Buried by Longing: The Life (and Death) of the Vestal Virgin

Alex Clayden

HIS !"D # City of $o%e Cynthia &ole'ritti ()*+(* )

Clayden + At its height, the $o%an 'ulture s-anned thousands of years and huge a%ounts of land, and the religion of that 'ulture 'ontinues to be ingrained into the .estern 'ons'iousness through 'ountless re-etitions and reiterations of their %yths/ The gods and goddesses of $o%an %yth 0ere li1ely and at ti%es, sala'ious, in the tales of their 1arious ex-loits/ The %en and 0o%en tas2ed 0ith guarding the te%-les and rites of those gods 0ere not 3uite as enter-rising as their res-e'ti1e deities, but atte%-ted to do 4usti'e to their -atron god through their -riestly a'tions/ &erha-s the %ost extre%e 'ase of this e%ulation 0as the Vestal Virgins: -riestesses of the $o%an goddess Vesta/ Their i%itation of the 'hastity and 1irginity of Vesta 0as a 'onstant re%inder of the goddess5 -resen'e in the %ortal real% and the sa'red sy%bols of the $o%an state that the Vestals e%bodied/ Aside fro% being the %ost de1oted of the $o%an -riestly 'lass # de1oting a full )( years to the ser1i'e of their goddess # the Vestals also en4oyed so%e of the %ost uni3ue -ri1ileges offered to a 0o%an in the an'ient 0orld/ The Vestal 0as gi1en the best seats at any e1ent, had 'onsuls and other leaders of the %ost -o0erful go1ern%ent in 6uro-e ste- aside to let the% -ass in the street, and 0ere 'o%-letely i%%une fro% any in4uries or 'onfli't as a result of their sa'rosan'tity/ Des-ite their -ri1ilege and sy%boli7ation of the $o%an state as a 0hole, they 0ere 'o%-letely uni3ue 0ithin the 'ontext of $o%an so'ial and legal %ores/ The Vestals had the distin'tion of being $o%an 0o%en 0ho 0ere in no 0ay li2e any other $o%ans through their interstitial nature in legal, so'ial, and religious s-heres/ It 0as this interse'tion of the legal, so'ial, and religious in a single entity # the Vestal # 0hi'h allo0ed her to re-resent $o%e des-ite her idiosyn'rati' existen'e/ A''ording to $o%an %yth, Vesta 0as the goddess of the hearth, the ho%e, and the fa%ily/ Her 8ree2 e3ui1alent, Hestia (9:;<), 0as said to tend the sa'red fire ato- =ount >ly%-us, a trait 0hi'h translated o1er into her re-resentation as Vesta/ Vesta had the distin'tion of being both the youngest

Clayden ) and oldest of the $o%ans5 'hief gods due to the nature of her double birth/ A''ording to %yth, the $o%an gods ?u-iter, Ceres, Vesta, @e-tune, ?uno, and &luto 0ere all eaten by their father Saturn in order to forestall his usur-ation by one of his 'hildren/ Vesta 0as born first and 0as therefore eaten first, but as Saturn disgorged his 'hildren in re1erse order, she 0as also disgorged last/ By nature of this double birth she be'a%e both youngest and oldest, and this dual as-e't of age 'an be seen in her 'hara'teristi's/ Diana 0as another 1irgin goddess, but her 1irginity had a different 3uality to it than that of Vesta, as Vesta5s 1irginity 0as 0o%anly and a'ti1ely abstinent 0here Diana5s 0as -re-ubes'ent/ Vesta as2ed ?u-iter, 2ing of the gods, to guard her 1irginity against all 0ho sought it/ ?u-iter u-held the re3uest, and the sa'red -a't bet0een ?u-iter5s -rote'tion and Vesta5s 'hastity 0as forged/ Diana 0as a youthful goddess 0ho en4oyed -ursuits 0hi'h 0ere ty-i'ally %ale su'h as hunting, running, and other outdoor a'ti1ities/+ She 0as a to%boy goddess, and 0as desexed through her 'hildAli2e nature rather than her 'hastity/ In 'ontrast, Vesta5s a'ti1ities 0ere %ostly bound to the ho%e, 'hief a%ong the% tending the sa'red fire/ Vesta5s 1irginity 0as -rote'ted by ?u-iter, but 0as beset on all sides by the other gods of the &antheon due to her sexual %aturity/ ?uxta-osed to Diana5s 'hildAli2e 1irginity, Vesta 0as a 1irgin %atron, 0hi'h stressed the duality of her existen'e as both oldest and youngest of the gods/ The duality of Vesta transfers through i%itation to her -riestesses: the Vestal Virgins/ The Vestal Virgins 0ere $o%e5s only fullAti%e 'ollege of -riests/ .hile %any other te%-les 0ere tended by %en and 0o%en ali2e, those -riests 0ere not re3uired to li1e at the te%-le, nor de1ote e1ery %o%ent of their li1es to the ser1i'e of their deity/ In 'ontrast, the Vestal Virgin5s ser1i'e 0as %andated at a %ini%u% of thirty years, and the relin3uishing of a Vestal5s sa'red 1o0s -rior to that
A-ollod/ Bibl. / /BA+/ + Ibid, /C/ /BD

Clayden C ser1i'e 0ould -ro1e fatal/ The Vestal 0as a sy%bol not only of 1irginal 'hastity and -urity, but also a sy%bol and syne'do'he for $o%e/ As her -la'e in so'iety shifted during the $e-ubli' and 6%-ire, so too did the -ubli' i%age of the Vestal, but she al0ays re-resented $o%e/ As Inge Ero--enberg states in her arti'le FLa0, $eligion, and Constitution of the Vestal Virgins,G la0, religion, and -oliti's all 'on1erge in the Vestal and it is the 'on1ergen'e and deli'ate balan'e of these -arts into a 'ohesi1e 0hole 0hi'h enabled the Vestal to stand for $o%e and the 'ity5s greatness in a'hie1ing the balan'e of these three/) She 0as not a su% of these -arts, ho0e1er, she 0as an a%alga% of the%: e%bodying all three si%ultaneously, yet se-arately/ Her -oliti'al nature 0as sho0n through her status as a -ubli' figure and a state sy%bol, her legal as-e't 0as re-resented through her uni3ue legal status, and her religious nature through her -arti'i-ation in the order of the te%-le, the College of the Vestals, and the College of the &riests/C As the Vestal 0as a sy%bol of $o%e she 0as -er%itted the honor of being buried 0ithin the pomerium, the sa'red boundary line of $o%e, but her -o0ers did not extend beyond it/ The pomerium 0as a %ythi'al boundary line denoted by %any cippi5, or border %ar2ers/ Said to ha1e been established by the legendary founder of $o%e $o%ulus 0hen he -ushed a -lo0 around the site of the future 'ity, the pomerium 0as later extended by 1arious rulers of $o%e in order to flex their absolute -o0er/" Be'ause the pomerium 0as the legal boundary of $o%e e1erything outside it, in'luding the rest of Italy and the 6%-ire, 0ere %erely 'onsidered territory of $o%e/ The $o%an Vestal Virgins, on 0ho% this -a-er is fo'used, had -o0ers 0hi'h only extended to $o%e5s boundaries, not into the territory beyond/
)

I n g e E r o - - e n b e r g , H L a 0, $ e l i g i o n , a n d C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e Ve s t a l Vi r g i n s , H L a w a n d L i t e r a t u re , + + , n o / ) ( + ( ( ) : C I A C ) ! / C Ibid. B Singular: cippus " Sa%uel &latner/ La'usCurtius, Hpomerium/H A''essed =ar'h ), +( )/ htt-:**-enelo-e/u'hi'ago/edu*Thayer*6*8a7etteer*&la'es*6uro-e*Italy*La7io*$o%a*$o%e*JTexts*&LAT>&K* pomerium/ ht%l/

Clayden B &liny the 6lder, a $o%an author and naturalist, 0rote about the %agi'al -o0ers of the Vestal in'luding their ability to Froot to the s-ot fugiti1e sla1es/GD De%onstrating the 'onfined rea'h of the Vestal5s influen'e, this -o0er only affe'ted those sla1es 0ho had not yet left the 'onfines of the pomerium/ As a sy%bol of $o%e, her fate and her a'tions 0ere easily %ani-ulated through outside %eans, des-ite her status as a sa'rosan't indi1idual 0ho 0as exe%-t fro% %any legal 'onfines -la'ed u-on $o%an 0o%en/ The $o%ans held %any beliefs surrounding the use of both i%itati1e and 'ontagious %agi' in religion/ Holt &ar2er, in his arti'le F.hy 0ere the Vestals VirginsLG %a2es a si%ilar 'orrelation bet0een the Vestals and %agi'/ The Vestals e%body both ty-es: the i%itati1e %agi' through her 'hastity, and the 'ontagious through her status as a sy%bol of $o%e and her -eo-le/ The 1irginity of the Vestals 0as a 'ru'ial -art of their ser1i'e as an extension of their -hysi'al and s-iritual -erfe'tion/ Additionally, their 1irginity enabled the% to trans'end the so'ietal and legal bonds 0hi'h 'onstrained e1ery other $o%an 'iti7en, and to re-resent the san'tity and safety of $o%e/ The i%itati1e %agi' of the Vestals5 un-enetrated body 0ould -rodu'e a si%ilar effe't for the 0alls of $o%e, -reser1ing and -rote'ting the -o-ula'e therein/ The earliest Vestal Virgins are hard to -in-oint/ Clearly the 'ult of Vesta 0as a des'endant of the 'ult of Hestia fro% 8ree'e/ Indeed, e1en before the 8ree2s, so%e IndoA6uro-ean 'ultures had 1irgins tending a sa'red, eternal fla%e/I =ary Beard, in her arti'le FThe Sexual Status of Vestal Virgins,G e3uates the earliest Vestals 0ith the 0i1es or daughters of the Eing, as their role as the tender of the fire of the 1illage, 0hi'h 0as ne1er allo0ed to be extinguished, 0ould ha1e been an i%%ensely i%-ortant one/ In that era fire 0as hard to %anifest, and so the si%-lest 0ay for a 1illage to ha1e a 'onstant and ready su--ly 0as to ensure that one fire ne1er 0ent out/! The 0ife or daughter of the 2ing
D I !

Ibid. Beard, =ary/ HThe Sexual Status of the Vestal Virgins/HThe Journal of Roman Studies/ D(/ ( !I(): B/ Ibid.

Clayden " 0as entrusted 0ith this tas2 sin'e it 0as not only an in'redibly i%-ortant duty, but also one 0hi'h %ade the 0ife or daughter of the 2ing the hearthA2ee-er for the 0hole 1illage by extension/ Later, the Vestal 0ould translate that res-onsibility into tending the sa'red fires of Vesta, and 0ould therefore be'o%e the hearthA2ee-er for all of $o%e/ In order to initiate a girl into the College of the Vestals, the initiation ritual, or captio 0as -erfor%ed by the high -riest or pontifex maximus/ The ritual, 0hose na%e 'o%es fro% the Latin 0ord for F'a-ture,G is extre%ely si%ilar to the -ro'ess of 'a-turing of a -risonerAofA0ar, but is also 1ery si%ilar to a %arriage 'ere%ony/ In the 'ere%ony, the Vestal is for'ibly re%o1ed fro% her father5s ar%s, sy%boli7ing her re%o1al fro% her father5s pater potestas/ ( Traditionally, the $o%an 'iti7ens 0ere sub4e't to the 'ontrol of a -atriar'h, be that husband, father, or grandfather/ This 'ontrol o1er the fa%ily 0as 2no0n as the pater potestas, and the -atriar'h referred to as the pater familias/ The eldest %an in the fa%ily 0as the pater familias, and his authority rea'hed throughout all blood relati1es and those ado-ted into his fa%ily, as 0ell as the -ro-erty held by those -eo-le and hi%self/ It 'ould e1en extend to his 'lients and freed%en, not to %ention sla1es/ .o%en 'ould only exist under the 'ontrol of their pater familias, e1en 0hen %arried out of the fa%ily/ Certain %arriage 'ere%onies legally -assed the 0o%an fro% her o0n fa%ily into the fa%ily of her husband, but su'h a transferen'e of fa%ilial affiliation %eant that 0ho%e1er had pater potestas in her husband5s fa%ily no0 ado-ted her into that sa%e authority/ The sele'tion of 'hoi'e 'andidates for the offi'e of Vestal Virgin 0as not a si%-le %atter/ The College of the &ontiffs had to ensure that only the %ost -erfe't girls 0ere 'hosen, in order to 'reate the %ost -erfe't sy%bol for the 'ity of $o%e/ In the days of the $e-ubli' and the earliest days of the

Ero--enberg, C+) &ar2er, B!

Clayden D College of the Vestals, only daughters of 1ery 0ellAestablished fa%ilies of high so'ial status 0ere 'hosen/ The daughter of a su'h a fa%ily 0as far %ore li2ely to e%body the -hysi'al -erfe'tion the College of the Vestals re3uired/ The 'andidates 0ere re3uired to be free of ble%ishes, s'ars, disfigure%ents, and other -hysi'al defe'ts in order to 3ualify for the role of Vestal/ If the girl %et the -hysi'al re3uire%ents, the -ontiffs 0ould then exa%ine her %ental state and ensure she 0as of sound %ind/ If both %ental and -hysi'al attributes 0ere satisfied, the final hurdle to 'on3uer 0as the -erfe'tion of the girl5s fa%ilial ties/ In order to be 'onsidered for 'andida'y, the girl5s father and %other had to be %arried and neither 'ould be exAsla1es/ @either of the% 'ould ha1e been found to ha1e 'o%%itted any 'ri%es, or engaged in other0ise nefarious business, and they 0ere both re3uired to be li1ing/ Both she and her father 0ere si%ilarly re3uired to re%ain 0ithin the pater potestas of the girl5s grandfather, or if he 0as dead, her father5s unAe%an'i-ated potestas/ + In B C6, Augustus o-ened the 'andida'y of the Vestals to the -lebs, and then to the daughters of freed%en in order to 0iden the nu%ber of -ossible Vestals as a result of a shortage of eligible 0o%en/ ) After the pontifex maximus too2 the girl into the te%-le, she -assed out of her father5s 'ontrol, but does not -ass into another %an5s potestas/ $ather, she be'a%e a 0o%an sui iuris, or Fof one5s o0n right/G Traditionally, 0hen a $o%an 0o%an be'a%e sui iuris, she 0as ta2en into the -rote'tion of a grou- of 0o%en, si%ilar to the notion of sending a 0o%an to a 'on1ent/ The Vestal, ho0e1er, 0as s-ared fro% the guardianshi- of a grou- of 0o%en of e3ual status, and be'a%e a free agent/ Although the Vir o Vestales !axima # the Chief Vestal Virgin # 0as the leader of the religious se't, she did not hold the legal rights of the guardians of 0o%en de'lared to be sui iuris/ As 0ith her existen'e outside the 'on1entions to $o%an fa%ily la0, so she also existed outside the 'on1entions 0hi'h go1erned the
+ )

&ar2er, BD / Ta2M's, Sarolta/ Vestal Vir ins, Sib"ls, and !atrons/ Austin, TN: Oni1ersity of Texas &ress, +((I, +!, I /

Clayden I status of $o%an fe%ales/ She 0as li2e no other 0o%an, nor 0as she li2e any %an/ The 0o%an5s existen'e in the 'ontext of a %an 0as dire'tly 'ontradi'ted by the Vestals5 existen'e as free fe%ale agents/ The Vestal5s dual as-e't of %aidenhood and %atri%ony arose -ri%arily fro% her existen'e as a -er-etual bride, and it 0as this interstitial bridal state 0hi'h e%-o0ered the rest of the Vestal5s rights/ Sin'e she 0as the e%bodi%ent of Vesta, she 0as both a 1irginal and %atronly figure through Vesta5s duality as eldest and youngest god/ The captio too, reenfor'ed the idea of the Vestal as a bride through her dress, hair, and de%eanor/ The s-ee'h used during the captio 'ere%ony is -erha-s the %ost ob1ious e1iden'e of %arital senti%ent 0hen the -riest is 3uoted as saying to the 'hosen 'andidate: FI ta2e thee, belo1ed, as one 0ho has fulfilled all the legal re3uire%ents, to be -riestess of Vesta, to -erfor% the rites 0hi'h it is la0ful for a Vestal to -erfor% for the $o%an -eo-le, the #uirites/G C The -hrase amata, translated as belo1ed, is also used in the $o%an %arriage 'ere%ony, and the rest of the oath also bears a %ar2ed si%ilarity to that sa%e rite/ Another highly indi'ati1e trait of the captio as a -seudoA%arriage is the -ro'ess of re%o1ing the girl fro% her father5s ar%s/ In a traditional $o%an %arriage, the girl 0ould be ta2en fro% her %other5s ar%s, but as the Vestal needs to be re%o1ed fro% her father5s fa%ilial authority, she is ta2en fro% hi% instead/ .hile the 'ere%ony itself 0as indi'ati1e of the bridal 3ualities of the Vestal Virgin, the ritual itself did not last %ore than a day/ After the Vestal 0as initiated, the bridal si%ilarities 'ontinued in her hair and dress/ =ary Beard %entions the hairstyle of the Vestals in her arti'le, 'alled either the seni crines or the sex crines, translated as six -laits (of hair)/ B Beard e3uates the hairstyle 0ith the $o%an 0edding 'ere%ony, and dra0s the -arallel of the Vestal as a bride/ ?anet Ste-hens, a hairdresser 0ho

C B

Ero--enberg,C+D/ Beard, "/

Clayden ! re'reates an'ient hairstyles fro% sur1i1ing -ri%ary sour'es and using only -eriod tools, has re'ently re'onstru'ted the hairstyle on a li1e %odel/ " I ha1e ta2en =s/ Ste-hens5 instru'tions and re'reated the hairstyle on a li1e %odel %yself, and so 'an s-ea2 to the 'o%-lexity of its for%ation/ In order to a'hie1e this intri'ate hairstyle, the hair %ust be -arted into six indi1idually braided seg%ents, 0ith t0o seg%ents at the front 0ra--ing around the $itta, a bit of ro-e designed to gi1e body to the hair/ The braids are then tied together and brought to the front of the head, then -inned into -la'e 0ith a hair bod2in/ Pro% behind, the hair a--ears to ha1e a series of interlo'2ed braids, and it is this hairstyle 0hi'h the $o%an brides and the Vestal Virgins shared/ Aside fro% her hair, the Vestal5s 'lothes 0ere also an indi'ator of her bridal nature/ The dress of the Vestal Virgin 0as si%-le 'loth, also 2no0n as a stola, but it did not bear the %ar2s of a $o%an 1irgin/ $ather a stola 0as the traditional dress of the $o%an %atron, or o''asionally the $o%an bride/ D &erha-s %ost indi'ati1e 0as her 1eil, 0orn only by the $o%an bride, but also by the Vestal Virgin/ There 0ere, of 'ourse, ano%alies in the 'lothing as the Vestals5 1eils 0ere 0hite 0hile the bride5s 0ere red/ I Doubtless this 0as to 'ou-le the idea of the Vestal as a -er-etual bride through the 1eil 0ith her -urity and 'hastity through the 'olor sy%bolis%/ The hair, the dress, and the -ro'ess of the captio %a2e the %arital senti%ent surrounding the Vestal all too 'lear, and her bridal nature 0as essential to her interstitial nature as both %aiden and %atron/ After her ritual initiation and ( years of learning fro% elder Virgins, the Vestal 0as ready to assu%e the duties of the te%-le/ Her -ri%ary duty 0as the tending of the sa'red fire of Vesta, 0hi'h re3uired 'onstant %aintenan'e for both -ra'ti'al and ritual -ur-oses/ The fla%e itself sy%boli7ed the $o%an state and so it stood as a -er-etual sy%bol that Vesta, and by extension ?u-iter, 0as -leased
"

D I

?anet Ste-hens/ Li1eS'ien'e, H$e'reating the Vestal Virgins5 Hairstyle/H A''essed =ar'h htt-:**000/li1es'ien'e/'o%*+" ("Are'reatingAtheA1estalA1irginAhairstyleA1ideo/ht%l/ Beard, )/ Ibid.

, +( )/

Clayden ( 0ith the 'ity/ ! Aside fro% its -oliti'al and religious i%-li'ations, the fire also sy%boli7ed -ro'reation, and 0hen 'ou-led 0ith the Vestals5 fertile nature, ser1ed to reinfor'e the fertility of the 'ult of Vesta/+( It should be noted that the Vestals5 fertility did not ste% fro% their -ro'reati1e abilities, around 0hi'h %any fertility 'ults 0ere 'entered, but rather fro% their 'hastity/ Their ser1i'e through their %ost fertile years %ade the Vestals li1ing e%bodi%ents of -entAu- fertile energy, 0hi'h they 'ould then distribute to $o%e/+ Aside fro% their fertility and the i%-ortan'e of tending the fire, one of the other essential duties of the Vestal lay in their status as guardians of the -alladiu%/ The -alladiu% 0as a %ysterious ite% held dee- 0ithin the Vestal te%-le, and 0as so se'ret that it 0as ru%ored not to e1en exist/ =yth held that the -alladiu% 0as in fa't a 0ooden statue of &allas Athena brought fro% Troy by Aeneas to the future site of $o%e/++ It 0as one of se1eral ob4e'ts 2no0n as pi nora imperii, or F-ledges of rule,G and 0ith its fello0s (the stone of Cybele, a fourAhorse 'hariot brought fro% Veii, the ashes of >restes, the s'e-ter or &ria%, the 1eil of Iloine, and the sa'red shields gi1en to @u%a) it guaranteed the right of $o%e to rule and 'o%%and/+) Constantine allegedly %o1ed the -alladiu% fro% $o%e to Constantino-le, and su'h a %o1e 0ould ha1e ta2en the seat of -ri%ary -o0er fro% $o%e, thus solidifying Constantine5s rule/ The Vestals 0ere the only grou- 'a-able of guarding su'h an i%-ortant artifa't as not only 0ere they %orally in'orru-tible, but they held allegian'es only to $o%e and 0ould ne1er ex-loit the -o0er of the -alladiu% for -oliti'al -ur-oses/ Another i%-ortant duty 0hi'h only the Vestals 0ere 'a-able of fulfilling 0as their -re-aration of the sa'rifi'ial 'a2e, or mola salsa/ The Vestals 0ere not allo0ed to %ill or 'oo2 # 2ey a'tions in the
! +( + ++ +)

Ta2M's, +!/ Ibid, I(/ Beard, Sta-les, Ariadne/ %rom &ood &oddess to Vestal Vir ins/ London: $outledge, !!I, B+A)/ Ser1/ A/ D/ II

Clayden role of the ty-i'al $o%an 0o%an # but did ta2e the finest 0heat to 'reate the s%all salted mola salsa 'a2es/+C Through this 'reation of the -ure sa'rifi'ial 'a2e, the Vestals restore their 0o%anly status ta2en a0ay by their inability to 'oo2/ The 'a2e itself 0as a si%-le %ixture of flour, salt, and 0ater, 0hi'h 0as s-rin2led o1er the heads of any sa'rifi'ial 1i'ti% before the ritual began/ 61en the mola 'ould 'onstitute a sa'rifi'e if gi1en to the god by itself, and the 0ord in Latin for Fto sa'rifi'eG+B ta2es its ety%ology fro% mola/+" The mola 0as su'h an essential -art of all religious life a'ross $o%e that it 0as essential that the ut%ost 'are 0as ta2en 0ith its -re-aration/ It 0as essential that neither %an nor 0o%an tainted the 'a2e 0ith the infir%ity of their res-e'ti1e sexes, so the mola needed to be -re-ared by -eo-le re%o1ed fro% the bonds of either sex: the Vestals/ As re-resentati1es of the entire $o%an state, and free fro% any other influen'es or 'ategories, the Vestals 0ere the -erfe't entities to 'reate this -ure ritual 'a2e/ As Ariadne Sta-les %entions in her boo2 %rom &ood &oddess to Vestal Vir ins, the mola salsa ritually re-resented $o%e as a 0hole, as did the sa'red fire, the -alladiu%, and the Vestals the%sel1es/ Through the use of the mola salsa in e1ery ritual 0ithin the 'ity of $o%e, the Vestals effe'ti1ely %ade the%sel1es -riestesses in e1ery te%-le in the 'ity, again reinfor'ing their uni3ue nature/+D The legal rights of the Vestal Virgin bore %ore si%ilarities to a %an5s than to any other $o%an5s, but her religious status negated e1en that 'o%-arison/ Onli2e other $o%an 0o%en, u-on her captio, she 0as granted the right to %a2e a 0ill/ As the captio effe'ti1ely re%o1ed her fro% any %ale 'ontrol, her -ossessions 'ouldn5t default to her pater familias on the e1ent of her death/ Instead, the state laid 'lai% to the estate of any Vestal 0ho died intestate, -ro1ided she hadn5t 'rafted a 0ill s-e'ifying

+C +B +" +D

Ta2M's, I)/ immolare Sta-les, BC/ Ibid, BCAB/

Clayden + other0ise/+I Aside fro% her %aterial -ossessions, ho0e1er, the Vestal 0as granted a 0ide berth of rights -re1iously only a1ailable to %en/ Por exa%-le, the Vestal 0as granted a lictor to guard her 0hen she 0ent out in -ubli'/ The lictor 0as a s-e'ial 'lass of $o%an 'i1il ser1ant tas2ed 0ith guarding the li1es and bodies of those granted imperium, or the right to 'o%%and/+! As sa'red and untou'hable sy%bols of $o%e, it is logi'al that the Vestal 0ould be granted a single lictor to hel- %a2e roo% in the streets for her, as 0ell as to guard her fro% any 0ouldAbe atta'2ers/ The Virgins5 uni3ue legal status 'a%e fro% a 1ariety of sour'es, all of 0hi'h 0ere needed in order to ensure that that uni3ue status did not exist outside the pax deorum/ The Vestal5s se-aration fro% the authority of her pater familias u-on her initiation into the College of the Vestals 0as one su'h sour'e, as she 0as then re%o1ed fro% the influen'e of not only any %an, but any fa%ily/ Her body 0as ta2en, -ure and 0hole, a0ay fro% all %ale 'ontrol in order that it %ight be'o%e a sy%bol for $o%e and the 'ity5s safety through her 'hastity/)( Additionally, the Vestal 0as also granted enor%ous lee0ay in the $o%an 'ourt syste%, 'onsidering her gender/ $o%an 0o%an 0ere 'onsidered unreliable, and 0ere therefore %ade to di'tate their 'ourt testi%ony to a %an fro% their ho%e/ The %an 0ould then ta2e the 0o%an5s story to the 'ourt, and re'ite it aloud/ The Vestal Orgulania refused to a--ear in 'ourt on the grounds that her -o0er 0as too great for the state, and she 0as not the only Vestal to abstain on the sa%e grounds/) The Vestals as -ure sy%bols of $o%e 0ere 'onsidered in'orru-tible, and so 0ere not re3uired to s0ear an oath before gi1ing testi%ony, sin'e their 0ord 0as ta2en as truth/ This see%s to be due to their exe%-tion fro% the infirmatis sexus 0hi'h $o%an %atrons 0ere sub4e't to/ This F0ea2ness of the sexG only affe'ted the %atrons of $o%e, sin'e they had been 'on3uered by %en and 0ere indentured to their
+I +! )( )

Ero--enberg, C++ Beard, D/ Ibid, C+B/ Ibid, C+

Clayden ) husbands/)+ The Vestals, 'onstantly in an interstitial state bet0een %aidenhood and %atri%ony, 0ere s-ared this 0ea2ness, and 'ould therefore a--ear in the 'ourts/ .hile the legal status of the Vestal deter%ined her treat%ent in so'ial s-heres and in the 'ontext of her ser1i'e to the -eo-le of $o%e, her greatest duty 0as a -assi1e one: her abstinen'e/ The 1irginity of the Vestal 0as 'entral to her status as a sy%bol of $o%e, and throughout the %illenniu% in 0hi'h the College of the Vestal existed, al%ost all of the% u-held this sa'red 'hastity/ Ho0e1er, 0ith su'h a large grou- of -eo-le and su'h a long stret'h of ti%e, la-ses in the u-2ee- of sa'red la0 0ere ine1itable/ Indeed, se1eral Vestals 0ere a''used, tried, and senten'ed o1er their alleged loss of 'hastity/ >f 'enturies of Vestals, only a fra'tion 'o%%itted the ulti%ate offense of being un'haste before their re3uired thirtyAyear ser1i'e 0as fulfilled/ The religious 'a-ital offense 0as referred to as a crimen incesti, in referen'e not to the a't of sexual a'ti1ity 0ith one5s o0n fa%ily %e%bers, but to the religious offense of the Virgins5 loss of their o0n sa'red 1irginity/)) There 0ere 'ases of Vestals 0ho ha1e been ra-ed, or deflo0ered through in1oluntary %eans, but these 0o%en 0ere not 'on1i'ted of crimen incesti, as they la'2ed the desire to lose their 'hastity/ The incesti 'a%e only through the deliberate renoun'e%ent of her status as $ir o through her sexual a'ti1ity/)C Ho0e1er, due to the i%-ortan'e of the Vestal5s 1irginity and its re-resentation of the un-enetrated 0alls of $o%e, there 'ould be no nonA1irgin Vestal/ .hile the Vestal had to re%ain a 1irgin for the -ur-oses of the safety of the 'ity, she had also been a''used of being -enetrated, %a2ing her a prodi ium, or ano%aly in the gods5 design of the 0orld/ >ther exa%-les of $o%an prodi ia 'ould be a shee- 0ith t0o heads, her%a-hrodites, or 'hildren born 0ith %ore than ten fingers or toes/ These 'reatures existed outside the natural order of things and 0ere therefore troubleso%e o%ens that the
)+ )) )C

Ibid, C+C/ Ibid, C+I Ibid.

Clayden C gods 0ere dis-leased 0ith the hu%an ra'e/)B =ost prodi ia 0ere 3ui'2ly and 3uietly dis-osed of in order to ex-iate the gods/ The Vestal, 0ho therefore existed as a -enetrated 1irgin, 0as a li1ing -aradox 0hi'h had to be eradi'ated/ Interestingly, one of the %ost ob1ious ste-s in 'on'lusi1ely -ro1ing the guilt or inno'en'e of a Vestal Virgin 0as o%itted/ @a%ely, that no one 0as -er%itted to -hysi'ally exa%ine the Vestal to gather 'on'lusi1e e1iden'e on 0hether or not she had been -enetrated/ This 'ounterAintuiti1e -ra'ti'e 0as in -la'e to -reser1e the -erfe'tion of the Vestal, not as a -riestess, but no0 as a sa'rifi'ial 1i'ti%/ Si%ilarly, those a''used and 'on1i'ted of high treason # 0hi'h the crimen incesti 0as e3uitable to # 0ere traditionally thro0n fro% the Tar-eian $o'2, na%ed for a traitorous Vestal 0ho betrayed $o%e to the Sabines/ Ho0e1er, sin'e the Vestal 0as sa'rosan't e1en in death, and sin'e the destru'tion or %arring of the body of the Vestal 0ould endanger $o%e, her body needed to be 2e-t inta't and 0as therefore not hurled off the $o'2/ In order to be -erfe'tly sa'rifi'ed, the Vestal had to be 0hole yet also guilty, further 'onfir%ing her status as a prodi ium/)" Trial by ordeal be'a%e the only 1iable o-tion/ The a''used Vestal 0as brought before the College of the &ontiffs, 0ho 0ere the only body dee%ed authoritati1e enough to rule o1er %atters of gods and religion/ As %entioned earlier, so%e Vestals 0ould refuse to a--ear in 'i1il 'ourt as their -o0er due to their o1er0hel%ing religious -o0er/ Si%ilarly, the 'i1il 'ourt 0as unable to try the Vestal as they si%-ly did not ha1e the authority to rule o1er di1ine %atters/)D Des-ite the ob1ious asso'iation of religious %atters 0ith religious 'ourts, the 'i1il 'ourt 0as ex'luded fro% trying the Vestal for one 1ery si%-le reason: the State 'annot try its o0n sy%bol for treason/ Sadly, %ore often than not, the Vestal 0as 'onde%ned on'e a''usations had been brought against her/ There are grand fables of Vestals 0ho 0ere able to absol1e the%sel1es by
)B )" )D

&ar2er, BIC Ibid. Ero--enberg, C+!/

Clayden B -erfor%ing %ira'ulous feats, -ro1ing the gods 0ere absol1ing the% of any guilt/ >ne fa%ous tale in1ol1es a Vestal na%ed Tu''ia, 0ho 0as a''used of being un'haste, and -ro1ed her inno'en'e by 'arrying 0ater fro% the Tiber $i1er to the Te%-le of Vesta de'laring: F> Vesta, if I ha1e al0ays brought -ure hands to your se'ret ser1i'es, %a2e it so no0 that 0ith this sie1e I shall be able to dra0 0ater fro% the Tiber and bring it to Qour te%-le/)IG Her su''ess stayed her exe'ution/ Ae%ilia 0as another Vestal a''used not of un'hastity, but of negle'ting the sa'red fire, 0hi'h had gone out/ Ae%ilia -rayed to Vesta to hel- her and as2ed her to sho0 that she 0as inno'ent/ She then thre0 her linen heads'arf onto the 'old ashes, and the fire s-rang ba'2 to life, s-aring her -unish%ent/)! =ost Vestals 0ere not so lu'2y, ho0e1er, and 0ere 'onde%ned to death/ &lutar'h tells of the inhu%ation of a Vestal in his boo2 'uma (ompilius, beginning 0ith the de'laration that the 'onde%ned Vestal 0as senten'ed to be buried ali1e 0ithin the pomerium/ This is note0orthy as $o%an la0 di'tated that no -erson 0as allo0ed to be buried inside the boundary of $o%eR e1en Augustus had his %ausoleu% -la'ed outside the pomerium on the )ampus !artius/ Sin'e the Vestal needed to re%ain 0ithin $o%e for her sy%bolis% to re%ain effe'ti1e, she 0as 2e-t 0ithin the pomerium, e1en in death/ &lutar'h goes on to say that beneath the earth a s%all roo% 0as dug out, as 0ere ste-s fro% the ground le1el to the floor of the subterranean 'ha%ber/ The roo% 0as then furnished 0ith a fe0 sele't a%enities in'luding a 'ou'h 0ith -illo0s, a la%- and oil, and a day5s 0orth of bread and %il2 or 0ater/C( 8i1ing a 'onde%ned 0o%an a s%all a%ount of food and drin2 %ay see% 'ounterAintuiti1e, but the 4ustifi'ation 0as si%-le: death by star1ation 0as too i%-ure and disres-e'tful for a Vestal, as she had gi1en her life to one of the %ost signifi'ant religious offi'es in $o%e/ The food 0as 'learly sy%boli': sin'e there 0as no es'a-e for the i%%ured Vestal, it 0as there solely to satisfy the 'ons'ien'es of the sur1i1ing
)I )!

C(

Valerius =axi%us, I/ /B absol La'usCurtius, HDionysus of Hali'arnassus "I/)H A''essed =ar'h ), +( )/ htt-:**-enelo-e/u'hi'ago/edu*Thayer*6*$o%an*Texts*DionysiusJofJHali'arnassus*+CK/ht%l/ &lu/ 'uma (/C

Clayden " $o%ans/ The 'onde%ned Vestal 0as -la'ed 0ithin a litter and the shades 0ere dra0n and tied, and 0as then 'arried fro% the College of the Vestals through the Poru%/ 61eryone in the Poru% and on the -ath to the pomerium ga1e 0ay to the borne Vestal and re%ained totally silent/ =any follo0ed, e3ually silently, and ex-erien'ed 0hat &lutar'h 'alls Fa terrible de-ression of the soul/GC Her tri- throughout the 'ity let the -assing $o%ans foist their transgressions and e1ils onto her, and she be'a%e a s'a-egoat for her -eo-le/ Burying her 0ith these %isdeeds and e1ils atta'hed to her 0ould rid the 'ity of the%, and allo0 the% to be ta2en ba'2 to Vesta/C+ After her -ro'ession through the 'ity, the stra-s 0ere undone on the litter, and the pontifex maximus # high -riest of $o%e # said so%e -rayers and ushered the Vestal do0n fro% the litter/ He led her to the to- ste- abo1e the s%all roo%, and then all in attendan'e loo2ed a0ay/ .hen the Vestal had disa--eared fro% sight, the ste-s 0ere re%o1ed and the hole 0as 'o1ered 0ith earth so that no tra'e re%ains/C) The Vestal 0as returned to the earth and to Vesta, 0ho, as an earth goddess 'ould re'ei1e her daughter and a1atar ba'2 into herself/ The uni3ue nature of the Vestals di'tated the ter%s of her death, as it had the ter%s of her life/ Her death 0as essential for the restoration of the natural order of the 0orld, and so she be'a%e a hu%an sa'rifi'e, again enfor'ing her status as a s-e'ial indi1idual in $o%an so'iety/ She 0as, in essen'e, the -erfe't sa'rifi'ial 1i'ti% sin'e not only 0as she guaranteed to be ritually -ure but she also a'ted a re-resentation of the 0hole/ This duality of -urity and sy%bolis% 0as exa'tly the right 3uality for a sa'rifi'ial 1i'ti%R 4ust as she 0as the disease, so she 'ould be'o%e the 'ure/CC

C C+ C) CC

Ibid. &lu/ 'uma (/" Sta-les, ))/ &ar2er, BID

Clayden D The %ost -erilous ti%e to be a Vestal 0as during a ti%e of -oliti'al or e'ono%i' 'risis, sin'e the $o%an -eo-le 0ould bla%e su'h disasters on the dis-leasure of the gods/ @aturally, the Vestal as a tenuous and highly 1olatile lin2 bet0een the gods and hu%ans 0as a sensible 'hoi'e for a s'a-egoat, sin'e her sa'rifi'e 0as all but guaranteed to restore the pax deorum/ .ith the Vestal5s 'hastity and the pax deorum being inextri'ably lin2ed, the da%age to one 0ould s-ell disaster for the other/ If the Vestal 0as found to ha1e bro2en her 1o0s of 'hastity, the $o%ans belie1ed the pax deorum 0ould be si%ilarly bro2en/ The re1erse held true as 0ell: if disaster 'a%e to the 'ity of $o%e through a fra'ture in the pax, then a Vestal %ust ha1e bro2en her 1o0s of 'hastity/ The falsely a''used Vestal 'ould ne1er be -hysi'ally exa%ined, ho0e1er, and so the only e1iden'e 0hi'h 'ould be brought against her 0ould ha1e been s-e'ulati1e/ That 0as, ho0e1er, suffi'ient for the -ani'2ed $o%ans, 0ho 0ould 3ui'2ly bury a Vestal in order to right the natural order/ Her status as a s'a-egoat, or pharma*on, is easily re'ogni7ed 0hen one 'onsiders her use in this %anner/ The final as-e't of her death 0as her status as a de$otio/ Ty-i'ally the de$otio 0as a general in the $o%an Ar%y 0ho 1o0ed to die in battle in order to ensure his ar%y5s 1i'tory, but in the sense of the Vestal she a1o0ed to sa'rifi'e her life in an effort to -la'ate the gods and sa1e the $o%an -eo-le/ .hile the de$otio and the pharma*on are 1ery 'losely lin2ed, the 2ey differen'e lies in her 'ontinued -rote'tion after her death/ As de$otio, the Vestal 'ontinued to -ro1ide the 'ity 0ith safety, e1en if she had been defiled and 'onde%ned/ Her body, buried 0ithin the 'ity of $o%e, 0ould 'ontinue to endure as a sa'red reli' of Vesta/ The %ost astounding as-e't of her -ostA%orte% existen'e ho0e1er, 0as that due to her 'ontinued status as a -rote'trix of the 'ity, e1en the 'onde%ned Vestal 0as sa'rifi'ed to yearly/CB &lutar'h 0as in'redulous at the sa'rifi'ing to a disgra'ed and -enetrated Vestal, 0hose 'ri%es 0ere 4udged as treason against the state/ Her uni3ue status as a Vestal is the only ex-lanation for her
CB

&ar2er, BID/

Clayden I s-e'ial treat%ent e1en after death/C" The Vestal Virgin 0as thus an ano%aly, 0hose legal and so'ial status 0as 'o%-letely uni3ue in a $o%an 'ontext, and it 0as for this reason that she be'a%e the -erfe't sy%bol of $o%e/ This duality and -aradoxi'al nature 0as one of the defining 'hara'teristi's of the Vestal, 0hose existen'e as a 'reature of li%inality 0as 'entral to her -osition as a sy%bol and a -riestess/ The 'on'e-t of li%inality and li%inal s-a'es, 0hi'h 'o%es fro% the Latin limen Fthreshold,G is -er1asi1e in the $o%an -sy'he/CD Pro% their %any li%inal deities # ?anus, =er'ury, and Tri1ia a%ong the% # one thing is held in 'o%%on, their -atronage o1er a s-a'e 0hi'h has no 'lear definition, an inAbet0een s-a'e/ Por exa%-le, ?anus is the -atron deity of transitions, door0ays, and gates, all of 0hi'h re-resent li%inal and nonA 'or-oreal s-a'e/ =er'ury 0as god of %essengers, and Tri1ia goddess of 'rossroads/CI In the $o%an 0orld, all these areas existed bet0een t0o 'learly defined -oints and 0ere therefore dangerously a%biguous/ By -la'ing a danger 0ithin a li%inal s-a'e, that danger 'annot rea'h the 'learly defined s-a'e of the house, and is therefore neutrali7ed/ The Vestal exists as a li%inal being due to her uni3ue legal status 0hi'h exe%-ts her fro% the la0s 0hi'h go1ern the treat%ent of 0o%en/ Her so'ial status also se-arates her fro% the %ores of $o%an 0o%en, as 0ell as those of $o%an %en/ Pro% the beginning of the Vestal5s ser1i'e, her status 0as trans'endent of 'on1entional $o%an nor%s/ Her -ubli' status is a -ri%e exa%-le of her li%inal nature/ She is the ideal of 0o%an as both %aiden and %atron, and through this ar'hety-i'al re-resentation of the -erfe't 0o%an, she extends her sy%boli' rea'h to the 'ity as a 0hole/C! As a
C" CD

Ibid. >nline 6ty%ology Di'tionary, Hli%inal (ad4/)/H Last %odified +( +/ A''essed Pebruary +B, +( )/ htt-:**000/ety%online/'o%*index/-h-Lallo0edJinJfra%eS(Tsear'hSli%inalTsear'h%odeSnone/ CI Zimmerman, J E. (1964). "Trivia". Dictionary of Classical Mythology. New York: Harper & Row. p. 278. JJHThe @ature of =er'ury/H Last %odified +( )/ A''essed Pebruary +B, +( )/ htt-:**ro%an-agan/blogs-ot/'o%/au*+( )*( *theAnatureAofA%er'ury/ht%l/ JJServius Aen. I 449 C! &ar2er, BD

Clayden ! Vestal Virgin she is 'a-able of re-resenting the 'ity by not being bound to any %an/ Her ritual 'a-ture and re%o1al fro% the authority of her father %ean that 0ith no fa%ily, she 0as a 0o%an 0ithout any %ale influen'e/ In $o%an 'usto% 0o%en only existed in the 'ontext of their %en: the 0ife 0ith her husband, the daughter of a household, or as a free legal agent 2no0n as sui iuris but only under tutela mulierum, or the guardianshi- of 0o%en/ The Vestal 0as none of these/ Deli1ered fro% her father5s 'ontrol she 0as no longer the daughter of a house, and as a 1irgin she 0as not a 0ife nor a %atron/ She 0as sui iuris, but had no guardians, a legal state ex'lusi1e to Vestals/ It 0as her 1irginity 0hi'h enabled her to exist as neither %atron nor %an, and be'ause she belongs to no one, she 'an belong to the 'ity/B( .hile this -a-er is fo'used on the Vestals 0hi'h ser1ed the Te%-le of Vesta in the 'ity of $o%e, they 0ere by no %eans the only Vestals 0ithin the $o%an $e-ubli' or 6%-ire/ In the Alban Hills, re'ords of t0o Vestals ha1e been found/ =anlia Se1era ser1ed as Chief Vestal at Bo1illae, an an'ient, no0Aruined to0n/B Her Alban neighbor Pla1ia Vera 0as the Chief Vestal of the Alban 'itadel, 0hi'h -la'ed both Vestals in the Alban hills but at entirely different te%-les/B+ This -re1alen'e of te%-les in su'h a s%all region %ay be indi'ati1e of a %ore 0ideAs-read 'ult of Vesta than the 'urrent ar'haeologi'al e1iden'e 0ould suggest/ It is logi'al to assu%e that e1ery to0n had a te%-le if only for the tending of a -er-etual fire, but the exa't nu%ber of te%-les is un2no0n/ Another note0orthy extraA $o%an Vestal 0as Cae'ilia &hilete, a $ir o Vestale maior in the area of %odern La7io/B) .hile her ser1i'e 0as unre%ar2able, it is the in'lusion of maior in her title 0hi'h indi'ates that rather than a 'olle'tion of 0o%en ser1ing the sa'red fire, there 0ere only t0o/ Su'h a -au'ity of -riestesses 'ould ha1e been the result of a s%all -o-ulation in the to0n 0hi'h 'ouldn5t -ro1ide the full a%ount of

B( B B+ B)

Ibid. )IL NIV + C( )IL NIV +C ) )IL NIV +(DD

Clayden +( Vestals/ Their existen'e being 0holly outside the pomerium, the Vestals inhabiting these regions of Italy and beyond 0ere not e3uitable to the $o%an Vestals/ They did not hold the sa%e sy%boli' -o0er, nor did they ha1e the sa%e ritual status/ It is therefore through the 'o%-arison of the extraA$o%an Vestals to the $o%an ones that s'holars 'an better 'ontextuali7e and exa%ine the singular nature of the Vestals 0ithin the pomerium. The Vestals existed outside the entirety of any $o%an so'ial, legal, or religious 'onstru'tion and therefore 0ere, in the stri'test sense, not $o%ans at all/ Their interstitial nature 0as threeAfold/ At its %ost basi' le1el, it 0as the Vestal5s inability to be 'ategori7ed as either %an or 0o%an/ Although she 0as biologi'ally a 0o%an, her fe%ale nature 0as su--ressed through the stri--ing of her sexuality and the e-ito%i7ation of her 1irginity/ .ith her fe%inine nature gone, %ale ele%ents 0ere introdu'ed through her legal status and the -ri1ileges granted to the Vestal/ Onli2e all %en, ho0e1er, she 0as still bound by so%e 0o%anly la0s, thus negating her %ale status as 0ell/ .ith her gender suffi'iently in flux, the nature of her re%aining fe%ininity 0as 'alled into 3uestion through the se'ond -ortion of her interstitial existen'e: her dual existen'e as %aiden and %atron/ The Vestal 0as a 1irgin, but her 1irginity 0as not the ty-i'al 1irginity of the $o%an %aiden/ The Vestal had no intention of ha1ing any sexual relations 0ithin her thirty year ser1i'e, and so her 1irginity 'ould not be e3uated to the 1irginity of the eligible ba'helorette/ $ather, the Vestal be'a%e a -er-etual bride, 'onstantly 0al2ing the line bet0een %aiden and %atron/ The %aiden 0as still a 1irgin, and 0ould re%ain so until her 0edding night, 0hi'h the Vestal 0ould ne1er rea'h/ The %atron 0ould tend the hearth and ser1e the household, 4ust as the Vestal did for the entirety of $o%e/ Through her 'onstant bridal state she %anaged to en'o%-ass both as-e'ts 0ithin a single entity, and thus ser1e as a 1irginal %atron for the 'iti7enry of $o%e/

Clayden + Pinally, her li%inal nature extended to her -ortrayal in both the -ubli' and the -ri1ate s-heres/ The Vestal5s -ubli' side 0as 0ellA2no0n and en4oyed by the 'iti7enry, as she 0as gi1en the best seats at ga%es and allo0ed -riority in the streets/ The sa'red fire, too, 0ould ha1e been on dis-lay for the entirety of the $o%an -o-ula'e/ As the Vestals tended the fire, they 0ould ha1e been on dis-lay for the -eo-le as 0ell/ In 'ontrast, the -ri1ate as-e't of the Vestals extended into e1ery ho%e in $o%e through their duties as hearthA2ee-ers/ Through their a'tions as hearthA2ee-ers for the entire 'ity of $o%e, the Vestals -er1ade e1ery as-e't of both -ubli' and -ri1ate life 0ithin the 'ity/ It is through this di'hoto%y of -ubli' and -ri1ate, as 0ell as the duality of %aiden and %atron, and the interstitial nature of her gender that the Vestal flu'tuated bet0een all s-heres of so'iety, la0, and religion/ By re%o1ing the%sel1es fro% all so'ietal 'on1ention or legal -re'edent, they 0ere allo0ed to re-resent the entirety of the $o%an state and e1eryone in it/