Abbasid Caliphate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk pa e. This article!s lead section may not ade"uately summari#e key points of its contents. $%une &'()* This article needs attention from an e+pert on the sub,ect. $%une &'()* Abbasid Caliphate

al-.hil/fah al-0Abb/s1yyah

23'4(&35

Abbasid Caliphate at its reatest e+tent, c. 53'. Capital .ufa $23'46&* Ar-7a""ah $28645'8* 9amarra $5)648&* :a hdad $26&486* $5'84)6*

$58&4(&35* ;an ua es Arabic 7e ional lan ua es= Aramaic, Armenian, :erber, Coptic, >eor ian, >reek, .urdish, Persian, < hu# Turkic,[(] [&] 7eli ion >overnment Caliph Bistory Cstablished 23' 23'423@ (&@&4(&35 As-9affah $first* Al-Austa!sim $last* 9unni ?slam Caliphate <fficial lan ua e=

Disestablished(&35 Dinar $ old coin*

Currency

Dirham $silver coin* Fals $copper coin* Preceded by 9ucceeded by Emayyad Caliphate Dabuyid dynasty Aon ol Cmpire Tahirid dynasty Fatimid Caliphate A hlabids Cmirate of CFrdoba Today part of Countries today[shoG]

Part of a series on the Bistory of ?ra" Detail from the ?shtar >ate Ancient ?ra" 9umer Akkadian Cmpire :abylonia Assyria Heo-Assyrian Cmpire Heo-:abylonian Cmpire Classical ?ra" Achaemenid Assyria 9eleucid :abylonia Parthian :abylonia 9asanian Asorestan Aedieval ?ra" Abbasid Caliphate <ttoman ?ra" Aamluk dynasty Aodern ?ra" Aandatory ?ra" .in dom of ?ra" 7epublic of ?ra" ?ra"i 7epublic $(835465* :a!athist ?ra" <ccupation of ?ra"

7epublic of ?ra" vte These articles are based on the Caliphate

Aohammad adil-7ashidun empire-slide. if Aain Caliphates[hide] 7ashidun Caliphate $6)&466(* Emayyad Caliphate $66(423'* Abbasid Caliphate $23'4(&35* <ttoman Caliphate $(3(24(8&@* Contender Caliphates[hide] Caliphate of CFrdoba $8&84(')(* Fatimid Caliphate $8'84((2(* Almohad Caliphate $((@84(&68* 7elated topics[hide] 9ultanate Cmirate ?mamate Portal icon ?slam portal vte The Abbasid Caliphate $Arabic= I A;A-;C= al-.hil/fah al-0Abb/s1yyah*, Gas the third of the ?slamic caliphates to succeed the Prophet Auhammad. The Abbasid dynasty descended from the Prophet!s youn est uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Auttalib $3664 63) CC*. They ruled as caliphs from their capital in :a hdad, in modern ?ra", after takin over authority of the Auslim empire from the Emayyads in 23' CC $()& AB*. The Abbasid caliphate first centered their overnment in .ufa, but in 26& the caliph AlAansur founded the city of :a hdad, north of the Persian city of Ctesiphon. The choice

of a capital so close to Persia proper reflects a roGin reliance on Persian bureaucrats, most notably of the :armakid family, to overn the territories con"uered by Arab Auslims, as Gell as an increasin inclusion of non-Arab Auslims in the ummah. Despite this cooperation, the Abbasids of the 8th century Gere forced to cede authority over the Persian provinces to local dynastic emirs Gho only nominally acknoGled ed their su#erainty. This marked the be innin of a Gider breakdoGn of Abbasid authority, Gith the loss of Al-Andalus and Aa hreb to the Emayyads, ?fri"iya to the A hlabids, and C ypt to the 9hi!ite Caliphate of the Fatimids. The political poGer of the caliphs lar ely ended Gith the rise of the :uyids and the 9el,u" Turks. Althou h Abbasid leadership over the vast ?slamic empire Gas radually reduced to a ceremonial reli ious function, the dynasty retained control over its Aesopotamian demesne. The capital city of :a hdad became a center of science, culture, philosophy and invention durin the >olden A e of ?slam. This period of cultural fruition ended in (&35 Gith the sack of :a hdad by the Aon ols under Bula u .han. The Abbasid caliphate, and Auslim culture in eneral, recentered itself in the Aamluk capital of Cairo in (&6(. The dynasty continued to claim authority in reli ious matters until after the <ttoman con"uest of C ypt, Ghen the position of caliph Gas formally surrendered to the <ttoman 9ultan 9elim ?. Contents [hide] ( 7ise & PoGer ) ?slamic >olden A e ).( 9cience ).& ;iterature ).) Philosophy ).@ Technolo y @ Cvolution of ?slamic identity 3 Decline of the empire 3.( Causes 3.& Fracture to autonomous dynasties 3.&.( 9eparatist dynasties and their successors 3.) :uyid and 9el,u" military control $8254(((5* 3.@ 7evival of military stren th $(((54(&'6*

3.3 Aon ol invasion $(&'64(&35* 6 Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo $(&354(3(2* 2 Abbasid .hanate of :astak 5 ;ist of Abbasid caliphs 8 9ee also (' Hotes (( 7eferences (& :iblio raphy () C+ternal links 7ise[edit]

The Abbasid caliphs Gere Arabs descended from Abbas ibn Abd al-Auttalib, one of the youn est uncles of Auhammad and of the same :anu Bashim clan. The Abbasids claimed to be the true successors of Auhammad in replacin the Emayyad descendants of :anu Emayya by virtue of their closer relationship to the Prophet.

Coin of the Abbasids, :a hdad, ?ra", 263. The Abbasids also distin uished themselves from the Emayyads by attackin their moral character and administration in eneral. Accordin to ?ra ;apidus, JThe Abbasid revolt Gas supported lar ely by Arabs, mainly the a rieved settlers of AarG Gith the addition of the Kemeni faction and their AaGaliJ.[)] The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Auslims, knoGn as maGali, Gho remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and Gere perceived as a loGer class Githin the Emayyad empire. Auhammad ibn !Ali, a reat- randson of Abbas, be an to campai n for the return of poGer to the family of Auhammad, the Bashimites, in Persia durin the rei n of Emar ??. Durin the rei n of AarGan ??, this opposition culminated in the rebellion of ?brahim the ?mam, the fourth in descent from Abbas. 9upported by the province of .horasan, ?ran and the 9hi!i Arabs,[@] he achieved considerable success, but Gas captured in the year 2@2 and died in prisonL some hold that he Gas assassinated.[citation needed] The "uarrel Gas taken up by his brother Abdallah, knoGn by the name of Abu al-!Abbas as9affah, Gho defeated the Emayyads in 23' in the :attle of the Mab near the >reat Mab and Gas subse"uently proclaimed caliph.

?mmediately after their victory, Abu al-!Abbas as-9affah sent his forces to Central Asia, Ghere his forces fou ht a ainst Tan e+pansion durin the :attle of Talas $the Abbasids Gere knoGn to their opponents as the J:lack robed Ta#iJ $= hNiy1 DOshP*, JTa#iJ bein a Tan dynasty borroGin from Persian to denote !Arabs!.[3] :armakids, Gho Gere instrumental in buildin :a hdadL introduced the Gorld!s first recorded paper mill in :a hdad, thus be innin a neG era of intellectual rebirth in the Abbasid domain. Within (' years, the Abbasids built another renoGned paper mill in the Emayyad capital of CFrdoba in 9pain. PoGer[edit]

The first chan e the Abbasids made Gas to move the empire!s capital from Damascus, in 9yria, to :a hdad in ?ra". This Gas to both appease as Gell to be closer to the Persian maGali support base that e+isted in this re ion more influenced by Persian history and culture, and part of the Persian maGali demand for less Arab dominance in the empire. :a hdad Gas established on the Ti ris 7iver in 26&. A neG position, that of the vi#ier, Gas also established to dele ate central authority, and even reater authority Gas dele ated to local emirs. Cventually, this meant that many Abbasid caliphs Gere rele ated to a more ceremonial role than under the Emayyads, as the vi#iers be an to e+ert reater influence, and the role of the old Arab aristocracy Gas sloGly replaced by a Persian bureaucracy.[6] The Abbasids had depended heavily on the support of Persians[@] in their overthroG of the Emayyads. Abu al-!Abbas! successor, Al-Aansur Gelcomed non-Arab Auslims to his court. While this helped inte rate Arab and Persian cultures, it alienated many of their Arab supporters, particularly the .horasanian Arabs Gho had supported them in their battles a ainst the Emayyads. These fissures in their support led to immediate problems. The Emayyads, Ghile out of poGer, Gere not destroyed. The only survivin member of the Emayyad royal family, Ghich had been all but annihilated, ultimately made his Gay to 9pain Ghere he established himself as an independent Cmir $Abd ar-7ahman ?, 236*. ?n 8&8, Abd ar7ahman ??? assumed the title of Caliph, establishin Al Andalus from CFrdoba as a rival to :a hdad as the le itimate capital of the ?slamic Cmpire. ?n 236, The Abbasid Caliph Al-Aansur sent over @,''' Arab mercenaries to assist the Chinese Tan dynasty in the An 9hi 7ebellion a ainst An ;ushan. After the Gar, they remained in China.[2][5][8][('][((] Arab Caliph Barun al-7ashid established an alliance Gith China.[(&] 9everal embassies from the Abbaside Caliphs to the Chinese Court are recorded in the T!an Annals, the most important of these bein those of $A-bo-lo-ba* Abul Abbas, the founder of the neG dynasty, that of $A-p!u-ch!a-fo* Abu %afar, the builder of :a dad, of Ghom more must be said immediatelyL and that of $A-lun* Barun al7ashid, best knoGn, perhaps, in modern days throu h the popular Gork, Arabian Hi hts. The Abbasides or J:lack Fla s,J as they Gere commonly called, are knoGn in Tan

dynasty chronicles as the hNiy1 DOshP, J The :lack-robed Arabs.J[()][(@][(3][(6] Al7ashid sent embassies to the Chinese Tan dynasty and established ood relations Gith them.[(&][(2][(5][(8][&'][&(][&&][&)] ?slamic >olden A e[edit]

Aain article= ?slamic >olden A e Further information= Carly ?slamic philosophy and ?nventions in the Auslim Gorld

A manuscript Gritten durin the Abbasid Cra ?n virtually every field of endeavor Qin astronomy, alchemy, mathematics, medicine, optics and so forthQ Arab scientists Gere in the forefront of scientific advance.[&@] The Abbasid historical period lastin to the Aon ol con"uest of :a hdad in (&35 CC is considered the ?slamic >olden A e.[&3] The ?slamic >olden A e Gas inau urated by the middle of the 5th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to :a hdad.[&6] The Abbassids Gere influenced by the Rur!anic in,unctions and hadith such as Jthe ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyrJ stressin the value of knoGled e.[&6] Durin this period the Auslim Gorld became an intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knoGled e and established the Bouse of Wisdom in :a hdadL Ghere both Auslim and non-Auslim scholars sou ht to translate and ather all the Gorld!s knoGled e into Arabic.[&6] Aany classic Gorks of anti"uity that Gould otherGise have been lost Gere translated into Arabic and Persian and later in turn translated into Turkish, BebreG and ;atin.[&6] Durin this period the Auslim Gorld Gas a cauldron of cultures Ghich collected, synthesi#ed and si nificantly advanced the knoGled e ained from the ancient 7oman, Chinese, ?ndian, Persian, C yptian, Horth African, >reek and :y#antine civili#ations.[&6] 9cience[edit] Aain article= 9cience in the medieval ?slamic Gorld Further information= Alchemy $?slam*, ?slamic astronomy, ?slamic mathematics, ?slamic medicine, and Timeline of science and technolo y in the ?slamic Gorld

Austansiriya Eniversity in :a hdad.

%abir ibn Bayyan, Jthe father of ChemistryJ.[&2][&5][&8][)']

?bn al-Baytham, Jthe father of <pticsJ.[)(] The rei ns of Barun al-7ashid $25645'8* and his successors fostered an a e of reat intellectual achievement. ?n lar e part, this Gas the result of the schismatic forces that had undermined the Emayyad re ime, Ghich relied on the assertion of the superiority of Arab culture as part of its claim to le itimacy, and the Abbasids! Gelcomin of support from non-Arab Auslims. ?t is Gell established that the Abbasid caliphs modeled their administration on that of the 9assanids.[)&] Barun al-7ashid!s son, Al-Aa!mun $Ghose mother Gas Persian*, is even "uoted as sayin = The Persians ruled for a thousand years and did not need us Arabs even for a day. We have been rulin them for one or tGo centuries and cannot do Githout them for an hour. [))] A number of medieval thinkers and scientists livin under ?slamic rule played a role in transmittin ?slamic science to the Christian West. They contributed to makin Aristotle knoGn in Christian Curope[citation needed]. ?n addition, the period saG the recovery of much of the Ale+andrian mathematical, eometric and astronomical knoGled e, such as that of Cuclid and Claudius Ptolemy. These recovered mathematical methods Gere later enhanced and developed by other ?slamic scholars, notably by Persian scientists Al:iruni and Abu Hasr Aansur. Al ebra Gas si nificantly developed by Persian scientist Auhammad ibn ASs/ al.hG/ri#m1 durin this time in his landmark te+t, .itab al-%abr Ga-l-Au"abala, from Ghich the term al ebra is derived. Be is thus considered to be the father of al ebra by some, [)@] althou h the >reek mathematician Diophantus has also been iven this title. The terms al orism and al orithm are derived from the name of al-.hGari#mi, Gho Gas also responsible for introducin the Arabic numerals and Bindu-Arabic numeral system beyond the ?ndian subcontinent. ?bn al-Baytham $Alha#en* developed an early scientific method in his :ook of <ptics $('&(*. The most important development of the scientific method Gas the use of e+periments to distin uish betGeen competin scientific theories set Githin a enerally empirical orientation, Ghich be an amon Auslim scientists. ?bn al-Baytham!s empirical proof of the intromission theory of li ht $that is, that li ht rays entered the eyes rather than bein emitted by them* Gas particularly important. :radley 9teffens described ?bn

al-Baytham as the Jfirst scientistJ[)3] for his development of scientific method.[)6][)2] Aedicine in medieval ?slam Gas an area of science that advanced particularly durin the Abbasids! rei n. Durin the 8th century, :a hdad contained over 5'' doctors, and reat discoveries in the understandin of anatomy and diseases Gere made. The clinical distinction betGeen measles and smallpo+ Gas described durin this time. Famous Persian scientist ?bn 9ina $knoGn to the West as Avicenna* produced treatises and Gorks that summari#ed the vast amount of knoGled e that scientists had accumulated, and Gas very influential throu h his encyclopedias, The Canon of Aedicine and The :ook of Bealin . The Gork of him and many others directly influenced the research of Curopean scientists durin the 7enaissance. Astronomy in medieval ?slam Gas advanced by Al-:attani, Gho improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Carth!s a+is. The corrections made to the eocentric model by al-:attani[citation needed], Averroes[citation needed], Hasir al-Din al-Tusi, Ao!ayyeduddin Erdi and ?bn al-9hatir Gere later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model.[)5] The astrolabe, thou h ori inally developed by the >reeks, Gas developed further by ?slamic astronomers and en ineers, and subse"uently brou ht to medieval Curope. Auslim alchemists influenced medieval Curopean alchemists, particularly the Gritin s attributed to %/bir ibn Bayy/n $>eber*. A number of chemical processes such as distillation techni"ues Gere developed in the Auslim Gorld and then spread to Curope. ;iterature[edit]

Parrish, Aa+field, Ali :aba. Aain articles= ?slamic literature, Arabic literature, Arabic epic literature, and Persian literature Further information= ?slamic poetry, Arabic poetry, Turkish poetry, and Persian poetry The best knoGn fiction from the ?slamic Gorld Gas The :ook of <ne Thousand and <ne Hi hts. The ori inal concept is derived from pre-?slamic ?ranian $Persian* prototype Gith reliance on ?ndian elements. ?t also includes stories from the rest of the Aiddle-Castern and Horth African nations. The epic took form in the ('th century and reached its final form by the (@th centuryL the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[)8] All Arabian fantasy tales Gere often called JArabian Hi htsJ Ghen translated into Cn lish, re ardless of Ghether they appeared in The :ook of <ne Thousand and <ne Hi hts.[)8] This epic has been influential in the West since it Gas translated in the (5th century, first by Antoine >alland.[@'] Aany imitations Gere Gritten, especially in France.[@(] Tarious characters from this epic have themselves become

cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, 9inbad and Ali :aba. A famous e+ample of Arabic poetry on romance Gas ;ayla and Aa,nun, Ghich further developed mainly by ?ranian, A#erbai,ani and other poets in Persian, A#erbai,ani, Turkish, and other Turk lan ua es[@&] datin back to the Emayyad era in the 2th century. ?t is a tra ic story of undyin love much like the later 7omeo and %uliet.[@)][dead link] Arabic poetry reached its reatest hei hts in the Abbasid era, especially before the loss of central authority and the rise of the Persianate dynasties. Writers like Abu Tammam and Abu HuGas Gere closely connected to the caliphal court in :a hdad durin the early 8th century, Ghile others such as al-Autanabbi received their patrona e from re ional courts. Philosophy[edit] Aain articles= ?slamic philosophy and Carly ?slamic philosophy Further information= ;o ic in ?slamic philosophy, .alam, Avicennism, Averroism, ?lluminationist philosophy, and Transcendent Theosophy <ne of the common definitions for J?slamic philosophyJ is Jthe style of philosophy produced Githin the frameGork of ?slamic culture.J[@@] ?slamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned Gith reli ious issues, nor is e+clusively produced by Auslims.[@@] Their Gorks on Aristotle Gas a key step in the transmission of learnin from ancient >reeks to the ?slamic Gorld and the West. They often corrected the philosopher, encoura in a lively debate in the spirit of i,tihad. They also Grote influential ori inal philosophical Gorks, and their thinkin Gas incorporated into Christian philosophy durin the Aiddle A es, notably by Thomas A"uinas.[citation needed] Three speculative thinkers, al-.indi, al-Farabi, and Avicenna, combined Aristotelianism and Heoplatonism Gith other ideas introduced throu h ?slam, and Avicennism Gas later established as a result. <ther influential Auslim philosophers in the Caliphates include al-%ahi#, and ?bn al-Baytham $Alhacen*. Technolo y[edit] Aain articles= ?nventions in medieval ?slam, Auslim A ricultural 7evolution, and Timeline of ?slamic science and technolo y

Coin of the Abbasids, :a hdad, ?ra", (&@@

Abbasid coins durin Al-Au!tamid!s rei n

This article needs attention from an e+pert on the sub,ect. Please add a reason or a talk parameter to this template to e+plain the issue Gith the article. Consider associatin this re"uest Gith a WikiPro,ect. $April &'((* ?n technolo y, the Auslim Gorld adopted papermakin from China.[@3] The use of paper spread from China into the Auslim Gorld in the 5th century CC, arrivin in 9pain $and then the rest of Curope* in the ('th century. ?t Gas easier to manufacture than parchment, less likely to crack than papyrus, and could absorb ink, makin it ideal for makin records and makin copies of the .oran. J?slamic paper makers devised assembly-line methods of hand-copyin manuscripts to turn out editions far lar er than any available in Curope for centuries.J[@6] ?t Gas from ?slam that the rest of the Gorld learned to make paper from linen.[@2] The knoGled e of unpoGder Gas also transmitted from China via ?slamic countries, Ghere the formulas for pure potassium nitrate and an e+plosive unpoGder effect Gere first developed.[@5][@8] Advances Gere made in irri ation and farmin , usin neG technolo y such as the Gindmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit Gere brou ht to Curope throu h alAndalus, and su ar cultivation Gas radually adopted by the Curopeans. Apart from the Hile, Ti ris and Cuphrates, navi able rivers Gere uncommon, so transport by sea Gas very important. Havi ational sciences Gere hi hly developed, makin use of a rudimentary se+tant $knoGn as a kamal*. When combined Gith detailed maps of the period, sailors Gere able to sail across oceans rather than skirt alon the coast. Auslim sailors Gere also responsible for reintroducin lar e three masted merchant vessels to the Aediterranean. The name caravel may derive from an earlier Arab boat knoGn as the "/rib.[3'] Arab merchants dominated trade in the ?ndian <cean until the arrival of the Portu uese in the (6th century. Bormu# Gas an important center for this trade. There Gas also a dense netGork of trade routes in the Aediterranean, alon Ghich Auslim countries traded Gith each other and Gith Curopean poGers such as Tenice, >enoa and Catalonia. The 9ilk 7oad crossin Central Asia passed throu h Auslim states betGeen China and Curope. Auslim en ineers in the ?slamic Gorld made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropoGer, and early industrial uses of tidal poGer, Gind poGer, and petroleum $notably by distillation into kerosene*. The industrial uses of Gatermills in the ?slamic Gorld date back to the 2th century, Ghile hori#ontal-Gheeled and vertical-Gheeled Gater mills Gere both in Gidespread use since at least the 8th century. :y the time of the Crusades, every province throu hout the ?slamic Gorld had mills in operation, from al-Andalus and Horth Africa to the Aiddle Cast and Central Asia. These mills performed a variety of a ricultural and industrial tasks.[@3] Auslim en ineers also developed machines $such as pumps* incorporatin crankshafts, employed ears in mills and Gater-raisin machines, and

used dams to provide additional poGer to Gatermills and Gater-raisin machines.[3(] 9uch advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that Gere previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechani#ed and driven by machinery instead in the medieval ?slamic Gorld. ?t has been ar ued that the industrial use of GaterpoGer had spread from ?slamic to Christian 9pain, Ghere fullin mills, paper mills, and for e mills Gere recorded for the first time in Catalonia.[3&] A number of industries Gere enerated durin the Arab A ricultural 7evolution, includin early industries for te+tiles, su ar, rope-makin , mattin , silk, and paper. ;atin translations of the (&th century passed on knoGled e of chemistry and instrument makin in particular.[3)] The a ricultural and handicraft industries also e+perienced hi h levels of roGth durin this period.[3@] Cvolution of ?slamic identity[edit]

While the Abbasids ori inally ained poGer by e+ploitin the social ine"ualities a ainst non-Arabs in the Emayyad Cmpire, ironically durin Abbasid rule the empire rapidly Arabi#ed. As knoGled e Gas shared in the Arabic lan ua e throu hout the empire, people of different nationalities and reli ions be an to speak Arabic in their everyday lives. 7esources from other lan ua es be an to be translated into Arabic, and a uni"ue ?slamic identity be an to form that fused previous cultures Gith Arab culture, creatin a level of civili#ation and knoGled e that Gas considered a marvel in Curope.[33] Decline of the empire[edit]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by addin citations to reliable sources. Ensourced material may be challen ed and removed. $February &'((* Causes[edit] 7ift Gith the 9hia Abbasids found themselves at odds Gith the 9hia Auslims, most of Ghom had supported their Gar a ainst the Emayyads, since the Abbasids and the 9hias claimed le itimacy by their familial connection to Auhammad. <nce in poGer, the Abbasids embraced 9unni ?slam and disavoGed any support for 9hi!a beliefs. 9hortly thereafter, :erber .hari,ites set up an independent state in Horth Africa in 5'(. Within 3' years the ?drisids in the Aa hreb and A hlabids of ?fri"iya and a little later the Tulunids and ?kshidids of Aisr Gere effectively independent in Africa. Conflict of Army >enerals

The Abbasid authority be an to deteriorate durin the rei n of al-7adi Ghen their Turkic Army enerals, Gho already had de facto independence, stopped payin the Caliphate. Cven provinces close to :a hdad be an to seek local dynastic rule. Also, the Abbasids found themselves to often be at conflict Gith the Emayyads in 9pain. Fracture to autonomous dynasties[edit] The Abbasid leadership had to Gork hard in the last half of the 5th century $23'45''*, under several competent caliphs and their vi#iers to overcome the political challen es created by the far flun nature of the empire, and the limited communication across it and usher in the administrative chan es to keep order.[36] While the :y#antine Cmpire Gas fi htin Abbasid rule in 9yria and Anatolia, military operations durin this period Gere minimal, as the caliphate focused on internal matters as local overnors, Gho, as a matter of procedure, operated mostly independently of central authority. The problem that the caliphs faced Gas that these overnors had be un to e+ert reater autonomy, usin their increasin poGer to make their positions hereditary.[6] At the same time, the Abbasids faced challen es closer to home. Former supporters of the Abbasids had broken aGay to create a separate kin dom around .horosan in northern Persia. Barun al-7ashid $25645'8* turned on the :armakids, a Persian family that had roGn si nificantly in poGer Githin the administration of the state and killed most of the family.[32] Durin the same period, several factions be an either to leave the empire for other lands or to take control of distant parts of the empire aGay from the Abbasids.

?ma e of the Amir of .horasan ?sma!il ibn Ahmad on the Ta,ikistani somoni Gho e+ercised independent authority from the Abassids Cven by 5&', the 9amanids had be un the process of e+ercisin independent authority in Transo+iana and >reater .horasan, as had the 9hia Bamdanids in Horthern 9yria, and the succeedin Tahirid and 9affarid dynasties of ?ran. Cspecially after the JAnarchy at 9amarraJ, the Abbasid central overnment Gas Geakened and centrifu al tendencies became more prominent in the Caliphate!s provinces. :y the early ('th century, the Abbasids almost lost control of ?ra" to various amirs, and the caliph al-7adi Gas forced to acknoGled e their poGer by creatin the position of JPrince of PrincesJ $amir alumara*. 9hortly thereafter, the Persian faction knoGn as the :uyids from Daylam sGept into poGer and assumed control over the bureaucracy in :a hdad. Accordin to the history of AiskaGayh, they be an distributin i"tas $fiefs in the form of ta+ farms* to their supporters. At the end of the ei hth century the Abbasids found they could no lon er keep a hu e polity lar er than that of 7ome to ether from :a hdad. ?n 28) the 9hi!ite dynasty of

?drisids set up a state from Fe# in Aorocco, Ghile a family of overnors under the Abbasids became increasin ly independent until they founded the A hlabid Cmirate from the 5)'s. :y the 56's overnors in C ypt set up their oGn Tulunid Cmirate, so named for its founder Ahmad ibn Tulun. From this time C ypt Gould be ruled by dynasties separate from the Caliph. ?n the Cast as Gell, overnors decreased their ties to the center. The 9affarids of Berat and the 9amanids of :ukhara had broken aGay from the 52's, cultivatin a much more Persianate culture and statecraft. :y this time only the central lands of Aesopotamia Gere under direct Abbasid control, Gith Palestine and the Bi,a# often mana ed by the Tulunids. :y#antium, for its part, had be un to push Arab Auslims farther east in Anatolia. :y the 8&'s, the situation had chan ed further. A 9hi!ite sect only reco ni#in the first five ?mams and tracin its roots to the Prophet!s dau hter Fatima took control of ?drisi and then A hlabid domains. Called the Fatimid dynasty, they had advanced to C ypt in 868, establishin their capital near Fustat in Cairo, Ghich they built as a bastion of 9hi!ite learnin and politics. :y (''' they had become the chief political and ideolo ical challen e to 9unni ?slam in the form of the Abbasids. :y this time the latter state had fra mented into several overnorships that, Ghile reco ni#in caliphal authority from :a hdad, did mostly as they Ganted, fi htin Gith each other. The Caliph himself Gas under !protection! of the :uyid Cmirs Gho possessed all of ?ra" and Gestern ?ran, and Gere "uietly 9hi!ite in their sympathies. <utside ?ra", all the autonomous provinces sloGly took on the characteristic of de facto states Gith hereditary rulers, armies, and revenues and operated under only nominal caliph su#erainty, Ghich may not necessarily be reflected by any contribution to the treasury, such as the 9oomro Cmirs that had ained control of 9indh and ruled the entire province from their capital of Aansura.[36] Aahmud of >ha#ni took the title of sultan, as opposed to the JamirJ that had been in more common usa e, si nifyin the >ha#navid Cmpire!s independence from caliphal authority, despite Aahmud!s ostentatious displays of 9unni orthodo+y and ritual submission to the caliph. ?n the ((th century, the loss of respect for the caliphs continued, as some ?slamic rulers no lon er mentioned the caliph!s name in the Friday khutba, or struck it off their coina e.[36] :ismillahir 7ahmanir 7ahim Part of a series on 9unni ?slam :eliefs Aonotheism Prophethood I Aessen ership Boly :ooks U An els

%ud ement Day U Predestination Five Pillars Declaration of Faith U Prayer Charity U Fastin U Pil rima e 7i htly >uided Caliphs Abu :akr U Emar ibn al-.hattab Ethman ibn Affan U Ali ibn Abi Talib 9chools of ;aG Banafi U Aaliki U 9hafi!i U Banbali U /hir1 C+tinct 9chools of ;aG AG#a!i U ;aythi U ThaGri U %ariri 9chools of Theolo y Aaturidi U Ash!ari U Athari Aovements Ahl al-Badith U :arelvi U Deobandi U 9alafism Badith Collections .utub al-9ittah 9ahih al-:ukhari U 9ahih Auslim Al-9unan al-9u hra U 9unan Abu DaGood 9unan al-Tirmidhi U 9unan ibn Aa,ah vte The ?smaili Fatimid dynasty of Cairo contested the Abbasids for even the titular authority of the ?slamic ummah. They commanded some support in the 9hia sections of :a hdad $such as .arkh*, althou h :a hdad Gas the city most closely connected to the caliphate, even in the :uyid and 9el,u" eras. The Fatimids! reen banners contrasted Gith Abbasids! black, and the challen e of the Fatimids only ended Gith their doGnfall in the (&th century. 9eparatist dynasties and their successors[edit]

This list represents the succession of ?slamic dynasties that emer ed from the fractured Abbasid empire by their eneral eo raphic location. Dynasties often overlap, Ghere a vassal emir revolted from and later con"uered his lord. >aps appear durin periods of contest Ghere the dominatin poGer Gas unclear. C+cept for the Fatimid Caliphate in C ypt, reco ni#in a 9hi!ite succession throu h Ali, and the Andalusian Caliphates of the Emayyads and Almohads, every Auslim dynasty at least acknoGled ed the nominal su#erainty of the Abbasids as Caliph and Commander of the Faithful. HorthGest Africa= ?drisids $255482@* VW Almoravids $('@'4((@2* VW Almohads $((&'4 (&68* ?fri"iya $modern Tunisia X Western ;ibya*= A hlabids $5''48'8 CC* VW Fatimids of C ypt $8'842) CC* VW Mirids $82)4((@5* VW Bafsids $(&&84(32@* C ypt X Palestine= Tulunids $56548'3 CC* VW Fatimid Caliphate $8'84((2(* VW Ayyubid dynasty $((2(4()@(* VW Aamluks $(&3'4(3(2* Al-%a#ira $modern 9yria X Horthern ?ra"*= Bamdanids $58'4(''@ CC* VW AarGanids $88'4('53* X E"aylids $88'4('86* VW 9el,uks $(')@-((8@* V Aon ol Cmpire and the ?lkhanate $(&)(4())3* 9outhGest ?ran= :uyids $8)@-('33* VW 9el,uks $(')@4((8@* VW Aon ol Cmpire .horasan $modern ?ran X Turkestan*= 9amanids $5(84888 CC* VW >ha#navids $86&4 ((65* VW 9el,uks $(')@4((8@* VW .hGara#mians $('224(&)(* VW Aon ol Cmpire X the ?lkhanate $(&)(4())3* :uyid and 9el,u" military control $8254(((5*[edit] Despite the poGer of the :uyid amirs, the Abbasids retained a hi hly rituali#ed court in :a hdad, as described by the :uyid bureaucrat Bilal al-9abi!, and they retained a certain influence over :a hdad as Gell as reli ious life. As :uyid poGer Ganed after the death of :aha! al-Daula, the caliphate Gas able to re ain some measure of stren th. The caliph al-Radir, for e+ample, led the ideolo ical stru le a ainst the 9hia Gith Gritin s such as the :a hdad Aanifesto. The caliphs kept order in :a hdad itself, attemptin to prevent the outbreak of fitnas in the capital, often contendin Gith the ayyarun. With the :uyid dynasty on the Gane, a vacuum Gas created that Gas eventually filled by the dynasty of < hu# Turks knoGn as the 9el,u"s. When the amir and former slave :asasiri took up the 9hia Fatimid banner in :a hdad in ('35, the caliph al-Ra!im Gas unable to defeat him Githout outside help. To hril :e , the 9el,u" sultan, restored :a hdad to 9unni rule and took ?ra" for his dynasty. <nce a ain, the Abbasids Gere forced to deal Gith a military poGer that they could not match, thou h the Abbasid caliph remained the titular head of the ?slamic community. The succeedin sultans Alp Arslan and Aalikshah, as Gell as their vi#ier Hi#am al-Aulk, took up residence in Persia, but held poGer over the Abbasids in :a hdad. When the dynasty be an to Geaken in the (&th century, the Abbasids ained reater independence once a ain.

7evival of military stren th $(((54(&'6*[edit] While the Caliph al-Austarshid Gas the first caliph to build an army capable of meetin a 9el,u" army in battle, he Gas nonetheless defeated in (()3 and assassinated. The Caliph al-Au"tafi Gas the first Abbasid Caliph to re ain the full military independence of the Caliphate, Gith the help of his vi#ier ?bn Bubayra. After nearly &3' years of sub,ection to forei n dynasties, he successfully defended :a hdad a ainst the 9el,u"s in the sie e of :a hdad $((32*, thus securin ?ra" for the Abbasids. The rei n of al-Hasir $d. (&&3* brou ht the caliphate to poGer throu hout ?ra", based in lar e part on the 9ufi futuGGa or ani#ations that the caliph headed. Al-Austansir built the Austansiriya 9chool, in an attempt to eclipse the 9el,u"-era Hi#amiyya built by Hi#am al-Aulk. Aon ol invasion $(&'64(&35*[edit]

9ie e of :a hdad by the Aon ols led by Bula u .han in (&35. ?n (&'6, >en his .han established a poGerful dynasty amon the Aon ols of central Asia. Durin the ()th century, this Aon ol Cmpire con"uered most of the Curasian land mass, includin both China in the east and much of the old ?slamic caliphate $as Gell as .ievan 7us* in the Gest. Bula u .han!s destruction of :a hdad in (&35 is traditionally seen as the appro+imate end of the >olden A e.[35] Auslims feared that a supernatural disaster Gould strike if the blood of Al-Austa!sim, a direct descendant of Auhammad!s uncle[38] and the last rei nin Abbasid caliph in :a hdad, Gas spilled. The 9hiites of Persia stated that no such calamity had happened after the deaths of the 9hiite ?mam $leader* BusseinL nevertheless, as a precaution and in accordance Gith a Aon ol taboo Ghich forbade spillin royal blood, Bula u had Al-Austa!sim Grapped in a carpet and trampled to death by horses on &' February (&35. The Caliph!s immediate family Gas also e+ecuted, Gith the lone e+ceptions of his youn est son Gho Gas sent to Aon olia, and a dau hter Gho became a slave in the harem of Bula u.[6'] Accordin to Aon olian historians, the survivin son married and fathered children.[clarification needed] Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo $(&354(3(2*[edit]

?n the 8th century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed of non-Arab ori in people,[6(][6&][6)][6@][63] knoGn as Aamluks. This force, created in the rei n of al-Aa!mun $5()4@&*, and his brother and successor al-Au!tasim $5))4@&*, prevented the further disinte ration of the empire. The Aamluk army, thou h often vieGed ne atively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Carly on, it provided the overnment Gith a stable force to address domestic and forei n problems. BoGever, creation of this forei n army and al-Au!tasim!s transfer of the capital

from :a hdad to 9amarra created a division betGeen the caliphate and the peoples they claimed to rule. ?n addition, the poGer of the Aamluks steadily reG until al-7adi $8)@4 @(* Gas constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Aahommed bin 7aik. The Aamluks eventually came to poGer in C ypt. ?n (&6(, folloGin the devastation of :a hdad at the hands of the Aon ols, the Aamluk rulers of C ypt re-established the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo. The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo Gas Al-Austansir. The Abbasid caliphs in C ypt continued to maintain the presence of authority, but it Gas confined to reli ious matters. The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of AlAutaGakkil ???, Gho Gas taken aGay as a prisoner by 9elim ? to Constantinople Ghere he had a ceremonial role. Be died in (3@), folloGin his return to Cairo. Abbasid .hanate of :astak[edit]

?n 636 ABI(&35 CC, the year of the fall of :a hdad, and folloGin the sack of the city, a feG survivin members of the Abbasid dynastic family led by the eldest amon st them, ?smail ?? son of Bam#a son of Ahmed son of Aohamed,[a] made their Gay into the re ion of Fars in 9outhern Persia.[66] They settled in the city of .hon,, then a reat centre for learnin and scholarship. 9haikh Abdulsalam .hon,i $b. 66( AB 4 d. 2@6 AB* son of Abbas son of ?smail ?? Gas born in .hon, only five years after the fall of :a hdad and the arrival of his randfather in the city.[62] Be became a reat reli ious scholar and 9ufi saint, held in hi h esteem by the local populace. Bis tomb still stands in .hon, and is a site visited by people from near and far. The descendants of 9haikh Abdulsalam .hon,i Gere reli ious scholars and fi ures of reat respect and repute for eneration after eneration. <ne such scholar and direct descendant of 9haikh Abdulsalam .hon,i in the male line, 9haikh Aohamed $d. around 8'3 AB* son of 9haikh %aber son of 9haikh ?smail ?T, moved to :astak.[65][pa e needed] Bis randson, 9haikh Aohamed the Clder $d. 83' or 823 AB* son of 9haikh Hasser al-Din Ahmed son of 9haikh Aohamed, settled in .hon, for a time. :ut in 8)5 AB, in response to roGin 9afavid poGer, 9haikh Aohamed the Clder moved permanently to :astak as his randfather had done.[68] Bis oGn randson, 9haikh Bassan $d. ('5@ AB* $also called Aulla Bassan* son of 9haikh Aohamed the Koun er son of 9haikh Aohamed the Clder, is the common ancestor of all the Abbasids of :astak and its nei hbourin areas.[2'] 9haikh BassanYs randsons, 9haikh Aohamed 9aeed $b. ('86 AB 4 d. ((3& AB* and 9haikh Aohamed .han $b. ((() AB 4 d. ((82 AB* son of 9haikh Abdul"ader son of 9haikh Bassan, became the first tGo Abbasid rulers of the re ion. ?n (()2 AB, 9haikh Aohamed 9aeed be an atherin support for an armed force. FolloGin the capture of ;ar, he ruled the city and its dependencies for (& or (@ years before his death in ((3& AB.[2(] 9haikh Aohamed .han :astaki, his brother, Gas meanGhile the ruler of :astak and the

re ion of %ahan iriyeh. ?n ((6( AB, 9haikh Aohamed .han :astaki departed for Didehban Fortress, leavin :astak and its dependencies in the hands of his eldest son 9haikh Aohamed 9ade" and his cousin A ha Bassan .han son of Aulla ?smail.[2&] 9haikh Aohamed .han ruled %ahan iriyeh from Didehban Fortress for a period of rou hly &' to &@ years, for Ghich reason he has been referred to as 9haikh Aohamed ZDidehban[.[2)] Be eventually returned to :astak and continued to rei n from there up to the time of his death. At the hei ht of his rule, the .hanate of :astak included not only the re ion of %ahan iriyeh, but its poGer also e+tended to ;ar and :andar Abbas as Gell as their dependencies, not to mention several islands in the Persian >ulf.[2@] 9haikh Aohamed .han :astaki Gas the first Abbasid ruler of :astak to hold the title of Z.han[ $Persian= , Arabic= ), meanin JrulerJ or Jkin J, Ghich Gas bestoGed upon him by .arim .han Mand. The title then became that of all the subse"uent Abbasid rulers of :astak and %ahan iriyeh, and also collectively refers in plural form 4 i.e., Z.hans[ $Persian= )- to the descendants of 9haikh Aohamed .han :astaki. The last Abbasid ruler of :astak and %ahan iriyeh Gas Aohamed AY#am .han :aniabbassian son of Aohamed 7e#a .han Z9atvat al-Aamalek[ :aniabbasi. Be authored the book Tarikh-e %ahan iriyeh va :aniabbassian-e :astak $(86&*,[23][pa e needed] in Ghich is recounted the history of the re ion and the Abbasid family that ruled it. Aohamed AY#am .han :aniabbassian died in (862 CC, a year re arded as markin the end of the Abbasid rei n in :astak. ;ist of Abbasid caliphs[edit]

>enealo ic tree of the Abbasid family. ?n reen, the Abbasid caliphs of :a hdad. ?n yelloG, the Abbasid caliphs of Cairo. Auhammad the Prophet is included $in caps* to shoG the kinship of the Abbasids Gith him. Caliph 7ei n Caliphs of the Abbasid Caliphate Abu!l Abbas As-9affah Al-Aansur Al-Aahdi Al-Badi 23@4223 2234253 2534256 23'423@

Barun al-7ashid Al-Amin Al-Aa!mun Al-Au!tasim Al-Wathi"

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Al-Au"tafi Al-Austan,id Al-Austadi An-Hasir A#-Mahir

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Al-Austansir (&&64(&@& Al-Austa!sim (&@&4(&35 Caliphs of Cairo Al-Austansir (&6(4(&6& Al-Bakim ? $Cairo* (&6&4()'&

Al-Austakfi ? of Cairo ()')4()@' Al-Wathi" ? Al-Bakim ?? Al-Au!tadid ? ()@'4()@( ()@(4()3& ()3&4()6& ()6&4()5)

Al-AutaGakkil ? Al-Wathi" ?? Al-Au!tasim

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9ee also[edit]

Abbasid overnors ;ist of 9unni Auslim dynasties ?ranian ?nterme##o Hotes[edit]

%ump up \ For his full enealo y all the Gay back to Al-Abbas bin Abdulmuttalib, the paternal uncle of the Prophet Aohamed, please see Al-Abbasi (856[pa e needed]. 7eferences[edit]

%ump up \ Abbasiler devrinde t]rklerin etkinli^i ve hi#metleri $in Turkish*, Tarihimi#. %ump up \ Abbasiler $in Turkish*, >enbilim. %ump up \ ;apidus, ?ra $&''&*, A Bistory of ?slamic 9ocieties, Cambrid e Eniversity Press, p. 3@, ?9:H '-3&(-22'36-@. \ %ump up to= a b JAbbasidJ. Cncyclopedia :ritannica. ?= A-Ak 4 :ayes $(3th ed.*. Chica o, ?;. &'('. p. ('. ?9:H 825-(-38))8-5)2-5. %ump up \ Wade, >eoffrey $&'(&*, Wade, >eoffL Tana, ;i, eds., Anthony 7eid and the 9tudy of the 9outheast Asian Past, 9in apore= ?nstitute of 9outheast Asian 9tudies, p. ()5 n.@, JTa#i in Persian sources referred to a people in that land, but Gas later e+tended to cover Arab lands. The Persian term Gas adopted by Tan China $DOshP = * to refer to the Arabs until the (&th centuryJ. \ %ump up to= a b The ?slamic World to (6'', Applied Bistory 7esearch >roup, Eniversity of Cal ary, retrieved )' <ctober &''5. %ump up \ Chapuis, <scar $(883*. A Bistory of Tietnam= From Bon :an to Tu Duc. >reenGood. p. 8&. ?9:H '-)()-&86&&-2. 7etrieved &5 %une &'('. %ump up \ .ita aGa, %oseph Aitsuo $&''&*. The 7eli ious Traditions of Asia= 7eli ion, Bistory, and Culture. 7outled e. p. &5). ?9:H '-2''2-(26&-3. 7etrieved &5 %une &'('. %ump up \ 9mith, :radleyL Wen , Wan o BC $(82&*. China= a history in art. Barper X 7oG. p. (&8. 7etrieved &5 %une &'('.

%ump up \ Bon .on ?ma es= People and Animals. Bon .on Eniversity Press. (88'. p. 3). ?9:H 86&-&'8-&33-(. 7etrieved &5 %une &'('. %ump up \ Fit# erald, Charles Patrick $(86(*. China= A 9hort Cultural Bistory. Prae er. p. ))&. 7etrieved &5 %une &'('. \ %ump up to= a b :loodGorth, DennisL :loodGorth, Chin Pin $&''@*. The Chinese Aachiavelli= )''' Kears of Chinese 9tatecraft. Transaction. p. &(@. ?9:H '-2635-'365-3. 7etrieved &5 %une &'('. %ump up \ :roomhall, Aarshall $(8('*. J??. China X the Arabs From the 7ise of the Abbaside CaliphateJ. ?slam in China= a ne lected problem. ;ondon (& Paternoster :uildin s, CC= Aor an X 9cott. pp. &3, &6. 7etrieved (@ December &'((. JWith the rise of the Abbasides Ge enter upon a someGhat different phase of Auslim history, and approach the period Ghen an important body of Auslim troops entered and settled Githin the Chinese Cmpire. While the Abbasids inau urated that era of literature and science associated Gith the Court at :a dad, the hitherto predominant Arab element be an to ive Gay to the Turks, Gho soon became the body uard of the Caliphs, 0until in the end the Caliphs became the helpless tools of their rude protectors.Y

9everal embassies from the Abbaside Caliphs to the Chinese Court are recorded in the T!an Annals, the most important of these bein those of $A-bo-lo-ba* Abul Abbas, the founder of the neG dynasty, that of $A-p!u-c.a-fo* Abu >iafar, the builder of :a dad, of Ghom more must be said immediatelyL and that of $A-lun* Barun al 7aschid, best knoGn, perhaps, in modern days throu h the popular Gork, Arabian Hi hts. The Abbasides or 0:lack Fla s,Y as they Gere commonly called, are knoGn in Chinese history as the Beh-i Ta-shih, 0The :lack-robed Arabs.Y Five years after the rise of the Abbasides, at a time Ghen Abu >iafar, the second Caliph, Gas busy plottin the assassination of his reat and able rival Abu Auslim, Gho is re arded as Jthe leadin fi ure of the a eJ and the de facto founder of the house of Abbas so far as military proGess is concerned, a terrible rebellion broke out in China. This Gas in 233, and the leader Gas a Turk or Tartar named An ;u-shan. This man, Gho had ained reat favour Gith the Cmperor Bsuan Tsun , and had been placed at the head of a vast army operatin a ainst the Turks and Tartars on the north-Gest frontier, ended in proclaimin his independence and declarin Gar upon his noG a ed ?mperial patron. The Cmperor, driven from his capital, abdicated in favour of his son, 9u Tsun $236426)*, Gho at once appealed to the Arabs for help. The Caliph Abu >iafar, Ghose army, Ge are told by 9ir William Auir, 0Gas fitted throu hout Gith improved Geapons and armour,Y responded to this re"uest, and sent a contin ent of some @''' men, Gho enabled the Cmperor, in 232, to recover his tGo capitals, 9ianfu and Bonanfu. These Arab troops, Gho probably came from some arrison on the frontiers of Turkestan, never returned to their former camp, but remained

in China, Ghere they married Chinese Gives, and thus became, accordin to common report, the real nucleus of the naturalised Chinese Aohammedans of to-day. While this story has the support of the official history of the T!an dynasty, there is, unfortunately, no authorised statement as to hoG many troops the Caliph really sent. The statement, hoGever, is also supported by the Chinese Aohammedan inscriptions and literature. Thou h the settlement of this lar e body of Arabs in China may be accepted as probably the lar est and most definite event recorded concernin the advent of ?slam, it is necessary at the same time not to overlook the facts already stated in the previous chapter, Ghich prove that lar e numbers of forei ners had entered China prior to this date.J %ump up \ :rinkley, Frank $(8'&*. Tr]bner, ed. China= ?ts Bistory, Arts and ;iterature. <riental & $volumes 84(&*. :oston X Tokyo= %: Aillet. pp. (@8, (3', (3(, (3&. 7etrieved (@ December &'((. J?t Gould seem, hoGever, that trade occupied the attention of the early Aohammedan settlers rather than reli ious propa andismL that Ghile they observed the tenets and practised the rites of their faith in China, they did not undertake any strenuous campai n a ainst either :uddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, or the 9tate creed, and that they constituted a floatin rather than a fi+ed element of the population, comin and oin betGeen China and the West by the oversea or the overland routes. Accordin to >iles, the true stock of the present Chinese Aohammedans Gas a small army of four thousand Arabian soldiers, Gho, bein sent by the .haleef Abu >iafar in 233 to aid in puttin doGn a rebellion, Gere subse"uently permitted to settle in China, Ghere they married native Gives.

The numbers of this colony received lar e accessions in the (&th and ()th centuries durin the con"uests of >en his, and ultimately the Aohammedans formed an appreciable element of the population, havin their oGn mos"ues and schools, and observin the rites of their reli ion, but Ginnin feG converts e+cept amon the abori inal tribes, as the ;olos and the Aantsu. Their failure as propa andists is doubtless due to tGo causes, first, that, accordin to the infle+ible rule of their creed, the .oran mi ht not be translated into Chinese or any other forei n lan ua eL secondly and chiefly, that their denunciations of idolatry Gere as unpalatable to ancestor-Gorshippin Chinese as Gere their interdicts a ainst pork and Gine. They Gere never prevented, hoGever, from practisin their faith so lon as they obeyed the laGs of the land, and the numerous mos"ues that e+ist throu hout China prove Ghat a lar e measure of liberty these professors of a stran e creed en,oyed. <ne feature of the mos"ues is noticeable, hoGever= thou h distin uished by lar e arches and by Arabic inscriptions, they are enerally constructed and arran ed so as to bear some resemblance to :uddhist temples, and they have tablets carryin the customary ascription of reverence to the Cmperor of China 4 facts su estin that their builders Gere not entirely free from a sense of the ine+pediency of differentiatin the evidences of their reli ion too conspicuously from those of the popular creed. ?t has been calculated that in the re ions

north of the Kan tse the folloGers of ?slam a re ate as many as ten millions, and that ei hty thousand are to be found in one of the toGns of 9#chuan. <n the other hand, ,ust as it has been shoGn above that althou h the Central >overnment did not in any Gay interdict or obstruct the tradal operations of forei ners in early times, the local officials sometimes sub,ected them to e+tortion and maltreatment of a rievous and even unendurable nature, so it appears that Ghile as a matter of 9tate policy, full tolerance Gas e+tended to the Aohammedan creed, its disciples fre"uently found themselves the victims of such un,ust discrimination at the hand of local officialdom that they Gere driven to seek redress in rebellion. That, hoGever, did not occur until the (8th century. There is no evidence that, prior to the time of the >reat Aanchu Cmperor Chienlun $(2)64 (286*, Aohammedanism presented any deterrent aspect to the Chinese. That renoGned ruler, Ghose con"uests carried his banners to the Pamirs and the Bimalayas, did indeed conceive a stron dread of the potentialities of ?slamic fanaticism reinforced by disaffection on the part of the abori inal tribes amon Ghom the faith had many adherents. Be is said to have entertained at one time the terrible pro,ect of eliminatin this source of dan er in 9hensi and .ansuh by killin every Aussulman found there, but Ghether he really contemplated an act so forei n to the eneral character of his procedure is doubtful. The broad fact is that the Central >overnment of China has never persecuted Aohammedans or discriminated a ainst them. They are alloGed to present themselves at the e+aminations for civil or military appointments, and the successful candidates obtain office as readily as their Chinese competitors.J %ump up \ Aoule, Arthur Cvans $(8(@*. The Chinese people= a handbook on China.... ;ondon Horthumberland Av, WC= 9ociety for promotin Christian knoGled e. p. )(2. 7etrieved (@ December &'((. Jthou h the actual date and circumstances of the introduction of ?slam into China cannot be traced Gith certainty further back than the ()th century, yet the e+istence of settlements of forei n Aoslems Gith their Aos"ues at >anfu $Canton* durin the T!an dynasty $6(5Q8'2* is certain, and later they spread to Ch!uan-chou and to .an-p!u, Ban choG, and perhaps to Hin po and 9han hai. These Gere not preachin or proselytisin inroads, but commercial enterprises, and in the latter half of the 5th century there Gere Aoslem troops in 9hensi, ),''' men, under Abu >iafar, comin to support the dethroned Cmperor in 236. ?n the ()th century the influence of individual Auslims Gas immense, especially that of the 9eyyid Cd,ell 9hams ed-Din <mar, Gho served the Aon ol .hans till his death in Kunnan in (&28. Bis family still e+ists in Kunnan, and has taken a prominent part in Aoslem affairs in China.

The present Auslim element in China is most numerous in Kunnan and .ansuL and the most learned Auslims reside chiefly in 9such!uan, the ma,ority of their books bein printed in the capital city, Ch!en -tu. .ansu is perhaps the most dominantly Aohammedan province in China, and here many different sects are found, and mos"ues Gith minarets used by the orthodo+ mue##in callin to prayer, and in one place veiled Gomen are met Gith. These, hoGever, are not Turks or 9aracens, but for the most part pure Chinese. The total Aoslem population is probably under @,''',''', thou h other

statistical estimates, alGays uncertain in China, vary from thirty to ten millionsL but the fi ures iven here are the most reliable at present obtainable, and Ghen it is remembered that ?slam in China has not been to any reat e+tent a preachin or propa andist poGer by force or the sGord, it is difficult to understand the survival and e+istence of such a lar e number as that, small, indeed, compared Gith former estimates, but surely a very lar e and vi orous element.J %ump up \ >iles, Berbert Allen $(556*. A lossary of reference on sub,ects connected Gith the Far Cast $& ed.*. Bon .on = Aessrs. ;ane. p. (@(. 7etrieved (@ December &'((. JAahomedans= ?C% ?e,. First settled in China in the Kear of the Aission, A.D. 6&5, under Wahb-Abi-.abcha a maternal uncle of Aahomet, Gho Gas sent Gith presents to the Cmperor. Wahb-Abi-.abcha travelled by sea to Cantoa, and thence overland to 9in an Fu, the capital, Ghere he Gas Gell received. The first mos"ue Gas built at Canton, Ghere, after several restorations, it still e+ists. Another mos"ue Gas erected in 2@&, but many of these A. came to China simply as traders, and by and by Gent back to their oGn country. The true stock of the present Chinese Aahomedans Gas a small army of @,''' Arabian soldiers sent by the .haleef Abu >iafar in 233 to aid in puttin doGn a rebellion. These soldiers had permission to settle in China, Ghere they married native GivesL and three centuries later, Gith the con"uests of >en his .han, lar o numbers of Arabs penetrated into the Cmpire and sGelled the Aahomedan community.J %ump up \ >iles, Berbert Allen $(8&6*. Confucianism and its rivals. For otten :ooks. p. ()8. ?9:H (-6'65'-&@5-5. 7etrieved (@ December &'((. J?n 258 the .halifa Barun al 7aschid dispatched a mission to China, and there had been one or tGo less important missions in the seventh and ei hth centuriesL but from 528, the date of the Canton massacre, for more than three centuries to folloG, Ge hear nothin of the Aahometans and their reli ion. They Gere not mentioned in the edict of 5@3, Ghich proved such a bloG to :uddhism and Hestorian Christianity perhaps because they Gere less obtrusive in ithe propa ation of their reli ion, a policy aided by the absence of anythin like a commercial spirit in reli ious matters.J %ump up \ Confucianism and its 7ivals. For otten :ooks. p. &&). ?9:H (-@3('-'5@8-_. 7etrieved (@ December &'((. JThe first mos"ue Gas built at Canton, Ghere, after several restorations, it may still be seen. The minaret, knoGn as the :are Pa oda, to distin uish it from a much more ornamental :uddhist pa oda near by, dates back to 53'. There must at that time have been a considerable number of Aahometans in Canton, thou ht not so many as mi ht be supposed if reliance could be placed on the fi ures iven in reference to a massacre Ghich took place in 528. The fact is that most of these Aahometans Gent to China simply as tradersL they did not intend to settle permanently in the country, and Ghen business permitted, they returned to their old haunts. About tGo thousand Aussulman families are still to be found at Canton, and a similar number at FoochoGL descendants, perhaps, of the old sea-borne contin ents Ghich be an to arrive in the seventh and ei hth centuries. These remnants have nothin to do Gith the stock from Ghich came the comparatively lar e Aussulman communities noG livin and practisin their reli ion in sthe provinces of 9s`ch!uan, K]nnan, and .ansuh. The ori in

of the latter Gas as folloGs. ?n A.D. 236 the .halifa Abu >iafar sent a small army of three thousand Arab soldiers to aid in puttin doGn a rebellion.J %ump up \ %enkins, Cverett $(888*. The Auslim Diaspora= A Comprehensive 7eference to the 9pread of ?slam in Asia, Africa, Curope, and the Americas ( $illustrated ed.*. AcFarland. p. 6(. ?9:H '-256@-'@)(-'. 7etrieved (@ December &'((. JArab troops Gere dispatched by Abu >iafar to China.J %ump up \ Travels in ?ndo-China. p. &83. 7etrieved (@ December &'((. %ump up \ >hosh, 9tanley $(86(*. Cmbers in Cathay. Doubleday. p. 6'. 7etrieved (@ December &'((. JDurin the rei n of Abbassid Caliph Abu >iafar in the middle of the ei hth century, many Arab soldiers evidently settled near the arrisons on the Chinese frontier.J %ump up \ Bermann, Beinrich $(8(&*. Chinesische >eschichte $in >erman*. D >undert. p. 22. 7etrieved (@ December &'((. J253, als die Tibeter in China einfielen, sandte Abu >iafar eine #Geite Truppe, #u deren Enterhalt die 7e ierun die Teesteuer verdoppelte. 9ie Gurde ebenso an esiedelt. 252 ist von @''' fremden Familien aus Erumtsi und .asch ar in 9i-H an die 7ede= f]r ihren Enterhalt Gurden 3''''' TaalJ %ump up \ Deutsche ;iteratur#eitun f]r .ritik der ?nternationalen Wissenschaft @8 $&24 3&*, Weidmannsche :uchhandlun , (8&5, p. (6(2, retrieved (@ December &'((, JDie Fassun , dab mohammedanische 9oldaten von Turkestan ihre 7eli ion nach China ebracht hctten, ist irref]hrend. Das Garen vielmehr die @''' Aann, die der #Geite .alif Abu >iafar 232 schickte, ebenso Gie die Bilfstruppen 253 bei dem ber]hmten Cinfali der Tibeter. Die Ei uren Garen damals nochJ. %ump up \ Buff, Toby C $&'')*, The 7ise of Carly Aodern 9cience= ?slam, China, and the West, Cambrid e Eniversity Press, p. @5. %ump up \ ?slamic 7adicalism and Aulticultural Politics. Taylor X Francis. p. 8. ?9:H 825(-()6-8386'-5. 7etrieved &6 Au ust &'(&. \ %ump up to= a b c d e >re orian, Tartan $&'')*, ?slam= A Aosaic, Hot a Aonolith, :rookin s ?nstitution Press, p. &64)5, ?9:H '-5(32-)&5)-_. %ump up \ DereGenda, My munt 9. $&''2*, J<n Gine, chirality and crystallo raphyJ, Acta Crystallo raphica A 6@= &@2 %ump up \ Warren, %ohn $&''3*, JWar and the Cultural Berita e of ?ra"= a sadly mismana ed affairJ, Third World Ruarterly &6 $@, 3*= 5(34)'. %ump up \ Mahoor, A $(882*, %abir ibn Baiyan $>eber*, Eniversity of ?ndonesia. %ump up \ Tallely, Paul, JBoG ?slamic inventors chan ed the GorldJ, The ?ndependent $E.*.

%ump up \ Terma, 7; $(868*, Al-Ba#en= father of modern optics. %ump up \ >ibb, Bamilton $(85&*, 9tudies on the civili#ation of ?slam, Princeton Eniversity Press, p. 66, ?9:H '-68(-'3)3@-3. %ump up \ 9puler, :ertold $(86'*, The Auslim World, ?. The A e of the Caliphs, ;eiden= C% :rill, p. &8, ?9:H '-653-&))&5-6. %ump up \ C lash, 7on $(888*, p. 6( Aissin or empty dtitleV $help*. %ump up \ 9teffens, :radley $&''6*, ?bn al-Baytham= First 9cientist, Aor an 7eynolds, ?9:H (-388)3-'&@-6. %ump up \ >orini, 7osanna $<ctober &'')*. JAl-Baytham, the man of e+perience. First steps in the science of visionJ $PDF*. %ournal of the ?nternational 9ociety for the Bistory of ?slamic Aedicine & $@*= 3)433. 7etrieved &3 9eptember &''5. JAccordin to the ma,ority of the historians al-Baytham Gas the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he chan ed the meanin of the term optics and established e+periments as the norm of proof in the field. Bis investi ations are based not on abstract theories, but on e+perimental evidences and his e+periments Gere systematic and repeatable.J %ump up \ :riffault, 7obert $(8&5*, The Aakin of Bumanity, > Allen X EnGin, pp. (8'4 &'&, JWhat Ge call science arose as a result of neG methods of e+periment, observation, and measurement, Ghich Gere introduced into Curope by the Arabs. [...] 9cience is the most momentous contribution of Arab civili#ation to the modern Gorld, but its fruits Gere sloG in ripenin . [...] The debt of our science to that of the Arabs does not consist in startlin discoveries or revolutionary theoriesL science oGes a reat deal more to Arab culture, it oGes its e+istence...The ancient Gorld Gas, as Ge saG, pre-scientific. [...] The >reeks systemati#ed, enerali#ed and theori#ed, but the patient Gays of investi ations, the accumulation of positive knoGled e, the minute methods of science, detailed and prolon ed observation and e+perimental in"uiry Gere alto ether alien to the >reek temperament.J %ump up \ 7abin, 9heila, JCopernicusJ, Cncyclopedia of 9cience, 9tanford. \ %ump up to= a b >rant X Clute (888, p. 3(. %ump up \ de Camp, ; 9pra ue, ;iterary 9Gordsmen and 9orcerers= The Aakers of Beroic Fantasy, p. (', ?9:H '-52'3@-'26-8. %ump up \ >rant X Clute (888, p. 3&. %ump up \ Talattof, .amranL Clinton, %erome WL ;uther, . Allin $&'''*, The poetry of Hi#ami >an,avi= knoGled e, love, and rhetoric, Pal rave Aacmillan, pp. (34(6. %ump up \ 9mith, Paul, trans, Hi#ami= ;ayla X Aa,nun, 9hira#. \ %ump up to= a b J?slamic PhilosophyJ, Cncyclopedia of Philosophy, 7outled e, (885.

\ %ump up to= a b ;ucas, Adam 7obert $&''3*, J?ndustrial Aillin in the Ancient and Aedieval Worlds= A 9urvey of the Cvidence for an ?ndustrial 7evolution in Aedieval CuropeJ, Technolo y and Culture @6 $(*= ('. %ump up \ ?slam!s >ift of Paper to the West, ET.. %ump up \ Dunn, .evin A $&'')*, Caveman chemistry= &5 pro,ects, from the creation of fire to the production of plastics, Eniversal, p. (66. %ump up \ Bassan, Ahmad K, JPotassium Hitrate in Arabic and ;atin 9ourcesJ, Bistory of 9cience and Technolo y in ?slam. %ump up \ Bassan, Ahmad K, J>unpoGder Composition for 7ockets and Cannon in Arabic Ailitary Treatises ?n Thirteenth and Fourteenth CenturiesJ, Bistory of 9cience and Technolo y in ?slam. %ump up \ JBistory of the caravelJ. Tamu. 7etrieved &'((-'@-(). %ump up \ Bassan, Ahmad K, JPart ??= Transmission of ?slamic Cn ineerin J, Transfer of ?slamic Technolo y To The West, Bistory of 9cience and Technolo y in ?slam. %ump up \ ;ucas, Adam 7obert $&''3*, J?ndustrial Aillin in the Ancient and Aedieval Worlds= A 9urvey of the Cvidence for an ?ndustrial 7evolution in Aedieval CuropeJ, Technolo y and Culture @6 $(*= (4)'. %ump up \ Bassan, Ahmad K, JPart (= Avenues of Technolo y TransferJ, Transfer of ?slamic Technolo y to The West, Bistory of 9cience and Technolo y in ?slam. %ump up \ ;abib, 9ubhi K $(868*, JCapitalism in Aedieval ?slamJ, The %ournal of Cconomic Bistory &8 $(*= 28486. %ump up \ <chsenGald, William $&''@*. The Aiddle Cast, a Bistory. :oston= Ac>raG Bill. p. 68. ?9:H '-'2-&@@&))-6. \ %ump up to= a b c :rauer, 7alph W $(883-(&-(*, :oundaries and Frontiers in Aedieval Auslim >eo raphy, Diane, pp. 24(', ?9:H '-52(68-536-' . %ump up \ Persian Bistorio raphy to the Cnd of the TGelfth Century. %ump up \ Cooper, William Wa erL Kue, Piyu $&''5*, Challen es of the muslim Gorld= present, future and past, Cmerald, p. &(3 %ump up \ >lasse, CyrilL 9mith, Buston $&''&*. The neG encyclopedia of ?slam. Walnut Creek, CA= AltaAira Press. ?9:H '-238(-'(8'-6. %ump up \ Fra#ier, ?an $&3 April &''3*, J?nvaders= Destroyin :a hdadJ, The HeG Korker. %ump up \ Tesery, ?stven $&''3*, Cuman and Tatars, Cambrid e Eniversity Press. %ump up \ ?sichei, Cli#abeth $(882*. A Bistory of African 9ocieties to (52'. Cambrid e

Eniversity Press. p. (8&. 7etrieved 5 Hovember &''5. %ump up \ Pavlidis, T $&'((*, J((= Turks and :y#antine DeclineJ, A Concise Bistory of the Aiddle Cast. %ump up \ Aikaberid#e, Ale+ander. JThe >eor ian Aameluks in C yptJ. %ump up \ Tisser, 7eidar, :asra, the Failed >ulf 9tate= 9eparatism and Hationalism in 9outhern ?ra", p. (8. %ump up \ :aniabbassian (86&, pp. 548. %ump up \ :aniabbassian (86&, p. (@. %ump up \ Al-Abbasi. %ump up \ :aniabbassian (86&, pp. &34&6. %ump up \ :aniabbassian (86&, p. &2. %ump up \ :aniabbassian, pp. ((&4(3. %ump up \ :aniabbassian, p. ((5. %ump up \ :aniabbassian (86&, pp. (@&, (@8. %ump up \ :aniabbassian (86&, pp. (3&43). %ump up \ :aniabbassian (86&. :iblio raphy[edit]

This article incorporates te+t from a publication noG in the public domain= Chisholm, Bu h, ed. $(8((*. JAbbasidsJ. Cncyclopfdia :ritannica $((th ed.*. Cambrid e Eniversity Press Al-Abbasi, AAA $(856*, Hader al-:ayan fi Dhikr Ansab :aniabbassian $in Arabic*, Doha. :aniabbassian, A $(86&*, Tarikh-e %ahan iriyeh va :aniabbassian-e :astak $in Persian*, Tehran. >rant, %ohnL Clute, %ohn $(888*, JThe Cncyclopedia of FantasyJ, Arabian fantasy, ?9:H '-)(&-(8568-5. C+ternal links[edit]

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Wikisource has the te+t of the (8&( Collier!s Cncyclopedia article Abbassides. Wikisource-lo o.sv JAbbassides, TheJ. HeG ?nternational Cncyclopedia. (8'3. JAbbasid CaliphsJ $streamin 7ealAudio*, ?n <ur Time, E.= ::C 7adio @, &''6 Feb & . JAbbasid CaliphateJ, Cncyclopaedia ?ranica $entry*. JAbbasidsJ, %udaica, %eGish virtual library. JThe Abassid Caliphate $2354(&35*J, Bistory, %eGish virtual library. [shoG] v t e Abbasid Caliphs [shoG] v t e ?slam topics [shoG] v t e ?ra" topics [shoG] v t e A history of empires Cate ories= Former countries in the Aiddle CastFormer empires9tates and territories established in 23'9tates and territories disestablished in (&35Abbasid CaliphateArab dynastiesFormer countries in CuropeBistory of ?ranAedieval ?ra"Auslim dynastiesAuslim family trees9tates in medieval Anatolia Havi ation menu Create account;o inArticleTalk7eadCditTieG history 9earch Aain pa e Contents Featured content Current events 7andom article Donate to Wikipedia ?nteraction

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