NATS 1540 Assignment 2 Today the most widely accepted theory for the cause of the extinction of the

Dinosaurs is the Alvarez Meteorite theory. Considering the data/discoveries that is/are currently available, test and/or criticize its validity. The Alvarez Meteorite theory claims that a giant asteroid or comet plunged out of the sky, striking the earth at a velocity of more than 10km/s. This has been recently accepted by the scientific community as the most plausible explanation for the sudden disappearance of dinosaurs some 65 million years ago [Schulte et al]. The Alvarez theory is successful in explaining the abundant iridium and quartz crystals in sedimentary rock samples at the Cretaceous-Tertiary (KT) boundary.

The discovery of clay layers in stratigraphic record that represent a span of 0.001 MYr (1,000 years) and shorter span of 50 years [Asaro and Alvarez] reveal that dinosaurs and ammonites that had been abundant since Triassic disappeared rapidly and suddenly at the KT boundary. The concentration of iridium and platinum-group metals in KT boundary clay [Asaro and Alvarez] receiving deposition for around ~1,000 years is comparable to all the rest of the rock receiving deposition for ~500,000 years through micrometeorites from extraterrestrial source. This is plausible under the Alvarez theory as an asteroid or comet deposited large quantities of iridium into atmosphere upon impacting Earth.

Further evidence supporting the theory is found from the composition and mineralogy of the rocks. The rock samples at KT boundary contain large spherules almost a millimeter in diameter [Asaro and Alvarez] which are explained by processes of shock-melting and cooling upon the impact of basaltic rock on earths crust. There are also large deposits of shocked quartz in the rocks [Asaro and Alvarez] which could only be formed due to impact shocks and at

pressures higher than present in volcanic eruptions. Statistical studies on the formation of impact deposits with distance from the crater at Chicxulub [Sculte et al] show that the most proximal locations have the greatest thickness of metal deposits and spherules. This provides evidence that the special composition and mineralogy of KT-boundary rock originates in a single impact shock event.

The Alvarez Theory is also supported by dinosaur ecological diversity that does not show gradual decline in dinosaur populations as opposed to a single extinction event. Test on ecological diversity of dinosaur fossils in the Western Plains in US [Sheehan et al] found that there is no uniform deterioration of the population across the formation. Instead, there is increasing diversity across some parts and decreasing diversity across others, indicating only random local population movements.

The Alvarez Theory contends that the violent impact caused darkness, oceanic impact and shock heating [Alvaro and Asaro] which produced a combination of higher greenhouse gases and extremely cold temperatures. This led to the large-scale extinction of phytoplankton groups, especially calcareous producers [Schulte et al] due to surface ocean acidification from large amounts of sulfur and nitric acid released during the impact. The extinction of calcareous producers had devastating effect on the food chain including herbivorous dinosaurs.

On the other hand, studies [Lerbemko et al] show that there is no uniform continent-wide sudden destruction of the prevalent palynoflora at the time of destruction and instead, an offsetting transition to fern-flora characteristic of the Tertiary period. Such observations support a volcanic eruption at Deccan Traps as an alternative theory for the extinction event. Extensive volcanism was determined to have lasted for around 1,000,000 years through testing the reversed polarity of Deccan KT rock samples [Courtillot]. It has been found that rock layers

between lava flows contain dinosaur fossils, teeth and eggs and plankton from late Cretaceous period [Courtillot], providing evidence that the extinction event was magma rising from the earths core and prolonged large scale flow of lava.

A volcanic eruption could eject huge amounts of CO2, sulfur and nitrogen oxide in the atmosphere comparable to asteroid impact. As well, the earths mantle contains similar composition to stony meteorites [Courtillot] and this would explain the relative abundance of iridium, rhenium and osmium in KT boundary clay. The composition of clay at boundary layer also differs from layers above and below, and is formed from smectite, volcanic ash [Courtillot]. Volcanic flow can also form tiny spherules found in KT clay through molten basaltic droplets and shocked quartz through heating before shock. Therefore, the composition and mineralogy of KT rock can be feasibly explained by a prolonged extinction event such as volcanic flow.

Volcanic flow up to a million years before KT boundary would cause similar devastating consequences, i.e., darkness, toxic acid rain, heat and drive extinction of marine producers. Unlike the asteroid impact within a very short time, the volcanic eruption would result in different patterns of extinction and recovery for land and water species. Williams argues that a gradual extinction event is more plausible due to differing rates of different dinosaur taxa becoming extinct [Williams] instead of a clear pattern of increasing mortality rates. The Alvarez theory is thus challenged to provide a consistent sample for the large-scale death of dinosaurs.

Another challenge to the Alvarez Theory is the possible terrestrial source of iridium in KT clay. Studies have shown that the iridium zone in KT clay does not exhibit a single spike but a series of peak iridium-enriched zones [Sargeant and Currie]. This observation supports alternative theories that purport terrestrial sources of iridium, such as periodic volcanic episodes which cause spikes in iridium levels.

The complex nature of iridium deposition in the KT boundary clay is attested to by the different compositional layers in KT sections in American Rocky Mountain region (Maclean). Maclean suggests that slow sedimentary processes are responsible for the lithography of the iridium layer instead of impact fallout. The maximum iridium concentration KT clay in the Rocky Mountains contains very low concentration of nickel and cobalt, and this further attests to low asteroidal content in the clay (Maclean). The variation in composition and concentration in iridium layers challenges the theory since the depositional contents might not have originated solely from an impact event.

The mechanism of species extinction through impact dust travelling into stratosphere and blocking light and photosynthesis has also been brought into question. Many marine algal species which depend on light for photosynthesis such as diatoms and dinoflagellates would have experience close to 90% extinction from a 6-month to 1-year blackout [Maclean], however these species had survival rates of 90%. Further, studies [Maclean] show that dinosaurs could have survived prolonged periods of time at high latitudes and darkness and cold. The Alvarez theory is weakened by many inconsistencies in the stratigraphic record which diminish the possibility of a singular impact event without the intervention of terrestrial factors.

The deccan traps volcano ejected huge amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere and is the major cause of fluctuations in carbon cycle [Maclean 1996]. Since the increase in concentration of greenhouse gases and dissolution of calcium carbonates in oceans are attributed to calciferous plankton extinction and contributed to the destruction of major food chains, the lava flow is a very plausible alternative to the Alvarez theory.

The Alvarez theory when evaluated alongside rival theories does not appear to hold ultimate authority in explaining the KT extinction event. However, the correlation between the distance from Chicxulub impact crater and KT clay composition and mineralogy and the huge impact release of large quantities of water, dust and climate-forcing gases to ignite the extinction of many species has been validated by large scale geophysical models and the stratigraphic record. The volcanic eruption model does not fully explain the spatial distribution of deposit-rock KT layers around the world.

Schulte et al. have proposed that evidence of a gradual decline in extinct populations might be due to short-term survival with reduced population sizes. This accounts for the inconsistencies in the fossil record and leaves the global cause of extinction being of an extraterrestrial origin and instantaneous nature. An impact-induced extinction event spanning just a modicum in the entire geological record but enough to wipe out millions of years of evolution has not left a clean trail in the stratigraphic and geologic record to help in deducing its exact origin. Further investigation is required to validate the theory by exploring if the ejected dust and gases from impact could be enough to cause the large scale climate changes purported by the theory.

Bibliography 1. Schulte, P., et al. The Chicxulub Asteroid Impact and Mass Extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary. Science Vol. 327, 5 March 2010: 1214-1218 2. Asaro, F., and Walter Alvarez. An Exraterrestrial Impact. Scientific American October 1990: 78-84 3. Courtillot, Vincent E. A Volcanic Eruption Scientific American October 1990: 85-92

4. Sheehan, Peter M., David E. Fastovsky, Raymond G. Hoffmann, Claudia B. Berghaus and Diane L. Gabriel. Sudden Extinction of the Dinosaurs: Latest Cretaceous, Upper Great Plains, USA. Science New Series, Vol. 254, No. 5033 Nov. 8, 1991: 835-839 5. Norman, D. Dinosaurs A very short introduction. New York, NY: Oxford University Press: 2005 6. Sarjeant, W.A.S., and P.J. Currie. The Great Extinction that never happened: the demise of the dinosaurs considered. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Vol. 38, 2001: 239-247 7. Lerbemko, John F., Arthur R. Sweet and Robert M. St. Louis. The relationship between the iridium anomaly and palynological floral events at three Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary localities in western Canada. Geological Society of America Bulletin Vol. 99, No. 3 1987: 325-330 8. Williams, Michael E. Catastrophic versus Noncatastrophic Extinction of the Dinosaurs: Testing, Falsifiability, and the Burden of Proof. Journal of Paleontology Vol. 68, No. 2 March 1994: 183-190 9. McLean, D. M., 1993 Impact winter in the global K/T extinctions: no definitive evidences, in Levine, J. S., ed., Global biomass burning: atmospheric, climatic, and biospheric implications Cambridge, MIT Press: 493-503. 10. Maclean 1996, D. M., The Deccan Traps Volcanism-Greenhouse Dinosaur Extinction Theoryhttp://filebox.vt.edu/artsci/geology/mclean/Dinosaur_Volcano_Extinction/