%%u)ations or training )rogra&s3 regardless o$ se+ .Lali%h&an3 (5H6/, Additionally3 LoAhevni2ov3 Losslyn3 and She)hard .4@@8/ $ound that s%ientists are &ore li2ely to 'e %lassi$ied as s)atial i&agers as o))osed to o'De%t i&agers3 tending

Cognitive and Personality <I to )er%eive and en%ode i&ages analyti%ally, Nevertheless3 even i$ FI and s)atial i&agery rates are higher in this sa&)le3 *ithin-grou) analyses should still un%over i&)ortant asso%iations 'et*een these &easures and list-'ased $a%tors %ontri'uting to $alse &e&ory %reations, Also3 although &ales &ade u) only <(N o$ the sa&)le )o)ulation3 no signi$i%ant se+ di$$eren%es *ere $ound $or any &easure, The $indings o$ the %urrent study are also li&ited 'e%ause only three DR# )aradig& *ord lists *ere used, In order to 'e a'le to $urther validate the results3 &ore lists should have 'een in%luded, This *ould have )rovided &ore data related to $alse re%all in addition to $urther eviden%e o$ )otential list-'ased and %ognitive $a%tors that %ontri'ute to the sus%e)ti'ility to %reating $alse &e&ories, Un$ortunately3 the study *as li&ited 'y the a&ount o$ ti&e allotted $or the %lass3 and it *as ne%essary to design the &aterials and )ro%edures a%%ordingly, Suggestions "or Future Research Findings $ro& the %urrent study suggest &any dire%tions $or $uture resear%h in the $ield o$ $alse &e&ory, The "'De%t-S)atial I&agers Kuestionnaire ."SIK> laDen2ova3 LoAhevni2ov3 ; #otes3 4@@6/ *as designed to %lassi$y individuals 'ased on their visual )re$eren%es, In their study3 the authors $ound that o'De%t i&agers en%oded and )ro%essed i&ages holisti%ally *hile s)atial i&agers *ere &ore analyti%, The %urrent study &a2es the argu&ent that $ield de)endent individuals &ay there$ore 'e vie*ed as o'De%t i&agers3 and that this ty)e o$ )er%e)tion leads to greater $alse re%all $or lists *ith &ore tangi'le ite&s, There$ore3 $urther resear%h *ould 'ene$it $ro& a study in%luding &easures $or $alse &e&ory3 $ield de)enden%e3 and the "SIK, In addition3 in order to 'oth re)li%ate and e+)and u)on the results o$ the %urrent study3 $uture resear%h should in%lude &ore DR# )aradig& *ord lists, y adding &ore lists3 investigators *ill 'e a'le to $urther e+a&ine the relationshi)s 'et*een list-'ased $a%tors and their

Cognitive and Personality <H asso%iations *ith %ognitive and )ersonality %hara%teristi%s, #ore s)e%i$i%ally3 lists *ith target *ords o$ varying degrees o$ %on%reteness *ill )rovide additional in$or&ation a'out its role in hel)ing to )redi%t $alse &e&ory %reation, The relationshi) 'et*een %reativity and $alse re%all should 'e e+)lored $urther, This *as the $irst study to loo2 at the asso%iation 'et*een sel$-assessed %reativity and )er$or&an%e on the DR# )aradig&, Lo*er %reativity s%ores *ere signi$i%antly related to all three %ategories o$ $alse re%all, Future resear%h should %onsider &easuring %reativity using di$$erent s%ales and deter&ining i$ its inverse relationshi) *ith the %reation o$ $alse &e&ories re&ains signi$i%ant,

Cognitive and Personality <5 Re$eren%es A'ravanel3 E,3 ; ?ingold3 F, .(5II/, Per%eiving and re)resenting orientation: E$$e%ts o$ the s)atial $ra&e*or2, Merrill $almer 1uarterly2 (3.E/3 468-4IH, addeley3 A, D,3 ; Fit%h3 ?, G, .(5IE/, 0or2ing &e&ory, In ?, o*er .Ed,/3 Recent advances in learning and motivation .Vol, H ed,3 )), EI-5@/, Ne* !or2: A%ade&i% Press, addeley3 A, D, .(55@/, 4uman memory5 Theory and practice, Needha& Feights3 #A3 US: Allyn and a%on, alota3 D, A,3 Cortese3 #, G,3 Du%he23 G, #,3 Ada&s3 D,3 Roediger3 F, L, I, I, I,3 #%Der&ott3 L, ,3 et al, .(555/, Veridi%al and $alse &e&ories in healthy older adults and in de&entia o$ the AlAhei&er:s ty)e, /ognitive %europsychology2 )..<-8/3 <6(-<HE, artlett3 F, C, .(5<4/, Remembering5 A study in e'perimental and social psychology, "+$ord3 England: #a%&illan, ernstein3 E, #,3 ; Putna&3 F, 0, .(5H6/, Develo)&ent3 relia'ility3 and validity o$ a disso%iation s%ale, 6ournal o" %ervous and Mental Disease2 )7*.(4/3 I4I-I<8, laDen2ova3 ",3 LoAhevni2ov3 #,3 ; #otes3 #, A, .4@@6/, "'De%t-s)atial i&agery: A ne* sel$re)ort i&agery 1uestionnaire, Applied /ognitive $sychology2 (,.4/3 4<5-46<, rainerd3 C, G,3 ; Reyna3 V, F, .4@@4/, FuAAy-tra%e theory and $alse &e&ory, /urrent Directions in $sychological Science2 )).8/3 (6E-(65,

Clore3 ?, L,3 ; #artin3 L, L, .Eds,/, .4@@(/, Theories o" mood and cognition5 A user8s guideboo# .viii ed,/, #ah*ah3 NG3 US: La*ren%e Erl'au& Asso%iates Pu'lishers, Deese3 G, .(585/, "n the )redi%tion o$ o%%urren%e o$ )arti%ular ver'al intrusions in i&&ediate re%all, 6ournal o" e'perimental psychology2 -9.(/3 (I-44,

Cognitive and Personality E@ DeLisi3 R, .(5H</, Develo)&ental and individual di$$eren%es in %hildren:s re)resentation o$ the horiAontal %oordinate, Merrill-$almer 1uarterly2 (:2 (I5-(56, Do'son3 #,3 ; #ar2ha&3 R, .(55</, I&agery a'ility and sour%e &onitoring: I&)li%ations $or eye*itness &e&ory, ;ritish 6ournal o" $sychology2 9*.(/3 (((-((H, Durso3 F, T,3 Reardon3 R,3 ; Golly3 E, G, .(5H8/, Sel$-nonsel$-segregation and reality &onitoring, 6ournal o" personality and social psychology2 *9.4/3 EEI-E88, Ellis3 N, C,3 ; Fennelly3 R, A, .(5H@/, A 'ilingual *ord-length e$$e%t: I&)li%ations $or intelligen%e testing and the relative ease o$ &ental %al%ulation in 0elsh and English, ;ritish 6ournal o" $sychology2 7).(/3 E<-8(, Farah3 #, G,3 Fa&&ond3 L, #,3 Levine3 D, N,3 ; Calvanio3 R, .(5HH/, Visual and s)atial &ental i&agery: Disso%ia'le syste&s o$ re)resentation, /ognitive psychology2 (,.E/3 E<5-E64, ?allo3 D, A,3 #%Der&ott3 L, ,3 Per%er3 G, #,3 ; Roediger3 F, L, I, I, I, .4@@(/, #odality e$$e%ts in $alse re%all and $alse re%ognition, 6ournal o" &'perimental $sychology5 0earning2 Memory2 and /ognition2 (7.4/3 <<5-<8<, ?ather%ole3 S, E,3 ; addeley3 A, D, .(5H5/, Evaluation o$ the role o$ )honologi%al ST# in the develo)&ent o$ vo%a'ulary in %hildren: A longitudinal study: 6ournal o" Memory and 0anguage2 (92 4@@-4(<, ?on%y3 E, A,3 ; 0aehler3 C, A, .4@@6/, An e&)iri%al investigation o$ %reativity and &usi%al e+)erien%e, $sychology o" Music2 3*.</3 <@I-<4(, Forselen'erg3 R,3 #er%2el'a%h3 F,3 van reu2elen3 ?,3 ; 0essel3 I, .4@@E/, Individual di$$eren%es in the a%%ura%y o$ auto'iogra)hi%al &e&ory, /linical $sychology and $sychotherapy2 )).</3 (6H-(I6,

Cognitive and Personality E( Funt3 R, R,3 ; Einstein3 ?, ", .(5H(/, Relational and ite&-s)e%i$i% in$or&ation in &e&ory, 6ournal o" <erbal 0earning and <erbal ;ehavior2 (,.8/3 E5I-8(E, Funt3 R, R,3 ; #%Daniel3 #, A, .(55</, The enig&a o$ organiAation and distin%tiveness, 6ournal o" Memory and 0anguage2 3(.E/3 E4(-EE8,

Fy&an3 I, E, G,3 ; Pentland3 G, .(556/, The role o$ &ental i&agery in the %reation o$ $alse %hildhood &e&ories, 6ournal o" Memory and 0anguage2 3-.4/3 (@(-((I, Ga%o'y3 L, L,3 Lelley3 C, #,3 ; Dy*an3 G, .(5H5/, #e&ory attri'utions, In F, L, I, I, I, Roediger3 ; F, I, #, Crai2 .Eds,/3 <arieties o" memory and consciousness5 &ssays in honour o" &ndel Tulving .)), <5(-E44/, Fillsdale3 NG: Erl'au&, Ga%o'y3 L, L,3 Levy3 , A,3 ; Stein'a%h3 L, .(554/, E)isodi% trans$er and auto&ati%ity: Integration o$ data-driven and %on%e)tually-driven )ro%essing in rereading, 6ournal o" &'perimental $sychology5 0earning2 Memory2 and /ognition2 )9.(/3 (8-4E, Gohnson3 #, L,3 Fashtroudi3 S,3 ; Lindsay3 D, S, .(55</, Sour%e &onitoring, $sychological ;ulletin2 ))*.(/3 <-4H, Gohnson3 #, L,3 ; Raye3 C, L, .(5H(/, Reality &onitoring, $sychological review2 99.(/3 6I-H8, Lali%h&an3 S, C, .(5H6/, ForiAontality as a $un%tion o$ se+ and a%ade&i% &aDor, $erceptual and motor s#ills2 .3.43 Pt 4/3 5@<-5@6, Lali%h&an3 S, C, .(5HH/, Individual di$$eren%es in *ater-level tas2 )er$or&an%e: A %o&)onents2ills analysis, Developmental Review2 9.</3 4I<-458, Lellogg3 R, T, .4@@(/, Presentation &odality and &ode o$ re%all in ver'al $alse &e&ory, 6ournal o" &'perimental $sychology5 0earning2 Memory2 and /ognition2 (7.E/3 5(<-5(5, Lelly3 G, T,3 ; Lelly3 ?, N, .(5II/, Per%e)tion o$ horiAontality 'y &ale and $e&ale %ollege students, $erceptual and motor s#ills2 **.<3 Pt (/3 I4E-I46,

Cognitive and Personality E4 Lenyon3 G, .(5HE/, Pa)er-and-)en%il tests o$ PiagetTs *ater-level test: Se+ di$$eren%es and test &odality, $erceptual and motor s#ills2 -:.</3 I<5-IE4,

LoAhevni2ov3 #,3 Losslyn3 S,3 ; She)hard3 G, .4@@8/, S)atial versus o'De%t visualiAers: A ne* %hara%teriAation o$ visual %ognitive style, Memory and /ognition2 33.E/3 I(@-I46, LuOera3 F,3 ; Fran%is3 0, .(56I/, /omputationalanalysis o" present-day American &nglish, Providen%e3 RI: ro*n University Press, Logie3 R, F, .(5H6/, Visuo-s)atial )ro%essing in *or2ing &e&ory, The 1uarterly 6ournal o" &'perimental $sychology A5 4uman &'perimental $sychology2 39A.4/3 445-4EI, #ar2s3 D, F, .(5I</, The vividness o$ visual i&agery 1uestionnaire, ;ritish 6ournal o" $sychology2 .*3 (I-4E, #ar&ure23 F, F, C,3 ; Fa&ilton3 #, E, .4@@@/, I&agery e$$e%ts in $alse re%all and $alse re%ognition, 6ournal o" Mental !magery2 (*.(-4/3 H<-56, #%Evoy3 C, L,3 Nelson3 D, L,3 ; Lo&atsu3 T, .(555/, 0hat is the %onne%tion 'et*een true and $alse &e&ories7 The di$$erential roles o$ interite& asso%iations in re%all and re%ognition, 6ournal o" &'perimental $sychology5 0earning2 Memory2 and /ognition2 (-.8/3 ((II((5E, #iller3 ?, A, .(586/, The &agi%al nu&'er seven3 )lus or &inus t*o: So&e li&its on our %a)a%ity $or )ro%essing in$or&ation, $sychological review2 .3.4/3 H(-5I, #organ3 C, D,3 ; #urray3 F, F, .(5<8/, A &ethod $or investigating $antasies: The the&ati% a))er%e)tion test, Archives o" %eurology and $sychiatry =/hicago>2 .<E/3 4H5-<@6, #orris3 , , .(5I(/, E$$e%ts o$ angle3 se+3 and %ue on adultsT )er%e)tion o$ the horiAontal, $erceptual and motor s#ills2 3(.</3 H4I-H<@,

Cognitive and Personality E< #u&$ord3 #, D,3 ; Caughron3 G, G, .4@@I/, Neurology and %reative thought: So&e thoughts a'out *or2ing &e&ory3 the %ere'ellu&3 and %reativity, /reativity Research 6ournal2 ):.(/3 E5-8E, #urray3 F, A, .(5E</, Thematic apperception test manual, Ca&'ridge3 #A: Farvard University Press, Nelson3 D, L,3 #%Evoy3 C, L,3 ; S%hrei'er3 T, A, .(555/, The ?niversity o" South Florida word association2 rhyme2 and word "ragment norms. Un)u'lished &anus%ri)t, Piaget3 G,3 ; Inhelder3 , .(56I/, The child8s conception o" space .F, G, Langdon3 G, L, LunAer Trans,/, Ne* !or2: 0,0, Norton ; Co&)any3 In%, Platt3 R, D,3 La%ey3 S, C,3 Io'st3 A, D,3 ; Fin2el&an3 D, .(55H/, A'sor)tion3 disso%iation3 $antasy-)roneness as )redi%tors o$ &e&ory distortion in auto'iogra)hi%al and la'oratory generated &e&ories, Applied /ognitive $sychology2 )(.S)e% Issue/3 SII-SH5, Kuinn3 G, ?,3 ; #%Connell3 G, .(556/, Irrelevant )i%tures in visual *or2ing &e&ory, The 1uarterly 6ournal o" &'perimental $sychology A5 4uman &'perimental $sychology2 *:A.(/3 4@@-4(8, Re'els2y3 F, .(56E/, Adult )er%e)tion o$ the horiAontal, $erceptual and motor s#ills2 ):.4/3 <I(<IE, Reyna3 V, F,3 ; rainerd3 C, G, .(558/, FuAAy-tra%e theory: An interi& synthesis, 0earning and !ndividual Di""erences2 7.(/3 (-I8, Ro'inson3 L, G,3 ; Roediger3 F, L, I, I, I, .(55I/, Asso%iative )ro%esses in $alse re%all and $alse re%ognition, $sychological Science2 9.</3 4<(-4<I,

Cognitive and Personality EE Roediger3 F, L,3 ; #%Der&ott3 L, , .(558/, Creating $alse &e&ories: Re&e&'ering *ords not )resented in lists, 6ournal o" &'perimental $sychology5 0earning2 Memory2 and /ognition2 ().E/3 H@<-H(E, Roediger3 F, L, I, I, I, .(556/, #e&ory illusions, 6ournal o" Memory and 0anguage2 3-.4/3 I6(@@, Roediger3 F, L, I, I, I,3 0atson3 G, #,3 #%Der&ott3 L, ,3 ; ?allo3 D, A, .4@@(/, Fa%tors that deter&ine $alse re%all: A &ulti)le regression analysis, $sychonomic ;ulletin and Review2 9.</3 <H8-E@I, Russell3 0, A,3 ; Gen2ins3 G, G, .(58E/, The complete Minnesota norms "or responses to ),, words "rom the @ent-Rosano"" Aord Association Test .Te%h, Re), No, ((3 Contra%t NH "NR 664(63 "$$i%e o$ Naval Resear%h/, University o$ #innesota3 #innea)olis, S&ith3 R, E,3 ; Funt3 R, R, .(55H/, Presentation &odality a$$e%ts $alse &e&ory, $sychonomic ;ulletin and Review2 -.E/3 I(@-I(8, Stadler3 #, A,3 Roediger3 F, L, I, I, I,3 ; #%Der&ott3 L, , .(555/, Nor&s $or *ord lists that %reate $alse &e&ories, Memory and /ognition2 (7.</3 E5E-8@@, Stor'e%23 G,3 ; Clore3 ?, L, .4@@8/, 0ith sadness %o&es a%%ura%y> *ith ha))iness3 $alse &e&ory: #ood and the $alse &e&ory e$$e%t, $sychological Science2 )..(@/3 IH8- I5(, Tellegen3 A,3 ; At2inson3 ?, .(5IE/, ")enness to a'sor'ing and sel$-altering e+)erien%es .Va'sor)tionV/3 a trait related to hy)noti% sus%e)ti'ility, 6ournal o" abnormal psychology2 93.</3 46H-4II, Tho&as3 F,3 Ga&ison3 0,3 ; Fu&&el3 D, D, .(5I</, "'servation is insu$$i%ient $or dis%overing that the sur$a%e o$ still *ater is invariantly horiAontal, Science2 )9).E@58/3 (I<-(IE,

Cognitive and Personality E8 0atson3 G, #,3 unting3 #, F,3 Poole3 , G,3 ; Con*ay3 A, R, A, .4@@8/, Individual di$$eren%es in sus%e)ti'ility to $alse &e&ory in the Deese-Roediger-#%Der&ott )aradig&, 6ournal o" &'perimental $sychology5 0earning2 Memory2 and /ognition2 3).(/3 I6-H8,

0ille&sen3 E,3 u%hholA3 A,3 udro*3 #, S,3 ; ?eanna%o)ulos3 N, .(5I</, Relationshi) 'et*een 0it2inTs rod-and-$ra&e tas2 and PiagetTs *ater-line tas2 $or %ollege *o&en, $erceptual and motor s#ills2 3..<3 Pt, (/3 58H, 0ilson3 S, C,3 ; ar'er3 T, W, .(5IH/, The %reative i&agination s%ale as a &easure o$ hy)noti% res)onsiveness: A))li%ations to e+)eri&ental and %lini%al hy)nosis, American 6ournal o" /linical 4ypnosis2 (,.E/3 4<8-4E5, 0inograd3 E,3 Peluso3 G, P,3 ; ?lover3 T, A, .(55H/, Individual di$$eren%es in sus%e)ti'ility to &e&ory illusions, Applied /ognitive $sychology2 )(.S)e% Issue/3 S8-S4I, 0it2in3 F, A, .(58@/, Individual di$$eren%es in ease o$ )er%e)tion o$ e&'edded $igures, 6ournal o" personality2 .(5/3 (-(8, 0it2in3 F, A,3 ; ?oodenough3 D, R, .(5H(/, /ognitive styles5 &ssence and origins, Ne* !or2: International Universities Press, 0it2in3 F, A,3 ?oodenough3 D, R,3 ; "lt&an3 P, L, .(5I5/, Psy%hologi%al di$$erentiation: Current status, 6ournal o" personality and social psychology2 37.I/3 ((4I-((E8, 0it2in3 F, A,3 "lt&an3 P, L,3 Ras2in3 E,3 ; Lar)3 S, A, .(5I(/, A manual "or the embedded "igures test, Palo Alto3 CA: Consulting Psy%hologists Press, 0right3 D, ,3 ; Livingston Ra)er3 D, .4@@4/, #e&ory distortion and disso%iation: E+)loring the relationshi) in a non-%lini%al sa&)le, 6ournal o" Trauma and Dissociation2 3.</3 5I(@5,

Cognitive and Personality E6 0right3 D, ,3 Startu)3 F, #,3 ; #athe*s3 S, A, .4@@8/, #ood3 disso%iation and $alse &e&ories using the Deese-Roediger-#%Der&ott )ro%edure, ;ritish 6ournal o" $sychology2 :..</3 4H<-45<,

Cognitive and Personality EI A))endi+

First3 than2 you $or )arti%i)ating in this studyX

The study %onsists o$ three )arts: (, !ou *ill $irst 'e as2ed to %o&)lete a series o$ e+er%ises a'out &e&ory and i&aginationMstorytelling, 4, Ne+t3 you *ill have your taste and s&ell sensitivity tested, <, In the $inal )art you *ill $ill out a 1uestionnaire %on%erning ho* you see the *orld3 ho* you $ind your &e&ory *or2s3 and in *hi%h you *ill give so&e de&ogra)hi% in$or&ation,

Again3 than2s so &u%h $or your )arti%i)ationX

Please (ait for the signal to egin'

Cognitive and Personality EH

Please memori)e the (ords on the list elo(' *ou (ill e as+ed a out them later' Do not go to the next page until you have een given the signal,

Word list
Queen England Crown Prince George Dictator Palace Throne Chess Rule Subjects Monarch Royal Leader Reign

=> Please wait for the signal to go on to the next page. <=

Cognitive and Personality E5

In the space elo(- (rite a short story a out (hat is happening in this picture'

____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

=> Please wait for the signal to go on to the next page. <=

Cognitive and Personality 8@

In the space elo(- (rite do(n the (ords you memori)ed in the FIRST list.

Cognitive and Personality 8(

Please memori)e the (ords on the list elo(' *ou (ill e as+ed a out them later' Do not go to the next page until you have een given the signal,

Word list
Sour Candy Sugar Bitter Good Taste Tooth Nice oney Soda Chocolate eart Ca!e Tart Pie

=> Please wait for the signal to go on to the next page. <=

Cognitive and Personality 84

In the space elo(- (rite a short story a out (hat is happening in this picture'

____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

=> Please wait for the signal to go on to the next page. <=

Cognitive and Personality 8<

In the space elo(- (rite do(n the (ords you memori)ed in the SE!%/D list.

Cognitive and Personality 8E

Please memori)e the (ords on the list elo(' *ou (ill e as+ed a out them later' Do not go to the next page until you have een given the signal,
Door Glass" Pane Shade" Ledge" Sill ouse #$en Curtain %ra&e 'iew Bree(e Sash Screen Shutter

=> Please wait for the signal to go on to the next page. <=

Cognitive and Personality 88

In the space elo(- tell a short story a out (hat is happening in this picture'

____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

Cognitive and Personality 86

=> Please wait for the signal to go on to the next page. <= In the space elo(- (rite do(n the (ords you memori)ed in the T0IRD list.

Fave you had e+)erien%e *ith *ord lists si&ilar to the ones used in this study7

!es

No

Cognitive and Personality 8I

=> Please wait for the signal to go on to the next page. <=
Part IV, 0ater levels:
The image below diagrams a series of clear glass bottles. Imagine that they are attached to a wall, above a horizontal counter, indicated by the black bar. They are all partially filled with water. The level of water in each bottle is as high as the dot next to the bottle.

Draw a line showing the level of water in each bottle, so that the line touches the dot.

In which direction(s did you draw the water levels (circle your answer !

Towards the dot (left to right

"way from the dot (right to left

#oth directions

Cognitive and Personality 8H

$nce you have completed this exercise, please go on to the next page.

1uestionnaire Part I' First- something a out your attitudes and ehaviors 2
3sing the follo(ing scale- indicate to (hat extent each of the follo(ing is typical of you. 4' /ot at all li+e me 5' Slightly li+e me 6' Moderately li+e me 7' Exactly li+e me

YYYYY I %an 'e greatly &oved 'y elo1uent or )oeti% language, YYYYY 0hen reading a 'oo23 I %an 'e%o&e so involved that I $orget &y surroundings and $eel as i$ I *ere ta2ing )art in the story, YYYYY So&eti&es I $eel as i$ &y &ind %ould envelo) the *hole *orld, YYYYY 0hen I loo2 at %louds I usually see $igures3 su%h as ani&als or )eo)le, YYYYY I$ I *ish I %an i&agine .or daydrea&/ so&e things so vividly that they hold &y attention as a good &ovie or story does, YYYYY Te+tures=su%h as *ool3 sand3 or *ood=so&eti&es re&ind &e o$ %olors or &usi%, YYYYY 0hen I listen to &usi% I %an get so %aught u) in it that I donTt noti%e anything else, YYYYY I $eel I do not have &u%h $reedo& to %hoose the a%tions in &y li$e, YYYYY I$ I *ish I %an i&agine that &y 'ody is so heavy that I %ould not &ove it i$ I *anted to, YYYYY The %ra%2le and $la&es o$ a *ood $ire sti&ulate &y i&agination, YYYYY It is so&eti&es )ossi'le $or &e to 'e %o&)letely i&&ersed in nature or in art and to $eel as i$ &y *hole state o$ %ons%iousness has so&eho* 'een te&)orarily altered, YYYYY I a& a'le to *ander o$$ into &y o*n thoughts *hile doing a routine tas2 and a%tually $orget that I a& doing the tas23 and then $ind a $e* &inutes later that I have %o&)leted it, YYYYY I %an so&eti&es re%all )ast e+)erien%es in &y li$e so vividly that it is al&ost li2e living the& again, YYYYY 0hile a%ting in a )lay I thin2 I %ould really $eel the e&otions o$ the %hara%ter and T'e%o&eT herMhi& $or the ti&e-'eing3 $orgetting 'oth &ysel$ and the audien%e,

Cognitive and Personality 85

YYYYY So&e o$ &y &ost vivid &e&ories are %alled u) 'y s%ents and s&ells, YYYYY I thin2 that I a& intelligent,
Indicate to (hat extent each of the follo(ing is typical of you. 4' /ot at all li+e me 5' Slightly li+e me 6' Moderately li+e me 7' Exactly li+e me

YYYYY I have lo* %on$iden%e in &ysel$, YYYYY I *ould not des%ri'e &ysel$ as an inde)endent thin2er, YYYYY I a& a ris2-ta2er, YYYYY I enDoy novel %hallenges in &y li$e, YYYYY #y thoughts o$ten o%%ur as visual i&ages rather than *ords, YYYYY I do not %onsider &ysel$ a %o&)le+ thin2er, YYYYY I o$ten ta2e delight in s&all things .li2e the $ive-)ointed star sha)e that a))ears *hen you %ut an a))le a%ross the %ore or the %olors in soa) 'u''les/, YYYYY 0hen listening to organ &usi% or other )o*er$ul &usi%3 I so&eti&es $eel as i$ I a& 'eing li$ted into the air, YYYYY So&e &usi% re&inds &e o$ )i%tures or %hanging %olor )atterns, YYYYY I $ind &ysel$ %a)a'le o$ handling a variety o$ situations, YYYYY #y vie*s are generally &ore e+tre&e than those o$ &y )eers, YYYYY I o$ten have V)hysi%al &e&oriesV> $or e+a&)le3 a$ter ITve 'een s*i&&ing I &ay still $eel as i$ IT& in the *ater, YYYYY Peo)le *ho 2no* &e *ould des%ri'e &e as %reative, YYYYY The sound o$ a voi%e %an 'e so $as%inating to &e that I %an Dust go on listening to it, YYYYY #ost de%isions I &a2e in &y li$e are o'De%tive and %lear-%ut, YYYYY I $ind that di$$erent odors have di$$erent %olors,

Cognitive and Personality 6@ YYYYY I thin2 I a& a uni1ue individual a&ong &y $riends, YYYYY I %an 'e dee)ly &oved 'y a sunset, YYYYY I solve )ro'le&s the sa&e *ay other )eo)le do,
Indicate to (hat extent each of the follo(ing is typical of you. 8' /ot at all li+e me 9' Slightly li+e me :' Moderately li+e me ;' Exactly li+e me

YYYYY I a& not involved in &any a%tivities, YYYYY #y ideas are rarely di$$erent $ro& those o$ &y )eers, YYYYY I a& resour%e$ul, YYYYY I %an 'e %riti%al o$ other )eo)le:s *or2, YYYYY 0hen I have to &a2e a de%ision3 I tend to &ull things over3 *eighing all the )ossi'ilities, YYYYY I try to $ind &any solutions to one )ro'le&, YYYYY I a& not a hu&orous )erson, YYYYY I$ I stare at a )i%ture and then loo2 a*ay $ro& it3 I %an so&eti&es VseeV an i&age o$ the )i%ture al&ost as i$ I *ere still loo2ing at it, YYYYY I a& a very %autious )erson, YYYYY I li2e to *at%h %loud sha)es %hange in the s2y, YYYYY I solve )ro'le&s in %reative *ays, YYYYY I so&eti&es Vste) outsideV &y usual sel$ and e+)erien%e an entirely di$$erent state o$ 'eing, YYYYY I )ut others 'e$ore &ysel$, YYYYY I a& not )arti%ularly good at )ro'le& solving, YYYYY I %an o$ten so&eho* sense the )resen%e o$ another )erson 'e$ore I a%tually see or hear herMhi&, YYYYY Di$$erent %olors have distin%tive and s)e%ial &eanings $or &e,

Cognitive and Personality 6(

YYYYY I do *ell at %onne%ting &any di$$erent )arts o$ &y li$e, YYYYY So&eti&es I %an %hange noise into &usi% 'y the *ay I listen to it, YYYYY I don:t have &u%h s)ontaneity in &y li$e, YYYYY I o$ten 2no* *hat so&eone is going to say 'e$ore he or she says it,
Indicate to (hat extent each of the follo(ing is typical of you. <' /ot at all li+e me 4=' Slightly li+e me 44' Moderately li+e me 45' Exactly li+e me

YYYYY At ti&es I so&eho* $eel the )resen%e o$ so&eone *ho is not )hysi%ally there, YYYYY I a& generally %reative in &y *or2, YYYYY So&eti&es i&ages %o&e to &e *ithout the slightest e$$ort on &y )art, YYYYY I a& a very %onventional )erson, YYYYY I have a *ide assort&ent o$ interests and a%tivities,

Cognitive and Personality 64 Part II' /ext- a little it a out your day and your sleep. "verall3 *hat )er%entage o$ ti&e have you 'een $eeling in the $ollo*ing &oods today7 In a 'ad &ood YYYYYYYN A little lo* or irrita'le YYYYYYYN In a &ildly )leasant &ood YYYYYYYN In a very good &ood YYYYYYYN SU# (@@ N Last night3 ho* &any hours o$ a%tual slee) did you get7 YYYYYY 0hat ti&e did you go to slee)7 YYYYYYYY 0as the a&ount o$ slee) you got last night ty)i%al7 !es I$ not3 do you usually get: #ore slee) Fo* tired do you $eel right no*7 Very tired So&e*hat tired No Less slee) 0ide a*a2e

Not tired3 'ut not *ide a*a2e

Do you %onsu&e %a$$eine .e,g, %o$$ee3 tea3 soda3 %a$$eine )ills/7 !es No I$ yes: Fo* long ago did you last have %a$$eine7 Less than (hour ( hour 4 hours < hours E hours 8 hours #ore than 8 hours ago 0hen in the day do you usually %onsu&e %a$$eine .)lease %ir%le all that a))ly/7 #orning #idday A$ternoon Evening 0hat $or& o$ %a$$eine do you %onsu&e .)lease %ir%le all that a))ly/7 Co$$ee Tea Soda Pills "ther .)lease s)e%i$y/ YYYYYYYYYYYYY Fo* satis$ied are you *ith your health these days7 Very satis$ied Satis$ied Not very satis$ied

Not at all satis$ied

Fo* stressed do you $eel a'out emotional issues in your li$e .i,e, due to relationshi) )ro'le&s3 $a&ily )ro'le&s et%,/7 Very stressed Stressed Not very stressed Not at all stressed Fo* stressed do you $eel a'out academic issues in your li$e .i,e, u)%o&ing e+a&s3 )a)ers et%,/7 Very stressed Stressed Not very stressed Not at all stressed Fo* stressed do you $eel a'out physical issues in your li$e .i,e, health3 a&ount o$ e+er%ise/7 Very stressed Stressed Not very stressed Not at all stressed

Cognitive and Personality 6<

Part III' Finally- some information a out (ho you are> #onth o$ 'irth: YYYYYYYYYYYY !ear o$ 'irth: YYYYYYYYYYY Se+: #ale Fe&ale #aDor: YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY College: YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Future o%%u)ation J )lease 'e s)e%i$i%:YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Are you )re-&ed7 !es No I$ you are )re-&ed3 *hat s)e%ialty interests you the &ost7 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY
Feight .in%hes/: YYYYYY$eetYYYYYY in%hes 0eight .)ounds/:YYYYYYYYY

Fo* )hysi%ally a%tive are you7 Very #oderately Slightly Not at all I$ you )arti%i)ate in )hysi%al a%tivity3 $or *hi%h o$ the $ollo*ing reasons do you )arti%i)ate7 .%ir%le all that a))ly/: Fealth Re%reation To lose *eight "ther: YYYYYYYYYYYYYY I$ you )lay a s)ort3 )lease s)e%i$y: Varsity Intra&ural Clu' Fo* *ould you rate your taste )er%e)tion7 Fo* *ould you rate your s&ell )er%e)tion7 0hat is your handedness7 Right-Fanded #ostly Right-Fanded A&'ide+trous #ostly Le$t-Fanded Le$t-Fanded
Do you )lay a &usi%al instru&ent7 !es No I$ yes3 *hi%h instru&ent.s/:YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Fo* *ould you rate your )ro$i%ien%y at this instru&ent .or your 'est instru&ent i$ you )lay &ore than one7 E+)ert Inter&ediate eginner Do you do )uAAles7 !es No I$ yes3 *hat 2inds o$ )uAAles7 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Fo* o$ten do you do the&7 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

E+%ellent E+%ellent

Very good Very good

?ood ?ood

Fair Fair

Poor Poor

Do you s&o2e7 !es No I$ yes3 *hat do you s&o2e .e,g, %igarettes3 %igars/7 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Fo* o$ten do you usually s&o2e7 Daily 4-< ti&esM*ee2 "n%e a *ee2 S "n%eM*ee2 Did you s&o2e today7 !es No Did you drin2 al%ohol .in%luding al%ohol in &edi%ations/ yesterday7 !es Did you drin2 al%ohol .in%luding al%ohol in &edi%ations/ today7 !es No No

Fave you ever done 'inge drin2ing .de$ined as drin2ing over an e+tended )eriod o$ ti&e3 usually t*o or &ore days3 during *hi%h you re)eatedly %onsu&e al%ohol to the )oint o$ into+i%ation3 and give u) your usual a%tivities and o'ligations/7 !es No

Cognitive and Personality 6E Do have a %old or nasal %ongestion today7 !es No

Are you %urrently ta2ing any )res%ri)tion &edi%ations7 !es No I$ yes3 *hi%h ones7 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Are you %urrently ta2ing over the %ounter &edi%ations .i,e, as)irin3 Claritin3 i'u)ro$en/7 !es No I$ yes3 *hi%h ones7 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Do you ta2e nutritional su))le&ents .$or e+a&)le vita&in )ills3 %al%iu&3 )rotein sha2es/7 !es No I$ yes3 *hi%h ones7 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Do you $ind that these &edi%ations a$$e%t your sense o$ taste andMor s&ell7 !es No I$ yes3 in *hat *ay do they a$$e%t your sense o$ taste or s&ell7 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Y Do you o$ten have the $eeling o$ having a dry &outh7 !es No Do you have any 2ind o$ allergy7 !es No I$ yes3 *hat 2ind.s/ do you have7 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Do you %urrently have nasal )oly)s7 !es No Fave you had the& in the )ast7 !es No

Are you on a s)e%i$i% diet .i,e, vegetarian3 At2ins3 Losher3 South ea%h3 et%,/7 !es No I$ yes3 )lease s)e%i$y7 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Fave you ever sustained a head inDury .$or e+a&)le $ro& a %ar a%%ident or sno*'oarding/7 !es No I$ yes3 )lease s)e%i$y: YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY 0ere you un%ons%ious7 !es No
Cir%le all the grou)s or areas o$ the *orld $ro& *hi%h your an%estors %a&e: Pa%i$i% Islands China Lorea Ga)an Southeast Asia IndiaMPa2istanMA$ghanistan Central Asia Israel Ash2enaAi& Se)hardi& #iddle East North A$ri%a Su'-Saharan A$ri%a Tur2ey Cau%asus ?ree%e Italy S)ain Portugal Fran%e elgiu& Ireland United Lingdo& Netherlands Den&ar2 Nor*ay S*eden I%eland Finland LatviaMLithuaniaMEstonia Russia Poland ?er&any Austria S*itAerland Fungary CAe%h Re)u'li% Slova2ia ulgaria Ro&ania #oldavia U2raine Pre-Colu&'ian A&eri%a 0as English the $irst language you learned7 !es No I$ not3 at *hat age did you start learning English7 YYYYYYYY 0hat language did you learn $irst7 YYYYYYYYYYYYYY

Cognitive and Personality 68

Can you read and *rite in this language7 !es No For (omen. 0hat *as the date o$ the start o$ your last &enstrual )eriod7YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Do you use oral %ontra%e)tives7 !es No Fo* &any )eriods have you had in the )ast 6 &onths7YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Are your )eriods regular or irregular7YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY T0$/? *%3 S% M3!0 F%R !%MP"ETI/@ T0IS ST3D*,,,

Author Note Ari Sil'er&ann3 Undergraduate in the De)art&ent o$ Fu&an Develo)&ent3 Cornell University, This study *as %ondu%ted as $ul$ill&ent o$ an undergraduate honors )rogra&, I *ould li2e to than2 Dr, Virginia Uter&ohlen $or her guidan%e in overseeing this )roDe%t, I *ould also li2e to than2 Drs, #arienella Casasola and Ste)hen Ce%i $or their additional %o&&ents and su))ort3 and to all o$ the students )arti%i)ating in this study, Corres)onden%e regarding this &anus%ri)t should 'e addressed to Ari Sil'er&ann3 De)art&ent o$ Fu&an Develo)&ent3 Cornell University3 Itha%a3 N! (EH8<, Ele%troni% &ail %an 'e sent to a's8IZ%ornell,edu

Cognitive and Personality 66

Ta'le ( Rates o" False Recall and <eridical Recall "or Three DRM $aradigm Aord 0ists YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Y
%ord &ist 'alse (ecall )eridical (ecall

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Y
*ing /weet %indow .+, .01 .03 .-+. .-+2 .,.4

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Y

Cognitive and Personality 6I

Ta'le 4 Aord 0ist %orms "rom Roediger2 Aatson2 McDermott2 and Ballo =(,,)> YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Y
%ord &ist 'alse (ecall 5oncreteness #"/ 5onnectivity )eridical (ecall

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Y
*ing /weet %indow .6+ .,0 .., ,.,0 0.,2 ..1.12+ .6-1 .640 1.+1.++....,+ ..2+ ..2+

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

Cognitive and Personality 6H

Ta'le < ;rea#down o" Total Sample =%C79> by False Recall Responses o" Sweet and Aindow YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Y
(ecalled Window (ecalled Sweet Did 7ot (ecall Sweet Total 63 63 24 Did 7ot (ecall %indow 60 1. 0+ Total 22 0, 78

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Y