Weather Book AL 09 Final

A guide for
understanding Table of Contents

your weather
Weather Section 1
4 Introduction to Basic
in the Tennessee Valley Classroom Weather Understanding
6 Layers of the Atmosphere
7 Water Cycle
About Dan Satterfield 9 Basic Air Pressure
WHNT NEWS 19 Section 2

Chief Meteorologist
12 Weather Patterns
Dan Satterfield has
been fascinated by 13 Weather Variables
weather since he was 15 Precipitation
a boy! He saw his first 19 Seasons
tornado in Oklahoma
City on June 8th,
1974. Section 3
When Dan was a 32 Why the Wind Blows
student, he was part
33 High/Low Pressure
of the NOAA Severe
Storm Intercept team. In August 2007, Dan fulfilled a lifelong 36 Air Density
dream to visit the Arctic. He spent 2 weeks on a Russian vessel 37 Tornadoes
and got to see a variety of wildlife and spectacular scenery. He 41 Hurricanes
has been up close and personal to a polar bear on an ice flow in
Baffin Bay and has hiked on a glacier in Greenland.
Dan has a Bachelor’s of Science in Meteorology from the Section 4
University of Oklahoma and a Master’s Degree in Earth Science. 46 Severe Weather Alerts
A full member of the American Meteorological Society
47 Local Geography
since 1981, Dan earned the AMS Seal of Approval in 1985, and
went on to earn the Certified Broadcast Meteorologist Seal. 48 Safety Procedures
He is also a member of the AMS Station Scientist Committee 50 Watches and Warnings
and a member of the International Association of Broadcast
Meteorologists. Dan has been WHNT’s Chief Meteorologist
since 1994. Section 5
He is a member of the Board of Directors 52 Weather Terminology
of Huntsville’s Sci-Quest , a Hands-on Science
Center, and works hard to improve science
education among students of all ages.
© Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved. 3

Intro to Weather
Intro to
Basic Weather
Understanding
Layers of the Atmosphere
Water Cycle
Basic Air Pressure
4 © Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved.

Basic understanding Intro to Weather
Weather…The Basics
To best understand how the
weather works, you must
first understand how the
atmosphere (the thin layer
of air that surrounds our
planet) is structured. As
we will see as we begin to study
weather more in detail, the sun is
the driving force behind all of our
weather. If the sun were to go away
suddenly, we would not be able to
live on our planet and the weather
as we know it would cease.
Look over the diagram on the next page

showing how the atmosphere is made up
from ground up. Notice that the atmosphere
extends over 80 miles up from the surface, but
very little air is found once you go up just a few
miles up. The air gradually thins out so much that
eventually you are in outer space, where there are
no air molecules.
Then look at the water cycle on the following page.

Notice how water continually moves about in a
cycle. Pick a starting point and follow the “life” of a
drop of water as it moves through the air, clouds
and ground. Notice that this cycle is on-going
at all points, meaning there is always some
water in the air, always some water in the clouds,
always some water in the rivers and oceans, etc.
Finally, read over the section on air pressure and

you’ll be set with the basics that you will need to
understand how much of the weather happens!

Intro to Weather Basic understanding

The Water Cycle
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Intro to Weather Basic understanding

and the Water Cycle
Review
1 In what layer of the atmosphere do the temperatures get the warmest?_______________________________________
2 What layer of the atmosphere is closest to the ground?____________________________________________________
3 As water evaporates from the surface and begins to lift up into cooler air, what process happens that
turns that moisture into clouds?
_ ______________________________________________________________________________________________
4 When water does not runoff into lakes and rivers, it soaks into the soil into what we call_ ____________________ water.
5 When the clouds grow in size, they produce _________________________ which brings moisture from the
air back down to the ground.
6 In the stratosphere there is a layer of ozone, a gas that absorbs incoming solar radiation.
This makes the temperature go up in the stratosphere. When you get to the mesosphere, what happens
to the temperatures as you go up in height?
_ ______________________________________________________________________________________________
7 In what layer does all weather occur?__________________________________________________________________
8 Water that is given off by trees in the water cycle is known as_______________________________________________
9 In what part of the atmosphere do most meteors burn up?_________________________________________________

Understanding Air Pressure

Air pressure is the weight of air on
an object. That means you are adding up all
of the air molecules on top of something. If you
are standing on the beach (at sea level) there
is approximately 14.7 lbs. of air sitting on top of
every inch of your body. That means on top of
your head there is over 400 lbs. of air! Air becomes thinner with height
Size of your head* is approximately 30 square

inches
Weight of air at sea level is 14.7 lbs per square

inch.
(30x 14.7 = 441 lbs on top of your head!)
Consider the clustering of air molecules near the

surface of the Earth. They are pulled down by
gravity. As you go up in the atmosphere, the air
is thinner and fewer molecules are present.
* Average size of a child’s head at age 10.
1 If you are on top of a mountain, would the pressure of the air be heavier or lighter than on the beach?__________
2 Would you have more or less oxygen up in the mountains than on the beach?_ ____________________________
3 What causes so much air to cluster near the ground?_________________________________________________

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weather patterns
Weather Patterns
Weather Variables
Precipitation
Seasons

temperature weather patterns
What is Temperature?
Temperature is the way we measure How Can You Measure Temperature?
the amount of heat we can feel. We use a thermometer to measure temperature. There are
Actually, temperature is a measure of the speed several different types of thermometers. Some are made of glass
of tiny particles in the air. Everything is made and mercury, others are digital, while others look like a dial. How
up of very tiny objects called molecules. These can all of these measure temperature? Well, everything reacts to
molecules move around. The hotter it is, the faster temperature changes. When it gets hot outside, your body can
they move, and the higher the temperature. So, sense it. Also, when it gets hot, metal expands. Mercury, a liquid
temperature is really just a measure of how fast metal, does this as well. When it gets cold outside, your body can
these little molecules are moving around. The feel it, water can freeze up, metal contracts and so does mercury.
amazing thing is, it usually means the same thing
as how hot we feel. So many different types of material
can be used in a thermometer
As the temperature gets colder and colder, the to measure its reaction to
molecules move slower and slower. In theory, at temperature. Since these
some point the molecules stop moving altogether. different materials react to
It cannot get any colder than this. This temperature hot and cold air, we can
is known as absolute zero. Although the word measure the changes in
“zero” is used, the temperature in Fahrenheit (F) is them and figure out the
-459°F and in Celsius is –273°C. temperature! That is how a
thermometer works.
Experiment: (Note to teachers: although many filled-glass thermometers are filled with
mercury, we strongly recommend to not use mercury thermometers in the classroom to ensure
safety. Instead, do the experiment using alcohol-filled glass thermometers.)
1 Take an alcohol filled thermometer and look at where the level of alcohol is.
2 Run the thermometer under cold water. Now where is the level of alcohol?__________________________________
3 Where is the final level of alcohol?_ _________________________________________________________________

Why did the alcohol move inside the tube?___________________________________________________________
_ ____________________________________________________________________________________________
What liquid other than alcohol would change its size because of the temperature?
_ ____________________________________________________________________________________________

weather patterns Clouds
What are Clouds?
You see them all of the time—up in the sky. Types of clouds
Sometimes they are flat. Sometimes they are puffy.
Sometimes they are white. Sometimes they are gray. Cumulus
Sometimes they are big and tall. Sometimes they aren’t These are white, puffy clouds that are often flat on the
there at all. They are clouds. Clouds are made up of bottom. They are usually found when the weather is
water droplets or ice crystals. They appear to hang nice.
in the sky, but they are actually just resting on the air
below them. Stratus
These are low, thick, flat, grayish clouds that usually
So what is a cloud, really? Well, first we have to know cover the whole sky. These clouds often are found on
what is in the air. Air is made up of gases like nitrogen, cool days and make it truly “cloudy.”
oxygen and carbon dioxide. Air is also made up of
water. Not liquid water, but water vapor. Water vapor
Nimbus
is tiny drops of water suspended in the air. We cannot
These look much like stratus clouds, but nimbus clouds
see water vapor, but the water is there. On humid days,
have rain or snow falling from them.
there is more water vapor in the air. On dry days, there
is not much water vapor in the air.
Cirrus
These are very high in the sky. They are thin and white
When air is lifted, it cools. If the air cools down enough
and sometimes the sun can shine right through them.
the water vapor condenses and turns into water
droplets. These droplets are bigger than the little pieces
that make up vapor, so we can see them. They appear Cumulonimbus
to be white when the sun shines on them. If a cloud is This is a thunderstorm cloud. When a cumulus cloud
thick enough that enough water droplets block out the begins to grow taller and taller, it starts to rain and
sun, the cloud appears grayish. sometimes hail, lightning, and tornadoes can occur from
cumulonimbus clouds.

Clouds weather patterns
Identifying Clouds
Try to identify the following clouds by the definitions given on the previous page.
Write your answers below each picture.

weather patterns Experiment: Making a Cloud
Making a Cloud
MATERIALS Directions
Tape the black paper to the outside of the jar so that it only covers half
• 1 large, large-mouthed glass jar of the jar. You should be able to look through one side of the jar and
see the black paper on the other side. (Make sure the paper does not
• 1 rubber band touch the bottom of the jar)
• 1 piece of nylon (to cover jar mouth) 1 Put two cups of hot water into the jar.
• 2 cups of warm water 2 Make certain that the water is hot enough to make the
air inside the jar very hot and humid.
• 5 ice cubes
3 Place nylon over mouth of jar and secure with the rubber band.
• 1 piece of black paper
4 Place ice cubes on top of the nylon and watch the cloud develop
• tape right below the nylon inside the jar. (You may need to peel back the
nylon to let the cloud “escape” to see better.)
Note: This experiment can also be done by covering the jar with an
aluminum pie plate in place of the nylon and rubber band. In that
form, you would place the ice on top of the aluminum pie plate.
LESSON
What have you done?
The warm, humid air in the jar represents the warm water near the earth’s
surface. As it rises, the air around it cools (that is what the ice on the nylon
represents). As the warm, humid air is cooled by the cold air above it, it forms a
cloud in the jar!

Rain, Sleet, and Snow weather patterns
The Sky is Falling!

Whenever a cloud is full of droplets or ice crystals, they can grow
to become too large to remain in the cloud. They start growing by sticking to
a dust particle or a small piece of suspended material in the air. More and more droplets or
crystals stick to it until it is too heavy to remain in the cloud and the droplet or collection
of crystals begins to fall. This is called precipitation.
If the precipitation that falls is a large droplet (water), then it is called rain. Water freezes
at 0°C (32°F). So, if the air in the cloud is very cold, then a large collection of ice crystals
may form into a flake and fall as snow. There are several other types of precipitation, as
well. If a raindrop falls from a warm cloud through some very cold air and it freezes, then
it becomes sleet. Sleet is a raindrop that froze on the way down to the ground and hits
the ground in the form of an ice pellet. Another type of precipitation is freezing rain.
Freezing rain is a raindrop that is just about to freeze on the fall to the ground. It looks like
rain, but coats everything it hits in ice. It can form an icy glaze on roads, cars, trees, etc.
REVIEW
Now that you know so much about rain, sleet, freezing rain, and snow…see if you can
answer the following questions:
1 What season would you most likely find freezing rain, sleet and snow?________________________________________
2 If a snowflake fell and melted on the way to the ground, what type of precipitation would it be?
_ ______________________________________________________________________________________________
3 What if that snowflake melted on the way down, but then re-froze just before hitting the ground.
What type of precipitation is that?_ ___________________________________________________________________
4 Can you have rain and snow falling at the same time?_____________________________________________________
BONUS Why or why not? _ ___________________________________________________________________________

weather patterns Experiment: Making a rain Gauge
Making a Rain Gauge

Rain clouds are made of droplets of water so small that there are billions of them in
a single cloud. How much rain falls during a shower, or during a day, week, or month? You can find out by
measuring it with a rain gauge.
Directions
MATERIALS 1 Using the ruler and paper, make markings on the paper so
that it becomes a ruler. You can make it in whatever
• 1 straight-side clear plastic container increments you wish. Divide it up by inch, and then in
(curved sides would skew the rain totals) quarters, and even smaller if you want to.
• scissors
2 Once you have the ruler made, cut it out.
• clear cellophane or plastic sandwich bag
3 Cover the ruler with clear cellophane, front and back. This
• tape will protect it from the rain, and make it sturdy so that the
ruler can stand straight.
• rainy days
4 Stand the ruler inside the container so that the ruler rests on the
• graph paper bottom of the container. Tape it at the top, to the inside of the jar,
so that the ruler does not fall.
• plain paper
5 Place your rain gauge outside, and measure the amount of rainfall
• ruler that occurs each day. Place the rain gauge in a place away from
trees and buildings, as this may affect the amounts. Also, you may
wish to glue the jar to a block or platform of wood, so that it does
not tip over if it is windy.
RECORD RESULTS
Record the amount of rain you receive every time it rains on your graph paper and compare that to the amount recorded
at the nearest official rain gauge. (You may want to record the official rain total on the same graph paper in a different color.) You
can see some of the state’s official amounts on the website: (note that the daily amount is updated a couple times per day,
but the official amount is not recorded for that day until just after midnight, so it may be best to compare the amounts on
the next day)
Once on the website for “Weather in the Classroom,” (web link can be found on the front cover), simply follow the links for
“Daily Weather and Climate Data”.

Seasons weather patterns
Understanding Seasons
In order to understand the seasons, you need to first understand how the Earth revolves
around the sun once per year. Look at the picture below showing the Earth at different positions in space during
the year.
In this graphic, the thick, solid line shows you where

the north and south poles are. Notice that the Sept. 22nd
Earth is tilted, that is to say that it does
not have the North Pole at the very
top and the South Pole at the
very bottom. Jun. 21st
The Earth revolves around Dec. 21st
the sun once each year.
Near December 21st,
the South Pole is facing
toward the sun and the
North Pole is facing away
from the sun. This gives
the Northern Hemisphere
(where we live) shorter days
and less direct sunshine. This
makes our weather colder and we
call this season WINTER.
Mar. 20th
Then the Earth moves so that the sun shines
directly over the Equator by March 20th. The Equator is
a line that marks the halfway point between the North and South Poles.
When the sun shines directly over this line, the days and nights are nearly of equal length. The season changes at this point
and we call it SPRING.
The Earth then moves around the sun so that the North Pole is facing the sun. The daylight becomes longer for the
Northern Hemisphere and the sunlight more direct. By June 21st, the sun is at its strongest for the Northern Hemisphere
and the temperatures warm up. We call this season SUMMER.
The Earth continues to revolve around the sun. By September 22nd, the sun is once again over the Equator. The days and
nights are again nearly equal length. The Northern Hemisphere is cooling down and we begin a season called AUTUMN or
FALL.

weather patterns Seasons
What to Expect in the Tennessee Valley

Read the following descriptions of what to expect with each season in the Tennessee Valley:
WINTER FALL
• Days are short, nights are long • Days and nights are equal length at the
beginning of Fall
• Sun is lower in the sky
• Days get gradually shorter through
• Sun is directly over the the season
Southern Hemisphere
• Sun is directly over the Equator on the
• Temperatures are colder first day of Fall
• Rain, ice or snow can fall • Leaves begin to change colors and fall
• Temperatures change often from the trees
• Most trees have no leaves on them • Temperatures gradually cool down
• Strong winds can produce dangerously • Rain and thunderstorms occassionally occur
cold wind chills • Temperature changes often
SPRING SUMMER
• Days and nights are equal length at • Days are long, nights are short
the beginning of Spring
• Sun is higher in the sky
• Days get gradually longer through
the season • Sun is directly over the Northern Hemisphere
• Sun is directly over the Equator on the • Temperatures are hotter

first day of Spring • Plants grow all season
• Flowers bloom and trees produce • Humidity is high throughout much of
new leaves the season.
• Temperatures gradually warm up • Daytime heating leads to occasional
• Rain and thunderstorms are frequent pop-up thunderstorms.
• Temperature changes often • Temperatures do not change much day

to day

Questions: Seasons weather patterns
Questions about the Seasons

Use the previous pages on the seasons to answer the following questions:
1 What would the season be on April 20th?_ _____________________________________________________________
2 On the first day of which season is the sun directly overhead the Northern Hemisphere?__________________________
3 In which season would you expect to see the most sleet?__________________________________________________
4 What season are the days the longest?_________________________________________________________________
5 Complete the following picture by shading the side of Earth that would be dark. From this drawing,
figure out which season it is.
North Pole
south Pole
What season is it in the picture above? ____________________________________________________________________

weather patterns Humidity
What is Humidity?
Water is plentiful on
Earth. It covers nearly
two-thirds of the surface of our planet. But
water is also commonly found in large quantities in
fog may form or dew may form
the air. You can see the effect of the suspended water
on surfaces.
droplets in the atmosphere. Rainbows, clouds, hazy
skies, and even fog are all ways we can visibly see the
Keep in mind, since relative humidity is
water droplets suspended in the air. However, even
dependent on temperature, you cannot
when it seems as though we cannot see the water in
compare humidity from one place to another
the air, it is still there. Sometimes there is little water
or from one time to another unless the
present and the air is dry. At other times there is a lot
temperatures are the same. For example, 100%
of water in the atmosphere and we say that it is humid.
humidity at 45 degrees actually has less water in
These are ways to describe the humidity.
the air than 75% humidity at 80 degrees. It may
sound confusing, but we have another way to help
Humidity is often misunderstood. Relative humidity is
us compare humidities. Remember that dew may
different for every temperature. Why? Because relative
form when the humidity is 100% because the air
humidity is a percentage showing how much water
cannot hold any more water. So, if you can figure
is the air compared to how much water the air could
out when dew will form, then you know how much
hold at that temperature. So if the temperature
water you have in the air. This is called the dew point
changes, so does the relative humidity. Warm air can
temperature.
suspend more water than cold air. So, if the amount
of water doesn’t change, then the relative humidity
To find the dew point you need to take the air you
would go down when it gets warmer (because the air
currently have and cool it down without losing
could hold more at that temperature) and the relative
any of the water in the air. As you cool the air, the
humidity would go up if gets colder (since the air
humidity will rise. When the humidity rises to
cannot hold as much water when cold). If the relative
100%, you have reached the dew point. Now
humidity is 50%, then you are really saying that the
you can compare dew points from one place to
air has half of the amount of water it could hold at
another as a good measure of the amount of
that temperature. If the humidity is 100%, then the
moisture in the air.
atmosphere cannot hold any more water. At that point,
INTERESTING NOTE: Sometimes people will exaggerate about the relative humidity. It is common for people on a hot,
humid summer day to say that the temperature and humidity are high. However some people will say that it is 95 degrees and
100% humidity. This could never happen on Earth. That would make the dew point 95 degrees, too, since the humidity is 100%.
Dew points rarely go higher than 80, and we could not physically handle dew points into the 90s on Earth for very long.

Experiment: Measuring Humidity weather patterns
Measuring Humidity
How you can measure the dew point.
Directions
MATERIALS 1 Outside on a warm, humid day in the spring or
summer, put a couple of inches of warm
• a thin metal cup or a drinking glass (not thermal) (about 75°F) water in a cup.
• thermometer
2 Measure the temperature of the water. Now add a
few drops of ice cold water to your cup.
• ice water
• a large dropper 3 While you are adding water, keep stirring and
(a measuring cup with a pour spout will do) measuring the temperature of the water.
4 Repeat this procedure by adding a small amount of

cold water to the cup until you see a thin film of
LESSON water form on the outside of the cup.
What happened?
As you added colder water to the warm water in the cup, the 5 Make a note of the temperature of the water as
temperature of the water in the cup kept dropping. The sides soon as you see the water vapor form on the
of the cup got colder as the water inside got colder. The cup outside of the cup.
also chilled the air right next to it! When the temperature of
the metal cup reached the dew point... The air just next to the The temperature you measured is the DEW POINT!
cup was cooled to the dew point as well and water began to
condense from the air and stick to the cup!
REVIEW
1 What was the temperature of the water when you started your experiment?
_ ______________________________________________________________________________________________
2 What was the temperature of the water when you saw the condensation form on the outside of the cup?
_ ______________________________________________________________________________________________
3 Would your cup of water have to be colder or warmer to reach the dew point if the air outside is very dry?
_ ______________________________________________________________________________________________

weather patterns Experiment: Demostrating dew and Frost
Dew and Frost

Demonstrating Frost & Dew in the Classroom
Recall that dew forms when the humidity reaches 100% and the atmosphere can no longer hold any more water.
Some of the water is deposited on surfaces as dew. This happens when the temperatures are above freezing. When the
temperatures fall below freezing when the humidity hits 100%, something else forms.
Instead of droplets of water forming on the grass and on car windshields, we see ice crystals forming on surfaces. This is
called frost.
Directions
materials 1 In one can, place several ice cubes.
• 2 metal cans • ice cubes
2 In a separate can place a mixture of ice cubes and rock salt.
• rock salt • thermometer
3 Wait a few moments and notice what happened to the two cans.
LESSON REVIEW
What have you done? 1 Which of the cans had the frost form on the outside?
The can with ice and salt will _ ____________________________________________________________
be colder. The reason for this is _ ____________________________________________________________
saltwater has a lower freezing
point that pure water (the 2 Which of the cans had dew form?
same reason salt is applied to _ ____________________________________________________________
roadways in winter). This lower
freezing point allowed for more
water to evaporate and more 3 What was the temperature of the two cans?
evaporative cooling of the _ ____________________________________________________________
saltwater in the can. Thus, the
final temperature was colder of
the saltwater can. 4 What made one can colder than the other?
_ ____________________________________________________________
NOTE: During the winter months, the air can become very dry (especially on cold days) and it may be difficult to cool the
cans down to the dew point temperature. On a very dry day, you may see only frost form on the colder can, but no dew. If this
is the case, wait and try again on day when the dew point is higher (more moisture in the air). You can find the dew point
temperature by following weather observations online.

Experiment: Recording the Weather weather patterns
Recording the Weather
Use the “Recording the Weather” DATA CHART to fill in

the weather information for one week.
Directions
1 Pick a city in the Tennessee Valley and log on to the Weather in the Classroom website.
You can find the link for the website on the front cover of this booklet.
You will then be able to select “Current Weather” for the following areas of the state:
• Tennessee Valley (around Huntsville)

• Central Alabama (around Birmingham)
• Middle Tennessee (around Nashville)

2 Click on the city on the map you have chosen to see the current conditions.
3 Record the temperature, wind direction, wind speed, air pressure, current weather type and relative humidity.
4 Do this at the beginning of the school day, the middle of the day and again at the end of the day.
5 Write down any interesting things that happened with the weather on the “Recording the Weather”
INFORMATION PAGE. Be sure to include big changes from sunny skies to cloudy skies or when precipitation
started to fall.
6 When you have finished recording the weather for the week, answer the questions on the
“Recording the Weather” QUESTION SHEET.

weather patterns Experiment: Recording the Weather
Weather Data Chart

Experiment: REcording the Weather weather patterns
Information Page
observations
Monday:
Were there clouds today?___________________________________________________________________________
Was there any precipitation?_________________________________________________________________________
*Describe the weather for the day?____________________________________________________________________

Tuesday:
Describe the weather for the day?_ ___________________________________________________________________

Wednesday:

Thursday:

Friday:
* Weather might include partly cloudy, fog, rain, snow, sunny, windy, breezy, cold, warm, hot, etc.

weather patterns Questions: Recording the Weather
Question Sheet
After recording weather conditions for the week, look over the weather data you
collected and answer the following questions:
1 What time of day did you notice the coolest temperatures?
a. Morning b. Midday c. Afternoon
2 What time of day did you notice the highest temperatures?

3 What time of day did you notice the lowest relative humidity?
4 What time of day did you notice the highest relative humidity?
5 Did you have any rain or snow during the week? If yes, what happened to the humidity when the
precipitation was falling?_ __________________________________________________________________________
6 What was the strongest wind speed you recorded during the week?_ ________________________________________
What was the weather during the time you recorded that wind speed?_ ______________________________________
7 Did you notice a pattern with the air pressure during the times you recorded it? Was it going up?
Was the air pressure dropping?_______________________________________________________________________
8 Did a change of wind direction occur during the week? If so, what were the temperatures like the day
before the wind shifted? What about the day after the wind shifted?_ ________________________________________
9 Did clouds affect the temperatures for the week? (Were sunny days warmer than cloudy days?
Were cloudy days warmer than sunny days?)____________________________________________________________
10 How many different types of weather did you record during the week?_ ______________________________________

experiment: mapping the weather weather patterns
Mapping the Weather

Use the “Mapping the Weather” AREA MAP to
• Colored pencils
(dark blue, light blue, yellow, orange, green)
complete the following activities:
1 Write the temperatures on the map above each city’s name.
Use the following temperatures 2 Draw temperature contours for 35, 40, 45, 50, and 55.
(Temperature contours are lines that connect equal temperatures.
for your mapping: You may need to ask an adult to help you complete this step.)
Huntsville: 48 3 Color the area below 35 in dark blue.

Athens: 41
4 Color the area between 35-40 in light blue.
Decatur: 39
5 Color the area between 40-45 in green.
Russellville: 34
Guntersville: 49 6 Color the area between 45-50 in yellow.
Florence: 33 7 Color the area between 50-55 in orange.
Muscle Shoals: 34
8 Color the area over 55 in red.
New Hope: 53
Scottsboro: 56
Ft. Payne: 59
Moulton: 38
Bridgeport: 62
Madison: 44
Fayetteville: 46

weather patterns Experiment: Mapping the Weather
Mapping the Weather Area Map
Wayne
LINCOLN
Giles
Fayetteville
LAUDERDALE LIMESTONE MADISON

Bridgeport
Florence JACKSON
Athens Huntsville
COLBERT
Muscle Shoals Madison Scottsboro
LAWRENCE DEKALB
FRANKLIN Decatur New Hope
Moulton MORGAN
Fort Payne
Russellville Guntersville
MARSHALL
Cullman

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why the wind blows
Why the Wind Blows

Weather Variables
Precipitation
Seasons

High pressure and low pressure why the wind blows
High Pressure & Low Pressure

High Pressure
High pressure is seen on a weather map as a
blue capital “H”. Since the pressure is high, air needs to move away
from a high pressure. Near a high pressure, the winds are usually light and
circulate clockwise away from the high. Because air is leaving the high pressure
area, air from above comes down to replace the air that left. This sinking air keeps
the skies mostly clear and free from clouds that could develop into showers or
thunderstorms. High pressure is usually associated with nice weather.
Low Pressure
Low pressure is seen on a weather map as a red capital “L”. Since the pressure is low, air needs to fill it in,
so it moves toward the low, but around it counterclockwise at the same time. Often the winds can be quite strong around
a low pressure. Because the air is piling up at the low, some of the air is forced up. This rising air often becomes clouds and
even produces rain. If the atmosphere is “unstable” then the rising air can become thunderstorms. Low pressure is often
associated with stormy weather.
In the picture below, the winds are shown around areas of high and low pressure at the surface.

why the wind blows high pressure and low pressure
The Effect of Friction

Friction is a force that acts to slow down the movement of an object. Ice has a very low amount of
friction, so walking across it is very slick, but sandpaper has a high friction and you could get good traction walking across
sandpaper.
If there were no friction at the surface of a non-rotating Earth (no trees, no grass, no hills, etc) then the wind would try to
blow straight from high pressure to low pressure like this:
But there since the Earth is constantly rotating, the wind “turns” as the world turns. This is known as the Coriolis force.
So, when you have high and low pressure with a rotating Earth, but no friction, then the wind blows like this:
But there is friction at the surface. Friction not only slows the speed of the wind, but it also changes the effect of the spin of
the Earth. This causes the winds to blow like this:

Experiment: making a barometer why the wind blows
Making a Barometer
Barometers are used to measure air pressure.
Use the following directions to make your own
barometer and measure changes in the air pressure.
1 Take a small coffee can and cover it
• small coffee can tightly with plastic wrap. Secure the
plastic wrap with a rubber band
• plastic wrap around the can as shown above.
• rubber band 2 Tape a straw to the top of your plastic

wrap cover with one end of the straw
• drinking straw in the middle of the can’s cover and
the other end slightly off the edge of
• large index card the can. (see right)
3 Next place the can beside a large

LESSON index card. Use this card to mark and
Notice that when the air label where the straw is pointing on
pressure is high, it pushes the card. Remember to write down
down on the plastic wrap and the day and time beside each mark
the straw is tilted up. When you make. Notice the changes on the
the air pressure is low, the position of the straw during each day
plastic wrap lifts upward and of the week.
the straw points down.
REVIEW
After recording your air pressure results for the week, answer the following questions:
1 What days had the highest pressure? __________________________________________________________________
2 What days had the lowest pressure? _ _________________________________________________________________
3 Why did the plastic wrap get pushed down by high pressure? ______________________________________________
4 What interesting weather happened when the pressure was changing? _ _____________________________________

why the wind blows Experiment: balloons and air density
Balloons & Air Density

In this experiment, you will see how air density changes when the
temperatures change. Density is a measure of the amount of mass (or amount of molecules) in
a given volume. More simply, it is how compact or how thick a substance is. So what happens when air
is heated and cooled? Does it become more or less compact? Find out and see!
WARNING: In the following experiments, avoid getting the glass bottle too hot or too cold.
Temperature extremes may cause the bottle to break.
Experiment 1
• glass bottle 1 Fill a large bowl with ice cold water. Set aside.
• balloon
2 Fill the glass bottle with very warm to hot water.
This allows the bottle to get fairly warm, as well.
• large bowl
• water
3 Empty the glass bottle and quickly cover the bottle’s
opening with a balloon. This traps in very warm air
inside the warm bottle.
LESSON 4 Now place the bottle upright in the bowl of cold

What did you learn? water. This will cool the air inside the bottle down.
Observe what happens to the balloon.
In Experiment 1, the air inside the bottle was Write down your results.
cooled. When air is cooled, it contracts and the
density is higher (more compact). Since the air was Experiment 2
contracting, it sucked the balloon into the bottle. 1 Fill a large bowl with very warm water. Set aside.
In Experiment 2, the air inside the bottle was 2 Fill the glass bottle with cold water. This allows the
heated. When air is heated, it expands and the bottle to get fairly cold, as well.
density is lower (less compact). Since the air was
expanding, it caused the balloon to expand outside 3 Empty the glass bottle and quickly cover the bottle’s
the bottle, as well. opening with a balloon. This traps in cold air inside
the cold bottle.
In the atmosphere the warmer, lighter air rises since
it is lighter, and the colder air sinks since the density 4 Now place the bottle upright in the bowl of warm
is higher. Sinking cold, air can create areas of high water. This will heat the air inside the bottle. Observe
pressure and rising, warm air often creates areas of what happens to the balloon. Write down your results.
low pressure.

Tornadoes why the wind blows
What are Tornadoes?

Tornadoes can take on several sizes and
shapes and sometimes have several
different names. It is important to
understand what different tornado-related
words mean and how to use them.
A tornado (sometimes called a

twister or cyclone) is an area of rapidly
circulating winds that blow around a small,
but intense, low-pressure area. Tornadoes
usually extend from the base of a thunderstorm.
A funnel cloud is similar to a tornado, but its circulation

is in the air and has not reached the ground. At the point
the circulation reaches the ground, a funnel cloud becomes a
tornado.
A wall cloud is a lowering out of the base of a thunderstorm (even

lower than the bottom of the thunderstorm itself ) which is rotating. Wall
clouds are sometimes difficult to detect because of their ragged appearance.
However, wall clouds are indicators of the most dangerous part of the thunderstorm
base. It is in this area that tornadoes develop.
Why do tornadoes form?

Tornadoes form when conditions are right the tornado can be helpful to a thunderstorm. It allows
and can even help large thunderstorms a thunderstorm to take in large amounts of air at a time
keep themselves going. Without the tornado, many into the storm’s body. Unfortunately, this process is very
thunderstorms would lose their source of warm, humid damaging to anything in its path.
surface air that keeps them alive. Large thunderstorms
take large amounts of air from the surface up into the Tornadoes can have wind speeds anywhere from near
body of the thunderstorm. Some air must come back 65mph all the way up to more than 300mph. They vary in
down to replace the air that was sucked up into the size, too. Small tornadoes may only be a few feet wide, but
thunderstorm. This downward moving air is called a large tornadoes can reach a diameter more than one mile
downdraft. Downdrafts are necessary, but they can “choke” wide. Most tornadoes are between 300 and 2000 feet wide.
a thunderstorm and give it no way to suck warm, humid Each year in the United States, about 1,000 tornadoes form.
air up into the main body of the storm. That is where

why the wind blows Tornadoes
Why do Tornadoes rotate anyway?

Tornadoes are made only
in certain types of weather
patterns. This allows meteorologists
to issues forecasts and Tornado Watches to
warn you ahead of time. To make a tornado, you need the winds to be
turning as you go higher and higher up in the atmosphere.
For example, say the wind on the ground is blowing from the southeast.
But, if you go 500 feet above the ground, the winds are blowing from the
southwest. That means that the winds are turning from the southeast to the
southwest near the ground. Also remember that the air from the ground level feeds
a thunderstorm. This air is “turning” already and as it is sucked into the thunderstorm, the
whole thunderstorm begins to turn, or rotate.
What happens when you take a glass of water and stir it up very fast with a spoon?
As the water in the glass rotates faster and faster, a little funnel forms in the middle of
the glass and tries to reach the bottom of the glass. In a similar way, a thunderstorm
has air rotating around the inside of it and eventually a funnel cloud may form out of
the bottom of the thunderstorm. If that funnel cloud reaches the ground it becomes a
tornado!
The Invisible Tornado

Not all tornadoes can be seen clearly. Some are disguised by heavy rain. Some take place at
night in the dark. Some, however, are not wrapped in rain or at night, but you still can’t see them! These are like invisible
tornadoes.
So how do you know that a tornado is there? First of all, remember that tornadoes form beneath rotating thunderstorms.
A tornado is a tornado if its rotating winds have touched the ground. Sometimes the funnel-shaped cloud is not visible.
At the point the tornado touches the ground, it begins to swirl dirt and debris. This is called a debris cloud. If you see
a debris cloud—but no visible tornado—you have just spotted an invisible tornado. These are just as dangerous as any
other tornado!

Tornadoes why the wind blows
Ranking the Tornadoes

Tornadoes are measured by the amount of damage they produce. It would be impossible for anyone
to accurately measure a tornado the way we normally measure wind, because the tornado would destroy the equipment.
Also, tornadoes form and go away before we could get the equipment to the tornado. So, the only way left to measure
them is to look at the damage they did.
We use a scale to measure the damage caused by a tornado and from that damage, we can estimate the winds. Look at
the Fujita scale below for tornadoes and the description of the damage caused. This is the new wind damage scale that was
first used in 2007.

why the wind blows Questions: Tornadoes
REVIEW
Use your knowledge of tornadoes to answer the following questions

to the best of your ability.
1 About how many tornadoes occur in the United States every year?_ _________________________________________
2 According to the National Weather Service, Alabama averages around 54 tornadoes per year.
In which season of the year do you think most of these tornadoes occur?_ ____________________________________
3 If a framed house was hit by a tornado and the damage consisted of a roof that was torn off, windows were _ blown out, _
but most of the walls were still standing, then what would the Fujita-scale ranking be of this tornado?
(use the chart on the previous page for assistance on this one)______________________________________________
4 What type of cloud rotates at the bottom of a thunderstorm and is a warning sign of a possible tornado?
_ ______________________________________________________________________________________________
5 What is the name of the cloud of dust and broken materials that forms at the bottom of a tornado?
_ ______________________________________________________________________________________________
6 A tornado looks like it is developing from a thunderstorm. What would the name of this developing tornado _be BEFORE _
it reaches to the ground?_ __________________________________________________________________________

Hurricanes why the wind blows
What is a Hurricane?
A hurricane is a large, strong storm that develops over the warm waters of the ocean. This
area of warm ocean water is known as the tropics. Hurricanes form when air moves toward an area of low pressure
over very warm water. At the low-pressure center, this air begins to rise forming a large area of thunderstorms. If the air
is allowed to “evacuate” from the top of the hurricane (high pressure in the upper-levels of the atmosphere causes wind
to spread out) and the storm remains over warm water, then the hurricane will strengthen. (Note that the water off the
west coast of the United States is much colder than the waters off of the East Coast. That, along with more favorable wind
patterns in the East Coast areas, makes a land-falling West Coast hurricane a rare occurrence.)
Remember that air spins counter-clockwise around low pressure. Let’s say that at the ocean surface a low pressure begins
to develop. The air begins to move in toward the low pressure and around it counterclockwise. As all of this air comes
together, too much “piles up” in this area and some has to rise to escape. This lifting air often develops into thunderstorms.
As the pressure drops, the air spins faster and more air rises forming more thunderstorms. This keeps going and going until
the storm system is very strong. It has very fast winds spinning counter-clockwise with bands of thunderstorm rotating
around it, too. This is now a hurricane.

why the wind blows Hurricanes
Naming the Hurricanes

Since hurricanes do so much damage, people often
want to talk about a certain hurricane. The easiest way
to talk about something is if you give it a name. So, hurricanes are
named. (The same could be done for tornadoes, but there are too many
to name!)
As a storm in the tropics develops and gets stronger, it is given

different names. A tropical depression is a developing storm that
has maximum winds of 39mph or less. As the storm gains strength,
and reaches winds of 40mph to 73mph, it is called a tropical storm.
A tropical storm becomes a hurricane when the maximum winds of
the storm reach 74mph. Hurricanes can have wind gusts more than
200mph.
Each year, there is a list of names that will be given to hurricanes or

tropical storms in the order that they occur. The first named storm
gets an “A” name, the second a “B” name, and so on. The name list
alternates men’s and women’s names through the list and each ocean
has its own set of names. Hurricanes are also ranked into categories
by strength on the Saffir-Simpson Scale.
Where Most Tropical

Systems Form

Questions: hurricanes why the wind blows
REVIEW
Answer the following questions from what you have learned in the previous pages and in
class about hurricanes.
1 Residents of North Carolina watch which ocean for developing hurricanes and tropical storms?
_ ______________________________________________________________________________________________
2 Why would you not be concerned about a hurricane hitting San Francisco, even though it sits right on the coast?
_ ______________________________________________________________________________________________
3 Look up the link on hurricane names at the Weather in the Classroom website (see front cover for web address)
and fill in the names for this year’s hurricane season.
“A” Name_____________________ “H” Name_____________________ “O” Name_____________________
“B” Name_____________________ “I” Name______________________ “P” Name_____________________
“C” Name_____________________ “J” Name_ ____________________ “R” Name_____________________
“D” Name_____________________ “K” Name_____________________ “S” Name_____________________
“E” Name_____________________ “L” Name_ ____________________ “T” Name_____________________
“F” Name_____________________ “M” Name_ ___________________ “V” Name_____________________

“G” Name_____________________ “N” Name_____________________ “W” Name_ ___________________
4 Put the following tropical systems in order from weakest to strongest:

Hurricane, tropical depression and tropical storm.
Weakest ____________________

____________________
Strongest ____________________

why the wind blows Games: weather word search
Weather Word Search
AUTUMN HEATWAVE SNOWFLAKE THUNDERSTORM

BLIZZARD HURRICANE SPRING TORNADO
BREEZY LIGHTNING SUMMER WINDY
HAILSTORM SEVERE THUNDER WINTER

Games: Metereology crossword why the wind blows
Meteorology Crossword
Across
7. The measure of how much mass
(weight) is in a given volume.

9. A high, thin cloud made up of
ice crystals.

11. Used to measure air pressure.

13. Used to measure air temperature.

14. This is violently rotating column of air.

15. The wind flows clockwise around
an area of ______ pressure.

16. Frozen drops of rain that fall as
pellets of ice in winter.
Down
1. The scale by which we
categorize hurricanes.

2. A type of cloud that is associated
with thunderstorms.
3. A measure of how much moisture 8. The scale by which we rank tornadoes.

is in the air.
9. This is an apparent force on the
4. The sun is directly overhead the wind that is caused by the spin of
Tropic of _________ on the the Earth.
summer solstice.
10. When all molecules stop moving,
5. Used to measure wind speed. you have reached the coldest possible
temperature called ________ zero.
6. The sun is directly overhead the
Tropic of Capricorn on the 12. The wind flows counter-clockwise
_________ solstice. around an area of _______ pressure.


severe weather
Severe Weather Alerts

Weather Variables
Precipitation
Seasons

Where do you live? severe weather
Where do You Live?

Below is a map of the Tennessee VAlley.
When there is severe weather, warnings are issued for each county.
Do you know the county in which you live? Find your county and shade it in red.
Wayne Giles LINCOLN
LAUDERDALE
LIMESTONE
MADISON JACKSON
COLBERT
FRANKLIN LAWRENCE
MORGAN DEKALB
MARSHALL
Cullman
Fill in the following information for your use:
In what state do you live? __________________________________
In what county do you live? ________________________________
In what city do you live? ___________________________________
Place a star on the map closest to where you live and go to school.

severe weather Tornado safety
Tornado Safety
What to do in case of a tornado:
Always try to get to a basement or storm shelter…you cannot find a better place of shelter than below ground.
What to do if there is no basement or storm shelter:
Go to a small room in the center or your home on the lowest floor with no windows. A closet or bathroom is best.
The best thing to do is to cover yourself with pillows, blankets, mattresses, etc. The idea is to protect yourself from
flying objects. If you do not have a center room, go to a small room along the east wall of your home.
If your home is not on a permanent foundation:
Do not trust a home that is not on a permanent foundation, such as a mobile home. You should have a place in mind,
before the storm even forms, of where you can go. Make a storm safety plan. You need to choose the closest place of
safety (a basement or storm shelter is best).
If you are traveling in a car or truck:
Cars and trucks can be fatal shelters. If you are in the storm’s path, GET OUT OF YOUR VEHICLE and take shelter in a
ditch or creek.
What about overpasses and bridges?
Recent studies have found that taking shelter under a bridge or overpass is more dangerous than lying flat in a ditch.
Winds underneath this bridge or overpass can accelerate and literally suck you out from underneath it. More than
anything, it is NEVER a good idea to be anywhere outside of a storm shelter or basement during a tornado!

Severe weather safety severe weather
Severe Weather Safety

What to do in case of a thunderstorm:
If you are ever outside and a thunderstorm approaches, you need to find a place of shelter from the storm. Unless
there is a tornado, getting inside is the best form of shelter. (If there is a tornado, you need to follow the tornado
safety guidelines.) You should not stay outdoors during a storm. Even in a weak thunderstorm, lightning possesses
enough energy to kill you. Because of this, you need to take shelter indoors away from the threat of lightning strikes.
What to do if you are in a hailstorm:
Hailstorms can cause serious bodily injury. Although most hailstones are fairly small, they are falling from heights
of up to 9 miles high. They are moving very fast and can do more than just hurt you. Even medium size stones can
render you unconscious, break bones, and, at the very least, bruise you. There is no need to be outside during any
thunderstorm, especially a hailstorm.
Lightning is very dangerous. remember this:
Lightning is the most frequent example of dangerous weather. Do not let this fool you into thinking that it is not
as serious. More people are killed in the U.S. from lightning in a given year than from tornadoes. Lightning is very
dangerous and can strike up to five miles from the base of thunderstorm. As a storm approaches, you should take
shelter indoors to avoid lightning strikes.
If your car is struck by lightning:
Most cars will not allow you to be shocked if you are inside when it is struck. But, if you get out of the car and step on
the ground while still touching the car, you can allow the remaining electricity in the car to travel into the ground…
and you will be shocked! You should always jump out of the car without touching the car and ground at the same
time if you feel your car has been struck.

severe weather Watches and warnings
Watches & Warnings

The National Weather Service, along with local television stations, use a system of watches
and warnings to keep you advised during severe weather. Read over the following definitions of the
watches and warnings and try to answer the questions below.
SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH – TORNADO WATCH – This means that conditions

This means that conditions are favorable for severe are favorable for storms to develop that could produce a
thunderstorms to develop (usually issued for a large tornado (usually issued for a large number of counties).
number of counties).
TORNADO WARNING – This means that a tornado
SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WARNING – This has been either detected on radar or sighted (usually
means that a severe thunderstorm has been detected for issued for one or two counties).
a specific area (usually issued for one or two counties).
Questions About Weather Safety

1 Which is more serious? a) Tornado Watch b) Tornado Warning
2 During a tornado warning, the best place to take shelter is:

a) your garage b) a large room with plenty of windows c) basement or storm shelter.
3 It is safe to go outdoors during a Severe Thunderstorm Warning. True or False
4 At what point should you take shelter from a tornado?

a) When a Tornado Warning is issued b) When a Tornado Watch is issued
c) When a Severe Thunderstorm Watch is issued d) Never
5 A severe thunderstorm is detected on radar moving toward your county. Which of the following would be issued?

a) Tornado Warning b) Tornado Watch
c) Severe Thunderstorm Warning d) Severe Thunderstorm Watch
6 There is plenty of time to move away when lightning begins to strike. True or False.
7 Hailstones are falling very fast and can hurt you if you don’t take shelter inside. True or False.

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weather glossary Terminology
A
Advection - The horizontal transfer of any Climatology - The study of climate. Includes Cyclone - An area of closed pressure
property in the atmosphere by the movement climatic data, the analysis of the causes of the circulation with rotating and converging winds.
of air. Examples include heat and moisture differences in climate, and the application of The circulation is counterclockwise in the
advection. climatic data to the solution of specific design or Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the
operational problems. Southern Hemisphere. Also called a low pressure
Air -This is considered the mixture of gases that system and the term used for tropical cyclone
make up the earth’s atmosphere. The principle Cloudburst - A sudden, heavy rainfall of a in the Indian Ocean. Other phenomena with
gases that compose dry air are Nitrogen at showery nature. cyclonic flow may be referred to as dust devils,
78.084%, Oxygen at 20.946%, Argon at .93%, and tornadoes, tropical and extratropical systems.
Carbon Dioxide .03% Coalescence - The merging of two water
drops into a single larger drop.
Air Mass - An extensive body of air throughout D
which the horizontal temperature and moisture Cold Front - The leading edge of an Dew - Condensation in the form of small water
characteristics are similar. advancing cold air mass that is under running drops that form on grass and other object near
and displacing the warmer air in its path. the ground when the temperature has fallen to
Generally, when a cold front passes the the dewpoint. Dew generally forms during the
B temperature and humidity decrease, the pressure nighttime hours and evaporates by mid to late
Barometer - An instrument used to measure rises, and the wind shifts from southwest to morning.
atmospheric pressure. Examples include the northwest. Precipitation is usually along or ahead
aneroid barometer and the mercurial barometer. of the front in the form of thunderstorms. Dew point - The temperature to which air
must be cooled at a constant pressure to become
Barometric Pressure - The pressure Condensation - The process by which water saturated. Example: If the air temperature is 70
exerted by the atmosphere at a given point. The vapor undergoes a change in state from a gas to degrees and the dewpoint temperature is 70
measurement can be expressed in millibars(mb) a liquid. It’s opposite is evaporation. degrees the air is saturated and dew will form i.e,
or in inches of mercury(Hg). the relative humidity is 100%
Convection - Motions in a fluid that transport
Blizzard - A severe weather condition and mix the properties of the fluid. These Divergence - Wind movement that results in
characterized by low temperatures, winds properties could be heat and/or moisture. Often a horizontal net outlow of air from a particular
35mph of greater, blowing snow that can reduce the term convection is used to describe upward region. Divergence at lower levels is associated
visibilities to 1/4 mile or less for more than 3 motion of water vapor (moisture) forced to with a downward movement of air from aloft.
hours. A severe blizzard is characterized by rise by surface heating in turn creating rain or
temperatures at or below 10 degrees Fahrenheit, thunderstorms Doppler Radar - Weather radar that
winds exceeding 45mph, and visibility reduced measures the direction and speed of a moving
by snow to near zero. Convergence - Wind movement that results object, such as drops of precipitation, by
in a horizontal net inflow of air into a particular determining whether atmospheric motion is
region. Convergent winds at lower levels are horizontally toward or away from the radar.
C associated with upward motion.
Calm - Atmospheric conditions devoid of wind Downburst - A severe localized downdraft
or any other air motion. Coriolis Force - A force per unit mass that from a thunderstorm or shower. This outward
arises solely from the earth’s rotation, acting burst of cool air creates damaging winds at or
Chinook - Refers to the warm downslope wind as a deflecting force. It is dependent on the near the surface.
in the Rocky Mountains that may occur after an latitude and speed of the moving object. In the
intense cold spell when the temperatures may Northern Hemisphere the air is deflected to the Drought - Abnormal, dry weather for a
rise 20-40 degrees in a matter of minutes. right, and in the Southern Hemisphere to the specific area that is prolonged and causes serious
left. The coriolis effect is almost non-existent at hydrological imbalance.
Cirrus - High clouds usually above 18,000 feet, the equator.
composed of ice crystals Dry Line - The boundary between the dry
Cumulonimbus Cloud - A vertically desert air mass of the southwestern U.S. and
Climate - The historical record of average developed cloud, often capped by an anvil moist air mass from the Gulf of Mexico. It
daily and seasonal weather events. Statistics shaped cloud. This cloud is otherwise known usually lies north-south across the central and
are generally drawn over several decades. The as a thundercloud. A cumulonimbus cloud can southern High Plains states during the spring
word is derived from the Greek “klima” meaning produce tornadoes, hail, lightning, strong winds and summer months. When a dry line passes it
inclination, and reflects the importance early and heavy rain. results in a decrease in humidity, clearing skies,
scholars attributed to the sun’s influence. and wind shift from east/southeasterly to west/
southwesterly. Its presence influences severe
weather development in the Great Plains.

Terminology weather glossary
E F
Easterlies - Usually applied to the broad Fahrenheit Temperature Scale - A Fujita Scale - A scale that classifies the
patterns of persistent winds with an easterly temperature scale where water at sea level has severity of wind damage intensity based on the
component, such as the easterly trade winds. a freezing point of +32 degrees F and a boiling degree of destruction as it relates to the wind
point of +212 degrees F. More commonly used speed as well as path length and path width
Echo - The energy return of a radar signal after it in areas that observe the English system of of the event. It is normally used to identify the
has hit the target. measurement. Created in 1714 by Gabriel Daniel most intense damage exhibited by a tornado.
Fahrenheit (1696-1736), a German physicist, Developed by T. Theodore Fujita and Allen
Equator - The geographic circle at zero who also invented the alcohol and mercury Pearson.
degrees latitude on the earth’s surface. It is thermometers.
equal distance from the North and South Poles Funnel Cloud - A violent, rotating column of
and divides the Northern Hemisphere from the Fair - This is a subjective description. Considered air visibly extending from the base of a towering
Southern. as pleasant weather conditions with regard to cumulus or cumulonimbus toward the ground,
the time of year and the physical conditions. Also but not in contact with it.
Equinox - The point at which the ecliptic refers to no cloud cover below 10,000 feet.
intersects the celestial equator. Days and nights
are most nearly equal in duration. In the Northern
Hemisphere, the vernal equinox falls on or about
Flash Flood - A flood that rises and falls quite
rapidly with little or no advance warning, usually
G
Geostationary Satellite - An orbiting
March 20 and the autumnal equinox on or about as the result of intense rainfall over a relatively weather satellite that maintains the same
September 22. small area. Flash floods can be caused by position over the equator during the earth’s
situations such as a sudden excessive rainfall, the rotation. Also known as GOES, an acronym
Evaporation - The physical process by failure of a dam, or the thaw of an ice jam. for Geostationary Operational Environmental
which a liquid, such as water is transformed into Satellite.
a gaseous state, such as water vapor. It is the Flood - High water flow or an overflow of rivers
opposite physical process of condensation. or streams from their natural or artificial banks, Graupel - A form of frozen precipitation
inundating adjacent low-lying areas. consisting of snowflakes or ice crystals and
Evapotranspiration - The total amount supercooled water droplets frozen together.
of water that is transferred from the earth’s Fog - A visible aggregate of minute water
surface to the atmosphere. It is made up of the droplets suspended in the atmosphere at or Gravity - The force of attraction of the earth
evaporation of liquid or solid water plus the near the surface of the earth, reducing horizontal on an object. The direction is downward relative
transpiration from plants. visibility to less than 5/8 statute miles. It is created to the earth, and it decreases with elevation or
when the temperature and the dew point of the altitude away from the earth’s surface.
Extratropical Cyclone - Any cyclone not air have become the same, or nearly the same,
of tropical origin. Generally considered to be a and sufficient condensation nuclei are present. Greenhouse Effect - The overall warming
migratory frontal cyclone found in the middle of the earth’s lower atmosphere primarily due to
and high latitudes. Forecast - A statement of expected future carbon dioxide and water vapor which permit
occurrences. Weather forecasting includes the sun’s rays to heat the earth, but then restrict
Eye - The center of a tropical storm or hurricane, the use of objective models based on certain some heat-energy from escaping back into
characterized by a roughly circular area of light atmospheric parameters, along with the skill and space.
winds and rain-free skies. An eye will usually experience of a meteorologist.
develop when the maximum sustained wind Gust - A sudden significant increase in or rapid
speeds exceed 78 mph. It can range in size from Freezing Drizzle - Drizzle, falling as a liquid, fluctuations of wind speed. Peak wind must
as small as 5 miles up to 60 miles, but the average but freezing on impact with the colder ground or reach at least 16 knots (18 miles per hour) and
size is 20 miles. In general, when the eye begins other exposed surfaces. the variation between peaks and lulls is at least
to shrink in size, the storm is intensifying. ten knots (11.5 miles per hour). The duration is
Freezing Rain - Rain that falls as liquid and usually less than twenty seconds.
Eyewall - An organized band of convection freezes upon impact to form a coating of glaze
surrounding the eye, or center, of a tropical on the colder ground or other exposed surfaces. Gust Front - The leading edge of the cool,
cyclone. It contains cumulonimbus clouds, gusty surface winds produced by thunderstorm
intense rainfall and very strong winds. Front - The transition zone or interface downdrafts. Sometimes confused with an
between two air masses of different densities, outflow boundary.
which usually means different temperatures.
For example, the area of convergence between Gustnado - A weak, and usually short-lived,
warm, moist air and cool, dry air. tornado that forms along the gust front of a
thunderstorm, appearing as a temporary dust
Frost - The covering of ice crystals that forms whirl or debris cloud.
by direct sublimation on exposed surfaces whose
temperature is below freezing.

H
Hail - Precipitation that originates in convective Hook Echo - A radar reflectivity pattern Intertropical Convergence Zone
clouds, such as cumulonimbus, in the form of observed in a thunderstorm, appearing (ITCZ) - An area where the Northern and
balls or irregular pieces of ice, which comes in like a fish hook and indicating favorable Southern Hemispheric trade winds converge.
different shapes and sizes. Hail is considered conditions for tornadic development. However, It is a broad area of low pressure where both
to have a diameter of five millimeter or more; hook echoes and tornadoes do not always the Coriolis force and the low-level pressure
smaller bits of ice are classified as ice pellets, accompany each other. gradient are weak, occasionally allowing tropical
snow pellets, or graupel. Individual lumps are disturbances to form. The ITCZ fluctuates, moving
called hailstones. Humidity - The amount of water vapor in the northward over the south Atlantic during the
air. It is often confused with relative humidity or Northern Hemisphere summer.
Haze - A suspension of fine dust and/or smoke dew point.
particles in the air. Invisible to the naked eye, the Inversion - It refers to an increase in
particles reduce visibility by being sufficiently Hurricane - The name for a tropical cyclone an atmospheric property with height. For
numerous to give the air an opalescent with sustained winds of 74 miles per hour (65 example...A temperature inversion is when the
appearance. knots) or greater in the North Atlantic Ocean, temperature increases with altitude, which
Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and in the eastern is a departure from the usual decrease of
Heat - A form of energy transferred between North Pacific Ocean. This same tropical cyclone is temperature with height.
two systems by virtue of a difference in known as a typhoon in the western Pacific and a
temperature. The first law of thermodynamics cyclone in the Indian Ocean. Ionisphere - An atmospheric zone of ionized
demonstrated that the heat absorbed by a gases that extends between 50 and 400 miles
system may be used by the system to do work or Hydrologic Cycle - Often called the water above the surface of the Earth. It is located
to raise its internal energy. cycle, it is the vertical and horizontal transport between the mesosphere and the exosphere.
of water in all its states between the earth, the
Heat Index - The combination of air atmosphere, and the seas. Isobar - The line drawn on a weather map
temperature and humidity that gives a connecting points of equal barometric pressure.
description of how the temperature feels. This is Hygrometer - An instrument that measures
not the actual air temperature. the water vapor content of the atmosphere. Isotherm - The line of equal or constant
temperature.
Heat Lightning - Lightning that appears
as a glowing flash on the horizon. It is actually I
lightning occurring in distant thunderstorms, just
over the horizon and too far away for thunder to
Ice - Water in a solid state. It can be found in the J
atmosphere in the form of ice crystals, snow, ice Jetstreak - A region of accelerated wind
be heard. pellets, and hail. speed along the axis of a jet stream.
Heat Wave - A period of abnormally and Inches of Mercury - The name comes Jetstream - A area of strong winds that are
uncomfortably hot weather. It could last from from the use of mercurial barometers which concentrated in a relatively narrow band in the
several days to several weeks. equate the height of a column of mercury with upper troposphere of the Northern and Southern
air pressure. One inch of mercury is equivalent Hemispheres. Flowing in a semi-continuous band
High Clouds - A term used to signify to 33.86 millibars. First devised in 1644 by around the globe from west to east, it is caused
cirriform clouds that are composed of ice Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian physicist and by the changes in air temperature where the cold
crystals and generally have bases above 20,000 mathematician, to explain the fundamental polar air moving towards the equator meets the
feet. The main types of high clouds are cirrus, principles of hydromechanics. warmer equatorial air moving northward toward
cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus. This altitude the poles.
applies to the temperate zone. In the polar Infrared - The long wave, electromagnetic
regions, these clouds may be found at lower radiation of radiant heat emitted by all hot
altitudes. In the tropics, the defining altitudes for
cloud types are generally higher.
objects. On the electromagnetic spectrum, it
can be found between microwave radiation and
K
Katabatic Wind - A wind that is created by
visible light. Water vapor, ozone, and carbon air flowing downhill. When the air is warm, it
High Pressure System - An area of relative dioxide are efficient at absorbing or transmitting may be called a foehn wind, and regionally may
pressure maximum that has diverging winds infrared radiation. be known as a Chinook, or Santa Ana. When this
and a rotation opposite to the earth’s rotation. air is cool, it is called a drainage wind, mountain
This is clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere Insolation - Solar radiation or heating breeze or glacier wind.
and counterclockwise in the Southern received at the earth’s surface. The name is
Hemisphere. It is the opposite of an area of low derived from INcoming SOLar radiATION. Knot - A nautical unit of wind speed equal to
pressure or a cyclone. the velocity at which one nautical mile is traveled
Instability - It is the condition of the in one hour. Used primarily by marine interests
atmosphere when spontaneous convection and in weather observations. 1 knot = 1.151
and severe weather can occur. Air parcels, when statute miles per hour.
displaced vertically, will accelerate upward.

L
Land Breeze - A diurnal coastal breeze that Lunar Eclipse - A eclipse of the moon occurs Microscale - The smallest scale of
blows offshore, from the land to the sea. It is when the Earth is in a direct line between the meteorological phenomena that range in size
caused by the temperature difference when the sun and the moon. The moon does not have from a few centimeters to a few kilometers.
sea surface is warmer than the adjacent land. any light of its own, instead it reflects the sun’s Larger phenomena are classified as mesoscale.
Predominate during the night, it reaches its light. During a lunar eclipse the moon is in the It also refers to small scale meteorological
maximum around dawn. earth’s shadow. phenomena with life spans of less than a few
minutes that affect very small areas and are
Lapse Rate - The change of an atmospheric strongly influenced by local conditions of
variable, usually temperature, with height.
A steep lapse rate implies a rapid decrease
M temperature and terrain.
Mare’s Tail - The name given to thin,
in temperature with height. This is a sign of wispy cirrus clouds composed of ice crystals Middle Clouds - A term used to signify
instability. that appear as veil patches of strands, often clouds with bases between 6,000 and 18,000
resembling a horse’s tail. feet. At the higher altitudes, they may also
Latitude - The location north or south in have some ice crystals, but they are composed
reference to the equator, which is designated at Mean Sea Level - The average height of the mainly of water droplets. Altocumulus,
zero degrees. Parallel lines that circle the globe sea surface water level. For the United States, it altostratus, and nimbostratus are the main
both north and south of the equator. The poles is computed by averaging the levels of all tide types of middle clouds. This altitude applies to
are at 90 degrees North and South latitude. stages over a nineteen year period, determined the temperate zone. In the polar regions, these
from hourly height readings measured from a clouds may be found at lower altitudes. In the
Lee/Leeside - The side of an object, such as a fix, predetermined reference level. It is used as a tropics, the defining altitudes for cloud types
ship’s sail, a mountain, or a hill, furthest away from basis for determining elevations, as the reference are generally higher.
the wind, and therefore protected from the direct for all altitudes in upper air measurements, and
force of the wind. as the level above which altitude is measured by Mixed Precipitation - Any of the
a pressure altimeter for aviation. Often referred following combinations of freezing and frozen
Lightning - A rapid, visible discharge of to as MSL. precipitation: snow and sleet, snow and freezing
electricity hotter than the surface of the rain, or sleet alone. Rain may also be present.
sun. Lightning is caused by the build up of Mesocyclone - An area of rotation of storm
electrical potential between cloud and ground, size that may often be found on the southwest Moisture - Refers to the water vapor content
between clouds, or between clouds and the part of a supercell. Its circulation can be larger in the atmosphere, or the total water, liquid, solid
surrounding air. than the tornado that may develop within it, or vapor, in a given volume of air.
but not necessarily. Originally a radar term for a
Longitude - The location east or west in rotation signature that met certain criteria, it is Monsoon - The seasonal shift of winds
reference to the Prime Meridian, which is best seen on Doppler radar. created by the great annual temperature
designated at 0 degrees longitude. The distance variation that occurs over large areas in contrast
between lines of longitude are greater at the Mesoscale - The scale of meteorological with associated ocean surfaces. The monsoon
equator and smaller at the higher latitudes. Time phenomena that range in size from several is associated primarily with the moisture and
zones are correlated to longitude. kilometers to around 100 kilometers. Smaller copious rains that arrive with the southwest flow
phenomena are classified as microscale while across southern India. The name is derived from
Low Clouds - A term used to describe clouds larger are classified as synoptic-scale. the word mausim, Arabic for season. This pattern
with bases below 6,000 feet. Types of low clouds is most evident on the southern and eastern
include stratus, stratocumulus, cumulus and Meteorology/Meteorologist - sides of Asia, although it does occur elsewhere,
cumulonimbus. The science and study of the atmosphere such as in the southwestern United States.
and atmospheric phenomena. Various
Low Level Jet - Strong winds that are areas of meteorology include agricultural, Multicell Storm - A thunderstorm made up
concentrated in relatively narrow bands in the applied, astrometerology, aviation, dynamic, of two or more single-cell storms.
lower part of the atmosphere. It is often amplified hydrometeorology, operational, and synoptic,
at night. to name a few. A scientist who studies the Multiple Vortex Tornado - A tornado
atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena. which has two or more condensation funnels
Low Pressure System - An area of a relative or debris clouds, often rotating around a
pressure minimum that has converging winds Microburst - A severe localized wind blasting common center.
and rotates in the same direction as the Earth... down from a thunderstorm. It covers an area less
counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere than 2.5 miles (4 kilometers) in diameter and is of
and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Also short duration, usually less than five minutes.
known as a cyclone.

N P
Nimbostratus - This cloud exhibits a Partly Cloudy - The state of the weather Radiation Fog - Fog that is created when
combination of rain or snow, and sometimes the when clouds are conspicuously present, but do radiational cooling at the earth’s surface lowers
base of the cloud cannot be seen because of not completely cover the sky at a given time. the temperature of the air near the ground to
the heaviness of precipitation. They are generally Sometimes interchanged with mostly sunny. or below its dew point. Formation is best when
associated with fall and winter conditions, but there is a shallow surface layer of relatively moist
can occur during any season. Polar-Orbiting Satellite - A satellite air beneath a drier layer, clear skies, and light
whose orbit passes over both of the Earth’s poles surface winds. This primarily occurs during the
Nor’easter - A cyclonic storm occurring off gathering cloud and temperature data. night or early morning.
the east coast of North America. These winter
weather events are notorious for producing Precipitation - Any and all forms of water, Rainbow - A luminous arc featuring all colors
heavy snow, rain, and tremendous waves that liquid or solid, that falls from clouds and reaches of the visible light spectrum (red, orange, yellow,
crash onto Atlantic beaches, often causing the ground. This includes, drizzle, freezing drizzle, green, blue, indigo, and violet). It is created by
beach erosion and structural damage. Wind freezing rain, hail, ice crystals, ice pellets, rain, refraction, total reflection, and the dispersion of
gusts associated with these storms can exceed snow, snow pellets, and snow grains. light. It is visible when the sun is shining through
hurricane force in intensity. A nor’easter gets its air containing water spray or raindrops, which
name from the continuously strong northeasterly Pressure - The force per unit area exerted by occurs during or immediately after a rain shower.
winds blowing in from the ocean ahead of the the weight of the atmosphere above a point on The bow is always observed in the opposite side
storm and over the coastal areas. or above the earth’s surface. of the sky from the sun.
Pressure Gradient - The amount of Reflectivity - A measure of the process

O pressure change that occurs over a fixed distance by which a surface can turn back a portion of
Observation - In meteorology, the evaluation at a fixed altitude. incident radiation into the medium through
of one or more meteorological elements, like which the radiation approached. It also refers
temperature, pressure or wind that describe the Prevailing Wind - A wind that blows from to the degree by which precipitation is able to
state of the atmosphere at a given time. A trained one direction more frequently than any other reflect a radar beam. Related albedo.
observer is one who records the evaluations of during a given period, such as a day, month,
the meteorological records. season, or year. Relative Humidity - A type of humidity that
considers the ratio of the actual vapor pressure
Outflow - Also referred to as an outflow Psychrometer - An instrument used of the air to the saturation vapor pressure. It is
boundary. It is the outward flow of air from a to measure the water vapor content of the usually expressed in percentage.
system such as a thunderstorm. It is the result atmosphere. It consists of two thermometers, a
of cold downdrafts and its passage includes a wet bulb and dry bulb. May also be referred to as Rime - The rapid freezing of supercooled water
wind shift and most often a temperature drop. a sling psychrometer. droplets as they touch an exposed object,
Outflow boundaries sometimes help produce forming a white opaque granular deposit of
thunderstorms as they move into regions of ice. It is one of the results of an ice storm, and
instability. R when formed on aircraft it is called rime icing.
Radar - Acronym for RAdio Detection And Related glaze
Overcast - When the sky is completely Ranging. An electronic instrument used to
covered by clouds. detect distant objects and measure their range Roll Cloud - A relatively rare, low-level,
by how they scatter or reflect radio energy. horizontal, tube-shaped cloud. Although they
Overrunning - This occurs when a relatively Precipitation and clouds are detected by are associated with a thunderstorm, they are
warm air mass is forced above a cooler air mass measuring the strength of the electromagnetic completely detached from the base of the
of greater density. Weather generally associated signal reflected back. cumulonimbus cloud.
with this event include cloudiness, cool
temperatures and steady precipitation. Radiation - The process by which energy is
propagated through any medium by virtue of the S
Ozone Layer - An atmospheric layer that wave motion of that medium. Electromagnetic Saffir - Simpson Damage-Potential Scale -
contains a high proportion of oxygen that exists radiation, which emits heat and light, is one form. Developed in the early 1970s by Herbert Saffir,
as ozone. It acts as a filtering mechanism against Sound waves are another. and Robert Simpson, it is a measure of hurricane
incoming ultraviolet radiation. It is located intensity on a scale of 1 to 5. The scale categorizes
between the troposphere and the stratosphere potential damage based on barometric pressure,
between 9.5 and 12.5 miles above the Earth’s wind speeds, and storm-surge.
surface. Ozone at the surface is not healthy for
humans to breathe.

Satellite - Any object that orbits a celestial Sleet - Also known as ice pellets, it is winter Spring - The season of the year which occurs
body, such as a moon. However, the term is often precipitation in the form of small bits or pellets of as the sun approaches the summer solstice,
used in reference to the manufactured objects ice that rebound after striking the ground or any and characterized by increasing temperatures
that orbit the earth, either in a geostationary other hard surface. in the mid-latitudes. Customarily, this refers
or a polar manner. Some of the information to the months of March, April, and May in
that is gathered by weather satellites, includes Snow - Frozen precipitation in the form of white the Northern Hemisphere, and the months
upper air temperatures and humidity, recording or translucent ice crystals in complex branched of September, October, and November in the
the temperatures of cloud tops, land, and hexagonal form. It most often falls from stratiform Southern Hemisphere. Astronomically, this is
ocean, monitoring the movement of clouds to clouds, but can fall as snow showers from the period between the vernal equinox and
determine upper level wind speeds, tracing the cumuliform ones. It usually appears clustered into the summer solstice.
movement of water vapor, monitoring the sun snowflakes.
and solar activity, and relaying data from weather Squall - A sudden onset of strong winds with
instruments around the world. Snow Flurry/Flurries - Light showers speeds increasing to at least 16 knots (18 miles per
of snow, generally very brief without any hour) and sustained at 22 or more knots (25 miles
Scattering - The process by which small measurable accumulation. per hour) for at least one minute. The intensity and
particles suspended in the air diffuse a portion duration is longer than that of a gust.
of the incident radiation in all directions. This is Snow Grains - Frozen precipitation in the
a primary reason for colors, such as blue skies, form of very small, white, opaque grains of ice. Squall Line - A narrow band of line of active
rainbows, and orange sunsets. The solid equivalent of drizzle. thunderstorms that is not associated with a cold
front. It may form from an outflow boundary or
Sea Breeze - A diurnal coastal breeze that Snow Pellets - Frozen precipitation in the the leading edge of a meso-high.
blows onshore, from the sea to the land. It is form of white, round or conical opaque grains
caused by the temperature difference when the of ice. Their diameter ranges from 0.08 to 0.2 Stationary Front - A front which is nearly
surface of the land is warmer than the adjacent inch (2 to 5 mm). They are easily crushed and stationary or moves very little since the last
body of water. Predominate during the day, it generally break up after rebounding from a hard synoptic position. May be known as quasi-
reaches its maximum early to mid afternoon. It surface, unlike hail. Sometimes it is called small stationary front.
blows in the opposite direction of a land breeze. or soft hail.
Straight-Line Winds - Any surface wind
Sea Level Pressure - The atmospheric Snowflakes - An ice crystal or an aggregate that is not associated with rotation. An example is
pressure at mean sea level, usually determined of ice crystals which fall from clouds. the first gust from a thunderstorm, as opposed to
from the observed station pressure. tornadic winds.
Solar Eclipse - An eclipse of the sun occurs
Severe Thunderstorm - A thunderstorm when the moon is in a direct line between the Stratiform - Clouds composed of water
with winds measuring 50 knots (58 mph) or sun and the earth, casting some of the earth’s droplets that exhibit no or have very little vertical
greater, 3/4 inch hail or larger, or tornadoes. surface in its shadow. The moon’s disk shaped development. The density of the droplets often
Severe thunderstorms may also produce outline appears to cover the sun’s brighter blocks sunlight, casting shadows on the earth’s
torrential rain and frequent lightning. surface, or photosphere. That part of the earth surface. Bases of these clouds are generally no
that is directly in the moon’s shadow will see a more than 6,000 feet above the ground. They are
Severe Weather - Generally, any destructive total eclipse of the sun, while the areas around it classified as low clouds, and include all varieties
weather event, but usually applies to localized will see a partial eclipse. of stratus and stratocumulus.
storms, such as blizzards, intense thunderstorms,
or tornadoes. Solstice - The point at which the sun is the Stratocumulus - A low cloud composed
furthest on the ecliptic from the celestial equator. of layers or patches of cloud elements. It can
Shear - It is the rate of change over a short The point at which sun is at maximum distance form from cumulus clouds becoming more
duration. In wind shear, it can refer to the from the equator and days and nights are most stratiformed and often appears as regularly
frequent change in wind speed within a short unequal in duration. The Tropic of Cancer and the arranged elements that may be tessellated,
distance. It can occur vertically or horizontally. Tropic of Capricorn are those parallels of latitude rounded, or roll-shaped with relatively flat
Directional shear is a frequent change in direction which lies directly beneath a solstice. In the tops and bases. It is light or dark gray in color,
within a short distance, which can also occur Northern Hemisphere, the winter solstice falls on depending on the size of the water droplets
vertically or horizontally. When used in reference or about December 21 and the summer solstice and the amount of sunlight that is passing
to Doppler radar, it describes the change in radial on or about June 21. through them.
velocity over short distances horizontally.
Stratopause - The boundary zone or
Sky Cover - The amount of the celestial dome transition layer between the stratosphere and
that is hidden by clouds and/or obscurations. the mesosphere. Characterized by a decrease in
temperature with increasing altitude.

Stratosphere - The layer of the atmosphere Supercell - A severe thunderstorm Thunder - The sound emitted by rapidly
located between the troposphere and characterized by a rotating, long-lived, intense expanding gases along the channel of a lightning
the mesosphere, characterized by a slight updraft. Although not very common, they discharge. Over three-quarters of lightning’s
temperature increase and absence of clouds. produce a relatively large amount of severe electrical discharge is used in heating the gases
It extends between 11 and 31 miles (17 to 50 weather, in particular, extremely large hail, in the atmosphere in and immediately around
kilometers) above the earth’s surface. It is the damaging straight-line winds, and practically all the visible channel. Temperatures can rise to
location of the earth’s ozone layer. violent tornadoes. over 10,000 degrees Celsius in microseconds,
resulting in a violent pressure wave, composed
Stratus - One of the three basic cloud forms Supercooling - The reduction of the of compression and rarefaction. The rumble of
(the others are cirrus and cumulus). It is also one temperature of any liquid below the melting thunder is created as one’s ear catches other
of the two low cloud types. It is a sheet-like cloud point of that substance’s solid phase. Cooling a parts of the discharge, the part of the lightning
that does not exhibit individual elements, and substance beyond its nominal freezing point. flash nearest registering first, then the parts
is, perhaps, the most common of all low clouds. Supercooled water is water that remains in a further away.
Thick and gray, it is seen in low, uniform layers liquid state when it is at a temperature that is
and rarely extends higher than 5,000 feet above well below freezing. The smaller and purer the Thunder Snow - A wintertime thunderstorm
the earth’s surface. water droplets, the more likely they can become from which falls snow instead of rain.
supercooled.
Sublimation - The process of a solid (ice) Thunderstorm - Produced by a
changing directly into a gas (water vapor), or Surface Boundary Layer - The lowest cumulonimbus cloud, it is a microscale event
water vapor changing directly into ice, at the layer of the earth’s atmosphere, usually up to of relatively short duration characterized
same temperature, without ever going through 3,300 feet, or one kilometer, from the earth’s by thunder, lightning, gusty surface winds,
the liquid state (water). surface, where the wind is influenced by the turbulence, hail, icing, precipitation, moderate to
friction of the earth’s surface and the objects extreme up and downdrafts, and under the most
Subsidence - A sinking or downward on it. severe conditions, tornadoes.
motion of air, often seen in anticyclones. It is
most prevalent when there is colder, denser air Surge - The increase in seawater height from Tornado - A violently rotating column of
aloft. It is often used to imply the opposite of the level that would normally occur were there air in contact with and extending between a
atmospheric convection. no storm. Although the most dramatic surges convective cloud and the surface of the earth.
are associated with hurricanes, even smaller low- It is the most destructive of all storm-scale
Subtropical - The region between the pressure systems can cause a slight increase in atmospheric phenomena. They can occur
tropical and temperate regions, an area between the sea level if the wind and fetch is just right. It is anywhere in the world given the right conditions,
35 and 40 degrees North and South latitude. estimated by subtracting the normal astronomic but are most frequent in the United States in an
This is generally an area of semi-permanent high tide from the observed storm tide. area bounded by the Rockies on the west and
pressure that exists and is where the Azores and the Appalachians in the east.
North Pacific Highs may be found. Synoptic Scale - The size of migratory
high and low pressure systems in the lower Tornado Alley - A geographic corridor in
Subtropical Jet - Marked by a concentration troposphere that cover a horizontal area of the United States which stretches north from
of isotherms and vertical shear, this jet is the several hundred miles or more. Texas to Nebraska and Iowa. In terms of sheer
boundary between the subtropical air and the numbers, this section of the United States
tropical air. It is found approximately between receives more tornadoes than any other.
25 and 35 degrees North latitude and usually T
above an altitude of 40,000 feet. Its position tends Temperature - The measure of molecular Towering Cumulus - Another name for
to migrate south in the Northern Hemispheric motion or the degree of heat of a substance. cumulus congestus, it is a rapidly growing
winter and north in the summer. cumulus or an individual dome-shaped
Thermometer - An instrument used for clouds whose height exceeds its width. Its
Summer - Astronomically, this is the period measuring temperature. The different scales used distinctive cauliflower top often mean showers
between the summer solstice and the autumnal in meteorology are Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin below, but lacking the characteristic anvil of a
equinox. It is characterized as having the warmest or Absolute. cumulonimbus, it is not a thunderstorm.
temperatures of the year, except in some tropical
regions. Customarily, this refers to the months of Thermosphere - A thermal classification, it Trace - Generally, a non-measurable or
June, July, and August in the North Hemisphere, is the layer of the atmosphere located between insignificant quantity. A precipitation amount of
and the months of December, January, and the mesosphere and out space. It is a region of less than 0.005 inch.
February in the South Hemisphere. steadily increasing temperature with altitude.

Trade Winds - Two belts of prevailing winds Tropics/Tropical - The region of the Unstable/Instability - Occurs when a
that blow easterly from the subtropical high earth located between the Tropic of Cancer, rising air parcel becomes less dense than the
pressure centers towards the equatorial trough. at 23.5 degrees North latitude, and the Tropic surrounding air. Since its temperature will not
Primarily lower level winds, they are characterized of Capricorn, at 23.5 degrees South latitude. cool as rapidly as the surrounding environment, it
by their great consistency of direction. In the It encompasses the equatorial region, an will continue to rise on its own.
Northern Hemisphere, the trades blow from the area of high temperatures and considerable
northeast, and in the Southern Hemisphere, the precipitation during part of the year. Updraft - A small scale current of air with
trades blow from the southeast. vertical motion. If there is enough moisture, then
Tropopause - The boundary zone or it may condense, forming a cumulus cloud, the
Transpiration - The process by which water transition layer between the troposphere and the first step towards thunderstorm development.
in plants is transferred as water vapor to the stratosphere. This is characterized by little or no
atmosphere. increase or decrease in temperature or change in Upper Air/Upper Level - The portion
lapse rate with increasing altitude. of the atmosphere which is above the lower
Tropical Air Mass - An air mass that troposphere. It is generally applied to the levels
forms in the tropics or subtropics over the low Troposphere - The lowest layer of the above 850 millibars. Therefore, upper level lows
latitudes. Maritime tropical air is produced atmosphere located between the earth’s surface and highs, troughs, winds, observations, and
over oceans and is warm and humid, while to approximately 11 miles (17 kilometers) into charts all apply to atmospheric phenomena
continental tropical air is formed over arid the atmosphere. Characterized by clouds and above the surface.
regions and is very hot and dry. weather, temperature generally decreases with
increasing altitude. Upslope Effect - The cooling of an air flow
Tropical Cyclone - A warm-core low as it ascends a hill or mountain slope. If there is
pressure system which develops over tropical, Trough - An elongated area of low enough moisture and the air is stable, stratiform
and sometimes subtropical, waters, and has an atmospheric pressure that is associated with clouds and precipitation may form. If the air is
organized circulation. Depending on sustained an area of minimum cyclonic circulation. The unstable, there might be an increased chance of
surface winds, the system is classified as a tropical opposite of a ridge. thunderstorm development.
disturbance, a tropical depression, a tropical
storm, or a hurricane or typhoon. Twilight - Often called dusk, it is the evening
period of waning light from the time of sunset V
Tropical Depression - A tropical cyclone to dark. Vernal Equinox - Taking place in the
in which the maximum sustained surface Northern Hemispheric spring, it is the point
winds are 38 miles per hour (33 knots) or less. Twister - A slang term used in the United at which the ecliptic intersects the celestial
Characteristically having one or more closed States for a tornado. equator. Days and nights are most nearly
isobars, it may form slowly from a tropical equal in duration. It falls on or about March 20
disturbance or an easterly wave which has Typhoon - The name for a tropical cyclone and is considered the beginning of spring in
continued to organize. with sustained winds of 74 miles per hour (65 the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the
knots) or greater in the western North Pacific Southern Hemisphere.
Tropical Disturbance - An area of Ocean. This same tropical cyclone is known
organized convection, originating in the tropics as a hurricane in the eastern North Pacific and Virga - Streaks or wisps of precipitation, such
and occasionally the subtropics, that maintains its North Atlantic Ocean, and as a cyclone in the as water or ice particles, that fall from clouds but
identity for 24 hours or more. It is often the first Indian Ocean. evaporate before reaching the ground.
developmental stage of any subsequent tropical
depression, tropical storm, or hurricane. Visibility - A measure of the opacity of
U the atmosphere, and therefore, the greatest
Tropical Storm - A tropical cyclone in which Ultraviolet - Electromagnetic radiation that distance one can see prominent objects with
the maximum sustained surface winds are from has a wavelength shorter than visible light and normal eyesight.
39 miles per hour (34 knots) to 73 miles per hour longer than x-rays. Although it accounts for only
(63 knots). At this point, the system is given a 4 to 5 percent of the total energy of insolation, it Visible Light - The portion of the
name to identify and track it. is responsible for many complex photochemical electromagnetic spectrum that can be detected
reactions, such as fluorescence and the formation by the human eye. It travels at the same speed
Tropical Wave - Another name for an of ozone. as all other radiation, that is at 186,000 miles
easterly wave, it is an area of relatively low per second. It has a wave length longer than
pressure moving westward through the trade Universal Time Coordinate - One of ultraviolet light and shorter than x-rays.
wind easterlies. Generally, it is associated with several names for the twenty-four hour time
extensive cloudiness and showers, and may which is used throughout the scientific and
be associated with possible tropical cyclone military communities.
development.

W
__________________________________________________________________________
Wall Cloud - An abrupt lowering of a cloud Wind - Air that flows in relation to the earth’s
__________________________________________________________________________
from its parent cloud base, a cumulonimbus surface, generally horizontally. There are four
or supercell, with no visible precipitation areas of wind that are measured: direction,
underneath. Forming in the area of a speed, character (gusts and squalls), and shifts. __________________________________________________________________________
thunderstorm updraft, or inflow area, it exhibits Surface winds are measured by wind vanes
rapid upward movement and cyclonic rotation. and anemometers, while upper level winds
__________________________________________________________________________
It often develops before strong or violent are detected through pilot balloons, rawin, or
tornadoes. aircraft reports.
__________________________________________________________________________
Warm Advection - The horizontal movement Wind Chill Index - The calculation of
of warmer air into a location. temperature that takes into consideration the
effects of wind and temperature on the human __________________________________________________________________________
Warm Front - The leading edge of an body. Describes the average loss of body heat
advancing warm air mass that is replacing a and how the temperature feels. This is not the __________________________________________________________________________
retreating relatively colder air mass. Generally, actual air temperature.
with the passage of a warm front, the
temperature and humidity increase, the pressure Wind Direction - The direction from which __________________________________________________________________________
rises, and although the wind shifts (usually from the wind is blowing.
the southwest to the northwest in the Northern
__________________________________________________________________________
Hemisphere), it is not as pronounced as with a Wind Shear - The rate of wind speed or
cold frontal passage. direction change with distance. Vertical wind
shear is the rate of change of the wind with __________________________________________________________________________
Warning - A forecast issued when severe respect to altitude. Horizontal wind shear is the
weather has developed, is already occurring and rate of change on a horizontal plane.
__________________________________________________________________________
reported, or is detected on radar. Warnings state
a particular hazard or imminent danger, such as Wind Vane - An instrument that indicates the
tornadoes, severe thunderstorms, flash and river wind direction. The end of the vane which offers __________________________________________________________________________
floods, winter storms, heavy snows, etc. the greatest resistance to the motion of the air
moves to the downwind position.
Watch - A forecast issued well in advance of __________________________________________________________________________
a severe weather event to alert the public of Windward - The direction from which the
the possibility of a particular hazard, such as wind is blowing. Also the upwind side of an __________________________________________________________________________
tornadoes, severe thunderstorms, flash and river object. The opposite of the downwind or
floods, winter storms, or heavy snows. leeward side.
__________________________________________________________________________
Waterspout - A small, weak tornado, which Winter - Astronomically, this is the period
is not formed by a storm-scale rotation. It is between the winter solstice and the vernal __________________________________________________________________________
generally weaker than a supercell tornado and is equinox. It is characterized as having the coldest
not associated with a wall cloud or mesocyclone. temperatures of the year, when the sun is
It may be observed beneath cumulonimbus primarily over the opposite hemisphere. __________________________________________________________________________
or towering cumulus clouds and is the water

equivalent of a landspout.
Weather - The state of the atmosphere at a

Z __________________________________________________________________________
Zonal Flow - The flow of air along a latitudinal

specific time and with respect to its effect on component of existing flow, normally from west __________________________________________________________________________
life and human activities. It is the short term to east.

variations of the atmosphere, as opposed to the
__________________________________________________________________________
long term, or climatic, changes. Zulu Time - One of several names for the
twenty-four hour time which is used throughout
Westerlies - Usually applied to the broad the scientific and military communities. __________________________________________________________________________
patterns of persistent winds with a westerly
component. It is the dominant persistent
__________________________________________________________________________
atmospheric motion, centered over the
midlatitudes of each hemisphere.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

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A guide for

understanding Table of Contents

About Dan Satterfield 9 Basic Air Pressure

WHNT NEWS 19 Section 2

© Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved. 3

Basic Air Pressure

4 © Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved.

Look over the diagram on the next page

Then look at the water cycle on the following page.

Finally, read over the section on air pressure and

© Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved. 5

Layers of the Atmosphere

6 © Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved.

The Water Cycle

© Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved. 7

Layers of the Atmosphere

1 In what layer of the atmosphere do the temperatures get the warmest?_______________________________________

2 What layer of the atmosphere is closest to the ground?____________________________________________________

7 In what layer does all weather occur?__________________________________________________________________

9 In what part of the atmosphere do most meteors burn up?_________________________________________________

8 © Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved.

Understanding Air Pressure

Size of your head* is approximately 30 square

Weight of air at sea level is 14.7 lbs per square

(30x 14.7 = 441 lbs on top of your head!)

Consider the clustering of air molecules near the

* Average size of a child’s head at age 10.

3 What causes so much air to cluster near the ground?_________________________________________________

© Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved. 9

10 © Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved.

© Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved. 11

12 © Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved.

3 Where is the final level of alcohol?_ _________________________________________________________________

© Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved. 13

What are Clouds?

14 © Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved.

© Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved. 15

16 © Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved.

The Sky is Falling!

What type of precipitation is that?_ ___________________________________________________________________

BONUS Why or why not? _ ___________________________________________________________________________

© Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved. 17

Making a Rain Gauge

18 © Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved.

In this graphic, the thick, solid line shows you where

© Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved. 19

What to Expect in the Tennessee Valley

• Most trees have no leaves on them • Temperatures gradually cool down

• Sun is directly over the Equator on the • Temperatures are hotter

• Temperature changes often • Temperatures do not change much day

20 © Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved.

Questions about the Seasons

3 In which season would you expect to see the most sleet?__________________________________________________

4 What season are the days the longest?_________________________________________________________________

What season is it in the picture above? ____________________________________________________________________

© Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved. 21

22 © Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved.

4 Repeat this procedure by adding a small amount of

© Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved. 23

Dew and Frost

24 © Copyright 2009 by Classroom weather. All Rights Reserved.

Recording the Weather

Use the “Recording the Weather” DATA CHART to fill in

“A” Name___________ “H” Name_ “O” Name___________

“B” Name_ “I” Name “P” Name___

“C” Name_____________________ “J” Name_ “R” Name_

“D” Name___________ “K” Name_ “S” Name___________

“E” Name_____________________ “L” Name_ “T” Name_

“F” Name_____________________ “M” Name_ _ “V” Name___