Dũng-Vũ - Tiếng Việt và ngôn ngữ học hiện đại - Sơ khảo về cú pháp

tong vot vu ngon ngo hoc hon du
so kbao vc co pbap

D|NC V|

tong vot vu ngon ngo hoc hon du

so kbao vc co pbap

V I E T

2 0 0 3
STUTTGART

Copyright 2000-2004 by Dung Vu.

Tac gia gi ban quyen. Khong mot phan nao cua cuon sach nay c phep tai dung
hoac sao chep dui bat ky hnh thc hoac phng tien nao ma khong co s ong y
cua tac gia.

Xin ch s dung tai lieu nay cho muc ch vo vu li (giao duc, nghien cu, ...). Xin
lien lac vi tac gia: Tien-Dung.Vu@siemens.com

In lan th nhat, VIET Stuttgart Germany, 2003
Phien ban V02.00, VIET Stuttgart Germany, 2004

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronically or mechanically, including photocopying,
recording or any information storage or retrievial system, without written permission
of the author.

First printing, VIET Stuttgart Germany, 2003
Version V 02.00, VIET Stuttgart Germany, 2004

D|NC V| 1lLNC VlL1 VA NCON NC| HOC HlLN DAl SO KHAO VL C| lHAl

MC tC

tOl NOl A l
CHONG 1: NGON NG VA kHOA HOC 1
^CO^ ^CU L C 1
!O TUO^C CU ^CO^ ^CU HOC 4
l. Do toong chut oo vu do toong hnh thoc cou ngon ngo hoc 4
2. So hnh thunh do toong khou hoc 5
3. Khu nom ngon ngo thoo lordnund do Suossoro 9
4. Do toong cou ngon ngo hoc thoo Chomsky l0
|HUO^C HUO^C ^CHL^ CUU ^CO^ ^CU 12
^CO^ ^CU KHO^C T !^H SU TH^H THO ^CO^ ^CU 1J
CU |H| V KHO HOC ^H^ THUC 14
CHONG 2: NGON NG VA DlFN AT AC lFM CA TlFNG VlFT 17
!O TUO^C 17
CCH |H^ ^H !O TUO^C UYLT !^H CCH H^H ^CO^ 17
V !C !L\ CH^H TRO^C TL^C VLT 21
l. 1nh tnh ton 2l
2. 1nh guo thong tn co tho 27
3. 1nh tnh ooc 29
4. 1nh cum do 32
5. 1nh do don 36
CHONG 3: S THAY Ol CA NGON NG 41
TL^C VLT XU 4J
l. 1nh tnh ton 50
2. 1nh guo thong tn co tho 52
3. 1nh tnh ooc 53
4. 1nh cum do 54
5. 1nh do don 55
TL^C VLT ^Y 7
V^ ^O V V^ VLT
CHONG 4: VAT tlF VA CA TkC NGON NG 67
VT LLU ^CO^ ^CU 7
C\ CC VL \OT CU ^O !UOC 77
M|C L|C
V TR V U^ HL LL THUOC CU TU 81
|HUO^C |H| |H^ TCH CU 89
l. lhop tho 90
2. lhop tho cuo ho 9l
3. lhop bo tr 9l
4. lhop tnh ooc 93
5. lhop houn v 94
6. lhop bon hnh 95
TO\ LUOC 97
!L\ \O 98
CHONG S: CA TkC NG OAN 99
|H\ TRU ^CU |H| 99
|H\ TRU TU VU^C 101
|H\ TRU CU |H| 109
l. Ngo doun dunh to Nl ll6
2. Ngo doun tnh to Al l24
3. Ngo doun go to ll l27
4. Ngo doun dong to Vl l28
5. Cuo l32
V V^ !L TRO^C ^CO^ ^CU 1J7
l. 1nh ho qoy l37
2. 1nh du nghu l38
TO\ LUOC 140
^H^ XLT V !L\ \O 141
CHONG 6: CAY C FHAF 143
CY CU |H| 14J
l. Hnh hoc cou cuy l43
2. 1nh ch pho l44
3. 1ho ton v l48
4. Lonh-C l50
CCH VL CY CU |H| 11
l. Vo cuy to doo on tron l5l
2. Vo cuy to tron xoong doo l56
^H^ XLT V !L\ \O 19
CHONG 7: TlNH kANG OC 161
SU R^C UOC 1J
^H^ XLT V !L\ \O 170
CHONG 8: tY THYFT X-GACH 171
^CUYL^ TC X-CCH 17J
1lLNC VlL1 VA NCON NC| HOC HlLN DAl SO KHAO VL C| lHAl

V V DU X-CCH 178
l. N-guch l78
2. V-guch l82
3. A-guch l85
4. l-guch l86
TO^C KLT CC UY TC X-CCH CU TL^C ^H 187
l. nh don chnh l88
2. nh don trong gun l88
3. nh don tun cong l89
4. 1ong kot cuc qoy tuc l89
TO\ LUOC 190
!L\ \O 191
CHONG 9: tY THYFT X-GACH O NG, FH NG 193
O ^CU, |HU ^CU 19J
LT !^H ^CU 21
^CU !O^ CH !^H TU 21
TO\ LUOC 220
^H^ XLT V !L\ \O 220
CHONG 10: tY THYFT X-GACH CAC tOAl NG OAN kHAC 221
THO^C SO V THU TU CU TU 221
^CU !O^ TH V ^CU !O^ TC TU O ^CU HO 222
l. Monh do 223
2. Ngo doun tuc to bo ngo hou Cl 228
3. Ngo doun th 240
TO\ LUOC 242
^H^ XLT V !L\ \O 24J
CHONG 11: TlF FHAM Tk, T VNG X-GACH HAN CHF 24S
TU VU^C 247
l. V to vu thum so 247
2. 1oo phum tro 250
3. oun ho cho do vu vu tro thotu 258
TLU |H\ TRU HO 22
X-CCH H^ CHL 24
\O H^H ^CU |H| 2
^CYL^ TC CHLU \O RO^C 27
TO\ LUOC 28
^H^ XLT V !L\ \O 270
CHONG 12: FHFF lFN HlNH 271
Y ^CH CU |HL| L^ H^H 271
M|C L|C
CHUYL^ V !U TO !U 279
l. Choyon v dong to V tV 1) 279
2. Choyon v th 1 t1 C) 285
UY TC LO^C 289
CHUYL^ V ^| 290
CHUYL^ V - VH J01
TO\ LUOC J09
^H^ XLT V !L\ \O J10
FH tC 311
^C !O CHLU THUT ^CU VLT - ^H J1J
^C !O CHLU THUT ^CU ^H - VLT J27
T LLU TH\ KHO J41
CHl tC 347

LOl NOl DA|

Cu phap hoc von la mot bo mon khoa hoc ngon ng xuat x t Au chau, c
xay dng tren nen tang ngon ng Au chau va c dung e giai thch cau truc
ngon ng Au chau.

c du nhap vao A ong, trong o co Viet Nam, bo mon cu phap hoc a gap
nhieu tr ngai trong viec giai thch nhng ngon ng la. ieu nay rat t nhien, bi
le khong phai ngon ng nao cung giong ngon ng Au chau. Ngay ca trong noi bo
ngon ng Au chau cung co iem khac biet.

ng dung mot ly thuyet khong co gia tr toan the vi hy vong giai quyet c
van e thc te cua mnh mot cach hoan hao hien nhien la khong thc te. Lai
cang khong thc te khi cha hieu ro no. Ngc lai, nhn no bang oi mat thanh
kien cung khong han la ung.

Thiet ngh, viec can lam trc tien khi muon s dung mot ly thuyet la nen nam
bat thong tin ve no cang nhieu cang tot, phan tch cho that ky lng. Ch bang
cach o, mi mong rut ta c nhng ieu bo ch, thch hp cho hoan canh cua
mnh, co the giai quyet c van e rieng cua mnh.

Trong tinh than thong tin xay dng va ong thi e cac ban khong chuyen co dp
tm hieu ve tieng Viet, chung toi xin gii thieu cac ban oc tap tai lieu nay. ay
la tap th nhat thuoc chuoi chuyen luan Tieng Viet va Ngon Ng Hoc hien ai.
Ngay bc au, chung ta se tm cach:

Nam bat nhng kien thc can ban ve cu phap hoc.
Tm hieu ve ly thuyet ng phap tao sinh (Generative Grammar).
Tm hieu s khac biet cua cau truc tieng Viet so vi cau truc ngoai ng.
Phan tch nhng iem manh, iem yeu cua ly thuyet ng phap phng
Tay. ac biet, ghi nh nhng iem khong ng dung c cho tieng Viet
e t o nen tm hng nghien cu thch hp hn.
Khai thac nhng iem co the ng dung tin hoc vao ngon ng cho nhng
muc ch can thiet va hu ch.

i
LOl NOl DA|

e oi chieu vi tieng Viet, chung toi chon hai ngon ng tieu bieu co cau truc
tng oi khac nhau: tieng Anh va tieng c. Tieng Anh la ngon ng thong
dung va tuyen tnh gan giong tieng Viet, trai lai la tieng c.

Tai lieu dung ky hieu ngon ng hoc theo truyen thong quoc te. Co phan phu
trng, oi chieu thuat ng Viet-Anh, Anh-Viet. Cac thuat ng tam dch ch la y
kien rieng trong khi ch i s gop y, thong nhat. Ngoai ra, con co nhieu iem
m cho ban oc t at van e, tm hieu va m rong.

nhng phan cha vao sau, chung toi se co gang viet gian d, kem theo nhieu v
du e moi ngi oc c. oi vi cac ban oc cho vui, nhat la gii van thi s,
cac ban co the oc t chng 1 en chng 5. Cac chng ay se cho chung ta
thay s khac biet cua ngon ng la do au, cau truc cua no ra sao. ac biet,
chng 2 va 3 se cho chung ta mot cai nhn bao quat ve mot vai ac iem chnh
cua tieng Viet, nguyen tac hanh ngon, cach dien ta oi tng cua ngi Viet
khac dan toc khac the nao, s bien oi cua tieng Viet xa va nay, hien tng lai
tieng nc ngoai, ... hy vong nh o ma se lan lon cau truc tieng Viet vi cau
truc ngon ng khac. Tat nhien tieng Viet cung co van e va se c neu ra.
Phan nao qua ly thuyet, ban oc khong hieu, c lt qua. Cac chng con lai
danh cho cac ban thch ao sau, khao cu.

Sau het, chung toi xin chan thanh cam n cac vien, ai hoc, dien an van
hoa/van hoc nghe thuat, cac anh ch van nghe s va ban hu a nhiet tnh giup
, khuyen khch chung toi lam cong viec nay; ac biet, xin chan thanh cam ta
Prof. Dr. Wagner, Prof. Dr. Carnie, Prof. Dr. Le Van ang va ch Nguyen
Phng Lan (Vien Viet Hoc, Hoa Ky), Dr. Tanaka, Dr. Lohnstein, Bo Van Hoa
Phap, Dr. Tran Duy Trac (trang Van Hoa Viet Nam, Hoa Ky), ch Pham Chi Lan
(trang Van Hoc Nghe Thuat VHNT, Hoa Ky), anh Pham Viet, ban Nguyen Van
Quan, ban Ian Bui. Chung toi cung mong on nhan va cam n tat ca moi y kien
ong gop, phe bnh xay dng cua ban oc.

Dung Vu

Stuttgart, 02.2003

ii


Choong l

NCON NC| VA KHOA HOC

NGON NG LA G ?

Thng e a ban cho con ngi nhieu th thong minh, the nhng co le mot
trong nhng th thong minh thuan tuy ngi nhat van la tham nang ngon ng.

La loai ong vat cao cap nhat hanh tinh, con ngi ton tai va phat trien nh ngon
ng. Khong co dien at nao khong nh ngon ng. Ngi bnh thng dung ngon
ng t nhien (natural language). Hai ngi cam noi chuyen vi nhau bang nhng
ngon tay: ngon ng c the (body language). Mot bai toan ay ky hieu ngoan
ngoeo: ngon ng hnh thc (formal language). Mot chng trnh c ma hoa
bang Basic, Java, C/C++, ...: ngon ng lap trnh (programming language). en
ca am nhac, hoi hoa, ... cung eu co ngon ng rieng. Co the noi tong quat, con
ngi dung ngon ng nh mot phng tien nham phan anh vu tru, dien at tnh
cam, t duy va e thong tin.

Trong thc te, neu nhn that tru tng, th tnh cam, t duy g i na, tat ca eu
la van e. Muon trnh bay van e, con ngi dung ngon ng. Song ngon ng
khong ch c dung e trnh bay van e ma con e giai quyet luon ca van e.
Bi le mot giai phap cung c trnh bay thong qua ngon ng.

a la van e, han phai co o phc tap. Van e cang phc tap, s trnh bay van
e cang phc tap. Nhieu khi ngon ng c s dung khong the dien ta het hoac
giai quyet het mc o phc tap cua van e, bat buoc ngi ta phai dung loai
ngon ng khac phc tap hn. V the ma ngon ng con c v nh mot cay thc
o lng o phc tap cua van e.

Dung ngon ng e trnh bay van e, vay muon hieu van e, th phai hieu ngon
ng ? ung ! The th lam the nao e hieu c ngon ng ? Suy ra ngon ng phai
nhan dien c, t nhat la phai co quy tac.

1
CH|ONC l NCON NC| VA KHOA HOC

Bc chan vao khoa hoc ngon ng, cong viec au tien phai lam la i nh ngha
Ngon ng la g ?. Trong lch s ngon ng hoc a co nhieu cau tra li khac
nhau. Edward Sapir nh ngha:

Ngon ng la mot phng phap truyen thong thuan tuy ngi va phi ban nang,
c dung nham bieu at y tng, cam xuc va c vong nh mot he thong ky hieu
t tao (system of voluntarily produced symbols) (Sapir 1921: 8).

iem noi bat nhat cua nh ngha tren la phng phap truyen thong (method of
communication) va he thong ky hieu (system of symbols). Song John Lyons lai
cho rang, suy ngh cua Sapir van cha on lam:

nh ngha nay con vng mac nhieu khuyet iem. Cho du co cat ngha cac t
nh y tng, cam xuc va c vong bao quat en may, ro rang van co nhng
cai c truyen thong qua ngon ng ma khong nam trong s giai thch ay; ac
biet na la y tng, t ban chat no a khong chnh xac. Mat khac, con nhieu he
thong ky hieu t tao ch co the c coi la ngon ng theo ngha ni rong hoac an
du cua t ngon ng. V du, cai thng c goi la ngon ng c the (body
language) tc dung c ch, ieu bo, anh mat dng nh thoa iem Sapir nh
ngha. Tnh thuan tuy ngi va phi ban nang co le van la iem ang ng. Va cung
ang ng y the la cau hoi lieu moi ngon ng noi chung eu thuan tuy ngi va phi
ban nang ? ay la iem can lu y ni nh ngha cua Sapir (Lyons 1981: 3f.).

Leonard Bloomfield, ngi ong thi vi Sapir, lai hieu ngon ng theo kieu
khac:

Toan the moi phat ngon cua mot cong ong tieng noi (speech-community) la
ngon ng cua cong ong tieng noi ay (Bloomfield 1926: 153).

oi vi Bloomfield, ngon ng co ngha nh mot tap hp bao gom moi phat ngon
chap nhan c cua mot cong ong tieng noi. Nhn s, suy ngh ay khong khac
suy ngh cua Chomsky cho lam:

Ke t nay, toi se coi moi ngon ng la mot tap hp (hu han hoac vo han) cha
moi cau, moi cau co o dai gii han (Chomsky 1957: 13).

nh ngha cua Chomsky rong va tong quat. Theo quan iem cua Chomsky, moi
ngon ng trong trng hp cu the con tuy thuoc vao nhng phan t a dng nen
no. V du, hang ang thc (a+b) = a + 2ab +b la mot cau (sentence) cua ngon
ng toan, trong khi o (a+b) = a + +2ab b khong phai. Ngon ng t nhien
(natural language), tc ngon ng con ngi, ch la mot trng hp ac biet:
2


Moi ngon ng t nhien di dang noi hay viet eu la nhng ngon ng theo ngha
nay, v moi ngon ng t nhien eu co mot so am v (phoneme) gii han (hay so
ch cai trong bo mau t) va moi cau eu co the c trnh bay di dang mot
chuoi gii han cha nhng am v (hoac ch), mac du so cau khong gii han.
Tng t vay, mot tap hp cau trong vai he thong lap thc cua toan cung co the
c xem la ngon ng (Chomsky 1957: 13).

S khac biet cua Chomsky oi vi nhng nha ngon ng hoc khac c John
Lyons nhan xet:

ieu o khong noi g en chc nang truyen thong cua ngon ng t nhien hoac
phi t nhien (non-natural); no cung khong noi g en yeu to t nhien co tnh cach
bieu tng cua nhng phan t hoac nhng chuoi phan t. Muc ch cua no la chu
trong vao nhng tnh chat thuan cau truc cua ngon ng nham noi len rang, ngi
ta co the khao sat nhng tnh chat nay t nhng quan iem chnh xac cua toan
hoc. ieu ong gop chnh yeu cua Chomsky cho ngon ng hoc la ong a ac biet
nhan manh c cai ong goi la moi quan he le thuoc cau truc (structure
dependence) trong tien trnh tao thanh cau cua ngon ng t nhien, va a a ra
c mot ly thuyet ng phap tong quat ta vao c s nh ngha ca biet ve tnh
chat ay (Lyons 1981: 7f.).

Nha ngon ng hoc Halliday lai xem ngon ng la mot cai g nang ong hn mot
chut:

Ngon ng khong hien hu, no ch xay ra. No khong phai la bo phan hu c nh
nhieu nha ngon ng hoc trong the ky 19 a trong thay vay; no cung chang phai la
mot toa nha nh ngi ta a nhn ngam no vao au thi cau truc luan hien ai
cua nganh ngon ng hoc. Ngon ng la mot hoat ong can ban bao gom bon th:
noi, nghe, viet va oc (Halliday et al. 1964: 9).

Tu trung, moi nha khoa hoc eu co cach nh ngha ngon ng t nhng goc o
nhn rieng:

He thong ky hieu dung e thong tin (Sapir 1921)
Toan the phat ngon chap nhan c trong cong ong tieng noi
(Bloomfield 1926)
Tap hp cau (Chomsky 1957)
Mot hoat ong (Halliday et al. 1964)

3


Ngon ng la g ?, tra cu quanh cau hoi nay, chung ta se thay con nhieu quan
iem khac. (Xem t ien ngon ng hoc cua Theodor Lewandowski 1990).

OI TNG CUA NGON NG HOC

oi vi ngon ng t nhien, nhieu nha khoa hoc a co tranh nh ngha ngon ng
mot cach hien ngon. Thay v the, ho nhn ngon ng nh mot oi tng nghien
cu cua nganh ngon ng hoc. Nha cau truc luan H. A. Gleason quan niem:

Ngon ng co nhieu moi quan he vi nhieu kha canh trong i song con ngi va
co the c nghien cu t nhieu quan iem khac biet. Tat ca moi quan iem eu
co gia tr va hu ch, va t chung cung rat ly thu. Ngon ng hoc la mot khoa hoc
luon co gang i tm hieu ngon ng di quan iem cau truc noi tai cua no
(Gleason 1961: 2).

Hoac R.H. Robins:

Ngon ng va tat ca cac hnh thc bieu lo cua no, tc tat ca cac ngon ng tren the
gii va cach dung chung trong nhng trang huong khac nhau cua loai ngi, la
nhng cai tao ra moi trng cho nha ngon ng hoc. Nha ngon ng hoc la ke i tm
hieu mot cach khoa hoc cho ng cua ngon ng trong i song con ngi, nhng
cach no c to chc nham thoa ung nhng ieu can thiet no can lam va thoa
ung chc nang no gi (Robins 1964: 2 f.).

1. oi toong cbat Iico va doi toong bnb tboc coa ngon ngo boc

Vao khoang au the ky 20, Ferdinand de Saussure, ngi sang lap chnh cua cau
truc luan Au chau, a phan biet hai yeu to chat lieu va oi tng cua nganh
ngon ng hoc trong giao trnh Cours de linguistique generale (1916) cua ong nh
sau:

La matiere de la linguistique est constituee d'abord par toutes les manifestations
du langage humain (Saussure 1916: 20).

Bien loin que lobjet precede le point de vue, on dirait que cest le point de vue
qui cree lobjet (Saussure 1916: 23).

Ferdinand de Saussure cho cach nhn cua ngi nghien cu ngon ng la cai ac
biet cua khoa hoc co lien quan en ngon ng. Thc ra y ngh nay chang co g
4


ac biet, bi le t thi trung co, ngi ta a biet phan biet gia oi tng chat
lieu (obiectum materiale) cu the va oi tng hnh thc (obiectum formale)
tru tng.

Hieu theo Leont'ev (1971: 15ff.), mot nha ngon ng hoc tam ly ngi Nga, th
oi tng chat lieu (material object) cua mot nganh khoa hoc, cai ma bao gom
moi hien tng thc te khach quan can c khao sat mot cach cu the, thc ra
a ton tai trc khi co nganh khoa hoc. No hoan toan oc lap oi vi nganh khoa
hoc, ngi nghien cu, nhan thc va cach nhn cua ngi nghien cu. Da tren
ly le nay, co the noi, nhieu nganh khoa hoc khac nhau co the co chung mot oi
tng chat lieu, mac du goc o nhn no hoac nhan thc ve no co the khac nhau.
Ngon ng la mot hien tng oi tng chat lieu ien hnh oi vi nhieu nganh
nh triet hoc, tam ly hoc, xa hoi hoc, ... Chnh v s khac biet ve cach nhn ma
moi nganh khoa hoc mi co muc ch rieng, t o mi co mot oi tng hnh
thc rieng va c xem nh oi tng nghien cu cua nganh khoa hoc ay.

Xet ve mat cu the la nh the. Ngc lai, neu xet ve mat hnh thc (formal), th
hnh thc chang qua la lap thc mot cach tru tng nhng tnh chat that cua mot
oi tng di cai nhn bao quat. Cung theo Leont'ev, oi tng hnh thc
(formal object) la tat ca moi cai tru tng c dng nen nham quan sat oi
tng chat lieu bang nhieu goc o nhn va hng nhan thc khac nhau.

2. So bnb tbanb doi toong kboa boc

S hnh thanh oi tng hnh thc cua mot mon khoa hoc vao mot thi iem nhat
nh con le thuoc vao nhng ieu kien khach quan nh y nh chu quan va khach
quan, tnh hnh phat trien khoa hoc, c s khoa hoc va nhan thc ly thuyet cua
ngi nghien cu.

T thu ban au, nhu cau phat trien nghien cu ngon ng a nay sinh t nhng y
nh chu quan va khach quan cua con ngi. Mot mat, nghien cu ngon ng
nham thoa man tnh hieu ky ve khoa hoc, mat khac, khong thieu nhng cau hoi
ac thu, quan trong oi vi xa hoi c at ra va can c tra li. Mot vai v du
lch s:

Ngay thi ai co Trung Hoa, khoa hoc ngon ng a ra i t s khao cu nhng
ban co van nham thiet lap mot he thong co the dien ta c hnh t tieng Tau.
An o, cung trong thi ai co, y nh chnh cua khoa hoc ngon ng la lam sao
5


mo ta ng ngha, ng phap va ng am cua tieng Phan (Sanskrit) hau bao ton net
tinh nguyen cua nhng van ban thanh a c truyen khau vao khoang 1100
nam trc Cong nguyen. Cung chnh nh cong lao cua cac nha ng am hoc An
o xa kia ma ngay nay ngi ta mi co the hieu cach phat am cua tieng Phan
nhieu hn bat ky cach phat am cua mot loai tieng co nao khac. Ve pha A Rap,
khoa hoc ngon ng a phat trien t nhu cau ton giao va hoan canh the gii thi
bay gi. S banh trng cua Hoi giao en cac x khong theo ao Hoi a giup
tieng A Rap thu thap them nhieu kien thc ngon ng mi, rat hu ch cho muc
ch chnh tr, thng mai, quan ly va phap luat. Cung mot trng hp tng t
thi ai co na la Hy Lap. Vao khoang 300 nam trc Cong nguyen, sau cuoc
xam lang Tieu A va Ai Cap cua ai e Alexandre, nen van minh va van hoa Hy
Lap a lan rong khap ni. Luc o, tieng Hy Lap a c dung pho bien nh mot
th tieng me e th hai ngay tai thuoc a. The nhng dan da nhng ngon ng
trong vung lai tra tron phat trien roi bien thanh mot ngon ng chung goi la
Koine. S phat trien nay d nhien a gap sc khang c cua gii bao thu ang
rang gi gn va truyen ba tieng Hy Lap co (s.s. Robins 1973:8ff). Viet Nam
ta vay, xa kia ch Nom a ra i thay cho ch Han. Y ngha cua no dng nh
ch co tnh bieu tng muon noi len nen oc lap nc Nam nhieu hn la tien
dung. La mot loai hnh t vay mn t ch Han, ch Nom co kha nang phoi
trien them nhng am v ma ch Han khong co. Ch Nom kha phc tap va hau
nh ch pho bien trong gii hoc gia, tr thc, van thi s thi bay gi. Khong thieu
nhng tac pham van chng c viet bang ch Nom con e lai cho ti ngay
nay: th Nguyen Trai, th Ho Xuan Hng, Kieu cua Nguyen Du, Luc Van Tien
cua Nguyen nh Chieu, ... Sau thi ky ch Nom, hnh dang ch Viet lai thay
oi them lan na qua cach dung mau t La tinh do cac nha truyen giao Tay
phng em ti. Mot trong so cac giao s nh Christofora Borri, Gasparo
dAmiral, Antonio Barbosa, ... , co the noi, Alexandre de Rhodes la ngi c
biet en nhieu nhat qua qua trnh La tinh hoa ch Viet. (o Quang Chnh 1972).

6


Giao s Alexandre de Rhodes va hai tac pham: Cathechismus (Phep giang tam
ngay) (Roma 1651), La Dictionarium Annamaticum Lusitium et Latinum (Roma
1651). (Tai lieu: Bo Van Hoa Phap. Paris, 1999)

Khach quan ma noi, du la cong lao cua bat ky ngi i trc nao i na, viec
phien am tieng Viet da vao mau t La tinh xa kia ch thuan muc ch truyen
giao, cu the la e giup cho cac giao s hieu tieng Viet de dang hn khi giao lu
vi dan ban x, tren thc te ch la mot cong ong rat nho gom giao dan va giao
s ang trong cung nh ang ngoai. Cac nha truyen giao a khong he ngh
rang, La tinh hoa tieng Viet la nham lat o ch Nom va thay vao o mo hnh
alphabet cua phng Tay. Chnh viec phat trien ch Quoc Ng sau nay chu yeu
do ngi Viet chu ong v s tien dung cua no.

Suot hanh trnh phat trien lau dai, ngon ng con le thuoc vao tnh hnh phat trien
chung cua khoa hoc. Nganh ngon ng hoc a thu hng nhieu thanh tu cua cac
nganh nh vat ly, tam ly hoc, tin hoc, ngon ng hoc ien toan, ... hoac s che tao
thanh cong may thu am, may phan tch am, may vi tnh, ... Trong cac nganh co
lien quan en ngon ng, ang ke nhat, phai noi la nganh tin hoc (informatics) va
ngon ng hoc ien toan (computational linguistics). Hang loat nhng ngon ng
lap trnh a noi tiep nhau chao i, t nhng ngon ng may (machine language)
tho s di dang Assembler cho en nhng ngon ng lap trnh cao (high
programming language) Basic, Cobol, Fortran, PL/M, Pascal, Modula II, Prolog,
ADA, C, C++, Java, C#, ... Nh mot phng tien, ngon ng lap trnh a ay
manh moi nganh khoa hoc cung phat trien. Ngay nay khong co nganh nao khong
hng li nh s tien bo vt bc cua nganh tin hoc, ngon ng hoc va ngon ng
hoc ien toan. T trng hoc cho ti ky nghe, tat ca eu can ngon ng lap trnh
cho muc ch giao duc, t ong hoa, nang cao chat lng, nang suat san xuat. T
7


van phong, nha bang, nha thng, nha th, ... cho ti nha tu, au au cung can
cai may computer cho viec quan tr, x ly d lieu, trao oi thong tin. ac biet
na la nganh ngon ng hoc ien toan a va ang phat trien toi a viec x ly
ngon ng t nhien. Bang nhng phng phap tr thong minh nhan tao (artificial
intelligence), nganh nay dan dan a at ti kha nang lam cho may co the nhan
dien, hieu va noi c tieng ngi. Viec ng dung ngon ng t nhien khong ch
thay qua cac he thong phc tap nh he nhan dien ngon ng (language
recognizing system), he chuyen gia (expert system), ma con thay nhng chiec
xe lan biet noi, dch vu ien thoai hieu nhieu th tieng, ... Ngay en ca o chi
tre con, v du, mot con bup be cung biet noi chuyen vi a be ang chi vi no.
Phai noi, moi phat trien eu da vao ngon ng. Thi ai thong tin a bung no d
doi nh ngon ng. Mot ng dung cu the han ai cung thay la Internet. Sc manh
cua no nh the nao han ai cung thay. Nh Internet ma ngay nay qua at a c
thu nho lai. Nh no ma con ngi co the giao lu vi nhau de dang hn, hoc hoi
de dang hn, ton kem hn, ... Nh ngon ng, khoa hoc phat trien, thong tin
phat trien, ky nghe phat trien, kinh te phat trien va oi hoi tri thc phai phat
trien. Cha bao gi nhan loai lam chu nhieu tri thc nh hom nay. Tri thc la
chat xam cua con ngi, lam sao co the lap thc, ng dung c chat xam ay
neu khong nh ngon ng ? Dung phng tien g e cat gi, chuyen tai chat xam
nhanh chong nhat neu khong nh khoa hoc thong tin. Nen kinh te tri thc a hnh
thanh ma tri thc la nhan to chnh. Tin hoc se con thuc ay kinh te tri thc phat
trien manh me hn na vao the ky 21. Nhng hay nen can than, tin hoc va co
the la mot nang tien va co the la con ma cua nhan loai. Xa nay nhan loai a
khong ngng phat trien va moi phat trien bao gi cung the - van c bien
minh la nham phung s con ngi.

Co vai cau hoi. Neu xem ngon ng la oi tng hnh thc cua nhieu nganh khoa
hoc khac nhau, th ngon ng se c x ly the nao ? Cai g bien minh cho ac
iem cua tng nganh ? Cac cau hoi nay con tuy vao c s khoa hoc va nhan thc
ly thuyet cua ngi nghien cu.

e giai thch y ngha cua ngon t, nganh ngon ng hoc co bo mon ng ngha
hoc (semantics). D nhien lam ro y ngha noi dung la mot viec khong the thieu
oi vi nhng nganh co lien quan en ngon ng van t, v du nh triet hoc, tam
ly hoc, xa hoi hoc, sinh hoc, ... Tuy nhien, cach x ly ng ngha o khong
giong nh nganh ngon ng hoc. oi tng o khong phai la chnh ban than
ngon ng ma la mot c s ly thuyet khoa hoc khac. Ve pha ngon ng hoc, ban
than ngon ng chnh la cai e ngi ta thac mac va tm hieu, noi chung la nhan
thc. Xet cho cung, muc ch cua nhng nganh khac ngoai ngon ng hoc khong
8


phai la i giai thch ngon ng hoac cung cap mot cach co he thong nhng g co
lien quan en ngon ng. Cong viec o la cua nganh ngon ng hoc.

Ngoai cac nganh co lien quan en ngon ng va neu, tren thc te con co ca cac
nganh co lien quan en ngon ng hoc nh ngon ng hoc triet hoc, ngon ng hoc
xa hoi, ngon ng hoc tam ly, ngon ng hoc sinh hoc, ... Trong khi ngon ng hoc
co gang gii han nganh hoc cua mnh bang cach, mot la chu trong vao pham vi
nghien cu cau truc noi tai cua ngon ng, hai la phan biet ranh gii vi nhng
nganh khac nh the muon t co lap va thu nho oi tng (ngon ng) cua mnh,
th cac nganh phu khac, t nhat la trong vai thap nien qua, lai tm cach xao nau
ngon ng bang u loai cong thc, nao la ngon ng va xa hoi, nao la ngon ng
va t duy, nao la ngon ng va sinh hoc, nao la ngon ng va chnh tr, ... Ket qua,
co rat nhieu iem chong cheo ngoai nhng ac iem tieu bieu ai dien cho ban
than mot nganh. Co the noi, cac nganh va neu cung lam viec vi ngon ng.
Ngon ng hoc von d ch lam viec vi ngon ng, gi ay cung phai phu tay giup
nhng anh au bep ay.

3. kbai nicm ngon ngo tbco Fcrdinand dc Saossorc

Anh hng cua Saussure chu yeu bat nguon t tap Cours de linguistique
generale a c hoc tro cua ong pho bien sau khi ong mat vao nam 1916. Ch
co ieu, cho en nay van cha ai ro la van ban nay co thc s phan anh cai nhn
cua ong ve ngon ng nh vay hay khong ngoai tr Leontev (1971: 19ff) a co
gang trnh bay lai nh sau:

langage
ngon ng xa hoi
(soc. langue)
= he thong sieu
ca the tru tng
kha nang ngon ng
(faculte de langage)
= chc nang ca the
parole
hanh ong ca nhan san sinh ra kha
nang ngon ng nh he thong xa hoi
tiem nang
thc te

9


Trong mo hnh Saussure, ngon ng (la langue) la mot he thong sieu ca the tru
tng bao gom moi ky t (character); con kha nang ngon ng (faculte de
langage) la chc nang ca the (Saussure dung ch langage thay v langue).
Ngon ng la cai s hu chung cua cong ong tieng noi va la mot ban the oc lap
oi vi tng ca nhan cung nh oi vi cong ong. Mat khac, no lai la san pham
cua kha nang ngon ng ca the, bi moi thanh vien cua cong ong tieng noi eu
co kha nang sao chep ngon ng. Bao ham hai y ngha faculte de langage va
langue, khai niem langage c hieu nh tiem nang thanh lap li noi
(parole) ma trong thc te moi con ngi eu co. Mot mat, hanh ong noi oi hoi
kha nang ngon ng, mat khac, oi hoi s hieu biet ve he thong ngon ng. Theo
Saussure, nhiem vu chnh cua ngon ng hoc ung ngha la nen khao sat ngon
ng nh mot hnh thc langue trong cau truc noi tai cua no.

He thong ngon ng cua Saussure a anh hng sau rong en t duy cua nhieu
nha ngon ng hoc thi sau. ac biet, bai ban cua Saussure a c nha ngon
ng hoc ngi an Mach Louis Hjelmslev (1899-1965) nghien cu rat ky lng.

4. oi toong coa ngon ngo boc tbco Cbomsky

T cuoi nhng nam 50, ngon ng hoc Au chau a phat trien rc r nh cong lao
cua nhieu ngi. Ngoai mot ten tuoi tieu bieu nh Saussure, han phai ke en
Chomsky, cha e cua ly thuyet ng phap bien hnh tao sinh (Generative
Transformation Grammar).

oi vi Chomsky, oi tng cua mot ly thuyet ngon ng c hieu nh mot
ngi noi/nghe ly tng song mot cong ong tieng noi hoan toan ong nhat, rat
thanh thao ngon ng cua mnh va khi s dung kien thc ngon ng e hanh ngon,
du co gap nhng ieu kien tr ngai nh kem tr nh, lan than, nham lan, thieu
tap trung, song ng phap van khong b anh hng lam (s.s. Chomsky 1965: 13).
Cong ong tieng noi ong nhat c hieu la mot cong ong khong dung tieng
a phng (dialect), tieng xa hoi (tieng boi, tieng long).

Trong cuon Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), Chomsky a a ra hai khai
niem competence va performance e giai thch kha nang thanh thao va hieu
nang s dung ngon ng cua con ngi. Ong phan biet, tham nang ngon ng
(language competence) la s thanh thao ngon ng cua mot ngi noi/nghe ly
tng song trong mot cong ong tieng noi ong nhat. Nhng kien thc nay tao
nen mot he thong quy tac va nguyen tac tinh than cho phep ngi noi/nghe nh
10


lam chu mot tap hp hu han cua am, t e t o co kha nang thanh lap va
hieu ung vo so nhng phat bieu cung nh anh gia c tnh ung sai cua ng
phap, tnh a ngha, ong ngha cua cau. Dung nang ngon ng (language
performance) c hieu la hieu nang s dung ung ngon ng cua ngi
noi/nghe luc hanh ngon. Kha nang nay thng b gii han do kem tr nh, thieu
tap trung, met moi, say ru, ...

Theo Chomsky la vay. The nhng trong thc te van co trng hp s dung ngon
ng khong sai ng phap do say ru, lu lan, that tnh hay chan i g ca ma van
oi hoi ngi nghe phai thanh thao ngon ng lam mi hieu noi. Mot v du:

(1) Phng hieu Mai hn Cuc.

Cau nay co hai cach hieu:

(2) Phng hieu Mai hn la Cuc hieu Mai.
(3) Phng hieu Mai hn hieu Cuc.

Hai y ngha khac nhau hoan toan ch v thieu ch. Thieu ng canh, cau noi tr
nen kho tng tng. Neu cung cung mot cau truc y het vay ma noi:

(4) Hung thch Mai hn Cuc.

th co le xac suat hieu: Hung thch Mai hn thch Cuc cao hn, bi chuyen con
trai yeu thch con gai chac (van con) bnh thng hn chuyen con gai yeu thch
con gai. Nh ng ngha phai tnh nam n, cau noi de tng tng hn. Du vay,
iem quyet nh van la s oi hoi ngi nghe phai van dung tr thong minh e
nhan oan y ngha.

V nhng hien tng ke tren, khai niem competence cua Chomksy thng b phe
phan la thieu e y en nhng cau toi ngha thng gap ngoai i. T o a
xuat hien mot khai niem mi: communicative competence (tham nang giao
lu) (Habermas 1971; Hymes 1972). Chnh Chomsky cung t thu nhan, ly thuyet
hieu biet va tiep thu ngon ng phai c bo tuc t nhng ly thuyet ng dung
ngon ng. Vi suy ngh ay, ong a ra them khai niem pragmatic e phan biet
gia grammatical competence (tham nang ng phap) va pragmatical
competence (tham nang ng dung). Tham nang ng dung c hieu la kha
nang ng dung s thanh thao ng phap e lap cau chnh xac, hp ly cho moi
trng hp va muc ch tng ng.
11


PHNG HNG NGHIEN CU NGON NG

Nhng g noi c, nhng g khong, bao gi, oi vi ai, ... ch la vai van e cua
ngon ng con ngi. Con rat nhieu van e ng ngha khac co lien quan en tnh
ung sai cua cau cu. Nghien cu ngon ng, phai noi, cu phap la mot e tai sau
rong va khong de nuot. Tuy vay, trc khi i sau vao ly thuyet, chung ta hay th
tm hieu s qua hng nghien cu cua cac nha ngon ng hoc xa nay the nao.

Trong nhng cong viec nghien cu tng oi mi sau nay, Chomsky a gii
thieu hai khai niem ai dien cho hai quan iem oi lap cua gii ngon ng hoc
tam goi la ngon ng ngoai hoa (externalized language) va ngon ng noi hoa
(internalized language) (Stechow, 1988: 28).

Gii ngon ng ngoai hoa hau het c biet en qua truyen thong cau truc luan
theo kieu phan loai (taxonomy) cua My. Muc ch cua nhom nay la co gang gom
tu that nhieu nhng th nghiem ngon ng ngoai i (corpora) roi tm cach giai
thch. Ngon ng ngoai hoa c hieu nh mot cuon album gom vo so nhng cau
cu noi c hoan toan oc lap vi tam tr con ngi. Da vao ay, cong viec ke
tiep cua ngi nghien cu la thiet lap mot ng phap tng ng. Noi cach khac,
nhiem vu cua nha ngon ng hoc ngoai hoa la dung ng phap e a moi d kien
nam rai rac ben ngoai vao vong trat t. Loai ng phap nay khong co g khac hn
la mot tap hp toan nhng mau cau truc (structure pattern) c dng nen nham
giai thch nhng d kien ngon ng.

Gii ngon ng noi hoa, ngc lai, at cau hoi, ngi noi hieu g ve ngon ng va
nhng hieu biet ay t au ra. Gii nay cho ngon ng la mot tnh chat tinh than
nam ben trong con ngi ch chang phai la cai g ngoai hoa (ben ngoai) ca.
Ng phap xac nh c nh bai ban va thong so.

Chomsky con khang nh them, cach nhn ve ngon ng cua nganh ngon ng hoc
trong suot lch s can ai a co a chuyen hng t ngon ng ngoai hoa sang
ngon ng noi hoa, o, ngon ng noi hoa c hieu nh mot he thong mo ta
tng ca the tinh than. Ng phap mo ta s hieu biet ve ngon ng ch chang phai
cau. Tien e nay a t chng minh c s thanh cong cua no qua nhan nh,
ng phap co kha nang nam ro va giai thch c mot kha nang tinh than cua con
ngi, o la s hieu biet ve ngon ng.

Noi tom lai, hoat ong cua gii ngon ng ngoai hoa la co gang gom nhat that
nhieu cach noi co that ngoai i, trong khi o, gii ngon ng noi hoa lai a ra
12


cau noi c, cau khong noi c roi nh ngi hanh ngon kiem chng. Gii
ngon ng ngoai hoa trach gii ngon ng noi hoa coi thng d kien thc. Ngc
lai, gii ngon ng noi hoa ci pha kia la ch biet nghien cu toan nhng th
tam thng de nh em au. Chomsky thuoc gii noi hoa.

NGON NG KHONG BAT NH S THANH THAO NGON NG

Ngon ng la mot tap hp cau cu noi c. Th tng tng, co mot so t, ta co
the hoan v thanh nhieu chuoi t. Hoan v 5 t, ta co 120 chuoi t (theo cong
thc 5 ! (5 giai tha)). Gap oi 5 la 10, ket qua se nhay vot t 120 len en
3.628.800 (10 !). Tuy nhien, trong so lng khong lo hn ba trieu chuoi t ay,
khong phai chuoi t nao cung eu noi c. Xem mot phan ket qua th nghiem
vi 5 t cua Le Van Ly (1948):

(5) Sao no bao khong en ?
Sao bao no khong en ?
Sao khong en bao no ?
Sao khong bao no en ?
Sao ? en bao no khong ?
Sao ? Bao no en khong ?
No en, sao khong bao ?
No en, khong bao sao ?
No en bao khong sao.
No bao sao khong en ?
No en, bao sao khong ?
No bao en khong sao.
No bao khong en sao ?
No khong bao, sao en ?
No khong bao en sao ?
No khong en bao sao ?
Bao no sao khong en ?
Bao no: en khong sao.
Bao sao no khong en ?
Bao no en, sao khong ?
Bao no khong en sao ?
Bao khong, sao no en ?
Bao ! Sao, no en khong ?
Khong bao, sao no en ?
13


Khong en bao no sao ?
Khong sao, bao no en.
Khong bao no en sao ?
Khong en, bao no sao ?
Khong en, no bao sao?
en bao no khong sao.
en khong ? Bao no sao ?
en khong ? No bao sao ?
en, sao khong bao no ?
en bao no sao khong ?
en, sao no khong bao.
en, no bao khong sao.
en, no khong bao sao ?
en, sao bao no khong ?

Tam cho 38 chuoi t tren eu noi c, so con lai khong, song the nao la noi
c ? Ngi Viet con co cam giac ay, nhng ngi ngoai quoc khong ranh
tieng Viet th sao ?

Theo Chomsky, ngi co tham nang ngon ng c hieu nh ngi noi/nghe ly
tng thanh thao ngon ng, co kha nang xac nhan mot li noi co thc s la mot
cau cua tieng noi o hay khong. Tuy vay, s thanh thao ay khong hien ngon ma
ch thuan trc giac. Bi le neu at cau hoi tai sao cau noi c, chac chan se co
ngi chang biet phai giai thch the nao. Hoac, cho du mot ngi co u kien thc
noi ung, viet ung, nhng van co the chang hieu tai sao cai cau truc ng phap
lai co hnh thu va ac tnh ay. Da vao au e co the giai thch s khac biet gia
hai cau No en, sao bao khong ? va No en, sao khong bao ? mot cach hien
ngon ? Da vao au e giai thch, ngi Viet khong ai noi No en khong sao
bao ? Cho nen cai goi la kha nang thanh thao ngon ng cua ngi noi/nghe ma
Chomsky goi la ly tng hau nh ch la mot tham nang thuoc ve vo thc ch
khong phai la tri thc e co the giai thch that khoa hoc cai cau truc ngon ng
ma mnh thong thao. Chnh v vay, khoa hoc cu phap a hnh thanh.

CU PHAP VA KHOA HOC NHAN THC

Cu phap la g ? Thuat ng cu phap (syntax) c Nguyen Kim Than giai thch
trong cuon Nghien cu ng phap tieng Viet nh sau:
14


Cu phap nghien cu cach ghep t thanh ra nhng t to va cau. (Nguyen Kim
Than 1997: 12)

Nguyen Kim Than a giai thch cu phap theo goc nhn ve cach to chc ngon
ng. Rong rai hn, cu phap trong ngon ng hoc hien ai con c hieu nh mot
khoa hoc nhan thc (cognitive science) (Carnie 2000). Khoa hoc nhan thc bao
gom moi nganh khoa hoc co cung muc ch chuyen mo ta va cat ngha kha nang
suy ngh cua con ngi. Co nhng cai, con ngi lam ung nhng chang biet
phai cat ngha the nao cho ung. Co nhng cai tru tng cha logic m (fuzzy
logic), con ngi hieu nhng chang biet phai cat ngha the nao cho ngi khac
hieu. Hoac gia nh co kha nang cat ngha, th cung chang biet phai da vao mot
he thong ly thuyet khoa hoc nao e ma cat ngha. Ngon ng t nhien la mot van
e tieu bieu. Lam the nao e cat ngha cai suy ngh cua con ngi c phan
anh qua ngon ng t nhien ? Ngon ng t nhien von la mot san pham co cau truc
tinh vi, phc tap do chnh con ngi lam chu hoac e ra, nhng ngo cai la con
ngi a khong he ngh ra bat ky ly thuyet, bai ban hay quy tac g trc o. V
the ma khoa hoc nhan thc a am nhan cong viec i tm hieu, mo ta va giai
thch cai suy ngh cua con ngi. Noi cu the, muc ch cua khoa hoc cu phap
(syntax) la i kham pha cac quy tac a tao thanh ngon ng va sau o se tm
cach mo ta, giai thch chung cho that khoa hoc va co he thong. Nhng quy tac ay
chnh la ng phap (grammar). Muc ch sau cung ma khoa hoc cu phap phai
at ti la xac nh tnh ung sai cua cach hanh ngon; tat ca moi quy tac hnh
thc c tm thay phai phan anh chnh xac tinh than ngon ng trong thc te va
phai trung hp vi tap hp ngon ng t nhien.

Co le cach nhn ve cu phap trong gii ngon ng hoc quoc te ong ngha vi ng
phap hoc cua Nguyen Kim Than:

Ng phap la thuat ng dch t grammaire (Phap), grammar (Anh), v.v... ma
ra. Thuat ng grammaire, grammar ngay nay co hai y ngha: mot la he thong
ng phap cua mot ngon ng cu the (nh: ng phap tieng Viet ...), hai la khoa hoc
nghien cu ve ng phap noi chung. Cac nha ngon ng Trung Quoc phan biet ro
rang hai y ngha o, va khi noi en cai ngha th hai, th goi la ng phap hoc.
Chung toi cung chu trng phan biet hai ngha tren bang hai thuat ng khac
nhau. (Nguyen Kim Than 1997 : 11)

Lam viec vi cu phap theo ngha khoa hoc nhan thc, ngi nghien cu ngon
ng se trai qua ba bc. Bc mot: nam bat d kien thc te ben ngoai, bc hai:
tong quat hoa, bc cuoi cung: at gia thuyet.

15


Thu thap d kien Tong quat hoa
at gia thuyet
(thanh lap quy tac)
D kien t quy tac D kien thc te

Nhng gia thuyet c xem nh nhng quy tac se c th nghiem ti lui nham
tm them d kien mi. Co them d kien mi t quy tac cu, chu trnh mi lai bat
au, ngi quan sat lai tiep tuc tm kiem them nhng d kien thc te t the gii
ben ngoai. a nam bat xong moi d kien mi va cu, khau tong quat hoa lai hoi
quy, ngi th nghiem lai at gia thuyet chac la ung, roi lai tiep tuc th
nghiem. Chu trnh ay c c lap ti lap lui cho ti khi nao nhng gia thuyet at
ra c xem nh ung th thoi. Neu gia thuyet ung, ngi ta ngh, nhng quy
tac lap thanh phai ung (tc quy tac ng phap). ay la nguyen tac lam viec cua
khoa hoc kinh nghiem thng thay.

a co nhieu ngi dan than vao cong viec ke tren. Mot trong nhng ngi tien
phong phai ke en la Chomsky, nha ngon ng hoc noi tieng cua the ky 20 ngi
goc Do Thai. Vao gia nhng nam 50, Chomsky a cho ra i mot ly thuyet ng
phap c goi la ng phap tao sinh (Generative Grammar) (Chomsky 1965,
1979). Ng phap tao sinh la mot mo hnh ng phap dien ta mot tap hp quy tac
tao thanh ngon ng. Khai niem tao sinh a bat nguon t y ngha ay. Ly thuyet
nay a mot thi gay tieng vang trong lang ngon ng hoc va van con tao anh
hng cho ti ngay nay. Hang loat nhng ly thuyet ng phap theo sau cua ong
va cua nhng ngi khac eu da vao nguyen tac ay: Ng phap bien hnh tao
sinh (Generative Transformation Grammar), Ly thuyet tieu chuan (Standard
Theory), Ly thuyet tieu chuan m rong (Extended Standard Theory), Ly thuyet chi
phoi va rang buoc (Government and Binding Theory (GB)), Nguyen tac va thong
so (Principles and Parameters (P&P)), Toi thieu luan (Minimalism (MP)), Ng
phap cau truc ng oan tong quat hoa (Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar
(GPSG)) (Gazdar et al. 1985).

Song, khong phai moi ngi eu ong y vi cach nhn ngon ng theo kieu cau
truc cua Chomsky. Vao khoang cuoi thap nien 70, Bresnan va Kaplan a bay to
t tng oi lap cua mnh qua ly thuyet Ng phap chc nang t vng (Lexical
Functional Grammar) (Bresnan 1982). Dung hoa hn, Pollard va Sag a cho ra
i ly thuyet lng danh Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG)
(Pollard, Sag 1994).
16


Choong 2

NCON NC| VA DlLN DA1
DAC DlLM C|A 1lLNC VlL1

OI TNG

Mot trong nhng muc ch cua con ngi khi dung ngon ng la nham dien at
oi tng. oi tng co the hieu la moi th trong vu tru co the tng tng c
oi vi moi con ngi con kha nang cam nhan. Co th s mo c, co th
khong. Co th khong s mo c nhng thay c. Co th khong thay c
nhng nghe c. Co th khong nghe c nhng cam c, hnh dung c, ...
Cai ban, cai ghe, ... la nhng th s mo c. Mat tri, mat trang la nhng th
xa tam tay nhng khong vt khoi tam mat. Ca am thanh cung khong the thoat
khoi lo tai mot ngi khong b iec. Tru tng na la nhng g khong thay,
khong nghe, khong s mo, ngi, nem c. V du: tnh yeu. Lam sao thay c,
nghe c, s mo, ngi, nem c tnh yeu ? Ch nh cam giac, con ngi mi
mong cam nhan c oi tng nay. Hoac la t duy. Lam sao nhn thay c t
duy ?

oi tng khong nhng ch la cai ban, cai ghe, mat tri, mat trang, ... tnh yeu,
ma la moi th khong gian, thi gian, la ieu kien, s tnh, hien tng, la t
tng, tinh than, h, no, ai, o, ... la van van va van van, noi chung la moi th ton
tai trong cai the gii kha giac cua con ngi, bat ky cu the hay tru tng ma
ngi ta co the xem o la mot yeu to ong vai khi iem cho viec thuyet minh,
hoac mot chu e va bang cach nao o, muon dien at no.

CACH PHAN ANH OI TNG QUYET NH CACH HANH NGON

Ngon ng khac nhau mot phan cung la do cach phan anh khac nhau ve oi
tng, t o, cach hanh ngon, cau cu mi khac nhau.

17

CH|ONC 2 NCON NC| VA DlLN DA1 DAC DlLM C|A 1lLNC VlL1
Cung mot oi tng, co ngi dien ta kieu nay, co ngi dien ta kieu khac.
Cach noi cua ngi Viet: mot co gai ep chac chan phai khac cach noi cua
ngi Anh: a pretty girl, hay ngi c: ein schnes Mdchen. oi tng
ay la co gai.

Khi muon mo ta mot oi tng, d nhien ngi mo ta phai biet oi tng ay,
ngha la trc het phai nhan dien c no, roi sau o mi xem no nh the nao,
ngha la nhan thc ve no. Nhan dien khong nhng ch c hieu la s nhan thay
bang mat ma con c hieu la s hnh dung c oi tng xuyen qua tr tng,
cam giac, tr nh, ... Trnh t nhan dien va nhan thc cua ngi Viet thng
mang tnh tuyen tnh (linear). Khi ngi Viet noi: mot co gai ep, th trc
nhat phai nhn thay mot co gai roi mi xem co ep khong. Noi cach khac la
trc nhat phai nhan dien c cai thc the, roi mi anh gia c no theo nhan
thc cua mnh, du la chu quan. Trong trng hp, cai thc the ay khong co thc
trc mat ma ch nam trong tr tng tng, tam hon, th s hnh dung ve no cung
la mot hnh thc nhan dien: nhan dien tru tng. Hanh ong mieu ta trnh t
nhan dien nhan thc chnh la hanh ong dung ngon ng e sao chep lai no.
oi vi ngi Viet noi rieng, bi qua trnh nhan dien va nhan thc a theo trnh
t tuyen tnh, cho nen t ng trong li noi cung c xep at mot cach tuyen tnh
y nh the. at cau hoi co gai the nao ? Tra li: A, co gai ep. T co gai
mi co co gai ep. Quan iem nay giong nh mot phep ap (phep anh xa) trong
toan hoc. Ngi ta ch co the ap dung mot phep ap cho mot phan t, khi phan t
ay a ton tai trong mot tap hp goc nhat nh.

a
b
c
x
y
f(a)
f(b)
f(c)
Tap hp goc cha
3 phan t goc: a, b,
Tap hp anh gom 2
phan t anh x, y: ket
qua anh xa cua ham f.
Ham f ap dung len
phan t a.
f()

Ham f se khong co tac dung oi vi mot phan t khong ton tai, bi ket qua ch
la anh trong ( f()) . Khong ai muon dung no mot cach vo ngha the. Ham f phai
chng to c chc nang cua mnh la bien phan t goc thanh phan t mi. Cac
phan t anh x, y mang tnh chat f.
18


Dien tien cua loi suy ngh nay mang tnh tuyen tnh. Tien trnh nay xuat phat t
mot khi iem (goc) va dan en mot ket qua (anh).

V du mot ham so thc te trong toan: Bien tat ca moi so nguyen thanh so bnh
phng:

n N; f F:

f: n f(n) = n
2

Gia s, trc het a ton tai mot tap hp so nguyen, tc nhng phan t goc n.
Nhng phan t n se c ham f bien hoa thanh phan t anh di dang n
2
.

Hoac xem mot mo hnh toan logic khac: ham ac tnh (characteristic function).

Neu noi Paris la thu o cua c, th khong ai cong nhan. ieu o sai (false).
Nhng neu noi Paris la thu o cua Phap, th ai cung cong nhan, bi ieu o ung
(true). Gia s:

(i) Trc nhat a ton tai hai phan t: thanh pho Paris va Berlin.
(ii) at cau hoi: Thanh pho nao la thu o nc Phap ?
(iii) Hay tra li: Mot ung, hai sai. Thanh pho nao ?

Lap mo hnh ham ac tnh, ta co 3 phan (1), (2), (3):

(1) : tap hp goc gom hai phan t: Paris va Berlin.
(2) : ham ac tnh f, hoi, co phai ... la thu o nc Phap ?
(3) : tap hp anh mang hai tr ung/sai { TRUE, FALSE }

Paris la thu o Phap ? --> f(Paris) = TRUE
Berlin
Paris
Berlin la thu o Phap ? --> f(Berlin) = FALSE
f
la thu o Phap ?
(1)
(2)
(3)
f
la thu o Phap ?

Ham ac tnh la mot hnh thc ham chon la (selecting function). No co chc
nang xac nh tnh ung sai cua mot phan t khi c gan cho mot tnh chat c
19
chon la. Neu noi Paris la thu o Phap, th ung; con noi Berlin la thu o
Phap th la sai. Thay v at cau hoi co phai ... la thu o nc Phap, ngi ta
co the chon la cac ac tnh khac nh ep, xau, ln, nho, map, om,
... Noi chung, cho du co chon la bat c tnh chat g i na, neu muon ng dung
c ham ac tnh, th ieu kien oi hoi trc het van la phai ton tai nhng phan
t ma ngi ta muon anh gia. Ham so khong the ng dung c cho chan
khong, cho mot phan t cha ton tai, cha c biet en.

Chung ta thay, ngon ng toan la mot san pham cua con ngi va c dung e
dien ta t tng cua con ngi trong lnh vc toan hoc. T cach ve mo hnh cho
ti cach lap thc trong toan hoc, tat ca eu i theo trnh t nhan dien roi nhan
thc cua ngi dien ta: mot la chon thc the, hai la anh gia no hoac noi tiep.

Phc tap hn, song ngon ng t nhien khong khac. V du tieng Viet. Dung tieng
Viet, tren nguyen tac, trc het ngi noi phai co chu the (subject) hoac chu e
(theme) (tc phan t goc), noi chung la khi iem (start point) roi sau o mi noi
tiep, dien giai tiep. Neu khi iem la mot oi tng can c dien ta th tien
trnh mo ta no cung giong nh mot ham so. Khi nghe mot ai noi co mot ngi
an ba ep, th ngi nghe han tha hieu, co mot ngi an ba (la iem
chnh, tc chu the) va ngi o ep (la iem phu, tc li bnh theo sau).

Thc ra dan toc nao cung co cach hanh ngon theo nguyen tac co khi iem roi
dien giai. Ch co ieu, theo thi gian, nhieu dan toc khong con gi ung cach
phan anh cai trat t thc te cua mo hnh o, v du chu e dien giai, bang
ngon ng na. Khong theo trnh t nay khi dien ta oi tng, ngon ng phai c
hnh thc hoa bang cach khac va t o cau truc li noi cung thay oi theo.

Hnh thc hoa ngon ng cung co nguyen do va li iem cua no. Bang cach nay,
ngi noi co the hanh ngon co ong hn, dien ta thi gian, khong gian chnh xac
hn, hoac lam ro c nhng tnh chat s hu, phai tnh, ... nh nhng hnh v
(morpheme) tng ng ...

a so ngon ng Au chau la vay. The con tieng Viet th sao ? Cach hanh ngon
cua tieng Viet khac cac ngon ng khac iem nao ?

Sau ay, chung ta hay th xet s qua vai ac iem chnh trong tieng Viet, ong
thi so sanh vi vai ngon ng khac.

20


VAI AC IEM CHNH TRONG TIENG VIET

1. Tnb t|nb ticn

Tieng Viet la mot loai ngon ng tuyen tnh. Khong nhng tuyen tnh, tc la cha
tnh tien, tieng Viet con cha ca tnh tnh. Tnh chat tnh xuat hien trong
cau truc cua cac the cau thng t b thay oi. Tieu bieu la tnh chat ong dang
cua cau truc cau hoi va cau tra li. Gia s hoi:

(1) Kieu la ai ?

Trong cau hoi, t nghi van ai c hieu nh mot bien so (variable), ngha la
mot an so cha co tr so ro rang. Cau hoi se bien thanh cau tra li, neu gan cho
bien so ai mot gia tr, v du thay the ai bang cum t mot ngi an ba:

(2) Kieu la mot ngi an ba.

Ket qua: Cau truc cau hoi va cau tra li khong thay oi. V tr cua cac thanh
phan trong cau noi (thng c goi la chu t, ong t, tuc t) van gi nguyen
(gia s xem la ay nh mot ong t):

Cau truc cau hoi: Kieu la ai ?
mot ngi an ba
Cau truc tra li: Kieu la mot ngi an ba
Chu t ong t Tuc t

Tieng Anh cung c xem la mot ngon ng tuyen tnh, the nhng lai khong
tnh bang tieng Viet. Khong tnh c hieu la cau truc cau hoi va cau tra li
cua tieng Anh khong giong nhau. Ngi Anh khong hoi Kieu is who ? va tra
li Kieu is a woman. Lap cau hoi nh vay la sai ng phap. Hoi ung phai la
21
Who is Kieu ?. Cau hoi ngc han cau tra li v v tr cua chu t va tuc t b
ao ngc:
Cau truc cau hoi: Who is Kieu ?
Tuc t ong t Chu t
a woman
Chu t ong t Tuc t
Cau truc cau tra li: Kieu is a woman

e giai thch cai y ngha nguyen thuy t s nhan dien va nhan thc von cha b
ao ngc, nay do cau truc cau hoi b ao ngc, cac nha ngon ng hoc Au chau
a phai nh en mot quy tac c goi la quy tac chuyen v wh (wh-movement).
ay la mot loai quy tac bien hnh (transformation rule) thng gap trong hng
ng phap bien hnh tao sinh (Generative Transformation Grammar) cua
Chomsky (se noi sau).

Th xem mot cau hoi tieng Viet khac cung mang cau truc Chu t-ong t-Tuc
t giong Kieu la ai ?, ben canh la cac cau tieng Anh/c ong ngha:

(3) Kieu thng ai ?
(4) Whom does Kieu love ? (tieng Anh)
(5) Wen liebt Kieu ? (tieng c)

Trong cau hoi tieng Viet, ong t thng ng trc tiep trc ai. Neu gan
cho bien so nay mot gia tr co ly, v du nh Kim Trong, ta se c cau tra li
ma cau truc cau van gi nguyen. Trong khi o cau hoi tieng Anh, t nghi van
whom lai nam xa ong t love, hoac tieng c, wen (ai) lai nam trc
tiep trc ong t liebt (yeu). Muon c mot cau xac nh ma cau truc khong
b oi (nh tieng Viet), ngi Anh, ngi c khong the thay the cac t whom,
wen bang Kim Trong mot cach de dang:

22


(6) *
1)
Kim Trong does Kieu love. (tieng Anh)
(7) Kim Trong liebt Kieu. (tieng c)
(8) Kieu thng Kim Trong.

Ta thay, cau tra li tieng Anh sai ng phap, con cau tra li tieng c lai co
ngha khac hoan toan: Kim Trong thng Kieu ch khong phai Kieu thng
Kim Trong. Muon ca hai trng hp eu ung ng phap cung nh ng ngha,
bat buoc ngi Anh va ngi c phai ao ngc cau truc cau. ay la mot ac
iem cua ngon ng nghch ao (inversion language).

Y ngha cua ba cau xac nh sau:

(10) Kieu loves Kim Trong. (tieng Anh)
(11) Kieu liebt Kim Trong. (tieng c)

co dang cau truc c goi la cau truc D (D-structure). (Xin lu y: Cac ban
khong chuyen co the lt qua phan nay. Phan ly thuyet c ong trong ngoac
[[.. ]]).

[[
Mo ta bang cay cu phap (syntax tree) (se c noi ro sau), ta co:

CP
V
Kieu loves Kim Trong
Kieu liebt Kim Trong
Kieu thng Kim Trong
NP T
T VP
C TP
C
V NP

(12)

1)
Trng hp khong noi c se c anh dau *.
23
Cau truc D noi len ng ngha Kieu thng Kim Trong theo ung th t cua
tng d kien tuan t c thu nhan. Song ay khong han la cau truc cua cau noi
that ngoai i. Cau noi that mang mot cau truc khac: cau truc S (S-
structure). Nguyen thuy, cai c nhan dien va nhan thc chnh la cai ng
ngha that s tuan t c ghi lai di dang cau truc D, the nhng khi trnh bay,
ngi noi lai lap cau theo kieu khac. Ba cau xac nh (Viet, Anh, c ) v du
nay tnh c co cau truc D giong nhau, ke ca cau truc S. Song khi lap cau hoi,
ngi Anh, ngi c lai lap cau theo kieu khac mac du cau truc D van gi
nguyen:
CP
V
Kieu loves whom
Kieu liebt wen
Kieu thng ai
NP T
T VP
C TP
C
V NP

(13)

Nhn lai cau truc D tren, ch co tieng Viet noi c; tieng Anh va tieng c th
khong:

(14) Kieu thng ai
(15) * Kieu loves whom (tieng Anh)
(16) * Kieu liebt wen (tieng c)

Muon noi c, cac cau tieng Anh, tieng c co cau truc D ben tren phai c
chuyen sang dang cau truc S nh sau:

(17) Whom does Kieu love ? (tieng Anh)
(18) Wen liebt Kieu ? (tieng c)

Trong khi o, cau truc S va D cua cau hoi va cau tra li trong tieng Viet giong
het nhau. Muon giai thch s khac biet gia hai cau truc D (ng ngha t nhan
dien/nhan thc) va cau truc S (cach hanh ngon thc te), tieng Anh va tieng c
24


phai nh en quy tacchuyen v wh . Quy tac chuyen v co nhiem vu chuyen
ong t va bo ng (tuc t) cua cau hoi trong cau truc D vao v tr cua cau hoi
trong cau truc S.

Qua trnh chuyen v tng oi phc tap. oi vi tieng Anh, trc nhat, phai long
them ong t phu (thng goi la tr ong t) does vao e dien ta th hien tai.
Qua trnh chuyen v trai qua t nhat la hai bc. Bc mot, a thong tin dien ta
th (tense) len C. Bc hai, chuyen whom, wen len au cau (mot hnh thc
chuyen v len cap (raising movement)):

CP
V
Kieu does love whom
Kieu liebt wen
Kieu thng ai
NP T
T VP
C TP
C
V NP

(19)

Sau khi chuyen v, cau truc D bien thanh cau truc S co thc ngoai i:

CP
V
Kieu love
* Kieu liebt wen
does NP T
T VP
C TP
Whom
V NP

(20)

25
Cau tieng Viet Kieu thng ai von a noi c, cho nen khong can giai thch
bang ly thuyet chuyen v. Ch co cau tieng Anh nam di dang cau truc D Kieu
loves whom do khong noi c, nen mi can chuyen sang dang S. Trong cau
truc nay, tieng c khong the chuyen v tng ng nh tieng Anh.
]]

oc en ay, co le co nhieu ban oc khong hieu het. ieu nay cung khong quan
trong. Chung ta c tam hieu s rang, cai cau truc phan chieu y ngha thc s cua
s nhan dien va nhan thc cua con ngi ve mot oi tng muon dien ta la cau
truc D. Con khi noi, ngi hanh ngon se lap thc y ngha nay bang cau truc S.
(Xem them Deep Structur trong Language and Responsibitity (Chomsky 1979:
169) hoac chng 12).

Moi cat ngha s quat ben tren ch nham cho thay s khac biet gia ngon ng
tnh tien va khong tnh tnh. Gii ngon ng hoc Tay phng a a ra nhng ly
thuyet giai thch (ung theo ngha khoa hoc nhan thc cua bo mon cu phap). Tuy
nhien, khong phai mot ly thuyet bao gi cung u kha nang giai thch c cau
truc cua moi ngon ng, ien hnh la cach giai thch theo thuyet chuyen v ben
tren.

Noi mot cach ngan gon, hai tnh chat tnh va tien noi len tnh tnh tien
2)

cua tieng Viet.

Tnh tnh tien co mat khap ni trong ca dao, tuc ng, li noi bnh dan, van
chng bac hoc, ...:

(21) em qua gio bac ma lam,
en lam vi bong, bong lam vi ai ?
em qua gio bac ma dam,
en lam vi bong, bong lam vi anh.

(22) La g khong nhanh khong canh ?
La g ch co tay mnh trao tay ?
La th khong nhanh khong canh,
La th ch co tay mnh trao tay.
(Ca dao - Thai Doan Hieu, Hoang Lien 1994)

2)
Tnh tnh tien ay khong ong ngha vi phep tnh tien (translation) trong toan hoc. Phep tnh
tien trong toan hoc la phep bien hnh, trong o, mot hnh c di chuyen hay trt en mot v tr
khac ma khong quay, truc mi cua no song song vi truc cu. (Ta Hung 1996)
26


Cau truc tng oi khong thay oi cua cau dien ta tnh tnh. Mat khac, tnh
tien cho phep cau tuan t c m rong mot cach hp ly ve pha phai vi tng
thong tin thu thap c t the gii ben ngoai.

(23) Lay tri ... (roi sao ?)
Lay tri ma xuong ... (e lam g ?)

Xin lu y, du thieu ong t ri, cach hanh ngon van dien ta c tnh va
hng chuyen ong cua ma. Va lai khong the them ri vao, v cau truc th
4 ch se b huy.

(24) Lay nc, ... (e lam g ?)

Khong ai hoi nc g, bi a biet la nc ma.

(25) Lay nc toi uong,
Lay ruong toi cay,
Lay ay bat cm,
Lay rm un bep.

o la kieu hanh ngon tuyen tnh cua ngi Viet. o khong c phai co ong t,
lien t, ... giong cac ngon ng Au chau th mi c coi la ung ng phap.

2. Tnb giao tbong tin co tbc

Ngoai tnh tnh tien, tieng Viet con mot ac tnh khac la giau thong tin cu the.
Mot trng hp ien hnh la tieng xng ho hoac ai danh t nhan vat (personal
pronoun)
3)
noi chung. Cach xng ho trong tieng Viet co le la kho xai nhat the
gii. Ch rieng cho ngoi th nhat, so t, tieng Viet a co hn 40 cach dung khac
nhau:

(26) Toi, tui, t, tao, tau, ta, mo, ngi ta, mnh, cu, co, ong, on, ba, me, noi,
ngoai, bac, ba, ta, bo, cha, ma, me, u, chu, co, cau, d, o, dng, thm, m,
thay, bo, vu, anh, ch, em, con, chau, ...

3)
Thay v dch la nhan xng ai danh t, chung toi chon nguyen tac dch theo loi ghep t cua
tieng Viet vi bo/phu ng nam ben phai (right attributed): ai danh t nhan vat. Nguyen tac nay
cung se c ap dung cho cac t khac. Nhan vat c dch sat ngha t personal. Khong co ly
do g phai dch personal thanh nhan xng trong khi no hoan toan khong cha y ngha xng.
27
Tnh giau thong tin con nam di dang iep ng, t ghep: ruong ong, song
nc, menh mong, trai cay, gao lua, doi dao, ni ni, ... (Xem them
T tieng Viet - nhieu tac gia 1998, Nghien cu ng phap tieng Viet Nguyen
Kim Than 1997, Ng phap tieng Viet Nguyen Tai Can 1999)

Tnh giau thong tin con xuat hien qua cach dung kha nhieu ong t trong cau,
tieu bieu la ong t ghep hoac ong t xen ke vi danh t.

(27) i + chi i chi
i + lam i lam

(28) Nc song Nh Ha mi bat au len to, cuon cuon chay, tng muon loi
phang cai cu lao gia song i. (Anh phai song - Khai Hng).

(29) Han xoay sang, nhp mat, nhn toi, ci khong noi, lam ra ve hieu het
nhng g toi ang ngh.

(30) Kheo kheo i au lu ngan ng,
Lai ay cho ch day lam th.
Ong non nga noc cham hoa ra.
De con buon sng huc dau tha.
(Mang hoc tro dot - Ho Xuan Hng)

(Xem them ong t trong tieng Viet Nguyen Kim Than 1999)

Tnh giau thong tin cu the con xuat hien trong cach thanh lap danh t:

(31) Nha cai nha, ngoi nha
(32) Ca cai ca, canh ca
(33) Vn cai vn, goc vn, khu vn, manh vn
(34) Thuyen cai thuyen, con thuyen, chiec thuyen

Cach thc mo ta s vat bang cach tieu tap hp hoa cai tap hp toan the la mot
iem tieu bieu trong tieng Viet ma t co ngon ng An-Au nao co c. V du
nha la mot tap hp toan the. Chia nho ra, ta co cac dang ca the co tnh cach
n v nh cai nha, ngoi nha, day nha. ay la nhng phan t em c
thuoc ve tap hp nha.

28


3. Tnb tnb Iooc

Mot mat, cach hanh ngon cua ngi Viet kha phong phu qua cach dung that
nhieu thong tin mieu ta, lam luc vong vo:

(35) em vang,
Buong thm.
Em soi gng trom,
Ngon en mn gio, nghieng nghieng
(em vang - Phung Cung)

(36) Tren tri co am may xanh,
Chnh gia may trang, chung quanh may vang.
Uc g anh lay c nang ...
(Ca dao)

Mat khac, nhieu khi cau truc cau noi rat co ong, t ng b lc bo kha nhieu,
ac biet la cac t th, la, ma co cong dung phan oan ve mat cu phap:

(37) Tren thuan di hoa
(Tren co thuan th di mi hoa)

(38) at lanh chim au
(at co lanh th chim mi au)

(39) Chim long ca chau
(Chim th trong long, ca th trong chau)

(40) Cha nao con nay
(Cha the nao th con se nh the nay)

(41) An g bo o
(An cai g th bo cai o)

Tnh tnh lc co the lam h ca cau truc cau:

(42) Thang Bm co cai quat mo,
Phu ong xin oi ba bo chn trau.
(Ba con bo, chn con trau)
29
hoac hien tng cau thieu chu ng (chu t):

(43) E ! i au o ? Cm nc g cha ?
(44) Sao, khoe khong ?

Hien tng cau thieu chu ng la mot hnh thc noi tat, bi ngi c hoi a
biet cau hoi danh cho ai. Hien nhien, noi tat, noi coc loc lam giam tnh lch lam,
song o la loi dung ngon pho bien trong xa hoi Viet Nam.

Hien tng thieu chu ng xay ra lam khi cung la do b ng qua cuoc oi thoai
lan au, khi ngi oi dien khong biet phai xng ho the nao cho hp tnh, hp ly.
Nhieu y kien cho rang, do anh hng nen van hoa Nho giao, ngi Viet mi co
loi xng ho theo ton ti, vai bac, trong khi cac dan toc Au chau ch co cach xng
ho tru tng, v du I, you cua tieng Anh, Ich, Du, Sie cua tieng c, Je, Tu,
Vous cua tieng Phap. Luan c nay co le khong c vng lam. Mot dan toc nh
ngi Hoa cung b Nho giao anh hng kha nang, tham ch con nang hn dan toc
Viet, song ngi Hoa van co cac tieng xng ho tru tng Ngo, L, ... ay la mot
iem thu v. Sang tao c cho ngi Viet nhng tieng xng ho tru tng, co le
khong phai la mot iem d.

ac biet, tnh tnh lc thng xuat hien trong th, ca dao, tuc ng, ve, cau oi,
... noi chung la moi the th co luat. Ly do de hieu la v so ch dung b gii han
mot cach nghiem ngat. Chang han the luc bat ch cho phep cau au 6 ch, cau
sau 8 ch. Hnh thc b gii han khien ngi lam th kho co the at tat ca cau cu
ung theo ng phap. Song nhieu khi chnh ngi lam th cung khong muon vay
v s cau cu se tr nen cng nhac, mat hon th. Mat khac, tnh tnh lc trong
tieng Viet cung co nguyen do lch s cua no. Ca ngan nam b Tau o ho, biet
bao nhieu co van bac hoc viet ung cau, ung cu a b ot sach. Muon bao ve
va lu truyen t tng, ong ba to tien cua chung ta ch con nc la truyen mieng:

(45) Tram nam bia a cung mon.
Ngan nam bia mieng van con tr tr.
(Ca dao)

a goi la truyen mieng th phai lam sao cho ngan gon, de nh. V the ma van
chng truyen khau Viet Nam thng the th co luat, co van, de nghe, de cam,
de thuoc, nh lau. Hnh thc b co ong toi a nhng noi dung lai doi dao, sau
sac nh an du, tham thuy nh chi ch, ... Nhieu khi cach hanh ngon bat buoc
30


ngi nghe phai hieu ngam hoac co luc phai can dien giai th mi hieu. V du
mot cau tuc ng, ngi Bac hay dung:

(46) Nat deo song bui

Thc, khi mi nghe cau tuc ng nay lan au, ngi Nam hoac ca ngi Viet noi
chung kho co the hieu noi y muon noi g, neu khong nh giai thch. Y cau nay
muon nhac nh ai khai rang, he co ai mi mnh ti nha dung cm, ma nh cm
co nat, th cung nen khen la deo, hoac nh cm co song, th cung nen khen la
bui, la beo qua cho chu nha len tinh than. Theo thi gian, c truyen mieng mai
cot cho cau cu c co ong, bat can luat, ch can noi dung, nhieu ngi Viet
am ra mac mot cai tat: bo c g c bo. Ro rang cau Nat deo song bui sai
ng phap nhng may man thay, ngi nghe van hieu. Hieu c la nh tr thong
minh lanh manh cua con ngi.

Hien tng tnh lc thc ra khong ch rieng Viet Nam mi co ma con co cac
dan toc khac. Mot trng hp thng gap nhat la cach chay nhng hang tt ln
tren nhat bao. V du mot hang tt to tng tren mot nhat bao c sau khi cong
chua Diana t nan: Diana tot (Diana chet) thay v: Diana ist tot. ung ng
phap tieng c, cau phai co ong t ist. Hoac cach hoi van tat trong luc am
thoai co tnh cach ban be, than mat, chang han nh hoi tham sc khoe ngi oi
dien: Wie geht ? thay v: Wie geht es Dir ? (Cau khoe khong ?), hoac: Weit
? thay v: Weit Du ? (Cau biet khong ?). ung ng phap, cau phai co ai
danh t nhan vat Du. Cach hanh ngon van tat nay trong tieng c khong khac
cach hoi tat trong tieng Viet: i au o. Cm nc g cha ?, Sao, khoe
khong ?. Chung ta nen nh rang, ngi Anh, ngi c, ngi Phap, ngi Y,
ngi Tho, ngi Tau, ngi Nhat, ngi Phi Chau, ... g i na du noi tieng me
e, nhng cha chac la ai cung noi ung ng phap hoan toan. Ngi Viet cung
vay, khi hanh ngon, co cau chuan, co cau khong. Ngon ng bao la nhng khong
bat nh. Mc o hoan hao cua ngon ng le thuoc vao tham nang va dung nang
ngon ng cua ngi s dung. Cho nen, nh ro tieu chuan ng phap la mot viec
can thiet, ac biet la oi vi ngi nghien cu ng phap. Da tren tieu chuan
nay, nen phan biet cach hanh ngon b tnh luc va cach hanh ngon ung ng
phap chuan hnh (well-formed grammar).

31
4. Tnb cam dc

Hien tng bo chu ng (chu t) trong tieng Viet lam khi dan en tnh trang cau
b thieu ma ngi Au chau cho la sai ng phap. Ke ca trong nhieu trng hp
khac, mac du co chu ng nhng cau van co the b cho la sai v ly do: cach dung
v t (predicate) khong thch hp vi chu ng (v t tng ng vi ong t,
tnh t thng dung trong ngon ng hoc co ien).

(47) Bc tranh treo tren tng.

Theo ngi c, cau nay vo ly qua. Lam sao bc tranh co the t no treo len
tng c, phai co ai treo no len ch ? Vi suy ngh ay, ho se cho la tieng Viet
khong logic, ng phap lon xon. Ngi c khong dung ong t treo cho chu
ng bc tranh trang thai chu ong (active) ma phai dung trang thai b ong
(passive), ai e, cau phai co dang nh sau:

(48) Bc tranh c treo tren tng.

Thc chat cua van e nay la cach nhan dien va nhan thc ve trang thai cua oi
tng can c dien ta ch khong han la ng phap. Theo suy ngh cua ngi Au
chau, hoac chu the e ra hanh ong, hoac chu the b mot hanh ong tac ong len
no. Chu the phai xuat hien trong cau qua hnh thc chu ng. Hanh ong c
dien ta bang ong t. ong t phai thai chu ong (active voice), neu chu the
gay ra hanh ong. Ngc lai, ong t phai thai b ong (passive voice), neu
chu the b mot hanh ong tac ong. Rat logic. The nhng cach dien ta chu
ong va b ong, noi chung la ong, tnh cua ngi Viet khac. Xet ve
ong, ngi Viet co the noi y nh mot ngi c:

(49) Ich hnge das Bild an die Wand auf.
(50) Toi treo bc tranh len tng.

ay, chu ng Toi, Ich tao ra hanh ong. Con neu xet ve tnh, ngi
Viet se noi:

(51) Toi thay bc tranh treo tren tng.

dch noi dung nay sang tieng c, ta co:

32


(52) Ich sehe, das Bild ist an der Wand aufgehngt.

Cau tieng c nay hoan toan ung ng phap song tren thc te, hau nh khong ai
noi vay ma la noi:

(53) Ich sehe das Bild an der Wand.
(54) Toi thay bc tranh tren tng.

Noi cau tren, ngi c khong dung ong t treo (aufhngen). a trong thay
bc tranh tren tng (das Bild an der Wand) th d nhien la phai co ai treo no
len o, khong can noi en. Nh vay, ho a t cong nhan, co mot chu the nao o
a lam cong viec ay ma khong co mat trong cau. Ngi Viet suy ngh khong
khac lam, khi noi:

(55) Bc tranh treo tren tng.

Ngha la ai o a treo bc tranh len ma khong co mat trong cau. Suy ra, chu ng
trong cau ch mang tnh hnh thc cho ung cau truc ng phap cua cau, ch cha
chac a, hoac khong nhat thiet phai lam chu ong t. Vay th lam sao co the xac
nh c moi quan he gia ong t va oi tng a gay ra hanh ong o ? Chac
chan khong phai chu ng bc tranh ma la mot ngoai chu the (external subject).
Neu vay th lam sao giai thch c ong t treo co quan he g vi chu ng
bc tranh ?

Moi quan he gia bc tranh va treo phan anh 1-1 cach nhan dien cua ngi
Viet ve hien trang cua the gii thc va cach dien ta. Noi nom na la thay sao noi
vay.

(56) Hoi: Bc tranh the nao ?
Tra li: Bc tranh (th) treo. (Ro rang khi quan sat th thay bc tranh ang
v the treo ch khong nam)
Hoi: Bc tranh (th) treo au ?
Tra li: Bc tranh (th) treo tren tng.

T loi quan sat tuyen tnh, t ng c xep at th t theo nguyen tac tnh tien,
cuoi cung ta co cau Bc tranh treo tren tng. Ca cau dien ta tnh trang tnh
cua oi tng bc tranh. oi vi ngi Viet, kha canh ung sai ng phap
ay tuy thuoc vao s hp ly cua y ngha tnh tien ch khong nhat thiet phai da
vao mot chu ng ng phap (grammatical subject), tc chu t (nh thng goi),
33
bat buoc phai nam trong cau va lam chu ong t cho ung ng phap theo cach
nhn cua ngi Au chau.

Ket luan, ong t trong tieng Viet co mot ac tnh la le thuoc vao chu e hoac
e tai ang noi ti thay v b cng bach phai le thuoc vao chu ng trong cau nh
thng thay nhng ngon ng Au chau. Noi cach khac, ong t co the dien ta
noi dung co lien quan en e tai, thay v bat buoc phai dien ta hanh ong cua
chu ng trong cau. iem nay noi len tnh (tam goi la) cam e (subject/theme
sensitive) trong tieng Viet. Nhieu khi khong ch ong t mi cam e ma ca
nhng loai t khac. Thc te cho thay, co nhng t theo sau chu ng chang an
nhap g en chu ng trong cau, ngc lai, noi dung cua cau gan bo vi ngoai chu
the hoac chu e ang c noi ti. Hay xem vai v du:

Trng hp ong t gan bo vi ngoai chu the trong chu e quan ao nh:

(57) Quan ao ang ban xon ka. i mua i !

Ngi nghe co the hieu ngam, ngoai chu the la ngi ta, sieu th, ch
tri... :

(58) Quan ao (ngi ta) ang ban xon ka. i mua i !
(59) Quan ao (sieu th) ang ban xon ka. i mua i !
(60) Quan ao (ch tri) ang ban xon ka. i mua i !

Hoac trong chu e nhac nao, mon g, cai g:

(61) Nhac nao hat cung c.
(62) Nhac nao (co) hat cung c.
(63) Nhac nao (ong) hat cung c.
(64) Nhac nao (chung toi) hat cung c.
(65) Nhac nao (ho) hat cung c.
(66) Nhac nao (ca oan) hat cung c.
(67) Nhac nao (oan van cong) hat cung c.

(68) Mon g an cung c.
(69) Mon g (no) an cung c.
(70) Mon g (ba) an cung c.
(71) Mon g (tui toi) an cung c.
(72) Mon g (ke thieu an) an cung c.
34


(73) Cai g (ong tnh trng) an cung c.
(74) Cai g (trau bo) an cung c.

Khong dung chu ng (chu t) ng phap, ngi Viet co c hoi dien ta noi dung
bang nhieu ngoai chu the khac nhau. o la iem li, v du hnh thc noi bong
gio, the nhng cung la iem hai, bi s s dung ngon ng mot cach phong
khoang thng de sinh ra nhng cau thieu sac ben, a ngha. V du cau:

(75) Ngi nao cung chi.

ay la mot cau hoan chnh. Chu ng ngi nao thc s lam chu ong t
chi. Nhng trong mot hoan canh nao o, neu hieu theo kieu, cau co ngoai
chu the, th ngi nao se khong con lam chu ong t chi na:

(76) Ngi nao (no) cung chi.
(77) Ngi nao (Ch Pheo) cung chi.

Mot v du khac co lien quan en tnh cam e, chang han hoi ten ai. Ngi Anh
hoi:

(78) What is your name ?

Trong van viet tieng Viet, oi khi cung nghe hoi vay:

(79) Ten anh la g ?

Loi noi nay co le lai ng phap Au chau: Ten cua anh la g ? (ch khong phai
anh). Trong trng hp nay (theo cach nhn cua ngi Viet), phan chu the, tc
cai can cc thc te, la con ngi ang ly phai c nhan manh, nhng cach hoi
lai nham vao cai ten e bao am cach dung cho ung chu ng trong cau hoi, tc
mot chu the ch co chc nang ng phap nh a noi. Tng t vay, ngi c hoi:

(80) Wie ist Ihr Name ? (Dich sat: Ten anh the nao ?)
(81) Wie war Ihr Name ? (Dich sat: Ten anh a the nao ?)

Ben canh ay, ho cung thng hay hoi:

(82) Wie heien Sie ? (Dich sat: Anh ten the nao ?)

35
Co le cach hoi nay gan giong cach hoi cua ngi Viet:

(83) Anh ten g ?

Neu vay, ten ay phai gi chc nang giong ong t heien trong tieng
c. Tuy nhien, cach hoi thong thng nhat cua ngi Viet van la:

(84) Anh ten la g ?

Phan tch cau theo kieu tieng Anh, cau hoi ay co the b coi la quai an, van
pham sai qua: You what is the name ?. The nhng ngi Viet van dung ma
chang thay g la sai ca. Chung ta se lam ro van e nay qua nguyen tac e dien
sau ay.

S. Tnb dc dicn

nhieu ngon ng Au chau, hien tng chu ng khong tng ng vi v t (ong
t, tnh t) trong cau t xay ra hn so vi tieng Viet. oi vi ngi Viet, khi bat
au muon dien ta ieu g, ho se ngh ngay en mot oi tng. oi tng co the
la mot ngi gay ra hanh ong, tc mot tac nhan (actor). Loai oi tng nay
c coi la chu the logic (logical subject). oi tng cung co the la mot chu e
(theme). Loai oi tng nay c goi la chu the tam ly (psychological
subject). Hoac oi tng chnh la chu the trong cau. Loai nay c goi la chu
the ng phap (grammatical subject) hay chu ng ng phap (Halliday
1994:32). Co chu the, ngi ta se tm cach dien giai. Dien giai la s thuyet minh,
s nh ngha, mieu ta, giai thch, bo sung y ngha cho cai muon noi hoac gii
thieu phan thong bao cua khi iem ay. Hay tam goi ay la nguyen tac e
Dien (Theme-Rheme). Mot v du, tng t nh cau Anh ten la g ?, ngi
Viet con hay hoi:

(85) Anh nha au ?
(86) Anh que au ?
(87) Anh ngi nc nao ?
(88) Anh ngi g ?

Chu the tam ly ay la nhan vat anh, tc chu the muon noi. o la oi tng
trc nhat phai co. Ke tiep, ngi noi se lap them mot cau, menh e, thanh to
36


(tam hieu la mot cum t noi c) theo sau e noi them ve oi tng o nh
mot hnh thc bo ngha. Nha, que ay c coi nh chu the ng phap.

e phan biet gia hai phan chu e va dien giai, ngi Viet thng dung th,
la, ma. V du oi vi cau hoi Anh ngi nc nao ?, vi:

(89) Anh la phan chu e.
(90) Ngi nc nao la phan dien giai.

Neu tra li: Ngi Viet Nam, ta co cau Toi ngi Viet Nam ma chung ta van
thng nghe. Hoac neu dung ch la noi hai phan nay lai, ta se co mot cau
nguyen ven:

(91) Anh la ngi nc nao ?

Tra li:

(92) Toi la ngi Viet Nam.

La gi chc nang phan phan chu e va phan dien giai. Tng t la th:

(93) Tham th tham.

Noi chung, ay la cau truc e dien rat tieu bieu trong tieng Viet. Ch v ngi
Viet thng hay bo th, la, ma, cho nen chung ta mi kho nhan ra cau truc
chuan hnh cua cau. ac biet la gii van th co the do khong hieu th, la,
ma dung e lam g, ho thng hay bo. Mat khac, ho cung co ly rieng: cau co
th nghe nang qua, thoi bo.

Tren thc te, cau truc ... th ... la khong xa la g vi chung ta cho lam:

(94) Theo cho toi biet th co ay la ngi Viet ch khong phai ngi Hoa.
(95) Phai quen th mi biet co ay la ngi Viet.
(96) The th co ay khong phai la ngi ma toi muon noi.

T th rat thng b lc bo:

(97) at lanh chim au.

37
Giai thch cho co cau cu han hoi, th cau tren co ngha:

(98) at co lanh th chim mi au.

V cau tuc ng qua ngan, khong co mat th, nen chung ta kho nhan ra cai ranh
gii gia chu e at lanh va phan dien giai chim au. mot trng hp
khac, neu khong lc bo th, chung ta se de nhan ra cau truc cua no:

(99) Gan mc th en, gan en th sang.

Cau tuc ng tren cha hai menh e. Trong menh e au, gan mc la phan e,
en la phan dien. Trong menh e sau,gan en la phan e, sang la phan
dien. Ngi sang che ra cau tuc ng tren a khong the lc bo th, bi neu bo
i, ta se c mot y ngha nam ngoai y muon:

(100) Gan mc en, gan en sang.

Tu trung, ngi Viet ch co the lc bo cac dien t th, la, ma, neu ng
ngha cua li noi khong b ton thng.

Ngoai cac trng hp va neu, chu the tam ly cung thng ng trc mot
cau/menh e:

(101) Con be Thu no khong chu an cm.

Con be Thu la chu the tam ly, trong khi o no la chu ng ng phap cua cau
no khong chu an cm. Ca oan dien giai ve oi tng con be Thu c coi
nh mot hnh thc bo ngha/phu ngha
4)
. Trong trng hp nay, ngi Viet khong
dung th, la, ma v ranh gii gia phan e va dien a kha ro rang. No
ch la s lap lai nham ch nh con be Thu.

Co nhieu trng hp khong thch s dung th, la, ma, ngi viet se thay
vao o bang mot dau phay:

(102) Nga, con ong phu ho Le.
(La ngoc canh vang Nguyen Cong Hoan)

4)
bo ngha va phu ngha khac nhau, se giai thch cac chng sau.
38


Dau phay co cong dung phan gii gia hai phan: e va dien. Nga la phan e.
Con ong phu ho Le la phan dien. Dau phay thay the cho la trong cau Nga
la con ong phu ho Le. Th phan tch cac bai viet cua cac nha van hay dung dau
phay th se thay. Thay v dung dau phay trong van viet, khi noi, ngi ta ngng
lai mot chut.

Nguyen tac e dien la mot ac iem de nhan thay trong tieng Viet, song - nh
a noi - khong phai ch co ngi Viet mi hanh ngon theo nguyen tac nay. Hau
het cac dan toc khac cung hanh ngon nh the ch co ieu la co the bang hnh
thc khac. V du ngi Anh thng dung cau che (cleft sentence)
5)
:

(103) It was I who knocked at your door.

It was I la phan e. Who knocked at your door la phan dien. Cung bi v
nh a noi cau cu cua tieng Anh khong chap nhan s thieu vang cua chu ng
ng phap, cho nen ngi ta phai a it vao lam chu ng cho ong t was,
ong thi dung who ai dien cho I (tc chu the logic). Chu ng who lam
chu phan ong t knocked. Phan dien Who knocked at your door co chc
nang bo ngha cho phan e. Phan nay bat buoc phai co, ch khong se khong ai
hieu c It was I co lien quan en viec g.

Cau truc cau tren khong phai la mot cau truc thong dung cua tieng c. Thay v
the, muon bo ngha oi tng vi mot hnh thc na na vay, ngi c thng
dung menh e phu (subordinate clause)
6)
:

(104) Das Haus, in dem Sie wohnen, ist geisterhaft.
(Cai nha) (trong o) (ba) () (th) (co ma quy)
(105) Cai nha ba ang co ma.

Menh e phu in dem Sie wohnen la mot hnh thc ch nh das Haus (cai
nha). Hoac bang mot hnh thc khac:

(106) Der Abend wiegte schon die Erde,
Und an den Bergen hing die Nacht.
(Goethe)

5)
xem chi tiet cac chng sau.
6)
se giai thch sau.
39
Tam dch:

Chieu toi ong a mat at,
Va ben nui, em treo.

oi tng trong cau th th hai ma Goethe muon dien ta la nhng ngon nui b
man em che phu. e phan ngc cau au mang thai chu ong (active voice),
Goethe muon cau sau mang thai b ong (passive voice). Neu lap cau ai khai
nh nui b man em che phu th d qua. Va lai Goethe muon chon mot ong t
mang tnh tnh hing (treo) e oi lai ong t mang tnh ong cua cau au
wiegte (u a, ong a, ru ngu). Thay v dung trang thai b ong e oi lai
trang thai chu ong, Goethe at oi tng nui vao mot ng oan gii t
(prepositional phrase)
7)
an den Bergen (ben nui) roi dien ta tiep bang oan
hing die Nacht (em treo).

Noi tom lai, e-Dien la mot cach thc dien at rat pho bien cua ngi Viet.
Nhieu ngi ngoai quoc hoc tieng Viet do khong quen cach ng dung nay cua
ngi Viet, cho nen cach hanh ngon cua ho oi vi ngi Viet nhieu khi nghe
khong c t nhien cho lam. Ch can giai thch cho ho hieu ro nguyen tac nay
la ho a nam bat c phan ln cach noi giong nh ngi Viet.

Nguyen tac e dien la mot e tai kha thu v a c nhieu ngi nghien cu.
Tieu bieu la cac cong trnh ve Ng phap chc nang (Functional Grammar) cua
Halliday (1994).

Tu trung, moi dan toc eu co cach nhn va mo ta oi tng khac nhau, song
muc ch cuoi cung van la lam sao mo ta cho c oi tng bang mot hnh thc
hanh ngon nao o. Du khac biet the nao i na, ngon ng van khong bat nh,
ke ca s oi thay cua no theo thi gian ma chung ta se thay chng sau.

7)
se giai thch sau.
40


Choong 3

S| 1HAY DOl C|A NCON NC|

T ng cua mot ngon ng co the thay oi nhanh chong theo a phat trien cua
khoa hoc, xa hoi, t duy. Con ngi can t e bieu th oi tng. Co oi tng
trc kia cha tng co, en luc no xuat hien, ngi ta se tm cach at cho no mot
cai ten. Ngay xa cha co cac phng tien Internet, Computer, Hardware,
Software, ... en khi phat minh ra c nhng th ay, ngi ta mi at ten, t o
mi co them nhng t mi cho nhng khai niem ay.

Co the noi, t mi xuat hien ngay cang nhieu. D nhien cung co nhieu t a loi
thi, khong con thong dung.

Ng phap cua mot ngon ng cung thay oi theo thi gian nhng khong qua
nhanh chong nh t ng. ieu nay khong co g kho hieu, bi cau truc ng phap
phan anh cai nhan dien va nhan thc t nhien cua con ngi ve oi tng muon
dien ta hoac a c quy c. Trat t cua he thong nay khong the thay oi lien
mien, tuy cam hng. Lay tieng c lam v du, gi bat ky mot tac pham nao a
c viet cach ay may tram nam ve trc ra oc, ngi oc van nhan thay
rang, cau truc ng phap xa cua tieng c khong khac ng phap ngay hom nay
cho lam. V du mot oan th cua Schiller gi Goethe ke ve kch pham Maria
Stuart cua mnh:

Ich werde Ihnen, wenn Sie hier sind, einige tragische Stoffe, von freier
Erfindung, vorlegen, um nicht in der ersten Instanz, in dem Gegenstande, einen
Migriff zu tun. Neigung und Bedrfnis ziehen mich zu einem frei phantasierten,
nicht historischen, und zu einem blo leidenschaftlichen und menschlichen Stoff,
denn Soldaten, Helden und Herrscher habe ich vor jetzt herzlich satt (Trch th
Schiller gi Goethe, 19.03.1799, Nxb. Reclam 1986)

Ng phap tieng c ma Schiller a dung cach ay hai the ky van y het nh ng
phap bay gi.

41

CH|ONC 3 S| 1HAY DOl C|A NCON NC|

Hoac mot oan th th (Brief-Gedicht) cua Goethe gi cho nhom ban Riese
Frankfurt nam 1766, luc Goethe 16 tuoi:

Da sah ich erst, da mein erhabener Flug,
Wie er mir schien, nichts war als das Bemhn
Des Wurms im Staube, der den Adler sieht
Zur Sonn sich schwingen und wie der hinauf ...
(Reclam 1967)

Ng phap cua Goethe dung cach ay gan 250 nam ve trc khong khac ng
phap ngay hom nay.

Khong ke nhng co ng nh tieng Phan, tieng La tinh, la nhng ngon ng co,
song nhieu ngon ng ngay nay, song va song manh, chang han nh tieng Anh,
ng phap cung khong thay oi nhieu bang s bung no t ng. Cac ngon ng Au
chau khac (Phap, Tay Ban Nha, Y, ...) tng t vay.

The con ng phap tieng Viet ?

Giong moi ngon ng khac tren the gii, ng phap tieng Viet cung khong thay oi
nhanh chong nh s phat trien cua t. The nhng so vi toc o thay oi ng phap
cua cac ngon ng khac, cha chac tieng Viet a cham hn va ieu o cung
khong co ngha la tch cc.

Sau ay, chung ta hay th xem s thay oi ng phap tieng Viet bang cach khao
sat mot vai van ban xa va nay, van viet cung nh van noi. Cu the, hay chon
mot vai van ban tieu bieu cua Ly Thng Kiet (the ky 11), Nguyen Trai (the ky
14-15), Ho Xuan Hng (the ky 18), Nguyen Du (the ky 18), Le Quy on (the ky
18), Nguyen Cong Tr (the ky 19), Tran Te Xng (the ky 19), Tran Trong Kim
(the ky 20). Xin lu y, chung ta se khong dung ly thuyet e phan tch ng phap,
bi ieu nay oi hoi rat nhieu kien thc ve ly thuyet ng phap ma chng nay
cha the i vao chi tiet. Thay v the, chung ta dung phng phap so sanh cach
hanh ngon. Muc ch cua viec so sanh la e chung ta co cam giac, o la ng
phap cua tieng Viet, du a trai qua nhieu the ky song van khong co nhieu thay
oi. Cach hanh ngon van mang nhng ac iem cua tieng Viet a c e cap
chng trc. Nhng ac iem nay xuat hien ro nhat trong cac van ban ch Nom
c dch sang ch Quoc Ng.

42


Phan tch xong tieng Viet ngay xa, chung ta se xet en tieng Viet ngay nay. Do
ieu kien lch s, cau truc t nhieu g cung a chu anh hng cua ngon ng Au
chau. Thay v xac nh chnh xac, tieng Viet a b anh hng t ben ngoai en
o nao, bao nhieu phan tram, chung ta cung se da vao cac ac iem cua tieng
Viet e so sanh s khac biet gia cach hanh ngon cua ngi Viet va cach hanh
ngon cua cac dan toc khac. Hay chon tieng Anh va tieng c lam v du.

TIENG VIET XA

Ly Thng Kiet (1019-1105): Nam 1077, Ly Thng Kiet a cho ra i ban
tuyen ngon oc lap au tien trong lch s dan toc Viet: Nam Quoc Sn Ha.
Tng truyen rang, bai th a c oc len ngay cuoc chien gia quan ai Viet
va may chuc van quan Tong do Quach Quy ch huy tren tran tuyen song Nh
Nguyet (khuc song Cau thuoc huyen Yen Phong, tnh Ha Bac ngay nay).

Nam Quoc Sn Ha Ly Thng Kiet, 1077 (ban Han). (Tai lieu: Trang Van
Hoa Viet Nam, www.vhvn.com)

Ban Han:
Nam Quoc sn ha Nam e c
Tiet nhien nh phan tai thien th
Nh ha nghch lo lai xam pham ?
Nh ang hanh khan thu bai h !

43

Ban dch:
Song nui nc Nam vua Nam
Ranh ranh nh phan tai sach tri
C sao lu giac sang xam pham ?
Chung bay se b anh ti bi !

So sanh ban chnh (Han) vi ban dch (Viet), chung ta thay, cau truc ng phap
cua hai van ban gan giong nhau. iem nay tng oi de nhan thay qua cach oi
chieu v tr cua moi t trong cau:

(107) Nam Quoc sn ha Nam e c. (Ban Han)
(nc Nam) (song nui) (vua Nam) ()

(108) Song nui nc Nam vua Nam . (Ban Viet)

Nam Quoc dch thanh nc Nam. Cach dch nay ung kieu Viet Nam bi v
trong ng phap tieng Viet, danh t c them ngha ben tay phai (right
attributed). Nc c t Nam nam ben phai bo sung y ngha. Trong khi o,
cau truc ng phap cua tieng Han ngc lai, Nam ng trc Quoc, tc ben
trai, thanh ra Nam Quoc. Tng t vay, Nam e c dch thanh vua
Nam, sn ha c dch thanh song nui. cac cau con lai, khong khac.

Nhan xet: Bon cau th cho thay cach hanh van vao nam 1077 khong qua xa la
oi vi ngi Viet hom nay.

Nguyen Trai (1380 - 1442): Quoc Am Thi Tap cua Nguyen Trai gom co 254 bai
th Nom. Trong o co sau bai th hoa ao c lam theo loi thu vy lien hoan
cach (lay y trong cau cuoi bai lam y cau au bai ke). Ch Nom ghi theo ban goc
Phuc Yen, mua Thu nam T c Mau Thn. Le Van ang (Vien Viet Hoc,
www.viethoc.com) dch sang Quoc Ng. Quoc Am Thi Tap la ban van ch Nom
c xem nh xa nhat van ton tai ti ngay nay. ay la mot van ban rat quan
trong va rat quy cho viec khao cu ve lch s tieng Viet.

44


Hoa ao Thi

1
Mot oa ao hoa kha tot ti
Canh xuan mn mn thay xuan ci
ong phong at co tnh hay na
Kn tien mui hng de ong ngi

2
ong ngi hoa kheo to tinh than
t bi v hoa, t bi xuan
De s chim xanh ng chuoc loi
Bu tr a co kh hong quan

3
Kh hong quan hay sa tai qua
Ch phu xuan nay ch phu hoa
Hoa co y th xuan co y
au au cung mot kh dng hoa

4
Kh dng hoa ha co t ai
Nang mot hoa nay nhan moi loai
Tnh ke chn con ba thang na
Kp xuan ma e ma ao phai

5
Ma ao phai het bi xuan qua
Neu lai am th lien luong hoa
Yen s Dao tr a co hen
Ch cho Phng Soc en lan la

6
Phng Soc lan la a h c
Ba phen trom c ha tnh c
Co ai m hoi tien Vng Mau
Tin kha tin th ng kha ng

Hoa ao Thi Nguyen Trai. (Tai lieu: Vien Viet Hoc, www.viethoc.com)

So vi bai Nam Quoc Sn Ha cua Ly Thng Kiet, ta cam thay ng phap cua
Nguyen Trai trong bai Hoa ao Thi oc co ve gan gui vi chung ta hn, du o
la loai ng phap cach ay hn 5 the ky (the ky 14-15). Cang gan gui na la ng
45

phap tieng Viet cua Ho Xuan Hng (the ky 18), cung khong khac xa ng phap
tieng Viet bay gi cho lam:

Ho Xuan Hng (1706-1783): anh u

Bon cot khen ai kheo kheo trong
Ngi th len anh, ke ngoi trong
Trai u goi hac khom khom cat
Gai uon lng ong nga nga long.
Bon manh quan hong bay phap phi,
Hai hang chan ngoc duoi song song.
Chi xuan a biet xuan chang ta ?
Coc nho i roi, lo bo khong !

Hoac Vnh Banh Troi c dch t nguyen ban ch Nom sang ch Quoc Ng:

Bang ch Nom Vnh Banh Troi - Ho Xuan Hng. (Tai lieu: L'oeuvre de la poetesse
vietnamienne Ho Xuan Hng, Maurice Durand. EFEO, 1968, p. 155)

Than em th trang phan em tron
Bay noi ba chm vi nc non
Dan nat mac dau tay ke nan
Ma em van gi tam long son
(Vnh banh troi Ho Xuan Hng)

46


Nguyen Du (1765-1820): Ng phap tieng Viet cua Nguyen Du cung khong lam
cho ngi Viet ngay nay b ng:

Tram nam trong coi ngi ta,
Ch tai ch menh kheo la ghet nhau.
Trai qua mot cuoc be dau,
Nhng ieu trong thay ma au n long.
La g b sac t phong,
Tri xanh quen thoi ma hong anh ghen.
Cao thm lan gi trc en,
Phong tnh co luc con truyen s xanh ...

o la cach dung ng phap trong th, nay hay th xem trong van xuoi the nao.

Mot vai v du van viet va van noi trong tac pham ai Viet Thong S cua Le
Quy on (1759) do dch gia Le Cong Lieu (1973) dch lai. Co nhng oan viet
ve trieu Le (quyen 1):

Van viet:

Thai To Thng [t 7a]: Vuy Thai To, thuy hieu << Thong Thien khai van thanh
c than cong due van anh vu khoan minh dung tr hoang ngha tr
nhan ai hieu Cao Hoang e >>. Vua ho Le, ten huy la Li, ngi Lam Giang,
huyen Lng giang, phu Thanh Hoa. Cu Tang To cua vua ten huy la Hoi, sau truy
ton la Cao Thng to Minh Hoang e. Tnh cu chat phac ngay thang, gi
mnh nh ngi ngu, nhng hieu biet rat sau xa, co the biet trc nhng s cha
thanh hanh. [t 7b]: Nguyen trc thon Nh Ang, mot hom, cu i chi, thay an
chim lieng vong quanh tren mot khoang at ni di nui Lam Sn, trong hnh nh
mot am ngi tu hoi. Cu t ngh: Cho nay tat la ni at lanh, ben di nha en
ay, roi khai pha ruong vn, t cham lo cay cay, c 3 nam, tr thanh mot
san nghiep, t ay, i i eu la hung trng mot phng. Sau nay vua dng o
m nc, thc cung co can c t ay vay.

Ngay Hoang e sanh th trong nha co hao quang o chieu sang rc, va mui thm
ngao ngat khap lang. [t 8b]: Khi ln tuoi, ngai thong minh dung lc, o lng
hn ngi, ve ngi ti ep hung v, mat sang mom rong; song mui cao, xng
my mat go len; ba vai ben ta co 7 not ruoi, bc i nh rong nh ho; tieng noi
vang vang nh tieng chuong. Cac bac thc gia biet ngay la mot ngi phi thng

47

Van noi:

Mot oan viet ve Lng Nh Hot khai bao vi nha Minh ve hoat ong cua Le
Li:

[t 10b]: ...Ngi chu Lam Sn chieu nap nhng ke vong mang, va ai ngo s
tot rat hau, ch cua ngi ay khong phai la nho. Neu khong sm tnh i, e cho
con rong co luc gap may gap ma, th khi ay no se khong con la mot con vat trong
ao na au. Vay xin tr ngay i, ng e lu tai va ve sau nay.

Mot oan viet ve Le Li hoi cac tng s:

[t 11b]: ... Co ai dam bat chc viec Ky Tn thi xa khong ?

Mot oan viet ve Le Li sai hai tng Trnh Kha va Le Loi mang thong iep
sang Vng Quoc Lao, doa se anh neu khong nap lng thc, vu kh va voi cho
quan Le Li:

[t 12a]: ... Quoc gia toi phung th thong iep cua trieu ai Minh ban cho nha
vua. Vay nha vua hay em so lng thc u quan s dung trong 5 thang, va kh
gii cung voi tran ti yet kien, roi nhan t iep van ve thi hanh, e khoi phai bat
giai. Neu khong tuan menh, lap tc sai nc Xa Ly va Lao Qua hp quan 6 nc
tien anh.

Mot oan viet ve Le Li ban vi cac tng s:

[t 15b]: ... Hien tnh, ben ch nhieu quan, ben ta th t, ben ch hanh quan vat va, ma
ben ta th quan s c thanh thi. Binh phap co cau noi rang: S thang ch cot tng
gioi, ch khong quan he so quan nhieu hay t. Nay chung ta tuy nhieu quan, nhng ta
dung quan c thanh thi anh quan vat va, nhoc met, th tat pha c

Gia nh dch gia dch ung, th ng phap Le Quy on dung cho van viet va van
noi xa kia cung khong xa la g may oi vi ngi Viet ngay hom nay.

Xem them mot vai v du na:

Bai ta bang Han van do Bui Ky va Tran Trong Kim dch va in au quyen
Kim Van Kieu, Vnh Hng long th quan, Ha Noi, 1925:

Trong tri at a co ngi tai tnh tuyet the, tat the nao cung co viec kham kha
bat bnh. Tai ma khong c gap g, tnh ma khong c ha he, o la cai can
48


nguyen cua oan trng vay. The ma lai co ke thng tiec tai tnh, xem thay
viec, trong thay ngi th con nhn the nao c ma khong th than ren r !

Ngha la bac thanh mi quen c tnh, bac ngu khong hieu ti tnh, tnh chung
chu vao au, chnh la chung chu vao bon chung ta vay. Cho nen pham ngi a t
tnh tat la khong co tai, ch na loa na sang, song chet trong vong ao mu, trong
cuoc no say, du co gap cai canh thanh nha nh hoa thm buoi sang, trang to ban
em, cung ch tr tr nh cay co, nh chim ca vay.

[...]

Thang hai nam Canh Th nien hieu Minh Menh (*), viet Than hoa hien at Hac
giang. Tien phong Mong Lien ng chu nhan

(*): Tai lieu cua Sai Phi th trang co ghi ro: Thang hai nien hieu Minh-menh nam
au (1820).

Nguyen Cong Tr (1778-1858): Vnh Canh Ngheo

Chang phai rang ngay chang phai an
Bi v nha kho hoa ban than.
May i thay kien ma thua meo,
Ngh phan thang ngheo phai biet than.
...

Tran Te Xng (1870-1907): i Thi T Vnh

Tap tenh ngi i t cung i,
Cung leu, cung chong, cung vo thi.
Tien chan, co mat ba ong le;
S bung, thay khong mot ch g.
...

a lt qua vai v du, han chung ta ai cung co cam giac rang, ng phap tieng
Viet ngay xa khong khac ngay hom nay cho lam. Vi tham nang ngon ng,
ngi Viet co the nhan ra ngay o la cach hanh ngon cua ngi Viet ch khong
phai cua ngi Anh, ngi c, ngi Phap. Co la chang la tac gia dung nhieu
ch co, hoac trong cau cu, nhat la the van xuoi, th, la, ma khong b tnh
lc nhieu. Mat khac, cach dung ng phap cua nhieu tac gia khong khac nhau
nhieu. Ly do nay cung de hieu bi cach hanh van cha nhieu ac iem tieu bieu
49

cua tieng Viet. Chung ta se kiem chng lai di ay them lan na. ieu nay
quan trong, bi can nhan dien ro cai can cc cua tieng Viet trc khi dung ly
thuyet e so sanh vi cac ngon ng khac. Ch khi a nam bat c nhng ac
iem cua tieng Viet, chung ta mi hy vong hieu c tai sao nhng ly thuyet
cua ngon ng hoc hien ai co the giai thch thanh cong cac ngon ng khac nhng
lai gap kho khan vi tieng Viet trong nhieu trng hp.

1. Tnb t|nb ticn

Co the noi, cach phan anh oi tng cua ngi xa kha gan bo vi nguyen tac
tnh tien. Nguyen tac tnh tien hien ra trong cach hanh ngon nh mot hnh thc
sao chep lai cach nhan dien va nhan thc cua con ngi ve mot oi tng ang
c e y ti. Trnh t nay quyet nh trat t cua t ng trong chuoi t c noi
ra. Neu xem s mo ta mot oi tng nh mot tieu iem, ta co the co nhieu ket
qua xuyen qua nhieu cach at cau hoi hu ly khac nhau. Song chac chac se co
mot ket qua thoa mot cau hoi, ngha la thoa nguyen tac tnh tien. V du:

(1) Song nui nc Nam vua Nam .
(Ly Thng Kiet)

Khi nghe cau nay, ngi nghe co the at cau hoi bang nhieu cach khac nhau:

(2) Hoi: Song nui the nao ?
(3) Tra li: Song nui hung v va th mong.

hoac:

(4) Hoi: Song nui au ?
(5) Tra li: Song nui nc Nam.

The nhng tac gia a t chon mot cau hoi hu ly khac va tra li:

(6) Hoi: Song nui nao ?
(7) Tra li: Song nui nc Nam.

Tng t vay:

(8) Hoi: Song nui nc Nam the nao ?
50


(9) Tra li: Song nui nc Nam vua Nam .

Tnh tnh tien cung xuat hien trong nhng cau cau th con lai cua Ly Thng
Kiet:

(10) Ranh ranh nh phan tai sach tri.
(11) C sao lu giac sang xam pham ?
(12) Chung bay se b anh ti bi !

Tnh tnh tien cung xuat hien trong th Nguyen Trai. Tac gia Le Van ang a
dch 1-1 t Nom sang Quoc Ng, bao am sao ung ng phap cua van ban goc.
oc th hai cau au cua Hoa ao Thi:

(13) Mot oa ao hoa kha tot ti
Canh xuan mn mn thay xuan ci

Th kiem chng lai nhng cach at cau hoi hu ly sau ay:

Hoi: Mot oa g ?
Tra li: Mot oa ao hoa.

Chung ta thay, giong Ly Thng Kiet, Nguyen Trai cung b nhiem Han phan
nao. Cau truc cua cum t ao hoa la cau truc Han; thuan Viet phai la hoa
ao: Mot oa hoa ao.

Hoi: Mot oa ao hoa ra sao ?
Tra li: Mot oa ao hoa kha tot ti.
V.v.

Sau nhieu the ky, tnh tnh tien khong bien mat ma van ton tai trong ngon ng.
Ho Xuan Hng cung co cung cach lap cau tnh tien giong nh Ly Thng Kiet,
Nguyen Trai, tham ch con thuan Viet hn na, v Ho Xuan Hng khong dung
cau truc Han:

(14) Trai u goi hac khom khom cat.
Gai uon lng ong nga nga long.
Bon manh quan hong bay phap phi,
Hai hang chan ngoc duoi song song.

51

Th kiem chng lai nhng cach at cau hoi hu ly sau ay:

Hoi: Trai the nao ?
Tra li: Trai u goi hac khom khom cat.
Hoi: Gai lam sao ?
Tra li: Gai uon lng ong nga nga long.
Hoi: Bon cai g ?
Tra li: Bon manh quan hong.
Hoi: Bon manh quan hong the nao ?
Tra li: Bon manh quan hong bay phap phi.
Hoi: Hai hang g ?
Tra li: Hai hang chan ngoc
Hoi: Hai hang chan ngoc the nao ?
Tra li: Hai hang chan ngoc duoi song song.

Nh mot tro chi, chung ta co the xet nhng cau khac cung bang cach at cau
hoi va tra li y the. He thay cau truc cau hoi va cau tra li giong nhau th ay
chnh la cach lap cau tnh tien. The nhng nen lu y - nh a noi - la ch co the
kiem chng tnh tnh tien bang cach lay ra mot cau tra li co san roi xem cau tra
li ay i t cau hoi nao.

2. Tnb giao tbong tin co tbc

Tnh giau thong tin cu the trong hoat ong ngon ng cua ngi Viet a xuat hien
t xa ch khong phai gan ay mi thay. Hien tng mo ta t m ve mot oi
tng theo ngon ng hoc hien ai Au chau co the dien ra vi 3 hnh thc (se
c noi ro hn cac chng sau):

dung bo ng (complement) e bo sung them ngha y ngha can thiet cho
oi tng can c dien giai.
dung phu ng (adjunct) e phu them ngha cho oi tng nhng khong bat
buoc.
dung biet nh ng (specifier) e ch nh tnh chat ca biet cua oi tng
ay.

Xem th mot cau kha dai cua Le Quy on mo ta ve Le Li:

52


Khi ln tuoi, ngai thong minh dung lc, o lng hn ngi, ve ngi ti ep
hung v, mat sang mom rong; song mui cao, xng my mat go len; ba vai ben ta
co 7 not ruoi, bc i nh rong nh ho; tieng noi vang vang nh tieng chuong. Cac
bac thc gia biet ngay la mot ngi phi thng

Cach mo ta chi tiet ve mot oi tng theo kieu Viet Nam nay rat kho dch sang
ngon ng Au chau ch bang mot cau duy nhat. V du nh trong tieng c, muon
mo ta chi tiet nh vay, ngi ta phai dung nhieu lien t (conjunction) und
(va) e noi tng thong tin mot thay v dung dau phay nh ngi Viet. ng
nhien cung co trng hp ho dung dau phay, nhng cach hanh van vi qua nhieu
yeu to phu/bo ngha nay, ho khong quen; va lai dung qua nhieu und, und,
und, ... se lam cau noi tr nen rm ra, n ieu, khong hay lam. Thay v vay,
ho chia ra tng cau nho hoac dung menh e phu e noi them ve oi tng muon
dien ta. Hoac ho dung mot cum tnh t, hoac menh e nh mot hnh thc tnh t
at trc mot danh t, the nhng o phc tap cung co gii han. Nhn chung, cach
mo ta nay khong pho bien trong thc te dung tieng c. Trong cac tieng Au
chau khac co le cung the.

Cau sau cung khong khac, cha nhieu thong tin ve oi tng:

The ma lai co ke thng tiec tai tnh, xem thay viec, trong thay ngi th con
nhn the nao c ma khong th than ren r

Ch co mot chu the ke thoi ma lai co nhieu v ng (predicate phrase) (tam thi
hieu nom na la phan ong t + bo ng (tuc t), se c noi ro sau). Tng v ng
c tach ra bang dau phay. Ke ay la mot nhan vat xa nay thng c
goi la chu t:

(15) thng tiec tai tnh
(16) xem thay viec
(17) trong thay ngi th con nhn the nao c ma khong th than ren r

3. Tnb tnb Iooc

Xem cach s ng dung phap cua ngi xa, chung ta con thay ca hien tung
lc t (giong ngay nay). Tnh tnh lc thng thay trong cac the th co luat.

(18) S bung, thay khong (co) mot ch g.
(i Thi T Vnh - Tran Te Xng)
53

Co b lc bo. ung ra la thay khong co. ong t co oi hoi mot bo ng
(tc tuc t trc tiep nh thng goi).

(19) Than em th trang, phan em (th) tron.
(Vnh cai quat Ho Xuan Hng)

Loi noi tnh lc nay la mot hnh thc ng dung (pragmatic), o, mot t nam
trong menh e theo sau thng b lc bo v a nam trong menh e pha trc.
ung ra la phan em th tron. Nhng th a xuat hien menh e than em
th trang pha trc, cho nen bo c. Cung co trng hp, Ho Xuan Hng
khong lc t:

(20) Hai ben th nui, gia th song.
(Kem Trong Ho Xuan Hng)

Trong th, do so ch b the th gii han mot cach nghiem ngat khien tac gia
khong the tuan thu ung ng phap, song trong van xuoi, hien tng tnh lc van
xay ra du khong qua pho bien nh ngay nay. Vai v du trong ai Viet Thong S
cua Le Quy on:

(21) ... Hien tnh, ben ch (th/co) nhieu quan, ben ta th t.
(22) Neu khong tuan menh, (chung toi se) lap tc sai nc Xa Ly va Lao Qua
hp quan 6 nc tien anh.

4. Tnb cam dc

Lc t lam cau mat thong tin, khien ngi nghe phai hieu ngam:

(23) Neu khong tuan menh, lap tc sai nc Xa Ly va Lao Qua hp quan 6
nc tien anh.

Cau tren cua Le Quy on muon dien ta rang, neu vng quoc Lao khong tuan
theo menh lenh cua Le Li, lap tc Le Li se sai nc Xa Ly va Lao Qua hp
quan 6 nc tien anh nc Lao ngay. cho trong ay, ngi nghe phai hieu
ngam la chung toi, mot ngoai chu the khong co mat trong cau, mot thanh to
zero (se noi sau).

54


5. Tnb dc dicn

Nguyen tac e dien cua tieng Viet a xuat hien vao the ky th 11 qua Nam
Quoc Sn Ha:

(24) Song nui nc Nam vua Nam .
(Nam Quoc Sn Ha Nam e c)

Cau tren co the hieu la:

(25) Song nui nc Nam th vua Nam .

Chu e ay la Song nui nc Nam (v vay ma Nam Quoc Sn Ha con la ta
e cua bai th ). Song nui nc Nam con c dien giai them bang nhng cau
th ke tiep:

(26) Ranh ranh nh phan tai sach tri.
(Tiet nhien nh phan tai thien th)

Ngha la: Song nui nc Nam ro rang a c sach tri quyet nh ni chon
o.

(27) C sao lu giac sang xam pham ?
(Nh ha nghch lo lai xam pham ?)

Xam pham c hieu la xam pham song nui nc Nam. Va cuoi cung la li
canh cao, neu xam pham nc Nam:

(28) Chung bay se b anh ti bi
(Nh ang hanh khan thu bai h)

Co the trong th Ly Thng Kiet, chung ta cha thay ro ranh gii gia phan e
va phan dien, the nhng trong th Ho Xuan Hng, ranh gii cua cau truc e
dien hien ra kha ro qua cach phan oan bang th, la:

(29) Ngi th len anh, ke ngoi trong.
(30) Than em th trang phan em tron.
(31) Tat ca nhng la thu vi ven.
(32) Chong con cai n la nh the.
55

Cac oi tng, tc chu e, can c dien giai la ngi, than em, tat ca
nhng, chong con cai n.

ac biet trong Kieu cua Nguyen Du, cau truc e dien co mat khap ni. Hai phan
e va dien c Nguyen Du phan biet rat chuan bang th, la, ma:

(33) Ben th may a may ngai,
Ben th ngoi bon nam ngi lang chi.
Gia th hng an han hoi,
Tren treo mot tng trang oi long may.
Lau xanh quen loi xa nay,
Nghe nay th lay ong nay tien s.
(34) Chang qua ong cot quang xien
Ngi au ma lai thay tren coi tran ?
(35) a em mnh ban ca tao,
Lai con khung khnh lam cao the nay !
Nao la gia phap no bay !
Hay cho ba chuc biet tay mot lan

Tat nhien cau truc e dien cung xuat hien trong van viet. Le Quy on a dien
ta ngay vua ra i nh sau:

(36) Ngay Hoang e sanh th trong nha co hao quang o chieu sang rc, va
mui thm ngao ngat khap lang.

oan ngay Hoang e sanh la phan e. oan theo sau la phan dien.

Hoac:

(37) Vua ho Le, ten huy la Li, ngi Lam Giang, huyen Lng giang, phu
Thanh Hoa.

Trong cau nay, vua la phan e, nhng oan con lai la phan dien giai ve vua.
Bi thieu ch th, thanh ra hi kho phan biet. Neu lc bo ho Le va huy
hai oan au, chung ta se c mot cau quen thuoc ma ngay nay ngi Viet van
hay dung:

(38) Vua ten la Li.

56


Vua chnh la chu the tam ly. Ten la chu ng ng phap. Tng t vay:

(39) Cu Tang To cua vua ten huy la Hoi.

Cu Tang To cua vua la phan e, oan con lai la phan dien (ten huy la Hoi).
Lc bo huy, ta co:

(40) Cu Tang To cua vua ten la Hoi.

Cu Tang To cua vua la chu the tam ly.

TIENG VIET NAY

a khao sat s quat ve ng phap tieng Viet xa, vay, tieng Viet ngay hom nay
the nao ? Co mot ieu co the tien oan c la ng phap thay oi theo lch s.
Tat nhien. Xa hoi Viet Nam trong the ky 20 a thay oi rat nhieu. Ve ngon ng
noi rieng, tieng Viet a khong thoat khoi anh hng cua nhng ngon ng khac,
ang ke nhat la tieng Phap va tieng Anh.

Nhieu nha ngon ng hoc Viet Nam a bao ong rang, tieng Viet ngay nay a b
lai cau truc tieng Anh, tieng Phap kha nhieu. Phai tha nhan la ung, the nhng
kho co the xac nh c mc o tram trong cua s kien nay mot cach chnh
xac. Cau truc tieng Viet b lai chu yeu la qua hoat ong phien dch ngoai ng
sang tieng Viet, cung nh tac gia viet sach a b ng phap ngoai ng anh hng
nang ne. V du tac gia la ngi sinh song lau nam nc ngoai, s dung thanh
thao tieng ban x nhng lai t co c hoi s dung tieng Viet trong i song thng
ngay.

Khong the trach mot ngi la a i sao chep ca cau truc ng phap tieng Anh,
tieng Phap vao tieng Viet khi ngi ay khong hieu cau truc ng phap la g,
khong phan biet c cau truc ng phap cua hai ngon ng. S khac biet ng
phap noi len ac iem cua tng ngon ng. Lam sao con ngi co the nhan biet
c ngon ng cua mnh co ac iem nao, tinh hoa nao ma khong phai ngon ng
nao cung co ? Tu trung, nguyen do chnh khien cau truc tieng Viet b lai van la
do thieu kien thc tong quat ve ngon ng hoc, mot van e giao duc. Bi khong
c trang b nhng kien thc ngon ng can thiet, con ngi thng pham nhng
sai lam mot cach vo tnh trong sinh hoat ngon ng.
57

Chung ta khong the lap bang thong ke e cho thay bao nhieu pham tram ngi
Viet a b ng phap ngoai ng anh hng va bao nhieu phan tram cau truc ng
phap tieng Viet a b lai. Ch co mot cach duy nhat e moi ngi t kiem chng
la so sanh cach hanh ngon tieng Viet vi cach hanh ngon tieng nc ngoai. oi
vi nhng iem khac biet, tat nhien khong co g e noi, nhng oi vi nhng
iem tng ong, ngi so sanh phai co kha nang tra li cau hoi, cai cau truc
tng ong ay xa nay ngi Viet van dung hay la mi c du nhap sau nay.
e tra li, ngi so sanh phai van dung tham nang va dung nang ngon ng cua
mnh, ac biet la nen e y en nhng ac iem cua tieng Viet.

Sau ay, hay th so sanh tieng Viet vi tieng Anh va tieng c. Tieng Anh la
mot ngon ng tieu bieu cha tnh chat tuyen tnh va rat thong dung, ngc lai,
tieng c khong phai la mot ngon ng tuyen tnh tieu bieu. e so sanh cau truc
ngon ng cua hai trng hp ay, chung ta se dung phng phap dch 1-1, ngha
la dch sat tng t/cum t mot, nh co the.

Nh a biet, co rat nhieu dan toc tren the gii s dung nguyen tac e dien e
dien at ieu muon noi. Tuy nhien, loi dien at cua ho cha chac a hoan toan
giong loi dung th, la, ma cua ngi Viet. Chang han ngi c noi:

(41) Die Frau, die Sie zum Kaffee trinken eingeladen haben, ist meine Frau !
(42) Cai ba ma ong mi i uong ca phe la ba xa toi !

Dch theo noi dung la vay, song neu dch sat tng ch trong cau tieng c sang
tieng Viet, chung ta se c mot cau rat buon ci nh sau:

(43) * Cai ba, cai ong e ca phe uong mi a, la toi ba xa.

Cau nay ngan i ngi Viet khong the nao noi c, bat chc c. Hoac mot
cau tieng Anh:

(44) I must go and look at the house before I take it.

Neu dch cau tren nh sau, phai noi la ngi dch a sao chep y cau truc tieng
Anh vao tieng Viet:

(45) Toi phai i va xem cai nha trc khi toi lay no.
(I) (must) (go) (and) (look at) (the house) (before) (I) (take) (it)
58


Cau tieng Anh tren cung mang cau truc tuyen tnh, nhng neu dch 1-1 sang
tieng Viet nh the th ky qua. Nen nh rang, nhieu cau truc cau xac nh cua
tieng Anh rat giong cau truc cau xac nh cua tieng Viet, song nh the nao o
van khac. Thay v dch nh vay, van co cach dch de nghe hn:

(46) Toi phai i xem can nha ay trc khi thue (hoac mua).

Hien tng chuyen dch cau cu sat ngha thng thay the he tre Viet Nam sinh
ra va ln len hai ngoai. Khi s dung tieng Viet, cac em thng co tam ly lap
cau tieng nc ngoai trc roi sau o mi chuyen 1-1 sang tieng Viet. Gap v du
tren, nen cat ngha cho cac em hieu, thay v dung ong t mot cach ri rac,
ngi Viet co cach ghep 2 ong t lai vi nhau ma khong can lien t va. Thay
v noi i va xem (go and see), ngi Viet noi i xem. Ca ve mat ng dung
(pragmatic), cung can nen giai thch cho cac em hieu, ong t lay cua tieng
Viet khong phai la mot ong t rat thng dung cho danh t nha. Thay v vay,
co nhng cach dung tieu bieu nh mua nha, thue nha, ...

Co nhng trng hp dch hau nh 1-1 ma ngi dch tng rang ngi Viet nao
nghe cung lot lo tai, ien hnh la nhng cau b ong (passive sentence):

(47) My father was fined by the police.

ay la cach lap cau b ong bnh thng trong tieng Anh. Nhieu ngi hay dch
sat ch cau tren sang tieng Viet nh sau:

(48) Bo toi b phat bi cong an.

Cau nay b lai cau truc tieng Anh. C th kiem lai bang tnh tnh tien, ta se thay
khong ai at mot cau hoi kho chap nhan nh di ay:

(49) Bo toi b phat bi ai ?

Tren thc te, ngi Viet khong noi Bo toi b phat bi cong an ma la noi:

(50) Bo toi b cong an phat.

bi cach tra li nay mang tnh tnh tien chap nhan c. Xem tiep trng hp:

(51) Bo anh b g ?
59

T ay co nhieu cau tra li:

(52) Bo toi b benh (hoac that nghiep, phat, lng gat, v.v.)

Gia s b ai o lam cai g, ngi Viet se hoi:

(53) Bo anh b ai lam cai g ?

T ay mi co cau tra li tnh tien, v du:

(54) Bo toi b cong an phat.
(55) Bo toi b hang sa thai.
(56) Bo toi b ngi ta lng gat.

Thanh th khong ai noi:

(57) Bo toi b sa thai bi hang.
(58) Bo toi b lng gat bi ngi ta.

Tng t vay, ngi Viet khong noi:

(59) Ba b can bi cho.
(60) a con ut c cng chu bi bo me.
(61) Cuoc thi hoa hau c to chc bi hang nc hoa Chanel.
(62) Toi ac se b len an bi xa hoi.

ma la noi:

(63) Ba b cho can.
(64) a con ut c bo me cng chu.
(65) Cuoc thi hoa hau do hang nc hoa Chanel to chc.
(66) Toi ac se b xa hoi len an.

Gia nh cho, bo me, hang nc hoa Chanel, xa hoi khong phai la cac
yeu to gay ra hanh ong (tac nhan
1)
) i chang na, van co trng hp muon dien
ta trang thai b ong ma ngi Viet khong the bat chc y het cach lap cau cua
ngi Anh:

1)
Chu ng logic (se giai thch chi tiet sau)
60


(67) A mountain was seen in the distance.
(68) Mot ngon nui a c trong thay ang xa.

Cau dch sat ng phap nh vay khong c t nhien v chung ta a sao chep
nguyen cau truc tieng Anh vao cau tieng Viet. Cach hanh ngon o la cua ngi
Anh. Con cach hanh ngon cua ngi Viet thong thng la:

(69) Ngi ta thay co mot ngon nui ang xa.
(70) Ngi ta thay mot ngon nui ang xa.
(71) Co mot ngon nui ang xa.

Nhng cau tren mang tnh tnh tien chap nhan c. V du:

(72) Hoi: Ngi ta thay g ?
(73) Tra li: Ngi ta thay mot ngon nui.
(74) Hoi tiep: ... ngon nui au ?
(75) Cuoi cung la cau tra li: Ngi ta thay mot ngon nui ang xa.

Ta thay, moi cau nghi van eu c tra li hu ly ma ngi Viet chap nhan. Con
cau Mot ngon nui a c trong thay ... kho c chap nhan theo kieu hoi va
tra li:

(76) Hoi: Mot ngon nui the nao ?
(77) Tra li: Mot ngon nui a c trong thay.

Dung ong t trong thay thai b ong cho chu ng mot ngon nui khong
thch hp. Ngi Viet khong chap nhan tnh tnh tien nay. anh rang cau khong
sai ng phap, nhng khong on ve cach dung t. ay la mot van e thuoc pham
tru ng ngha (se noi chi tiet cac chng sau). Ly thuyet th co, song co le cung
chang can, bi chac chan moi ngi dch ranh tieng Viet cung tha biet ong t
nao dung c cho danh t nao.

Ca nhng cau truc e dien cha menh e chnh va menh e phu trong tieng Anh
tng chng rat de dch sang tieng Viet, the nhng khong han the:

(78) It was I who knocked at your door.

Nguyen cau tren la menh e chnh (main clause). Phan who knocked at your
door la menh e phu (subordinate clause). ay la hnh thc cau che (cleft
61

sentence) thng thay trong tieng Anh. Neu sao chep ca cau truc nay vao tieng
Viet, chung ta se c mot cau nghe kha la tai:

(79) o la toi ngi a go ca phong anh.

Ngi Viet khong noi the. Cao lam ho noi:

(80) Chnh toi a go ca phong anh.

Hnh thc cau che tren hau nh khong thay trong tieng Viet. Mot trng hp
khac la hnh thc dung to:

(81) You forget to answer his letter.
(82) * Anh quen e tra li bc th cua han.

Ngi Viet khong noi vay ma la noi:

(83) Anh quen tra li th han.
(84) Anh quen tra li bc th cua han.

Hoac:

(85) Ill come to see you tomorrow.
(86) ? Toi se ti e tham anh ngay mai.

Thay v vay, van co cach noi thuan tuy Viet Nam:

(87) Mai toi se ghe tham anh.
(88) Ngay mai toi se ghe tham anh.

Hoac:

(89) She loves to read novels.
(90) * Co ta yeu thch e oc tieu thuyet.

Thay v vay, ngi Viet noi:

(91) Co ta thch oc tieu thuyet.

62


Noi chung, thay v dung to gia hai ong t nh ngi Anh, ngi Viet thng
ghep 2 ong t lai mot: quen tra li, ghe tham, thch oc, ... Tat nhien
trong tieng Viet cung co cach dunge ma thng b hieu nham la hoan toan
ong ngha vi to cua tieng Anh hoac zu cua tieng c. Trong tieng Viet,
e nam gia hai ong t cot e dien ta mot hanh ong nham muc ch g, hoac
e dien ta y ngha nham muc ch g. Hieu nom na la e chi vay ?:

(92) An e ma song ch khong phai song e ma an.
(93) S d toi phai giai thch dong dai la e anh ng hoi na.

Tieng Anh co nhieu cau truc cau kha giong tieng Viet. Khong nhng ch cau xac
nh ma con ca cau hoi co/ khong (yes/no question). Mot trng hp ien hnh la
cau hoi phai khong. Co nhieu y kien cho rang, ay khong phai la cau truc
thuan tieng Viet.

(94) They are Vietnamese, arent they ?
(95) Ho la ngi Viet phai khong ?

Ngi c cung co cach hoi tng t:

(96) Sie sind Vietnamesen, nicht wahr ?
(Ho) (la) (ngi Viet), (khong) (phai) ?

Co le ngi Viet, ngi c khong co nhieu cach hoi nh ngi Anh. Ngi Anh
con co nhng cach hoi khac:

(97) He can swim, cant he ?
(98) He will play football, wont he ?
(99) He speaks English, doesnt he ?

ma ngi Viet, ngi c khong the dch ung cau truc. V du mot cau:

(100) He can swim, cant he ?
(101) *Anh ay co the bi, co the khong ?
(102) * Er kann schwimmen, kann er nicht ?

Kho co the qua quyet rang, phai khong la cau truc lai tieng Anh hoac tieng
c. Ngi ta ch biet xa nay ngi Viet van dung loi hoi nay, ai e no tng
ng vi a, ch g, ... nhng nghiem chnh hn:
63

(103) Ho la ngi Viet a ?
(104) Ho la ngi Viet ch g ?

Co the ay ch la s trung hp ngau nhien. Phai khong co ngha nh ung
khong, ung ch g, mot ng oan phu co chc nang at nghi van ve cau xac
nh Ho la ngi Viet pha trc.

Tieng Viet, tieng Anh, tieng Phap la nhng ngon ng tuyen tnh. Trai han lai,
tieng c la mot ngon ng phi tuyen tnh. Tieu bieu la ong t trong cau tieng
c thng nam cuoi cau, neu cau co hai ong t tr len, hoac b ao ngc
len trc chu ng (chu t), neu phan bo ng (tuc t) nam au cau.

ong t nam cuoi cau:

(105) Er mchte mit ihr sprechen.
(Han) (muon) (vi) (co ta) (noi chuyen)

ong t b ao ngc:

(106) Mit ihr mchte er sprechen.
(Vi) (co ta) (muon) (han) (noi chuyen)

Nghe mot ngon ng tuyen tnh, nhieu khi ngi nghe co the oan trc ngi noi
muon noi g du cau cha cham dt. Con khi nghe tieng c, ngi nghe phai
kien nhan i ngi noi noi het cau v ong t nam mai tt ang sau. V du Er
mchte mit ihr ... (han muon ... vi co ta) nhng han muon g ? Muon noi
chuyen vi co ta (mit ihr sprechen), hay muon i xem cine vi co ta (mit ihr ins
Kino gehen) ? Con biet bao ong t khac na: song, chet, thc, ngu, v.v.. Nen
can than bi khong phai bao gi ngi nghe cung co the hieu ngam hoac oan
trc c y ngi c khi ho cha noi het. Va lai cau cu tieng c thng dai,
ngi nghe lai cang nen lch s kien nhan lang nghe. Ngay ca trng hp ong
t phu b ao ngc, ngi nghe cung phai i cau cham dt v ong t cung co
the nam cuoi cau.

Mot v du khong tuyen tnh na trong tieng c la cach oc so. V du 64, ngi
Viet oc theo th t tuyen tnh:

(107) Sau mi bon

64


Ngi c oc la:

(108) Vier und sechzig
(bon) (va) (sau mi)

Co le ngi c nhn thay con so 4 trc khi thay con so 60 ? Trong khi o,
ngi Anh oc theo th t nh ngi Viet.

(109) Sixty four
(sau mi) (bon)

Nhan xet: Ch can dch 1-1 tieng c sang tieng Viet cung u thay cau cu hai
ngon ng khac nhau mot tri mot vc. Ket qua dch thng a en mot cau rat
la ma ngi Viet khong bao gi noi the. ieu nay cung ung luon cho nhng
ngi Viet a sinh song lau nam c, nhuan nhuyen tieng c nh ngi c
nhng trong thc te, khi noi chuyen vi nhau bang tieng Viet hoac viet bang
tieng Viet, cach hanh ngon cua ho van khong the lai ng phap tieng c mot
cach de dang. ieu nay de hieu, bi nguyen tac hanh ngon cua ngi Viet la co
ve lai trnh t nhan dien va nhan thc cang trung thc cang tot.

Bang cach so sanh ben tren, chung ta mi hieu tai sao ngi Viet de tiep nhan
nhng cau truc cua cac ngon ng tuyen tnh nh tieng Anh, tieng Phap. Con phi
tuyen tnh nh tieng c, rat kho. Tuy vay, tat ca eu tng oi.

Noi chung, oi vi ngoai ng nao cung vay, muon xac nh s khac biet gia
cau truc tieng Viet va cau truc cua mot ngoai ng nao o, ngi noi/nghe ly
tng (s.s. chng 1) ch can dch ra tng ch mot theo cach dch 1-1, roi sau o
dung tham nang/dung nang ngon ng cua mnh, xem th chuoi t va dch, ngi
Viet (ngi noi/nghe ly tng) co ai noi vay khong. Xin lu y la noi ch khong
phai viet. Mot cau van noi mang tnh e dien thng ung ng phap hn van
viet. Tuy vay, khong co ngha la van noi bao gi cung chuan.

VAN NOI VA VAN VIET

Viet va noi la hai hnh thc sinh hoat ngon ng. Ca hai eu oi hoi ng phap,
song cha chac cach hanh ngon a giong nhau. Th xem vai khac biet (at ieu
kien, ngi s dung ngon ng la ngi noi/nghe ly tng).

65

Khi noi, nhat la khi oi thoai, ngi noi khong co nhieu th gi suy ngh. Vi
tham nang va dung nang ngon ng, ngi noi phai lap cau cho ung va noi ngay.
Them vao o, ngi noi con phai chuan b trnh bay nhng y tng tiep theo.
Tien trnh noi dien ra vi mot van toc cao en noi nhng quy tac ng phap van
dang vo thc, trung thc nhat ma ngi noi khong co th gi bien hoa. Trong khi
viet, ngi viet co nhieu thi gian hn. Co thi gian, ngi viet thng co tam ly
chon la t ng, trau chuot cau cu. Hanh ong ngon ng co y nay chu yeu la
muon cho cau viet them van chng, mach lac. The nhng neu khong can than,
hanh ong ay rat de dan en hau qua la ng phap b bien hoa, b phc tap hoa
va khong con ung nh nhng quy tac ng phap nguyen thuy a loe ra t vo
thc ngay ban au. Mot cau van viet co the dai, c soan ky, c van chng
hoa, ngc lai, mot cau van noi thng ngan hn, trung thc hn, bnh dan hn
hoac de hieu hn. Tuy nhien, trong khi noi cung co hien tng vung ve do thieu
tham nang va dung nang ngon ng, hoac do song ong, v du hien tng lap lai
mot oan cau hoac t nhieu lan:

(110) Chao bac, chao bac a. Mi bac, mi bac vao nha chi, vao nha chi.
(111) E ! E ! Lam cai g o ? Lam cai g o ?

Ke ca van noi tieng Viet trong van ban nhieu khi cung khong con trung thc va
t nhien nh cau noi thc ngoai i. D nhien nhng hien tng nay cung
thng xay ra nhng ngon ng khac.

Mot hien tng khac cung thng xay ra la trong khi noi, ng phap t b lc bo,
tr nhng trng hp noi coc loc. Cau noi cua tieng Viet c phan gii kha ro
bang th, la, ma. Nhng t nay ong vai ng phap quan trong nh to be,
have cua tieng Anh hoac sein, haben cua tieng c. Hau nh khong co
ngi Viet nao lc bo cac t th, la, ma trong khi noi nh khi viet. So vi
ngi Anh hoac ngi c, co le hanh ong ngon ng cua ngi Viet khac ho
cho nay. Trong van viet, thay v dung th, la, ma, ngi Viet thng dung
dau phay e phan oan.

Co mot cach tranh s xa ri ac tnh ng phap tieng Viet trong van viet la nen
chep ra ieu mnh muon dien ta bang van noi, roi sau o dung cac phng phap
nh phep tnh lc, phep the, phep at cau hoi, phep bo tr, phep hoan v ma
chon la, them bt t ng, trau chuot cau cu cho hoan chnh nh y muon. Cac
phng phap nay se c trnh bay chi tiet chng sau.
66


Choong 4

VA1 LlL| VA CA| 1k|C NCON NC|

VAT LIEU NGON NG

Cho du moi nha ngon ng hoc co cach nhn va nh ngha khac nhau ve ngon
ng, song neu rut ra nhng y chung, th ngon ng t nhien (natural language), tc
ngon ng con ngi (human language), bao gi cung la mot tap hp gom tat ca
cac cau, chuoi t, cum t, t, ky t, am co gii han, co y ngha hoac s dung
c e tao ra y ngha.

Khong ban ve ngon ng ac biet nh ngon ng toan, ngon ng lap trnh, ngon
ng cua ngi cam, ... th moi ngon ng t nhien bao gi cung bao ham hai 2
yeu to: am thanh va ch viet.

Trong ngon ng t nhien, nhng n v nho nhat c dung e bieu th am thanh
va tao thanh ch viet - co the noi la ky t (character). Ky t la tap hp cua
moi mau t (alphabet), hnh t (ideo-graph) va dau (sign).

(1) Mau t: La Tinh (a, b, c, ...), Hy Lap (, , ), ...
(2) Hnh t tieng Hoa, Nhat, ai Han, ...:
(3) Dau: , , , , . , ^ , ? , ! , +, - , * , /, $ , ...

Ky t c dung e thanh lap cum ky t (group of characters). oi vi trng
hp ngon ng dung hnh t nh tieng Hoa, Nhat, ai Han, ... t ban than moi ky
t co the a la mot n v ngon ng co y ngha. Hnh t chang qua la mot hnh
tng c ve bang nhieu net ngang, doc, cham, phay, ...

(4) (Nam), (Quoc)

67

CH|ONC 4 VA1 LlL| VA CA| 1k|C NCON NC|

Mot ky t c xem nh thuoc ve mot ngon ng, neu no co kha nang tao thanh
ch viet cua ngon ng ay. Co nhieu ngon ng dung ky t giong nhau.

(5) @^$%&~#*: mot cum ky t vo ngha.
Chao: mot cum ky t tieng Viet.
Gren: mot cum ky t tieng c.
House: mot cum ky t tieng Anh.
Espanol: mot cum ky t Tay Ban Nha.
Latinum: mot cum ky t La Tinh.

Mot cum ky t co the co y ngha, co the khong. Co trng hp, mot cum ky t
khong the ng mot mnh ma phai ket hp vi mot cum ky t khac e thanh lap
mot n v ngon ng co y ngha. Tieu bieu la tien to va hau to cua nhng ngon
ng a am (Anh, c, Phap, Y, ...):

Tien to (prefix)
1)
la cum ky t co y ngha nhng khong the ng oc lap ma
phai c gan pha trc mot cum ky t khac e thanh mot n v ngon ng co y
ngha.

Hau to (postfix)
2)
co the co y ngha nhng khong the ng oc lap ma phai
c gan pha sau mot cum ky t khac e thanh mot n v ngon ng co y ngha.

Mot hay nhieu cum ky t co the sinh ra mot t (word). Tren bnh dien cu phap,
gii ngon ng hoc Tay phng xem t nh mot n v ngon ng nho nhat, co am,
y ngha va loai t vng (lexical) nhat nh (danh t, ong t, tnh t, lien t, gii
t, ...). Ngi ta goi n v ngon ng nho nhat nay la n v cu phap (syntax
unit) nho nhat.

(6) a. An la mot cum ky t co ngha. Vay, an la mot t. Noi ro hn,
an la mot n v cu phap nho nhat, co y ngha, la mot ong t,
ng oc lap di dang mot t n (single word).
b. Nan la mot cum ky t khong co ngha, khong the coi la mot t.
c. An ghep vi nan thanh an nan, mot t co ngha nhng lai
khong dnh dang g ti an. An nan la mot n v cu phap nho
nhat co y ngha, va la mot ong t.

1)
con c goi la tiep au ng.
2)
con c goi la tiep v ng (suffix).
68

d. Internet (lien mang) la mot t c ghep t inter (lien) + net
(mang). Net la mot t co the ng mot mnh nh mot danh t.
Inter la mot tien to khong the ng mot mnh
e. Schnheit (cai ep) la mot t c ghep t schn (ep) + heit
(cai) trong tieng c, la mot danh t. Schn la mot tnh t co the
ng mot mnh. Heit la mot hau to e thanh lap danh t.
f. T con co the cha nhieu hn 2 cum ky t: thao cam vien, cau
lac bo, hang khong mau ham, trng cau dan y, ...

oi vi tieng Viet, mot cum ky t nh vay c coi nh mot ch/tieng. Viet th
goi la ch, noi th goi la tieng. Tong quat, t la ket qua cua nhieu ch hp lai.
Neu tng ch la t, th ket qua ay la mot t ghep (compound word).

T ghep rat pho bien trong ngon ng oc am, song khong phai la khong co trong
nhng tieng a am, chang han nh tieng c, mot ngon ng noi tieng ve nghe
thuat ghep t (Wortbildung).

oi vi tieng Viet, du ngay nay chung ta khong dung hnh t nh ch Han, ch
Nom e thanh lap mot n v ngon ng co y ngha nh xa, the nhng tieng Viet
van khac cac ngon ng s dung hnh v (morpheme). Hnh v c hieu la cum ky
t t tao co hnh thc nhat nh, co y ngha va cach phat am rieng biet. Trong
tieng Viet, cau tao cua moi n v ngon ng nho nhat bao gom mot so am nhat
nh. n v nay co nh. Noi cach khac, mot t tieng Viet bao gi cung the
nguyen mau. Trong khi o, nh mot cach hnh thc hoa t ng, mot t nguyen
mau trong ngon ng Au chau co the c chia ra thanh nhieu hnh v khac nhau
nham mo ta ngoi th, so lng, thi gian, tnh s hu, phai tnh, ... Cu the, ong
t nguyen mau (infinitive verb) c chia ra thanh nhieu hnh v nham dien ta
nhan vat so nhieu/so t, ngoi th, hoac thi gian (hien tai, qua kh).

(7) a. Go (i) la mot ong t nguyen mau cua tieng Anh.
b. Go (i) dien ta ngoi 1/2 cua so t, 1/2/3 cua so nhieu, hien tai.
c. Goes (i) dien ta ngoi ba, so t, hien tai.

(8) a. Gehen (i) la mot ong t nguyen mau cua tieng c.
d. Gehe (i) dien ta ngoi mot, so t, hien tai.
e. Gehst (i) dien ta ngoi hai, so t, hien tai.
f. Ging (i) dien ta ngoi mot, so t, qua kh.
g. Gingst (i) dien ta ngoi hai, so t, qua kh.
h. V.v.
69

Tieng Viet khong co hnh thc chia ong t . ong t i bao gi cung the
nguyen mau i.

Khoan xet en tnh noi c hay khong trong ngon ng, th nhieu t/cum ky t
co kha nang sinh ra mot cum t; nhieu cum t co kha nang sinh ra mot chuoi t.
Xin lu y, chung ta se dung hai khai niem nay kha thng xuyen. Cum t c
hieu nh vai ba t/cum ky t ghep lai. Chuoi t ln hn, c hieu nh oan cau
hoac ca cau (khong xet ve mat cu phap). Ch can hieu tng oi vay thoi.

(9) a. Thang Bm co cai quat mo la mot chuoi t.
b. thang Bm, cai quat mo, Bm co cai, ... la nhng cum t.
c. thang, Bm, co, ... la nhng t.
d. Thang Bm co cai @&~#* la mot chuoi t nhng @&~#* la
mot cum ky t khong co trong tieng Viet (nhng trng hp
khong thc te nay khong ban ti).

Neu ng dung tin hoc, ac biet la nhng phng phap tr thong minh nhan tao
(artificial intelligence), e thiet lap he nhan dien ngon ng (language
recognizing system), chac han tieng Viet se co nhieu li iem so vi nhng ngon
ng thien ve hnh v. De thay nhat la ngay cong oan phan tch tn hieu (signal
analyse) va phan tch cu phap (syntax analyse). Do khong can phai chia ong t,
may tnh co the tiet kiem c rat nhieu cho trong bang t vng (lexical bank).
Toc o x ly d lieu cung toi u hn v mat th gi tm kiem hoac phai xuyen
qua nhieu bc, nhieu thao tac. Giai thuat lap trnh nh vay ma phc tap hn.

nh ngha t la mot van e thng gay tranh cai. Mot trong nhng nguyen nhan
chnh la do cach cau tao t cua tng ngon ng khac nhau. Kho co the nh ngha
hien ngon va tong quat t la g cho moi ngon ng tren tran the, song ro rang,
cach cau tao t tieng Viet khong thien ve hnh v nh ngon ng Au chau. T la
san pham cua mot cum t hoac nhieu cum ky t. Chung ta tam goi moi cum ky
t gii han nay la mot ch hay mot tieng. Tat nhien con nhieu cach goi
khac. V du, theo Phan Khoi (1997), moi cum ky t la mot t.

Viec xem t la san pham cua ch hay tieng xuat phat t s quan sat cach lam
viec thc te cua mot he nhan dien ngon ng co kha nang hieu tieng Viet. ieu
nay co the giai thch c. Th nhn s nguyen tac cua he thong nay.

Mot he nhan dien ngon ng tho s nhat gom co 4 thanh phan:
70

Phan tch tn hieu (signal analyse)
Phan tch cu phap (syntax analyse)
Phan tch ng ngha (semantic analyse)
Bang d lieu (database)

Phan tch
tn hieu
(signal
analyse)
Phan tch
cu phap
(syntax
analyse)
Phan tch
ng ngha
(sematic
analyse)
Bang d lieu (database)
T vng (lexical)
Quy tac ng phap (grammatical rules)
Ng ngha (semantic)
Quy tac logic (logic rules): logic m
(fuzzy logic), logic v ng (predicate
logic), ...
...
Tn hieu au
vao (input
signal):
tieng/ch
Trong mot he nhan dien ngon ng, phan tch tn hieu la cong viec au tien ma
may phai lam khi nhan c mot chuoi t c gi vao bat ke di dang noi hay
dang viet. ay la nhng tn hieu au vao (input signal). V du gi chuoi t Toi
i vao may. Tn hieu au tien may se nhan c la toi, ke tiep la i. Thoat
tien, may se kiem tra xem tieng/ch toi co nam trong bang t vng (thuoc
bang d lieu) hay khong. Neu khong, no se khong hieu va se hoi lai toi co
ngha la g ?. Qua trnh nay t nhien giong nh mot a be hoc mot ch mi, v
cha hieu, no se hoi lai bo me. Hoi la e hoc. oi vi mot ng dung tr thong
minh nhan tao th ay la tien trnh thu thap kien thc.

Trong qua trnh hoc, co trng hp may khong hieu v ngi noi phat am sai,
hoac khong ro rang, hoac may nghe cha quen, hoac may b ... hong. Loai bo
trng hp may hong, chung ta thay, nghe khong ro la mot chuyen rat bnh
thng trong khi am thoai. Chang han oi vi ngi Viet, giong ngi Trung
noi, ngi Bac nghe khong quen, giong ngi Nam noi, ngi Trung nghe khong
hieu. Ban au la vay, phai nghe quen dan, tc la hoc, la thu thap kien thc, roi
mi hieu. May cung the, cung phai hoc nh ngi.

71

Noi mot cach ly thuyet, ngi hoac may khong hieu mot d lieu la do d lieu ay
cha bao gi ton tai trong bo nao cua ngi hoac trong bang d lieu cua may.
Muon biet mot d lieu co ton tai hay khong, th phai coi lai, ngha la tm
(search). Tm ngha la i so sanh cai d lieu muon tm (sample) vi tat ca nhng
d lieu mau (pattern) a ton tai trong bo nao, trong bang d lieu xem co trung
hoac xng hay khong, co trung hp (matching) hay khong.

trong may, moi d lieu mau eu c lu tr di dang ma nh phan (binary
code), cho nen mot d lieu mi c a vao may cung phai c ma hoa nh
phan, th may mi hieu, mi lam viec c. n v tieu chuan cua ma c tnh
bang Byte. D lieu cang nhieu, so Byte cang nhieu.

Tm mau-trung hp (pattern-matching) la oi chieu chuoi Byte d lieu c a
vao vi chuoi Byte d lieu mau. Hai Bytes giong nhau ngha la trung nhau
(match). Con khong, hai d lieu khong hoan toan giong nhau.

Nhan dien ch oi vi may khong kho va nhanh. Ch can mot dong lenh cung u
biet ch ay co nam trong bang d lieu hay khong, may co biet ch nay khong, v
du dung lenh SELECT cua SQL (Structured Query Language)
3)
:

SELECT * FROM Lexical WHERE Word = toi

(Ngha la gia s a ton tai mot bang (list) ten la Lexical cha moi d lieu giong
mot cuon t ien khong lo. Hoi: co ch toi trong bang ay hay khong ? Neu co,
no se liet ke moi tnh chat cua ch toi, neu khong, no se bao la khong co phan
t ay; moi tnh chat cua ch toi eu trong (NULL)).

Nhan dien tieng (sound) mi kho bi v ay la am thanh. Moi am thanh eu nam
di dang song sine/cosine co bien o, tan so, ... khac nhau. Ham lng giac
sine/cosine oi vi may tnh la mot loai ham phc tap, oi hoi rat nhieu thi gian
tnh. Tat ca moi yeu to bien o, tan so, ... phai c ma hoa. Khi so sanh, bat
buoc phai so sanh tat ca moi yeu to, rat ton thi gian. Hn na, tng tieng noi
c gi vao may khong phai bao gi cung co nh nh mot hang so ma co luc
nhe, luc manh, luc nhanh, luc cham, luc trong, luc uc, luc tram, luc bong, ....
Nhng yeu to nay lam thay oi bien o song, tan so song, ... V the, ket qua so
sanh song ch co the gan ung. Bi v ch gan ung, cho nen o chnh xac nhan
dien am thanh ng nhien khong the cao bang nhan dien ch.

3)
Tren thc te, PROLOG la ngon ng lap trnh thng dung cho he nhan dien ngon ng.
72

Song cua cac cum ky t available, to, us. Giong cua
Noam Chomsky. (Tai lieu: Wagner 1999). Moi ky t co mot
song khac nhau.

Khac vi am thanh, mot ch viet cung la mot cum ky t nhng c ma hoa trc
tiep bang n v Byte thay v ham so. Moi ky t (character) la mot Byte (8 Bits),
chang han theo ma ASCII hoac 2 Bytes theo ma UNICODE. So sanh mot ch
viet vi mot ch viet ngha la so sanh tng Byte cua ch nay vi tng Byte cua
ch kia cho en het chuoi Byte (mot trong hai). Mot v du, hay xem ch toi co
nam trong bang d lieu t vng hay khong ?

Bang d lieu:
Phan t vng
Bang mau trung hp
(pattern maching list)
liet ke nhng t tm thay:

toi
NULL
NULL
Tn hieu au vao:
toi:
t 74
o 6F
83
i 69
...
toc trng:
t 74
o 6F
84
c 63

t 74
r 72
94
93
96
n 6E
g 67
toi:
t 74
o 6F
83
i 69
toi con:
t 74
o 6F
83
i 69

c 63
o 6F
n 6E

73

Ch toi au vao c so sanh vi nhng t gan giong trong bang d lieu. T
trong bang d lieu a c xep at theo th t alphabet. Ta thay, thao tac so
sanh chay theo mui ten t tren xuong di. Xuyen qua nhieu ch khong giong,
may tiep tuc so sanh toi vi toc trng. Cung khong giong. i tiep sang t
ke, cuoi cung gap toi. Giong. Tm thay. Ngng.

Tng t cach tm ch viet, tieng cung co the c truy tm bang nguyen tac so
sanh mau nh tren, ch co ieu la phc tap hn nhieu.

Bat ky mot ch hay mot tieng sau khi c tm thay, du chnh xac hay gan ung,
cung se c ghi vao bang mau trung hp (pattern maching list). Bang nay can
cho cong oan phan tch cu phap ke tiep.

Chung ta co the nhan thay rang, tm kiem mot t tieng Viet nhn chung chac
chan phai nhanh hn tm kiem mot t tieng Anh hoac tieng c. Th tng
tng, truy tm ong t gehen cua tieng c se lau the nao, v ong t c
chia cho u moi trng hp (gehen gehe, gehst, geht, gingen, gingst, ging,
gegangen,...). Ngay v du nay, bang d lieu tieng c can nhieu cho e cha tat
ca moi hnh v cua t nguyen mau gehen, trong khi o tieng Viet ch chiem
mot cho oc nhat la: i.

Tren thc te, khau phan tch tn hieu khong ch on nhan tng tn hieu mot ma
i mot choc e nam bat luon nhng tn hieu theo sau. Cach thc nhn trc
(look ahead) nham muc ch thu them nhieu d lieu co lien quan en d lieu
may ang e y (focussing). Gia s may va nghe ai noi tieng No va a hieu,
ke tiep la nhan tieng an, may se truy tm ch nay trong bang t vng va song
song o, no se ch xem con tieng nao theo sau na hay khong. Neu khong, coi
nh cau cham dt. Neu co, no se phoi hp an vi tn hieu sau, xem hai tn
hieu nay co le thuoc nhau khong. Gia s theo sau an la nan, may se kiem
tra xem an nan co phai la mot t hay khong. Neu ung, no se quen ch an
va chap nhan tn hieu au vao la t an nan. Con khong, v du, nghe them c
ph, no se tm trong bang d lieu xem co t an ph hay khong. Neu khong,
no se xem an la mot ong t va se tiep tuc i tm t ph. Gia nh tm thay
ph la mot danh t, no se ghi chu vao bang. Hai t nay se c khau phan tch
cu phap cong nhan la mot ong t ghep qua quy tac ng phap VP V N (se
noi sau). Di ay la cach ghi nh d lieu cua hai bang mau trung hp:

(10) No an nan. No an ph.

74

Bang mau trung hp

No an nan:
no
(PersPronoun, sing. 3)
an nan
(Verb)
EOL
(End Of List)

Bang mau trung hp

No an ph:
no
(PersPronoun, sing. 3)
an
(Verb)
ph
(Noun)
EOL
(End Of List)
Nhng g a trnh bay tren thc ra mi ch la nguyen tac. Tren thc te, cong
oan nhan dang t phc tap hn nhieu. Trong khuon kho bai nay, xin mien i
sau vao chi tiet. Chu y la muon cho thay, cach cau tao t cua tieng Viet da tren
can ban ch/tieng.

S lc la nh the, con muon ao sau nghien cu, noi chung, ngon ng hoc co
nhieu hng i. Thch nghien cu ve am va cau truc am, co ng am hoc
(phonetics). Thch dch song am thanh nhng phan t dien ta tinh than cua am to
(speech sound) roi t o tiep tuc phan tch chung thanh am tiet (syllable) va mau
(pattern), th co am v hoc (phonology). Thch nghien cu cach to chc nhom
am thanh thanh nhng n v ky t co y ngha (tc hnh v) va t, th co hnh
thai hoc (morphology). Neu muon nghien cu ve cau truc, cach sap at t trong
li noi, th o lai la pham vi cua cu phap hoc (syntax). Sau khi nghien cu ve
cau truc li noi va muon tm hieu y ngha, logic cua ngon ng, chung ta co the
ao sau vao lnh vc ng ngha hoc (semantics), dung phap hoc (pragmatics).
Ngoai ra, neu muon nghien cu ve logic ngon ng (t nhien, hnh thc) hoac
cach xay dng ngon ng lap trnh, cach thiet lap he nhan dien ngon ng, ... th co
nganh ngon ng hoc ien toan (computational linguistics).

a thong qua cac khai niem ve vat lieu cau tao n v cu phap nho nhat co y
ngha hoac chc nang trong ngon ng, nay ta tiep tuc xet nhng thanh phan ln
hn va noi c.

Co trong tay nhieu t ri rac noi c khong co ngha la khi ket hp chung lai
thanh nhng cum t, th tat ca eu noi c. Tuy ngon ng va cach xep at t,
co cum t c cong nhan la noi c, co cum t khong. Mot t hoac mot cum
75

t chuan hnh (well-formed) u noi c se c coi nh mot thanh to
(constituent) (tam hieu vay, chung ta se nh ngha mot cach ly thuyet hn).

(11) a. thang Bm, cai quat mo la hai cum t u noi c va c xem
nh hai thanh to.
b. Bm, co cung la nhng thanh to nhng ch co mot t duy nhat.
c. Bm co cai cha u noi c, v thieu cai g, cho nen cha phai
la mot thanh to.
d. Bm thang cai mo quat, cai thang quat la nhng cum t lon
xon, khong the coi la thanh to c.

Nh vay thanh to con co the c hieu nh mot n v cu phap co quy tac ng
phap (grammatical rule), noi c. Nhng g noi c, trc nay chung ta thng
goi la ung van pham. Thay v dung khai niem van pham, ke t ay, ta se goi
la ng phap (grammar). Xin mn li giai thch cua Nguyen Kim Than:

Trc ay ta thng goi ng phap la meo hoac van pham. Goi la meo
khong noi len ban chat cua ng phap. Goi la van pham cung khong on, bi v
qui tac ng phap khong phai ch ap dung vao viec viet van, va yeu to th nhat cua
van khong phai la cai g khac ngoai ngon ng (Nguyen Kim Than 1997 : 10)

a thong qua cac khai niem can thiet, nay at cau hoi, the con cau (sentence)
la g ?

Lewandowski nh ngha:

Cau la mot n v co ng phap, cach phat am va noi dung theo quy tac cua tng
ngon ng c to chc mot cach tuyen tnh va co ton ti nh mot phng tien dung
e dien at, mo ta va phat ngon, (va) e truyen thong nhng hnh dung hoac suy
ngh ve tnh huong.

([Der Satz ist eine] grammatisch, intonatorisch und inhaltlich nach den
Regularitten der jeweiligen Sprache linear und hierarchisch organisierte Einheit
als Mittel zu Ausdruck, Darstellung und Appell, zur Kommunikation von
Vorstellungen oder Gedanken ber Sachverhalte). (Lewandowski 1990, x. Satz).

Khong thieu sach v noi ve cau: Was ist ein Satz (Ries 1931), Geschichte und
Kritik der wichtigsten Satzdefinitionen (Seidel 1935), v.v.. Liet ke cho u, con
khoang 200 nh ngha khac nhau (Wagner 1999).

76

nh ngha khai niem cau cho that tong quat, hien ngon va hoan hao khong phai
la chuyen de dang. Cung mot chuoi t co cung cau truc, co ngon ng cho la cau,
co ngon ng lai khong chap nhan. Thay v vay, cac nha ngon ng hoc a tm
cach dng nen mot ly thuyet nham xac nh cau truc cua mot phat bieu xem no
co thc s thuoc ve ngon ng ay hay khong. Ly thuyet nay c goi la ng
phap (grammar). e xac nh, theo cac nha khoa hoc, can phai co mot tap hp
cha ng moi quy tac mau a san sinh ra ngon ng ay. Tap hp nay chnh la
quy tac ng phap. Gia nh tat ca cac t noi ra eu thuoc ve ngon ng ay, th da
vao ng phap, ngi ta co the xac nhan chuoi t nao oi vi mot ngon ng nao
c cong nhan la mot cau. Neu c cong nhan, cau ay ung ng phap, con
khong, ngha la sai hoac co ngha khac.

(12) Mary is a pretty girl, dch 1-1 theo ung v tr cua cau tieng Anh nay
sang tieng Viet, ta co: Mary la mot ep co gai. Cau nay sai ng phap
tieng Viet. Noi ung phai la Mary la mot co gai ep.

(13) Gia s ngi Viet noi Han muon hon co ta, ngi c noi: Er mchte
sie kssen. Dch sat tng ch mot theo ung v tr trong cau tieng c
sang tieng Viet:

Er mchte sie kssen.
(Han) (muon) (co ta) (hon)

Y ngha khac hoan toan.

Cho nen, oi vi ng phap, v tr cua t la cha khoa quyet nh xem mot chuoi
t co ung la mot cau cua ngon ng ang c xet en hay khong. Chung ta se
tm hieu ky hn ve iem nay.

CAM GIAC VE MOT CAU NOI C

Theo Chomsky, mot ngi co tham nang ngon ng la ngi noi/nghe ly tng
song trong mot cong ong tieng noi ong nhat va thanh thao ngon ng cua mnh.
Gia s khong met moi, say ru, ngi ay se co tha kha nang noi, nghe va
anh gia mot cau noi co thc s thuoc ve th ngon ng ma mnh thanh thao hay
khong. Song tren thc te, cho du ngi ay co kha nang xac nhan mot cau noi sai
hay ung ng phap, nhng khi hoi tai sao the, co the anh ta cung mu tt, chang
biet phai giai thch the nao.
77

Tham nang ngon ng hau het moi con ngi eu nam di dang vo thc. Con
ngi thu thap kien thc ngon ng t xa hoi nh mot hnh thc sao chep roi nh,
noi nom na la ngi ta noi sao, mnh noi vay. Theo thi gian, moi kien thc ngon
ng nhap vao au va c cat gi di dang nhng d lieu, quy tac ng phap
khuon mau. o la nhng mau d lieu duy nhat ma con ngi co the dung e so
sanh vi d lieu nhan vao, xem o co phai la ngon ng cua mnh hay khong.
Thao tac so sanh nay giong giong nh cai v du i truy tm t cua he nhan dien
ngon ng a c trnh bay ben tren.

Thc ra, qua trnh nhan dien thong thng ay ch thuan cam giac ch khong phai
nh tri thc khoa hoc e co the giai thch mot cach hien ngon, tai sao cau nay
noi c, cau kia khong noi c. Xa hoi ch day cho chung ta cach noi ung
theo nhng mau ng phap, ch khong day cho chung ta cach giai thch cau truc
ngon ng. Cong viec ay la cua nha trng.

The th chung ta a hoc c g nha trng ?

Co le nhieu ngi, nhat la nhng ngi song mien Nam Viet Nam trc 75,
van con nh, hoi con i hoc, chung ta khong c hoc nhieu ve ng phap tieng
Viet. Trong gi Viet van, chung ta hoc lam luan nhieu hn. Chang han thay co
cho chung ta mot cai e ai khai nh:

(14) Bau i thng lay b cung.
Tuy rang khac giong nhng chung mot gian
(Ca dao)

roi bao, cac em hay bnh luan. The la chung ta lo bnh. Co ngi th bnh, y hai
cau ca dao muon noi, du con ngi khac giong, khac hoan canh song, nhng hay
yeu thng nhau, um boc lan nhau. Co ngi th bnh, bau va b la hai loai qua
nau canh an rat la ngon. Chang thay co nao bao chung ta hay phan tch van
pham hai cau ca dao ay bao gi. Noi the khong co ngha la chung ta khong
c hoc ve ng phap. Co le ai cung eu biet s qua nhng khai niem nh chu
t, ong t, tuc t, mao t, danh t, tnh t, ..., va co the phan tch c cau di
ay:

(15) V bac s co mot tam long nhan hau.

V (tam goi) la mot mao t (article).
78

bac s la mot danh t (noun).
co la mot ong t (verb).
tam (tam goi) la mot mao t.
long la mot danh t.
nhan hau la mot tnh t (adjective).
V bac s la chu t.
mot tam long nhan hau la tuc t.

Hn the na, chung ta con biet:

1. Co nhng t dnh chum thanh cum t noi c, nh v bac s, mot tam
long, ...
2. Trong cau, moi t eu co v tr nhat nh, v du chu t phai ng trc
ong t, ong t thng ng trc tuc t
4)
.
3. He mot chuoi t co chu t va ong t, th o la mot cau. Co trng hp
cau can tuc t, co trng hp khong. Co trng hp ch co mot t duy
nhat: Im !, i !,...

ai khai o la nhng kien thc ngon ng cua chung ta. anh rang cha giai
thch c tai sao mnh co kha nang lap cau ung, suy ngh ung, song t nhat o
a la mot can ban can thiet giup chung ta tm hieu them ve khoa hoc cu phap,
va t no cung kha ly thu.

Trc nhat, th tm hieu tai sao mot cau c coi la noi c. V du cau: V bac
s co mot tam long nhan hau.

V ai mot mot cum t, v du cum t v bac s, ra xem. Cum t nay gom co
hai t: v va bac s. Theo cam giac, chung ta thay cum t nay mang tnh
danh t, v v bac s la mot nhan vat. Noi theo ngon ng hoc truyen thong, cum
t v bac s lam chu t trong cau. ieu nay co ly, bi chung ta thng thay chu
t co dang danh t. Vay th suy ngh mot cach logic - neu thay the cum t v
bac s bang mot danh t hay mot cum t nao o cung mang tnh danh t giong
giong vay ma noi c, chung ta se co mot cau noi c:

(16) a. Ong bac s co mot tam long nhan hau.
b. Ba bac s co mot tam long nhan hau.

4)
C tam goi la chu t, ong t, tuc t nh a quen goi trong ngon ng hoc truyen thong trc nay
cho de hnh dung. Sau nay chung ta se goi chu t la chu ng, ong t la v t (predicate), tuc t la
bo ng (complement).
79

c. Co y ta co mot tam long nhan hau.
d. Chua co mot tam long nhan hau.
e. Phat co mot tam long nhan hau.

Qua thc, moi cau eu ung. Song, neu a mot tnh t vao v tr ay, cau se b
hong ngay:

(17) a. * T bi co mot tam long nhan hau.
b. * Thong minh co mot tam long nhan hau.
c. * Kh khao co mot tam long nhan hau.

Vay ch ch co trng hp danh t mi dung c hay sao ? Th tiep tuc thay
the bang vai cum t khac cung mang tnh danh t:

(18) a. * Cai ban co mot tam long nhan hau.
b. * Cai ghe co mot tam long nhan hau.
c. * Con ga co mot tam long nhan hau.
d. * Cai noi co mot tam long nhan hau.
e. * Con so khong co mot tam long nhan hau.

Ket qua, khong cau nao noi c. Tai sao vay ? Cung la danh t ma khong lam
chu t c ?

Chac chan se co y kien cho rang, cai ban, cai ghe, con ga, ... khong cung
ng canh (context) nh nhng cum t ong bac s, ba bac s, co y ta, ..., tai
v chung khong ch ngi. Co ly. The nhng neu mot ong/ba nha van nao o noi:

(19) a. Que hng toi co mot tam long nhan hau.
b. Th ai co mot tam long nhan hau.

co le nghe van em tai, mac du nhng cum t c em vao thay the ay khong
ch ngi.

Loi noi nay mang tnh van chng bay bm, bi le ai cung biet tam long la
mot danh t danh rieng cho ngi hoac cac ang than linh. Tam long khong
thch hp cho ban ghe, ga vt, noi nieu xoong chao, ... Tuy nhien, neu ngi ta
van chap nhan noi c, th au cung la do tinh than cua nhng cum t em vao
the a c nhan cach hoa. Hien tng s dung ngon ng khong ai chung nh
mot hnh thc sieu ngon ng (metalanguage) nay, chung ta khoan ban en.
80

Ket luan: Chuyen noi c hay khong khong nhng ch le thuoc vao v tr va
tnh loai cua t/cum t ma con le thuoc vao ng canh.

V TR VA QUAN HE LE THUOC CUA T

Nhan xet au tien khi phan tch mot cau la v tr cua t trong cau phai ung th
cau mi ung. Th lay vai v du va oi v tr cua t trong cau:

Tieng Viet:

(20) a. Ong ta la mot giao s am nhac: ung ng phap va la cau xac
nh.
b. * La ong ta mot giao s am nhac.
c. * Ong ta la mot am nhac giao s.
d. * Am nhac la mot ong ta giao s.

Tieng Anh:

(21) a. * He is a professor music.
b. Is he a music professor: ung ng phap va la cau hoi
c. He is a music professor: ung ng phap va la cau xac nh.
d. * Music is a he professor.

Tieng c:

(22) a. * Er ist ein Professormusik.
b. Ist er ein Musikprofessor: ung ng phap va la cau hoi
c. Er ist ein Musikprofessor: ung ng phap va la cau xac nh.
d. * Musik ist ein er Professor.

Cac v du tren cho thay, v tr cua t trong cau ung ng phap khong bat ky ma
co mot trat t nhat nh. Trat t nay quyet nh mot cau truc hp ly. Cung mot
cau truc cau tng ng, co ngon ng cho la ung ng phap, co ngon ng lai cho
la sai hoac mang y ngha khac hoac co cng o khac:

Trong moi trng hp (a.): Cum t giao s am nhac cua tieng Viet ung
ng phap, nhng neu dch 1-1 sang tieng Anh professor music hoac tieng
81

c thanh Professormusik, ca hai eu sai. ung ng phap phai la
music professor, Musikprofessor.
Trong moi trng hp (b.): Tieng Viet sai ng phap. Tieng Anh, c ung
va la cau hoi.
Trong moi trng hp (d.): Tat ca eu sai ng phap.
Neu bo 3 danh t am nhac, music va Musik ra khoi 3 cau (a.), tat ca
cac v du eu ung ng phap:

(23) a. Ong ta la mot giao s.
b. He is a professor.
c. Er ist ein Professor.

V tr t rat quan trong oi vi ng phap va y ngha cua mot chuoi t. Xet en v
tr t trong mot chuoi t la xet en tnh tuyen tnh (linearity) cua cau truc ngon
ng. The nhng van cha u, bi t con co moi quan he oi vi nhau. Co nhng
t lien ket vi nhau chat che hn nhng t khac. Co t quan trong, ong vai y
chnh, tc la lam trung tam y ngha. Co t khong quan trong, ch gi nhiem vu
them ngha cho t khac. Trong moi quan he nay, cac t phai ng ung v tr e
tao nen thanh to (hieu nom na la mot cum t/chuoi t noi c). Khi oi v tr
cua mot t, nhng t khac trong thanh to phai c oi theo. Ch bang cach ay,
toan the cau truc con lai va y ngha cua chuoi t mi khong b huy. iem nay
noi len tnh quan he le thuoc cua t.

Quan he le thuoc (dependency) cua t la moi quan he ton ti (hierarchy)
gia hai t trong chuoi t, o, s hien dien, hnh thc cung nh hoat
ong cu phap cua mot t se b t kia kiem soat.

Th nghiem bang cach lc t, chung ta se thay, co nhng t phai c bo cung
luc th cau mi con gi ung ng phap.

(24) Tr quoc la mot nghe thuat rat cao quy.

Bo tnh t cao quy:

(25) * Tr quoc la mot nghe thuat rat cao quy. (Khong noi c)

Nhng bo trang t rat:

(26) Tr quoc la mot nghe thuat rat cao quy. (Noi c)
82

Bo trang t rat va tnh t cao quy cung mot luc:

(27) Tr quoc la mot nghe thuat rat cao quy. (Noi c)

Bo danh t nghe thuat:

(28) * Tr quoc la mot nghe thuat rat cao quy. (Khong noi c)

Bo mao t mot va trang t rat cung luc:

(29) Tr quoc la mot nghe thuat rat cao quy. (Noi c nhng hi la)

Bo mao t mot, trang t rat va tnh t cao quy cung luc:

(30) Tr quoc la mot nghe thuat rat cao quy. (Noi c).

Qua tro chi gach bo t, chung ta a nhn thay s moi quan he le thuoc cua t
trong tieng Viet:

Trang t phai i oi vi tnh t (rat + cao quy).
Mao t i oi vi danh t (mot + nghe thuat).
Trang t rat b tnh t cao quy kiem soat.
Tnh t cao quy, mao t mot b danh t nghe thuat kiem soat.

(31) .

rat
(b nghe thuat kiem soat)
cao quy
(kiem soat rat va b nghe thuat kiem soat)
nghe thuat
(kiem soat mot, cao quy)
mot
(b nghe thuat kiem soat)
83

Hnh ve mieu ta cac phan t b kiem soat eu co v tr thap hn phan t kiem
soat chung (se trnh bay chi tiet ve cay cu phap sau). Xin lu y, kiem soat la
cach noi cua gii ngon ng hoc. Ngoai ra con thay hay dung t chi phoi.

Quan sat tieng Viet trong thc te ky hn, chung ta con thay vai tnh chat kiem
soat sau ay:

Tnh t kiem soat trang t: Xet ve mat quan he le thuoc, trang t i oi vi
tnh t la e them ngha cho tnh t ch khong quan trong bang tnh t. Con xet
ve mat v tr, th trang t tuy loai co the ng sau hay ng trc tnh t (tuy
ngon ng, trng hp). Trong cum t rat cao quy, trang t rat ng trc.
Trong cum t cao quy lam th trang t lam lai ng sau.

Tnh t kiem soat tnh t: Tnh t con them ngha cho ca tnh t:

(32) Co ay hat hay ghe.
(33) Co ay hat hay de s.

Hay kiem soat ghe va de s. Bo hay, cau se sai ng phap v trong
trng hp nay, hay co nhiem vu bo ngha cho ong t, khong the thieu:

(34) * Co ay hat ghe.
(35) * Co ay hat de s.

Neu them that ang sau, th cau lai noi c; ghe va de s kiem soat
that:

(36) Co ay hat ghe that.
(37) Co ay hat de s that.

Bo ghe va de s, cau van noi c, v trong trng hp nay, that them
ngha cho ong t, tc ong t kiem soat tnh t (xem them ben di):

(38) Co ay hat that.

ong t kiem soat trang t: Trang t con them ngha cho ca ong t, tc b
ong t kiem soat. Moi quan he le thuoc cung giong y nh the:

(39) Ong ta rat thng tre mo coi.
84

(40) Ong ta thng tre mo coi lam.
(41) Tay can bo ay rat ham an hoi lo.
(42) Tay can bo ay ham an hoi lo lam.

Danh t kiem soat tnh t: Xet ve mat quan he le thuoc, tnh t khong quan
trong bang danh t. Tnh t ch c dung e them ngha cho danh t. Neu xet
ve v tr, chac chan no phai ng sau danh t. Ch nhng t/cum t Han-Viet mi
cho phep tnh t ng pha trc, v du my nhan. My (ep) la tnh t.
Nhan (ngi) la danh t. Ngi Viet noi ngi ep vi tnh t ep ng
sau danh t ngi.

ong t kiem soat tnh t: Tnh t con phu ngha cho ca ong t. Trong tieng
c cung vay:

(43) Co ay hat hay ghe.
(44) Sie singt so schn.

Tnh t hay phu ngha cho ong t hat. Tnh t schn phu ngha cho ong
t singt.

ong t kiem soat danh t: Danh t cung co the phu ngha cho ong t:

(45) Con co ma i an em.
au phai canh mem, lon co xuong ao.
(Ca dao)
(46) Ra tiem ph, an sang.

Danh t em va sang eu phu ngha cho ong t an. Xin lu y, sang
ay c hieu la buoi sang.

Danh t kiem soat danh t: Ca danh t cung co the phu ngha cho mot danh t:

(47) Thanh pho Hue
(48) Song Hng
(49) Canh ong lua
(50) Cay cau kh

85

Hue, Hng la danh t rieng. Hue phu ngha cho thanh pho, Hng
phu ngha cho song. Lua, kh la danh t chung. Lua phu ngha cho
canh ong, kh phu ngha cho cay cau.

Mot t hoac mot cum t co kha nang them ngha cho mot t khac bang cach lam
bien oi y ngha nguyen thuy cua t ay, se c goi la phu ng (adjunct).
Trong khi o, cung bang hnh thc them ngha, mot bo ng (complement) co
tnh cach bat buoc hn, gan bo hn phu ng. Bo bo ng, chuoi t se sai ng phap
hoac co y ngha khac. Chung ta se ban chi tiet ve s khac biet nay cac chng
sau.

S lc ve moi quan he le thuoc cua t trong Viet la the. Tieng Anh tng t:

(51) An extremly difficult problem

Trang t extremly b tnh t difficult kiem soat.
Tnh t difficult b danh t problem kiem soat.

extremly
(b difficult kiem soat)
problem
(kiem soat difficult)
difficult
(b problem kiem soat)
Tieng c phc tap hn. Khong nhng tnh t b danh t kiem soat ma ca hnh v
cua no cung b kiem soat. Tnh t nguyen mau thay oi tuy theo v tr va thuoc
tnh cua danh t, nh phai tnh (giong c, giong cai, giong trung), lng (so
nhieu, so t), the cach (danh cach (nominative), sinh cach (genitive), tang cach
(dative), oi cach (accusative), ...), ...

Danh t kiem soat tnh t:

(52) Ein schnes Bild (das Bild) (Giong trung, so t, danh cach).
(Mot bc tranh ep)

86

Bi Bild (bc tranh) la so t, giong trung, danh cach (tc danh t v tr chu
ng), nen tnh t schn (ep) c them es thanh ra schnes.

(53) Ein schner Garten (der Garten) (Giong c, so t, danh cach).
(Mot cai vn ep)

Bi Garten (vn) la so t, giong c, danh cach, nen tnh t schn (ep)
c them er thanh ra schner.

(54) Eine schne Blume (die Blume) (Giong cai, so t, danh cach).
(Mot bong hoa ep)

Bi Blume (bong hoa) la so t, giong cai, danh cach, nen tnh t schn (ep)
c them e thanh ra schne.

(55) Die schnen Blumen (die Blumen) (Giong cai, so nhieu, danh cach/oi
cach).
(Nhng bong hoa ep)

Bi Blumen (nhng bong hoa) la so nhieu, giong cai, nen tnh t schn (ep)
c them en thanh ra schnen.

Kha nhc au nhng cha het.

ong t kiem soat bo ng:

(56) Ich danke Ihnen (Tang cach).
Toi cam n ong/ba.

Bi ong t danke (cam n, nguyen mau: danken) ch i vi mot bo ng ong
vai tang cach, thng goi la tuc t gian tiep (indirect object), nen ong/ba co
hnh v Ihnen. Neu ong t i vi mot bo ng ong vai oi cach, thng goi la
tuc t trc tiep (direct object), th ong/ba lai co hnh v Sie:

(57) Ich verstehe Sie (oi cach).
Toi hieu ong/ba.

Xin hieu tuc t trc tiep la loai tuc t b ong t anh hng trc tiep, ngc lac
la tuc t gian tiep.
87

(58) Ch toi mua mot cai ao.

Mot cai ao la tuc t trc tiep cua ong t mua. Trong khi o:

(59) Ch toi mua cho toi mot cai ao.

Mot cai ao la tuc t trc tiep cua hanh ong mua. Con toi la tuc t gian
tiep. Bo thanh to cho toi , cau van noi c nh thng. Nhng bo thanh to
mot cai ao, cau se b thieu, v ong t mua thieu mon hang g o, tc tuc t
trc tiep.

Mot trng hp oi cach khac cua tieng c:

(60) Herr Schmidt hat gerade einen neuen Mercedes gekauft (oi cach).
Ong Schmidt va tau mot chiec Mercedes mi toanh.

ong t gekauft (a mua, nguyen mau: kaufen) ch i vi bo ng ong vai oi
cach, thanh th khi s dung mao t mot, ngi c noi einen (ein + en).
Neu ong t i vi mot bo ng ong vai tang cach, v du ong t fahren (lai),
ho lai noi einem (ein + em):

(61) Herr Schmidt fhrt mit einem Mercedes (Tang cach).
(Ong) Schmidt (lai) (vi) (mot) (Mercedes) (Dch 1-1)

Tu trung, hnh v cua mao t, tnh t va danh t v tr bo ng trong tieng c
eu b ong t kiem soat.

ai danh t nhan vat kiem soat ong t:

Hnh v cua ong t nguyen mau tieng c con bien oi theo tng ai danh t
nhan vat:

(62) Ich singe (ai danh t nhan vat ngoi 1, so t).
Toi hat.
(63) Du singst (ai danh t nhan vat ngoi 2, so t).
Mi hat.
(64) Er singt (ai danh t nhan vat ngoi 3, so t).
No hat.
88

(65) Sie singen (ai danh t nhan vat ngoi 3, so nhieu).
Ho hat.

Tom lai, quan he le thuoc cua t co the quyet nh mot hnh v tng ng, tieu
bieu la cac ngon ng Au chau, nh chung ta va thay, con trong tieng Viet th
khong.

S le thuoc cua t khong nhng ch mot chieu ma co the ca hai. Trng hp nay
noi len s lien i (interpendency) gia hai phan, o, ca hai eu co v tr
ngang nhau. De thay nhat la s lien i gia phan chu ng (subject) va phan v
ng (predicate phrase) trong cau. Xin lu y, v ng la phan ong t cong tuc t,
tc phan con lai cua cau (neu co) (cac phan nay se c noi ro hn cac chng
sau).

(66) Thang Bm co cai quat mo.

Thang Bm la chu ng. Co cai quat mo la v ng.

co Thang Bm
cai quat mo
lien i vi

a nam ro y ngha cua v tr va quan he le thuoc cua t, nay ta co the bat tay
vao viec phan tch cau e xem cum t, chuoi t nao la thanh to.

PHNG PHAP PHAN TCH CAU

Phai noi, nhng co gang chnh cua cac nha ngon ng hoc thien ve cau truc luan
kieu My sau thi ai Bloomfield la bao gi cung tm cach ngh ra nhng phng
phap tieu chuan nham phan tch cau theo loi cau truc. Ho cho rang, ngon ng la
cai g o co cau truc phc tap can c kham pha. Cum t discovery
procedures a i ra t o va a tr thanh chu ch cua cong viec nghien cu
ngon ng. ai e trong cong viec nay la he kham pha c nhng cai giong
nhau, cai khac nhau trong li le thc te ngoai i, th the nao cung tm ra c
quy tac ng phap.

89

Sang kien chnh cua phng phap nay la phan oan (segment). Mot li noi se
c phan ra lam nhieu oan tuyen tnh va c xep loai theo nhng chuan tac
nhat nh. Muc ch cua phan oan la khao sat xem cum t/chuoi t nao trong
cau la thanh to. Cu the la 6 phng phap th nghiem sau (s.s. Glinz 1965):

1. Phep the (substitution)
2. Phep th cau hoi (question test)
3. Phep bo tr (coordination)
4. Phep tnh lc (reduction)
5. Phep hoan v (permutation)
6. Phep bien hnh (transformation)

1. Fbcp tbc

Mot trong nhng phng phap phan tch cau thong dung nhat la phep the
(substitution). ieu kien dung phep the oi hoi moi phan t c em vao the
phai hp ly va phai cung moi trng ng canh. Nhng phan t nay co the la
nhng phan t oi lap (opposition). Ong cu oi lap vi a be, hoa hong
oi lap vi hoa lan, ... Tng cap phan t co moi quan he oi lap c xem nh
oi v (paradigmatic) va c xep chung vao mot tap hp c goi la he hnh
(paradigm). Xin lu y, tnh chat oi lap ay khong gat gao en o hai y ngha
oi lap bat buoc phai hoan toan trai ngc, nh an ong oi lap vi an ba,
tri oi lap vi at, ...

Muc ch cua phep the la nham xac nh thanh to cung loai qua cach th thay
the mot cum t trong chuoi t bang mot cum t khac; phan con lai gi nguyen.
Cum t mi khong c phep lam sai ng phap. Cum t mi vi ng canh tng
t, hoac cung loai ng phap, he hnh co the tao nen thanh to. V du thay the cum
t a be trong cau a be oc sach bang nhng cum t khac nh ong cu,
ong giao s am nhac ...:

(67) a be oc sach.

Ong cu
Ong giao s am nhac
Hung
Hung va Hng
Nhieu ngi
oc sach.

90

Tat ca cac cum t trong ngoac {} eu lam thanh nhng cau ung ng phap. at
cau hoi, vay, phai chang nhng cum t ay eu la nhng thanh to cung loai ? Neu
gia thiet nay ung, cung bang phep the, hay th xet cau:

(68) Co sinh vien va an va oc sach.

Cau nay ung ng phap nhng chuoi t Co sinh vien va an va khong the coi
la thanh to, v khong noi c, neu ng oc lap.

Tren thc te, can can than. Phep the khong bao am ket qua tm thay bao gi
cung la mot thanh to ung oi vi tieng Viet. Tieng Viet co nhng cau truc ma
ngon ng khac khong co, ien hnh la tieng c khong co cach noi hoan toan
giong nh cau truc va lam cai nay va lam cai no nh tren.

2. Fbcp tbo cao boi

iem yeu cua phep the la oi hoi nhieu cam giac th nghiem va khong de xac
nh thanh to cung loai. e khac phuc kho khan nay, ngi ta dung them phng
phap th cau hoi (question test). Cu the, cung vi v du a be oc sach,
neu at cau hoi:

(69) Ai oc sach ?

va tra li bang nhng cum t co san:

(70) a. Ong cu.
b. Ong giao s am nhac.
c. Hung.
d. Hung va Hng.
e. Nhieu ngi.
f. * Co sinh vien va an va.

Cac cum t th nghiem tren eu la cac thanh to cung loai giong nh a be,
tr trng hp co sinh vien va an va. Co ly phai la cum t co sinh vien.

3. Fbcp bo tr

91

Vi phep bo tr (coordination), mot cau co the c m rong bang cach dung
lien t (conjunction), v du va, e noi them mot cum t. Nhieu nha ngon ng
hoc theo hng cau truc luan tin rang, cum t c noi pha sau se la mot thanh
to cung loai.

(71) a. Hut thuoc co hai cho sc khoe.

m rong cau a. bang cach them cum t uong ru va lien t va gia:

b. Hut thuoc va uong ru co hai cho sc khoe.

Cau b. noi c. Vay, hai cum t hut thuoc va uong ru la hai thanh to
cung loai. Tng t:

(72) a. Lan at ngon nen len ban.
b. Lan at bnh hoa len ban.
c. Lan at ngon nen va bnh hoa len ban.

Tieng Anh:

(73) a. Peter runs up the hill.
b. Peter runs up the stairs.
c. Peter runs up the hill and up the stairs.

Nhng:

(74) a. Peter rings up his mother.
b. Peter rings up his sister.
c. * Peter rings up his mother and up his sister.

Cach bo tr cua up his mother va up his sister cho thay, khong mot chuoi t
nao noi c. Mat khac, mac du up the hill, up the stairs la hai thanh to
chuan, nhng cung cung mot cau truc giong het vay, hai chuoi t up his
mother va up his sister lai khong phai la thanh to. Cach bo tr cua ve [Peter]
[runs] [up the hill] khac vi [Peter] [rings up] [his mother]. Xin lu y, dau
ngoac [ ] cung thng c dung cho muc ch phan oan cau.

Vai v du tieng Anh khac:

92

(75) a. Peter wrote to Mary and to Bill.
b. Peter wrote a postcard and a letter.
c. * Peter wrote to Mary and a letter.
d. * Peter wrote a postcard and to Bill.

4. Fbcp tnb Iooc

Vi cach tm thanh to theo phep tnh lc (reduction), chung ta xem cum t
trung lap nao trong chuoi t co the lc bo c ma y ngha chnh cua no van
gi nguyen nh ng canh pha trc.

(76) a. Tieng Anh: Bill wont help me, but John will help me.
b. Tieng c: Die Mutter schenkt dem Sohn eine Hose und schenkt
der Tochter einen Rock.
(Ba me tang a con trai mot cai quan con a con gai (th
(mot)) chiec vay)
c. Tieng Viet:
Luc chet, hai chan anh i ang trc,
mat i ang sau con vng van cuoc i.
Em co con g e lai tren moi,
hay tnh yeu chang qua la ao anh ?
(Nguyen Sa)

Phep tnh lc tng oi hu ch cho viec nh cau truc cu phap toi thieu
(minimal syntax structure) cua mot cau:

(77) a. Nha cach mang on hoa Gandhi a t tran hom qua.
b. Nha cach mang on hoa Gandhi a t tran hom qua.
c. Nha cach mang on hoa Gandhi a t tran hom qua.
d. Nha cach mang on hoa Gandhi a t tran hom qua.
e. Nha cach mang on hoa Gandhi a t tran hom qua.

Gandhi t tran la cau noi c va ngan gon nhat, khong the bo them.

oi vi tieng Viet, phng phap lc t nay giup chung ta de nhan dien, t nao
ai dien cho t nao, ngha la t nao ong vai cu phap ma khong the bo c:

(78) Anh o tnh, anh o say,
93

Sao anh gheo nguyet gia ban ngay ?
Nay nay ch bao cho ma biet,
Chon ay hang ham ch mo tay
(Trach Chieu Ho (1) - Ho Xuan Hng)

dong 2 cua v du tren, o bo c nhng anh th khong:

(79) * Sao o gheo nguyet gia ban ngay ?

Anh phai gi vai tro ai dien cho anh o nh mot n v cu phap.

oi vi ngon ng Au chau nh tieng Anh, tieng c, phng phap nay thng
c dung e lc bo ong t; cau lc bo nghe van on. Song oi vi tieng Viet,
khong phai bao gi cung n gian the. Bo ong t de lam sai ng phap:

(80) Mary it eine Orange, Hans it einen Apfel.
(Mary an mot trai cam, con Hans mot trai tao.)
(81) * Treo len cay bi hai hoa, bc xuong vn ca hai nu tam xuan.
(Cau khong noi c, neu bo hai oan sau).
(82) * Toi i chi, con no i lam.
(Cau khong noi c v thieu lam cai g).

Hoac lam thay oi y ngha:

(83) Toi i xem trien lam, con no i xem a banh.
(Y ngha i xem a banh khac a banh).

S. Fbcp boan v|

Phng phap hoan v (permutation) cho phep chuyen oi th t nhng cum t
trong cau. Cum t oi c la thanh to.

Tieng Anh:

(84) a. I dont like your teacher.
b. Your teacher, I dont like.

94

Tieng c (cung ngha):

(85) a. Ich mag Deinen Lehler nicht so sehr.
b. Deinen Lehler mag ich nicht so sehr.

Tieng Viet (cung ngha):

(86) a. T khong thch ong thay cau lam.
b. Ong thay cau, t khong thch lam

Cac cum t your teacher, Deinen Lehler, ong thay cau eu la thanh to.
Xin lu y, cau b. cung la mot cau e dien trong tieng Viet: Ong thay cau (th) t
khong thch lam.

oi vi tieng Anh, c, hoan v cau co le la chuyen bnh thng. Nhng dung
phep nay trong tieng Viet, cau de tr nen lan can:

(87) a. Anh ay cha co viec lam, van con that nghiep.
b. ?
5)
Viec lam, anh ay cha co, van con that nghiep. (Kho nghe).
c. ? Cha co viec lam, anh ay van con that nghiep. (Kho nghe).

Ngi Au chau thng dung phep hoan v e nhan manh. Trong trng hp nay,
thanh to se c chuyen len au cau.

iem ang lu y trong khi hoan v la khong c tach ri t ng trong thanh to
mot cach tuy tien:

(88) a. * Lam, anh ay cha co viec, van con that nghiep.
b. * Co viec lam, anh ay cha, van con that nghiep.
c. * Cha co viec, anh ay lam, van con that nghiep.

6. Fbcp bicn bnb

Ngoai nhng phng phap th nghiem ke tren con co phep bien hnh
(transformation). Phep bien hnh thng c dung e chan oan nhng cau
truc tng phan. V du nhng hien tng sau ay trong tieng Anh:

5)
Trng hp khong ro se c anh dau ?
95

Cau che (cleft sentence): Trong cau truc cau che, chu ng khong ng trc tiep
trc ong t ma c menh e chnh It is/was gii thieu nh mot hnh thc
chu the. Chu the se c dien giai bang mot menh e phu:

(89) It was Mary who rang up me.

Cau che gia (pseudo-cleft sentence): Tng t nh cau che, bo ng (tuc t)
trong cau truc cau che gia se c a len au cau va c dien giai phan
cuoi cau.

(90) What stood on the table was the vase.

Quan he chu ong-b ong (active-passive relation):

(91) The student found the solution to the problem.
(92) The solution to the problem was found by the student.

V du, t mot cau nguyen thuy:

(93) The vase stood on the table.

ta co the tm thay nhng thanh to (trong ...) sau khi bien hnh:

(94) a. It stood on the table. (It = The vase, phep ai danh t hoa)
b. What stood on the table was the vase. (Cau che gia)
c. Where did the vase stand ? On the table. (Phep th cau hoi)
d. What the vase stood on was the table. (Cau che gia)
d. The vase stood on the table and looked splendid. (Phep bo
tr)

Tieng c (cung ngha):

(95) Die Vase stand auf dem Tisch.

(96) a. Sie stand auf dem Tisch. (Sie = die Vase, phep ai danh t hoa)
b. ? Was auf dem Tisch stand war die Vase. (Cau che gia)
6)

6)
ung ng phap nhng tren thc te hau nh khong ai noi.
96

c. Wo stand die Vase ? Auf dem Tisch. (Phep th cau hoi)
d. ? Wo(rauf) die Vase stand war der Tisch. (Cau che gia)
7)
e. Die Vase stand auf dem Tisch und sah prchtig aus. (Phep
bo tr)

Tieng Viet nguyen chat hnh nh khong co hien tng cau che, ngoai tr cach
dch thuat a b lai ngon ng Au chau.

(97) Tuoi tre ngay nay rat thch song t do.
(98) a. Chung no ngay nay rat thch song t do. (Chung no = tuoi tre,
cach ai danh t hoa)
b. Cai ma tuoi tre ngay nay rat thch la song t do. (Gan giong
cau che gia)
c. Tuoi tre ngay nay rat thch g ? Song t do. (Cach at cau hoi)
d. Tuoi tre ngay nay rat thch song t do va t lap. (Cach bo
tr)

Nhng cum t the vase, on the table, the table, stood on the table, die
Vase, auf dem Tisch, der Tisch, stand auf dem Tisch, song t do eu la
nhng thanh to co the xac nh c nh phep bien hnh. Trong tieng Viet va
tieng c, cach bien hnh khong pho bien nh trong tieng Anh.

Phep bien hnh con c dung kha nhieu trong viec giai thch cau truc sau va
cau truc be mat cua ngon ng trong ly thuyet ng phap tao sinh (se vao chi tiet
cac chng sau).

TOM LC

Cau truc moi ngon ng khac nhau la do cach xep at v tr t. Mat khac, trong
mot thanh to, co t quan trong ong vai chnh, co t khong quan trong ong vai
phu e bo ngha/phu ngha cho vai chnh. ay la moi quan he le thuoc gia cac
t oi vi nhau.

T la mot n v ngon ng nho nhat co am, ngha, loai t vng hoac chc nang
ng phap

7)
ung ng phap nhng tren thc te hau nh khong ai noi.
97

Chu ng c hieu la phan chu t nh trong ng phap truyen thong. V ng la
ong t cong tuc t, tc phan con lai cua cau.

Thanh to c hieu la mot t/cum t/chuoi t noi c (ung ng phap).
Cac phng phap phan tch cau thng dung:

Phep the
Phep th cau hoi
Phep bo tr
Phep tnh lc
Phep hoan v
Phep bien hnh

IEM M

1) Th dung phng phap tnh lc e tm nhng thanh to nho nhat trong cau
tieng Viet. Lay cac oan van trong sach bao.
2) Th dung phng phap tnh lc e lc t trong cau tieng Viet va cau
tieng Anh, tieng Phap tng ng, xem khac biet the nao. Phan t nao cua
ngon ng nao co the lc bo c ?
3) Th dung phep hoan v cho trang t, tnh t trong trng hp them ngha
ong t (at trc/sau ong t, at cuoi cau, at sau bo ng (tuc t)).
4) Th xem oi vi tieng Viet t co phai la phan t cu phap nho nhat khong,
hay ch/tieng ?
5) Th lay mot cau van xa va dung moi phng phap tren them bt bien
thanh dang cau tieng Viet hien ai. Xem chuoi t nao la thanh to (xa,
hien ai). Cau truc thanh to xa va nay khac biet ra sao ?
6) Th chuyen mot cau van noi sang cau van viet va ngc lai. Xem ac tnh
cua van noi va van viet khac nhau cho nao. iem khac biet nao tieu bieu
nhat ?
7) Th tm hieu them ve quan he chu ong, b ong (b/c) trong tieng
Viet. Tieng Viet khac nhng tieng Au chau iem nao ? Tai sao ?
98

Choong 5

CA| 1k|C NC| DOAN

PHAM TRU NG PHAP

Khi xet ve mat cau truc cua nhng thanh phan trong ngon ng, ieu trc het
can c lam ro la cai g c coi nh phan t nho nhat oi vi mot lnh vc
nhat nh (ng am hoc, hnh thai hoc, cu phap hoc, ...). oi vi bo mon cu phap,
t c xem la phan t nho nhat theo quan iem cua gii ngon ng hoc Tay
phng.

T c hieu nh mot n v cu phap nho nhat, co y ngha, hoac co loai t vng,
hoac chc nang ng phap. T tham gia cau tao, to chc lam thanh nhng thanh
phan ln hn (mot cum t, mot chuoi t) sao cho noi c, ngha la ung ng
phap. Xin nhac lai bang vai v du:

(1) An la mot t co y ngha va la mot ong t.
(2) Nan la tieng/ch khong co ngha. Nhng neu ghep an vi nan, ta se
c mot ong t co y ngha: an nan. T nay c ghep bang 2
tieng/ch. Nh vay, t co the la san pham cua hn hai tieng/ch hoac cua
t.
(3) Net la mot t tieng Anh co ngha la mang(li) va la mot danh t.
(4) Inter la mot tien to du co ngha (lien) nhng khong the ng mot
mnh. Neu ghep Inter vi net, ta c Internet, mot t co ngha la
lien mang. ay la mot t hoan chnh co u ngha khong can them bt g
na ca.

Co mot so t trong tay, chung ta co the tao ra rat nhieu cum t, chuoi t. The
nhng khong phai cum t, chuoi t nao cung eu noi c. Mot cum t, chuoi t
noi c c xem la mot thanh to. S d noi c la nh thanh to ung ng
phap. Noi cach khac la trong no a ton tai mot quy tac ng phap. Chung ta se
ban di ay.

99
CH|ONC 5 CA| 1k|C NC| DOAN
Trong thc te, cau noi c nhieu vo so ke, cho nen nhng chuoi t noi c
cung nhieu vo so ke. o la cha ke trong mot chuoi t noi c con co nhng
cum t nho hn noi c, va c the cang co nhieu thanh to na.

Hoi: Co cach nao nam bat c tat ca cac thanh to khong ? Tra li: Khong,
ngoai mot viec kha thi la xem mot thanh to thuoc loai nao.

Moi t eu co loai t vng (lexical type) nhat nh nh danh t, ong t, ....
Thanh to cung the, cung co loai mang tnh danh t, co loai mang tnh ong t, ...
Xem mot v du cho de hieu:

(5) Treo len cay bi, hai hoa,
Bc xuong vn ca, hai nu tam xuan.
(Ca dao)

Khi nghe chuoi t treo len cay bi, chung ta se co cam giac rang, chuoi t
nay dien ta hanh ong. ay la mot chuoi t noi c, mot thanh to mang tnh
ong t. Ta vay, nhng thanh to khac nh hai hoa, bc xuong vn ca,
hai nu tam xuan eu dien ta hanh ong, ngha la cung mang tnh ong t.

Thanh to cung co loai t vng giong nh t. Thanh to ch khac t cho la no co
the cha nhieu t hn. Tat nhien, mot thanh to cung co the la mot t. Con neu
bao gom nhieu t, th cac t phai c xep at theo th t sao cho noi c.
Ngi ta noi, no phai co cau truc cu phap (syntax structure).

Nhn lai v du ben tren, ta thay treo len cay bi la mot thanh to ong t.
Nhng no khong ch cha ong t treo len ma con cac t khac, nh cay,
bi. Ban than cay bi cung la mot thanh to va co tnh danh t. Ket qua,
thanh to ong t treo len cay bi la mot tong hp cua hai thanh phan: ong t
treo len va thanh to danh t cay bi. (Xin lu y, do s khac biet ve to chc,
t va thanh to la hai yeu to khac nhau). Thanh to ong t treo len cay bi co
cau truc nh sau:

treo len cay bi
treo len
thanh to ong t
thanh to danh t ong t
cay bi

(6)

100

Cau truc cu phap cua thanh to treo len cay bi co mot trat t nhat nh. Neu
ao ngc trat t ay, ngha la thay oi v tr cac thanh phan trong thanh to, cau
truc cu phap se b huy ngay va se khien chuoi t khong con noi c. Chang han
cay bi treo len la mot chuoi t khong noi c. oi vi cac thanh to hai
hoa, bc xuong vn ca, hai nu tam xuan cung the. Ngoai ra, con mot
iem can e y na la trong thanh to ong t, phan t ong t luon xuat hien
trc thanh to danh t (xem hnh ve ben tren).

Nhng g va c xet s chnh la cong viec phai lam khi xet ve pham tru ng
phap (grammatical category). Co the hieu mot cach ngan gon rang, muc ch
cua pham tru ng phap la nham phan loai t va thanh to. Cu the:

1. Phan loai t ve mat t vng, tc la xac nh t theo pham tru t vng
(lexical category),
2. Sau o, da tren loai t, phan loai thanh to ve mat cu phap, tc la xac
nh thanh to theo pham tru cu phap (syntax category).

Xet ve pham tru t vng la e nhan dien loai t (danh t, ong t, ...). Xet ve
pham tru cu phap la e xem nhng t a c nhan dien co moi quan he g vi
nhau khi tham gia vao viec tao nen thanh to, va thanh to ay thuoc loai nao (danh
t, ong t, ...), co cau truc ra sao. Chang han, neu xet ve pham tru t vng th
treo len la mot t thuoc loai ong t, con xet ve pham tru cu phap, th ong t
treo len la mot phan t cu phap a tham gia vao viec tao nen thanh to treo
len cay bi. Phan t ong t nay lam cho ca thanh to cung mang tnh ong t.

Sau ay chung ta se i vao chi tiet tng pham tru mot. Trc nhat, hay xet ve
phan loai t, tc pham tru t vng.

PHAM TRU T VNG

T (word), theo ngon ng hoc Tay phng, c phan thanh nhieu loai: mao t
(article), danh t (noun), ai danh t nhan vat (personal pronoun), ai danh t s
hu (possessive pronoun), ai danh t ch th (demontrative pronoun), ai danh t
quan he (relative pronoun), ai danh t nghi van (interrogative pronoun), ai
danh t tai quy (reflexive pronoun), ai danh t ho tng (reciprocal pronoun),
..., ong t (verb), tnh t (adjective), tnh t s hu (possessive adjective), trang
t (adverb), lien t (conjunction), gii t (preposition), tan than t (interjection),
...
101
t nhieu g, ai trong chung ta cung a biet s qua mot so loai t ke tren. Thiet
ngh, ch can hieu vai loai t (danh t, ong t, tnh t, trang t, lien t, gii t,
mao t) cung a u giup chung ta hieu nhng ly thuyet theo sau, thanh th xin
mien vao chi tiet tng loai t mot. Thay v vay, co the xem them nh ngha
trong t ien ngon ng hoc cua Lewandowski (1990).

Bi co qua nhieu loai t, cho nen cac nha ngon ng hoc phai tm cach phan loai
t theo tng lp tng ng.

Lp tng ng (equivalent class) c hieu la mot tieu tap hp bao
gom moi phan t co cung tnh chat tng ng a c chon loc theo
nhng chuan tac nhat nh.

Mot v du thc te:

Lp hoa Lan la mot lp ch cha cac loai hoa c cong nhan la thuoc ho
Lan: phong lan, moc lan, ... Hoa hong, hoa cuc khong thuoc ho Lan, nen
khong c ke la thuoc lp hoa Lan.
Lp xe c gii ch cha nhng phng tien c nh ngha la xe va co
ong c: xe gan may, xe hi, xe van tai, ... Xe ap, xe xch lo ap khong
c xep vao lp nay.

Vai v du lp t tng ng:

Lp danh t (noun class) la mot lp ch gom nhng t co tnh chat va chc
nang danh t, nh danh t rieng, danh t chung, ai danh t nhan vat, ai
danh t quan he, ai danh t s hu, ai danh t nghi van, ai danh t ho
tng, ...
Lp ch nh t (determiner class) gom co mao t, ai danh t tai quy, ai
danh t ch th, ...
Lp tnh t (adjective class) gom co tnh t va trang t.
Lp ong t (verb class) ch co ong t.

Ke ra chi tiet, th con nhieu. Tren thc te, gii ngon ng hoc Tay phng a co
thu gon nh sau:

Pham tru t vng (lexical category) c hieu la tap hp bao gom 6 lp
t (word class) sau ay (Robins 1966):

102

1. Danh t (noun)
2. ong t (verb)
3. Tnh t (adjective)
4. Gii t (preposition)
5. Lien t (conjunction)
6. Ch nh t (determiner)

Lp t (word class) c hieu nh mot mot lp tng ng cha moi t
coi nh cung loai va chc nang. (Xem v du va neu)

Nhng lp t ke tren co the c tom tat nh sau:

Lp Ky
hieu
V du
Danh t (danh t rieng,
danh t chung, ai danh
t nhan vat, ai danh t
s hu, ai danh t nghi
van, ai danh t ho
tng, ai danh t quan
he, ...)
N house, dog, I, you, mine,
yours, each other, one
another, what, who, whom,
which, ...
ong t V live, eat, ...
Tnh t (tnh t, trang t) A my, your, warm, hot,
slowly, extremly, ...
Gii t P to, for, on, ...
Lien t C and, or, ...
Ch nh t (mao t, ai
danh t tai quy, ...)
D the, a, this, that, myseft,
yourseft, ...
Nhng loai t cua
ngon ng khac.

Cach phan loai tren thc ra ch co gia tr cho nhng ngon ng An-Au, ac biet la
tieng Anh, ch khong ay u cho moi ngon ng, chang han nh tieng Viet. Mot
v du tieu bieu:

Cung la danh t nh tieng Anh, ngi Viet noi mot con ga, mot bc tranh
mot chiec thuyen, ... Nhng t ac biet con, bc, chiec, ... tieng Anh
103
khong co. Trong tieng Viet, loai t nay co the i vi mot t (danh t, ong t,
tnh t) e thanh lap mot thanh to mang tnh danh t va co the coi nh mot thc
the hau nh em c. Neu ng mot mnh, loai t nay co the ai dien cho oi
tng trong thanh to pha trc, ngha la a c noi trc. Loai t nay co kha
nang:

1. dien ta ca the ngi: ong giam oc, anh ky s, ...
2. dien ta ca the o vat: cai nha, canh ca, ...
3. dien ta ca the thc vat: cay cam, trai qut, ...
4. dien ta ca the thu vat: con cho, con meo, ...
5. dien ta phai tnh nam n: co dau, chu re, ...
6. dien ta s gia tre: ba lao, chau be, ...
7. dien ta tnh cao quy, sang hen, knh trong, khinh khi: ang anh hung, nha
t ban, ngai ai s, ke an may, ...
8. dien ta than linh: c Chua Tri, c Phat, ...
9. dien ta s kien: cuoc bieu tnh, s bat man, ...
10. dien ta tam t: niem hy vong, noi nh thng, ...
11. dien ta so lng: bay tre, an ga, am tang, ...
12. dien ta khoi lng: giot ma, trai nui, ...
13. dien ta tnh tng phan: tha vn, manh ruong, ...
14. dien ta th loai: loai nghe thuat at tien, th van chng re tien, ...,
van van va van van ...

Tieng Anh co mao t bat nh (non-specified article) a, tieng c co ein,
eine, tieng Phap co un,une. Tng t, tieng Viet co mot.

Tieng Anh co mao t xac nh (specified article) the, tieng c co der,
die, das, tieng Phap co le,la. Tng t vay, tieng Viet co cai va con
nhieu na.

(7) Ba gia i ch cau ong,
Hoi tham thay boi co chong li chang.
Thay boi xem que noi rang,
Li th co li nhng rang khong con
(Ca dao)

e dien ta cum t ba gia, ngi c thng noi die Alte. Die la mao t
xac nh, giong cai. Alte (gia) la tnh t. Vay, die Alte xem nh tng ng
vi cach noi ba gia trong tieng Viet.
104

The con thay boi th sao ? Ngi Anh va ke ca ngi c kho co the dien ta
c ch thay (thay lang, thay thuoc, thay vo, thay o, thay chua, thay mo,
thay dui, thay so, ...) bang mot mao t trong ngon ng ho. Thay theo ngi
Anh, ngi c la mot danh t ch mot ngi lam nghe day hoc, nh thay day
tieng Anh chang han (english teacher, Englischer Lehler).

Gia s (xin nhan manh la gia s) xem nhng tieng dung ch nh danh t nh
mot hnh thc mao t, th tieng Viet co en ba loai mao t va cach dung khac
nhau. Ta co mot tap hp DET gom 3 tap hp con DET
1
, DET
2
, DET
3
:

DET = DET
1
DET
2
DET
3

Tam goi:

DET la tap hp tat ca mao t. (DET viet tat cua determiner)
DET
1
la mao t bac mot (article level 1)
DET
2
la mao t bac hai (article level 2) va
DET
3
la mao t bac ba (article level 3).
DET
1
= { Mot }
DET
2
= { Cai }
DET
3
= { Ang, Anh, Anh, Ba, Bac, Bai, Bai, Ban, Bao, Ban, Bay, Be, Bo,
Bon, Bo, B, Buong, Bum, Bc, Cach, Canh, Canh, Can, Cap,
Cau, Cau, Cay, Chang, Ch, Chiec, Chieu, Chong, Chu, Chum,
Chuoi, Chng, Con, Co, Co, Cu, Cuc, Cum, Cuoc, Cuoc, Cuon,
Day, Dp, Dong, am, an, ao, ang, oa, oan, oan, oi,
o
1)
, ong, t, a, c, Em, Ga, Gian, Giot, Goc, Goi, Hat,
Hon, Hot, Hp, Ke, Khau, Khom, Khu, Khuc, Kien, Ky, Lan,
Lao, Loai, Loai, Loat, Lo, Li, Lu, Luong, Manh, Mang, Mau,
Me, Mieng, Mon, M, Mu, Mua, Mun, Nai, Nang, Nam, Nen,
Nen, Ngon, Ngoi, Ngum, Ngi, Nha, Nhom, Niem, Noi, Nu,
Ong, Phan, Pho, Qua, Quyen, S, Si, Tay, Tang, Tam, Tan,
Tap, Ten, Thang, Thanh, Thang, Thay
2)
, The, Th, Tha, Tieng,
Tnh, Toan, Top, T, Trai, Tui, Vien, V, Viec, V, Voc, Vung,
Xap, Xo, ... }

1)
khong em c.
2)
em c con tuy ng canh.
105
Xin lu y, tap hp tren cha phai la toan bo kho tang mao t tieng Viet, nhat la
mao t bac ba.

Tap hp DET
1
cha mao t bat nh, ch cai muon noi th khong xac nh, mot
cai g o. V du mot lang, nhng lang nao khong ro. DET
1
tng ng vi
a cua tieng Anh (a village), ein, eine cua tieng c (ein Dorf).

(8) Co mot lang nam ben song Hng.

Tap hp DET
2
cha mao t xac nh, ch cai muon noi th xac nh. V du cai
lang. DET
2
ch tng ng mot phan vi the cua tieng Anh (the village),
der, die, das cua tieng c (das Dorf).

(9) A ! Cai lang anh noi la lang An Van ay.

Tap hp DET
3
cung bao gom nhng mao t xac nh, tng t DET
2
, ch cai
muon noi th xac nh. V du ngoi lang. DET
3
la mao t tan cung (terminal
article) v theo sau o ch con co danh t, tnh t, ong t e bien thanh mot
thanh to mang tnh danh t co the v nh mot danh t hau nh em c. Hay
xem cach thanh lap danh t cua DET
3
qua ba v du di ay. Xin lu y: Dau ?
la trng hp khong co hoac khong biet.

A. V du DET
3
ket hp vi danh t:

Anh lnh, Ba hoang hau, Bai th, Ban nhac, Bay con nt, Bon hoc tro, Bo luat,
Bc tranh, Canh ca, Canh i, Cap v chong, Cau chuyen, Cay cau, Chang
chien s, Ch sinh vien, Chiec la, Chu hoc tro, Con bo, Co y ta, Cuc a, Cuoc i,
Cuon sach, am beo, an tre nho, ao luat, ang trng phu, ong rac, oi
li, a ban, c Phat, Em gai, Ga thuy thu, Giot nuc, Hat cat, Hon ao, Hot
au, Ke ?, Khau sung, Khuc song, Lao phng trung, Loai xe, Li nhac, Lu
quy, Manh vn, Mang i, Mau truyen, Mieng cm, Mon ca chien, Mu tu ba,
Nang cong chua, Nen van hoa, Ngoi chua, Ngon nui, Ngi lnh, Nha van,
Nhom ban, Niem ?, Noi long, Ong vua, Pho tng, Qua a cau, Quyen truyen,
S i, Tay anh ch, Tam hnh, Tan tuong, Ten tai xe, Thanh gm, Thang em,
Th trai cay, Tha vn, Tieng chuong, T giay, Trai chuoi, Vien Thong oc, V
tong thong, ...

B. V du DET
3
ket hp vi ong t:

106

Anh ban nc, Ba ban chieu, Bai ca, Ban phu hoa, Bay an cp, Bon ca o, Bo
?, Bc ve, Canh quat, Canh sinh hoat, Cap ?, Cau noi, Cay ?, Chang hat dao, Ch
giup viec, Chiec ?, Chu phu re, Con , Co phuc vu, Cuc n, Cuoc song, Cuon
?, am bieu tnh, an an cp, ao lam ngi, ang cu the, ong n, oi ?,
a boi tnh, c ?, Em ng ng, Ga mua vui, Giot ?, Hat ?, Hon ?, Hot ?,
Ke chan i, Khau ?, Khuc hat, Lao an may, Loai tuyen truyen, Li ha, Lu an
bam, Mang ?, Manh ?, Mau ?, Mieng an, Mon nhau, Mu mai moi, Nang tiep tan,
Nen ?, Ngoi ?, Ngon ?, Ngi gay chien, Nha lanh ao, Nhom truyen giao,
Niem thng, Noi nh, Ong ap xch lo, Pho ?, Qua ?, Quyen ?, S bo th, Tay
tham nhung, Tam ?, Tan ?, Ten am chem, Thanh ?, Thang buon lau, Th an
chi, Tha ?, Tieng th than, T bao cao, Trai cam, V ch huy, Vien thong dch,
...

C. V du DET
3
ket hp vi tnh t:

Anh ca, Ba ien, Bai ?, Ban ?, Bay tre, Bon nho, Bo ?, Bc ?, Canh ?, Canh eo
le, Cap ?, Cau ?, Cay ?, Chang hao hiep, Ch ln, Chiec ?, Chu nho, Con nho, Co
be, Cuc ?, Cuoc vui, Cuon ?, am du con, an tre, ao ?, ang linh thieng, oi
tre, a dot, c ?, Em be, Ga khung, Giot sau, Hat mem, Hon ?, Hot ?, Ke
khon cung, Khau ?, Khuc than tien, Lao mu, Loai tot, Li ai oan, Lu lai cang,
Mang tnh, Manh tnh, Mau tnh ?, Mieng ngon, Mon re, Mu ac oc, Nang que,
Nen ?, Ngoi ?, Ngon ?, Ngi nong can, Nha thong thai, Nhom tr thc, Niem
vui, Noi buon, Ong gia, Pho ?, Qua ?, Quyen ?, S lanh lung, Tay cng au, Tam
?, Tan ?, Ten lu manh, Thanh ?, Thang ngu, Th that, Tha ?, Tieng xau, T ?,
Trai ang, Vien ?, V than linh, ...

So vi nhng ngon ng khac nh Anh, Phap, c, ... mao t tieng Viet doi dao
la nh nhom bac 3.

Mao t bac 3 khong the ng mot mnh. Loai t (word type) nay khong phai la
mao t bnh thng. Thc chat cua no la mot danh t. Noi ung hn la mot loai
danh t co kha nang thanh lap mot n v danh t. Hay tam goi la danh t hnh
thc (formal noun)
3)
. Danh t hnh thc co chc nang:

ket hp vi mot t e thanh lap mot thanh to mang tnh danh t. Ket qua
dien ta mot oi tng a c hnh thc hoa ma a so eu em c.

3)
Co tac gia con goi la pho danh t (Nguyen Kim Than), tien danh t (Phan Khoi), loai t (Le Van
Ly). Trc khi i s thong nhat ve thuat ng ngon ng, chung toi tam goi la vay, ke ca cac thuat
ng khac.
107
ai dien ca thanh to c thanh lap ay ve mat cu phap mot moi trng
ng canh a c lam ro pha trc.

(10) Co ay va ngam hai bai th hay qua. Mot bai cua Quang Dung, mot bai
cua Hu Loan.

Chung ta biet th la mot danh t cu the, the nhng khong em c. Th la
mot tap hp rat chung chung. Muon em c, ngi ta phai gii han no bang
mot hnh thc, mot n v nao o nh mot bai th, cau th, vang th, ...
Nhng hnh thc nay chnh la nhng oi tng cu the cung giong nh nhng tap
hp con a c phan loai t mot tap hp rat ln va tong quat. V th khong
em c, cho nen khong the noi:

(11) * Co ay va ngam hai th hay qua.

Nh n v hoa th bang hnh thc bai, chung ta mi co mot loai thc the
em c, o la bai th. ay la kha nang th nhat cua danh t hnh thc.

Kha nang th hai cua danh t hnh thc (bai) la ai dien cho oi tng (bai
th) a c lam ro trong moi trng ng canh pha trc. Nh ng canh th
a xuat hien cau au, cho nen cau sau, chung ta mi co the lc bo ch
th bang cach noi tat la mot bai.

(12) Mot bai th cua Quang Dung, mot bai th cua Hu Loan.

Gi chc nang nh mot danh t, bai ai dien cho thc the bai th e cau sau
ng sai ng phap. Neu khong nh ng canh trong cau, chung ta khong the noi
khi khi mot bai. Khong ai hieu bai ay la bai g ca.

Bi v danh t hnh thc co kha nang ai dien luon cho thanh to moi trng
ng canh a c lam ro pha trc, cho nen no co kha nang lam trung tam y
ngha cho cai thanh to b tnh lc pha sau.

Tng t danh t hnh thc, mao t bac hai cai cung co the tao thanh mot
thanh to mang tnh danh t em c: mot cai ban, hai cai ghe, ba cai
nha, ... Chnh ban than cai cung mang tnh chat danh t. Neu ng trc no
la mao t bac nhat mot hoac so em, th chc nang cua no lai hao hao nh
mot danh t hnh thc.

108

S lc la vay. ay la mot e tai khong n gian. Tot nhat la ban chi tiet mot
chuyen luan khac. e i tiep, hay xep danh t hnh thc vao lp danh t.

Sau khi a xet s ve loai t vng cua t, nay hay xet xem t co kha nang tao
nen nhng thanh to co loai cau truc cu phap nao. ay cong viec thuoc pham tru
cu phap.

PHAM TRU CU PHAP

a hieu nom na, thanh to la mot t, cum t, chuoi t noi c, nay ta nh ngha
ro hn:

Thanh to la mot tap hp t co cau truc cu phap.

Neu mot tap hp ch cha mot t, th t ay chnh la thanh to ay. Trng hp n
gian nay chung ta khong ban en. Hay xet en trng hp mot thanh to cha
nhieu t.

Trong mot thanh to cha nhieu t, chac chan se co mot t gi vai tro trung tam y
ngha cua ca thanh to. T nay se quyet nh luon loai t vng cua thanh to. V
du mot cum t noi c:

(13) Truyen hay

Truyen hay la mot thanh to. Khi nghe noi en truyen hay, lap tc chung ta
se e tam ngay en truyen, bi ay la thong tin quan trong nhat trong moi
thong tin c noi ra. Ngi ta noi, t nay la t chu chot cua thanh to, no lam
trung tam thanh to, no noi len oi tng. oi tng ay la truyen. Trong khi
o, t hay khong quan trong. No ch phu ngha them e cho biet truyen the
nao thoi, v du truyen hay, truyen d, truyen chng, truyen tieu lam,
truyen tnh cam xa hoi, truyen trinh tham, ... La truyen g i na, tat ca eu
latruyen. T truyen mang y ngha trung tam.

Truyen la mot danh t . Noi bao quat hn, no thuoc lp danh t (noun class).
Hay la mot tnh t, thuoc lp tnh t (adjective class). Bi danh t truyen la
t chu chot cua thanh to, cho nen ca thanh to cung mang tnh chat danh t.
Ngi ta noi, t chu chot nay la au thanh to.
109
Co le v du tren a gi cho chung ta nh en moi quan he le thuoc cua t trong
thanh to chng trc. ung vay. Xet en pham tru cu phap (syntax
category) la xet en moi quan he le thuoc cua t trong thanh to. Nguyen tac cua
quan he le thuoc kha n gian:

Nhng t le thuoc vao mot au t vng se tao nen mot thanh to.

au t vng (lexical head) theo ngon ng hoc Tay phng c hieu nh
mot t ong vai trung tam, ai dien cho mot trong 4 pham tru t vng. Noi
mot cach tong quat la 4 lp t:

1) danh t (N)
2) ong t (V)
3) tnh t (A)
4) gii t (P)

au t vng la yeu to quyet nh tnh ac trng cua thanh to. Trong mot thanh
to, neu au t vng thuoc lp danh t, th o la thanh to danh t; neu au t
vng thuoc lp ong t, th o la thanh to ong t; neu au t vng thuoc lp
tnh t, th o la thanh to tnh t; neu au t vng thuoc lp gii t, th o la
thanh to gii t. Ngi ta goi mot thanh to c phan loai cu the nh danh t,
ong t, ... la mot ng oan. nh ngha ro hn:

Ng oan (phrase) la mot thanh to a c nh loai. Loai thanh to la ten
cua au t vng.

Sau ay, e de giai thch cau truc ng phap, chung ta se dung mo hnh cay
(tree). Trong cay, moi nut (node) c at ten bang mot ky hieu bieu th tng
lp t rieng biet, v du nh tnh t la A (adjective), danh t la N (noun)
4)
, ...
Ngoai ra, bi quan he le thuoc con noi len cai ton ti cua cau truc, cho nen tng
nut mot se c dien ta theo v tr cao thap nhat nh.

Trong cum t truyen hay, truyen la danh t, hay la tnh t. Hay le thuoc
vao truyen, tc moi quan he tnh t le thuoc vao danh t. Noi tong quat hn,
lp tnh t le thuoc vao lp danh t. V tr tnh t thap hn v tr danh t. N la au
t vng:

4)
Theo truyen thong ngon ng hoc, nhng ky hieu viet tat A, N, V, ... c dung nh nhng ky
hieu quoc te. Chung toi cung dung nh vay.
110

hay
N
truyen A

(14)

Truyen hay la mot thanh to thuoc loai danh t (noun, viet tat: N). Thanh to nay
c at ten la ng oan danh t (noun phrase). Cau truc tren mo ta ng oan
nay.

Thay v ve tho s theo kieu tren, chung ta ve cay theo kieu khac thng c
goi la cay cu phap (syntax tree).

Cay cu phap co nut va nhanh. Cay co the co nhieu bnh dien (level). Mot nut
bnh dien tren co the bao gom nhieu nut bnh dien di. Hai nut (tren, di)
noi vi nhau bang mot nhanh:

nhanh
nut
A bnh dien 1
B X bnh dien 2
C D E Y Z bnh dien 3

(15)

Nut A nam bnh dien cao nhat. Nut A sinh ra nut B va X. Nut A noi vi nut B
va X qua hai nhanh. Nut B sinh ra nut C, D, E. Nut X sinh ra Y, Z. Tng t, cac
nhanh noi cac nut tren/di vi nhau.

Mot nut sinh ra nut khac se c goi la ng oan. A, B, X la cac ng oan. Ng
oan la mot phan t khong tan cung (non-terminal)
5)
. Ngc lai, mot nut khong
sinh ra nut khac, se c coi nh phan t tan cung (terminal)
6)
. Gia tr tan cung
la mot t (chng sau se noi chi tiet ve cay cu phap):

5)
Co tac gia goi la khong ket thuc.
6)
Co tac gia goi la ket thuc.
111
hay truyen
NP
A
N
ng oan
t
(gia tr tan cung)
lp t

(16)

Nut ng oan danh t NP (noun phrase) cha nut danh t N va nut tnh t A. Nut
N va nut A tan cung bang hai t cu the truyen va hay (gia tr tan cung).

Nut va nhanh cua cay cu phap mo ta mot loai quy tac c goi la quy tac cau
truc ng oan:

Quy tac cau truc ng oan (phrase structure rule) la nhng quy tac co
chc nang xep at nhng thanh to trong chuoi t va nhng phan t lien he
trong thanh to vao tng pham tru cu phap nhat nh. Quy tac cau truc ng
oan co dang chung: A B

A la ng oan; B la mot hay nhieu ng oan hoac mot lp t.

Xin lu y: Trong tin hoc, quy tac cau truc ng oan ong ngha vi quy tac
san sinh (production rule), o, moi thanh to A, B c xem nh mot
bien so (variable) hoac phan t khong tan cung, tc con san sinh c na.
Ngc lai, B c coi nh mot nguyen t (atom) hoac phan t tan cung,
neu B tan cung bang mot t cu the.

V du quy tac cau truc ng oan danh t NP trong tieng Viet a noi tren:

(17) NP N A

NP la phan t khong tan cung v NP san sinh ra N va A. Hai phan t N (noun) va
A (adjective) la hai phan t tan cung. N tan cung bang truyen, A tan cung
bang hay.

Da vao quy tac cau truc ng oan, cac nha ngon ng hoc Tay phng a dng
nen mot mo hnh ng phap c goi la ng phap cau truc ng oan.
112

Ng phap cau truc ng oan (phrase structure grammar, viet tat PSG)
cua mot ngon ng la mot tap hp bao gom tat ca cac quy tac cau truc ng
oan cua ngon ng o.

Tren c s pham tru t vng, ng oan c chia lam 4 loai:

1. Ng oan danh t hoac danh ng (noun phrase, viet tat NP) la ng
oan co au t vng thuoc lp danh t.
2. Ng oan tnh t
7)
hoac tnh ng (adjective phrase, viet tat AP) la ng
oan co au t vng thuoc lp tnh t.
3. Ng oan gii t hoac gii ng (preposition phrase, viet tat PP) la ng
oan co au t vng thuoc lp gii t.
4. Ng oan ong t hoac ong ng
8)
(verb phrase, viet tat VP) la ng
oan co au t vng thuoc lp ong t.

Ng phap cau truc ng oan, theo nh Chomsky (1977: 127) ke lai trong cuon
Language and Responsibility, la mot mo hnh toan a c cac nha toan hoc
dng nen nham khao sat cau truc cua ngon ng con ngi theo kieu toan.
Schtzenberger la mot nha toan hoc tieu bieu trong lnh vc nay. Mo hnh nay
c coi nh mot loai ng phap tao sinh (Generative Grammar). Ca Chomsky
cung a d phan vao viec nghien cu chung vi Schtzenberger, song canh o,
ong cung co mot ly thuyet ng phap tao sinh rieng.

Cung theo li Chomsky, ng phap tao sinh cua ong thc ra khong phai mai ti
nam 1965 mi c pho bien. Y tng nay a c nhieu ngi biet en qua
luan an thac s Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew cua ong lam tai ai hoc
Pennsylvania vao nam 1951.

Ng phap tao sinh (generative grammar) cua mot ngon ng la mot tap
hp quy tac hien ngon co kha nang xac nh chuoi t nao la cau cua ngon
ng o va ong thi xep san cho moi cau mot cach mo ta cau truc.

Mo ta cau truc (structure description) cau la s xac nh cau truc cua
thanh to bang cach lam ro moi quan he cua cac phan t trong o theo
pham tru ng phap.

7)
Co tac gia con goi la ng oan tnh t va trang t
8)
cac chng sau, chung toi goi la v ng.
113
Tao sinh c hieu mot cach gian n la e ra, san sinh ra. Chomsky cho rang
ngon ng la mot tap hp (hu han hoac vo han) cha moi cau (Chomsky 1957:
13). Tat ca moi cau eu co cau truc nhat nh. Moi cau truc eu mo ta c nh
quy tac. Moi quy tac cha ng nhieu phan t ngon ng khac nhau, trong o mot
phan t co the san sinh ra nhng phan t khac. Vi suy ngh ay, ong a tm cach
lap mot mo hnh. Khi au bang mot chan ly va mot tap hp nhng quy tac
chuan hnh, nhng ket qua se tuan t c tao sinh. Moi quy tac eu co dang:

(18)

(thanh phan nam ben trai mui ten) sinh ra (thanh phan nam ben phai mui
ten). Chomsky a giai thch y tng cua ong bang mot v du nh sau:

Gia s co mot ngon ng ch gom co 3 t Jules, Chloe, loves. Ngi noi
ngon ng nay se biet ngay nhng to hp nao cua 3 t nay th noi c con nhng
to hp khac th khong:

(19) * Jules Chloe loves.
(20) Jules loves Chloe.
(21) * loves Jules Chloe.
(22) Chloe loves Jules.
(23) * Chloe Jules loves.

Cau nao noi c se c cong nhan la cau cua ngon ng ay. Nhiem vu cua ng
phap tao sinh la phai cat ngha c nhng kien thc hien ngon va ham ngon
cua ngi noi, hoac s thong minh cua ngi oc. e cat ngha cai kien thc
hien ngon, ngi ta co the e ngh mot ng phap nh sau (Chomsky 1977: 104):

(24)

S N VP
VP V N

N

V loves
Jules
Chloe
G = grammar
S = sentence, c viet lai la:
danh t + ng oan ong t
(noun N) (verb phrase VP)
VP = verb phrase, c viet lai la:
ong t + danh t
(verb V) (noun N)
N = noun, c viet lai: Jules hoac Chloe
V = verb, c viet lai: loves
=
G
114

T s san sinh cua cac quy tac tren (ma Chomsky goi la suy dien (deduction)
9)

(neu S th N + NP, v.v.)), ta c nhng ket qua c phai sinh sau:

The S bang N VP
The VP bang V N, ta co: N V N
The N th nhat bang Jules, ta co: Jules V N
The V bang loves , ta co: Jules loves N
The N th hai bang Chloe, ta co: Jules loves Chloe

Ket qua, chuoi t a tan cung; khong con phai sinh (desire) c na. Ngi ta
co the ve lai s phai sinh (derivation) cua cau tren di dang cay cu phap. Cay
cu phap minh hoa cau truc cua nhng phan t tan cung trong cau:

S
N VP
Jules loves Chloe
V N

(25)

o la nguyen tac cua ng phap tao sinh. Cung mot nguyen tac nh ng phap cau
truc ng oan, ay cung la mot mo hnh toan. Tng quy tac va thong tin co the
lap trnh c mot cach de dang, chang han nh viet mot bo phan tch (parser)
e nhan dang cau truc cu phap cua ngon ng. Tren thc te, ban ban ng phap
tao sinh c ng dung kha pho bien trong viec thiet lap ngon ng lap trnh
(Pascal, C/C++, Java, ...), trnh bien dch (compiler).

Xet ve mat cau truc ngon ng, chac han moi ngon ng eu co nhng quy tac cau
truc ng oan ac thu. Khong ai dam qua quyet, moi ngon ng tren the gii ch
co 4 loai cau truc ng oan can ban thuoc pham tru cu phap nh danh t, ong
t, gii t, tnh t, hoac noi ngc lai la ch can 4 loai nay thoi cung u giai thch
c tat ca cau truc cua moi ngon ng. Ca pham tru t vng cung the. Chac
chan se co mot loai t ma mot ngon ng nao o co nhng tieng Anh khong co.
Bi v ng phap tao sinh nguyen thuy cua Chomsky c dng t tieng Do Thai
va tieng Anh, cho nen khong the noi, moi tnh chat c rut ra t o eu thoa

9)
Chomsky goi la quy tac suy dien (deduction rule), ong ngha vi quy tac san sinh (production
rule) thng c noi ti trong tin hoc.
115
moi ac iem cua moi ngon ng. Ly thuyet ch la nguyen tac. Muon ng dung
no, moi ngon ng phai t xac nh moi cau truc ng oan cua mnh. Song cung
cha chac la hat nhan cua ly thuyet se thoa moi trng hp. ay cung la ly do
khien Chomsky a ngh en s bien hnh (transformation) cua cau truc ngon
ng. Sang kien nay la mot tien e cho viec m rong ly thuyet ng phap tao sinh
thanh Ng phap bien hnh tao sinh (Generative Transformation Grammar) cua
ong sau nay.

Sau ay, da vao ly thuyet ng phap tao sinh, chung ta hay th xet s qua nhng
cau truc ng oan can ban cua 3 ngon ng Anh, Viet, c, va qua o, th so
sanh s khac biet cua chung. Gap trng hp cac ngon ng co cung cau truc th
o ch la s tnh c ch khong han bao gi cung the. Mat khac, gia nh tieng
Viet co oi hoi mot cau truc tng ng ma tieng Anh hoac tieng c khong co,
th o ch la mot e ngh m rong cho tieng Viet ch khong han la quy tac a
c moi ngi ong y. Trong khuon kho bai viet, chung ta ch noi tong quat ve
nguyen tac ch khong vao chi tiet. Khao sat them ve cau truc ng oan tieng
Viet la iem m danh cho cac ban co quan tam.

Bang v du cu the, chung ta se th xuyen qua 4 loai ng oan can ban thuoc
pham tru cu phap:

Ng oan danh t NP
Ng oan tnh t (/trang t) AP
Ng oan gii t PP
Ng oan ong t VP

1. Ngo doan danb to NF

Mot ng oan danh t NP n gian nhat ch co mot danh t:

(26) NP N

oc la ng oan danh t NP (noun phrase) san sinh danh t N (noun). Cay cu
phap tng ng:

NP
N

116

V du cu the vi 3 danh t (N) knife, Messer, dao:

a. NP tieng Anh b. NP tieng c c. NP tieng Viet

NP
N
knife
NP
N
Messer
NP
N
dao

Cac cay cu phap tren mo ta hai quy tac:

(27) NP N
(28) N knife | Messer | dao

Ng oan danh t NP san sinh danh t N. Danh t N tan cung bang knife hoac
Messer hoac dao. Ky t | oc la hoac (phep OR cua logic).

M rong quy tac NP N bang mot ch nh t (determiner, viet tat: D) ng
trc danh t N, ta co:

(29) NP D N

V du vi mao t xac nh:

(30) D the | das

a. NP tieng Anh b. NP tieng c

NP
N D
knife the
NP
N D
Messer das
Trong tieng Viet, neu hieu mot cach n gian nh tren, ta co:
117
(31) D con

Cay cu phap:

NP
N D
dao con

Nhng gap trng hp mao t bat nh:

(32) D a | ein | mot

a. NP tieng Anh b. NP tieng c c. NP tieng Viet

NP
N D
knife a
NP
N D
Messer ein
NP
N D
dao mot
tieng Anh va tieng c ung, con tieng Viet se gap van e ngay. Nghe mot
ngi Anh noi I give you a knife hoac ngi c noi Ich gebe Dir ein
Messer, khong sao. Nghe mot ngi Viet noi: Tao cho may mot dao th nguy
qua.

Thc ra y ngha ma ngi Anh, ngi c muon noi ay la mot con dao,
hoan toan vo hai, nhng ngi Viet lai hieu tat la mot (nhat) dao. Tai sao ?
Rat de hieu, bi danh t knife trong tieng Anh, Messer trong tieng c a
noi len ca the con dao va tat nhien em c, trong khi o tieng Viet th
cha. Danh t dao co ve cu the tng chng em c, vay ma khong. Dao
la mot tap hp toan the. Muon em c, can phai gii han no bang cach hnh
thc hoa, mo ta them cai g dao. V du ngay ay, phai them con pha trc
dao th mi u dien ta cai ca the cua dao, tc chnh la con dao, va mi
118

em c. T o mi noi c mot con dao va mi ong ngha vi tinh than
a knife, ein Messer cua tieng Anh, tieng c.

Tng t nh trng hp dao, con co rat nhieu danh t khac tng chng em
c, nhng khong: bau, cua, ca, cop, mai, lan, cuc, truc,
ngheu, so, oc, hen, v.v.. Khong ai noi ban cho toi mot cua, toi muon
mua mot ca ma phai noi ban cho toi mot con cua, toi muon mua mot con ca
theo cong thc:

(33) danh t hnh thc + danh t = ng oan danh t

Neu n gian hoa van e bang cach xem cum t con dao nh mot danh t, th
quy tac NP D N cua tieng Anh, c cung dung c cho tieng Viet:

(34) D mot | cai

NP
N D
con dao cai
NP
N D
con dao mot
Con neu xem con dao nh mot ng oan danh t, th bat buoc phai m rong
quy tac NP D N thanh:

(35) NP D NP (tieng Viet)

NP cua ve phai dien ta quy tac thanh lap con dao:

(36) NP N
form
N (tieng Viet)

(N
form
ky hieu cho danh t hnh thc (formal noun)),

(37) N
form
con (tieng Viet)

119
NP
con dao
N
form
N

The nhng cha het, bi con co trng hp noi c nh mot cai con dao,
mot cai con ng, mot cai bc tranh, ... (mac du hi rm ra). ay,
mot la mao t bat nh (mao t bac 1), cai la mao t xac nh (mao t bac 2)
va con, bc la danh t hnh thc. V tr cua chung thoa he thc:

(38) mao t bat nh > mao t xac nh > danh t hnh thc

cu the la mot ng trc cai; cai ng trc con, bc.

Trong tieng Anh, khong ai noi a the, hoac tieng c ein der/die/das. Thnh
thoang ngi c cung co noi nhng lai ngc (oi vi ngi Viet):

(39) die eine Frau (Dch 1-1: cai mot an ba)
(40) der eine Mann (Dch 1-1: cai mot an ong)

Trong tieng Viet, khong nhng ch co mao t mot ng trc cai ma noi
chung con ca so em hai, ba, bon, ... Ngc lai khong c. Khong ai noi
cai mot con dao nh ngi c. Mao t cai trong he thc tren co the bo
c neu danh t hnh thc a ton tai: mot con dao, mot con ng, mot
bc tranh. Con va bc tha sc cho ta nhng n v danh t em c ma
khong can en mao t cai.

Vay, quy tac NP D NP can c m rong cho tieng Viet bang cach them mao
t bat nh mot (ky hieu: D
unspec
) va mao t xac nh cai (ky hieu: D
spec
):

(41) NP D
unspec
D
spec
NP (tieng Viet)

Trong tieng Viet, danh t ghep cung la mot trng hp tng t nh trng hp
ghep t vi danh t hnh thc:

Ghep oi: ng pho, v chong, con cai, ...
Ghep ba: thao cam vien, hang khong mau ham ...
Ghep t: thuy quan luc chien, ...
120

Viec thanh lap mot danh t dung c nh mot n v t la mot van e thuoc ve
bo mon t ng, chung ta se khong ban ay. ay la mot iem m cho ban oc
co quan tam t suy ngh va ao sau them. Hay tr ve quy tac tong quat:

(42) NP D N

Khong bat buoc ch nh t D bao gi cung phai i vi danh t. Ta co the cho D
vao ngoac (), coi nh mot la chon (option):

(43) NP (D) N
(44) NP (D
unspec
(D
spec
)) NP (tieng Viet)

e n gian hoa van e, hay xem:

D
unspec
(D
spec
) nh D
NP nh N

trong quy tac NP D N (neu can, ta se vao chi tiet sau).

Danh t thng c bo ngha bang tnh t A. Quy tac can c m rong. Tng
t ch nh t D, viec dung tnh t A ch la mot la chon:

(45) a. Tieng Viet: NP (D) N (A)
b. Tieng Anh: NP (D) (A) N
c. Tieng c: NP (D) (A) N

a. Mot phong canh ep.
b. A beautiful landscape.
d. Eine schne Landschaft.

a. NP tieng Anh:

NP
N D A
a beautiful landscape
121
b. NP tieng c:

NP
N D A
eine schne Landschaft
c. NP tieng Viet:

NP
A D N
mot phong canh ep
Ng oan danh t NP co the c m rong bang cach cong them mot ng oan
gii t PP va cung mang tnh la chon:

(46) a. Tieng Viet: NP (D) NP (A) (PP)
b. Tieng Anh: NP (D) (A) N (PP)
c. Tieng c: NP (D) (A) N (PP)

a. Mot phong canh ep cua Viet Nam.
b. A beautiful landscape of Vietnam.
c. Eine schne Landschaft von Vietnam.

a. NP tieng Anh:

NP
D A N PP
a beautiful landscape of Vienam
122

b. NP tieng c:

NP
D A N PP
eine schne Landschaft von Vietnam
c. NP tieng Viet:

NP
D N A PP
mot phong canh ep cua Viet Nam
Xin lu y: Ve hnh tam giac co ngha la khong vao chi tiet.

Thay v mo ta ng oan danh t NP bang cay cu phap, ngi ta co the n gian
hoa bang cach dung dau ngoac [ ] va nhan hieu (label, mark) nh N, V, A, D, PP,
...:

(47) a. [
D
Mot] [
N
phong canh] [
A
ep] [
PP
cua Viet Nam]
b. [
D
A] [
N
beautiful] [
N
landscape] [
PP
of Vietnam]
c. [
D
Eine] [
N
schne] [
N
Landschaft] [
PP
von Vietnam]

Cung co the them ngha mot danh t bang nhieu tnh t va ng oan gii t cung
mot luc:

(48) Mot phong canh ep, (va) tr tnh tren vung cao nguyen (cua) Viet Nam.

Muon dien ta tnh lap lai cua quy tac NP, co the them dau + sau A va PP:

(49) a. Tieng Viet: NP (D) N (A+) (PP+)
b. Tieng Anh: NP (D) (A+) N (PP+)
123
c. Tieng c: NP (D) (A+) N (PP+)

Xin lu y: ay ch noi en quy tac tieng Viet di dang n gian. Trong
trng hp dung lien t, chung ta phai m rong ng oan tnh t AP ben di.

2. Ngo doan tnb to AF

Muc ch cua tnh t la them ngha cho danh t.

(50) a. Mot phong canh ep, tr tnh.
b. Mot phong canh rat ep.

Trong trng hp a., hai tnh t ep va tr tnh them ngha cho danh t
phong canh. Trong trng hp b., chung ta dung mot trang t va tnh t. Co s
khac biet:

Trng hp a.: Ca hai tnh t co v the ngang nhau, khong them ngha cho
nhau ma cho danh t phong canh. Mot trong hai tnh t eu co the bo
c ma van khong anh hng lan nhau. Ngoai ra, chuoi t van khong sai
ng phap:

a. Mot phong canh ep, tr tnh.
b. Mot phong canh ep, tr tnh.

Trng hp b.: Trang t rat them ngha cho tnh t ep ch khong cho
danh t. Bo rat th c nhng bo ep se sai ng phap:

a. Mot phong canh rat ep.
b. * Mot phong canh rat ep.

Tng t ng oan danh t NP, mot ng oan tnh t AP n gian nhat ch san
sinh mot tnh t duy nhat:

(51) AP A

Neu muon them ngha cho tnh t bang mot trang t, quy tac AP A phai c
m rong thanh:

124

(52) AP (AP) A
(53) AP Adv

(Adv viet tat cua Adverb (trang t))

a. AP tieng Anh b. AP tieng c c. AP tieng Viet

AP
AP A
A
rat ep
AP
AP A
A
very beautiful
AP
AP A
A
sehr schn
a m rong quy tac AP A, nay nhng quy tac lien he khac cung can c
sa oi theo. Cu the, ta thay the A bang AP:

(54) a. Tieng Viet: NP (D) N (AP+) (PP+)
b. Tieng Anh: NP (D) (AP+) N (PP+)
c. Tieng c: NP (D) (AP+) N (PP+)

Trang t cua tieng Anh c phan biet vi tnh t bang hau to ly pha sau.
Tieng c khong co hnh thc nay. Nhn chung, trang t trong tieng c giong
nh hnh thc tr tnh t, co the coi nh thuoc lp tnh t.

Trang t khong the ng mot mnh ma i oi vi tnh t hoac ong t. Mot v du
ve moi quan he le thuoc cua tnh t va trang t:

(55) a. Mot bau tri xanh quang ang.
b. Mot bau tri that quang ang.

Trong trng hp a., nen hieu la bau tri va xanh va quang ang. Hai tnh
t xanh va quang ang oc lap vi nhau, ngha la khong co moi quan he le
thuoc oi vi nhau:

125
NP
D N AP AP
mot bau tri xanh quang ang
A A

(56)

Trong trng hp b., neu hieu theo tinh than cua a., th co ngha la bau tri va
that, va quang ang:

NP
D N AP AP
mot bau tri that quang ang
A A

(57)

The nhng khong ai muon hieu vay. That ay ong ngha vi rat, la mot
trang t co cong dung them ngha cho tnh t ep. Cho nen phai dien giai y
ngha nay theo cau truc nh sau:

NP
D N AP
mot bau tri that quang ang
AP A
Adv

(58)

Muon dung lien t, ban oc co the t m rong quy tac AP. V du vi lien t
va:

(59) Mot bau tri xanh va quang ang.

126

3. Ngo doan gioi to FF

Gia s noi:

(60) a. Co mot phong canh.

ng dung nguyen tac tnh tien
10)
cua tieng Viet, ta co the at cau hoi:

b. Co mot phong canh the nao ?

Neu tra li bang mot tnh t co ly, chang han ep, th tc la a phu ngha cho
ng oan danh t mot phong canh bang ng oan tnh t ep.

c. Co mot phong canh ep.

Cau a hoan tat, the nhng neu thch hoi tiep nh au ? va tra li chang han
nh Viet Nam, th cum t Viet Nam chnh la mot ng oan gii t, trong
o gii t ong vai quyet nh danh t ch ni chon Viet Nam.

d. Co mot phong canh ep au ?
e. Co mot phong canh ep Viet Nam

Bang cach tnh tien t nhien nay, chung ta co quy tac:

(61) PP P NP

a. PP tieng Anh b. PP tieng c c. PP tieng Viet

PP
P NP
A
in Vietnam
PP
P NP
A
in Vietnam
PP
P NP
A
Viet Nam

10)
Nguyen tac tnh tien khong ch ra quy tac at cau hoi ma ngi s dung phai t quyet nh. Cau
hoi tat nhien mang tnh chu quan.
127
4. Ngo doan dong to VF

Tng t ng oan danh t NP, mot ng oan ong t VP n gian nhat ch co
mot ong t. ay la trng hp ong t bat xuyen tnh (intransitive verb)
11)
.
Loai ong t nay khong hng ti mot tuc t ma ch co tac ong trong noi bo
chu t. Noi theo ngha cua ngon ng hoc hien ai la no khong hng ti mot
muc tieu ngoai chu ng ma ch co tac ong trong noi bo chu ng. V du khoc,
chi, ngu, i, ng, ngoi (a be khoc, a be chi, a be
ngu), ... Ngc lai la ong t xuyen tnh (transitive verb)
12)
. Loai ong t
nay co tac ong ben ngoai chu ng, tc xuyen qua chu ng va hng ti mot
muc tieu ben ngoai. V du nh, thng, co, cho, mua, ban (a be
nh me no, a be thng me no, a be co nhieu o chi), ... Me no,
o chi la muc tieu, co chc nang bo ngha cho nh, thng, co.

Quy tac ng oan ong t VP ch co mot ong t V:

(62) VP V

a. VP tieng Anh b. VP tieng c c. VP tieng Viet

VP
V
go
VP
V
gehen
VP
V
i
Ta co the dung trang t phu ngha them cho ong t. Trang t c xep vao lp
tnh t (nh a noi):

(63) VP V AP

a. They go quickly.
b. Sie gehen schnell.
c. Ho i nhanh.

11)
Tam goi vay. Co tac gia goi la noi ong t, t ong t.
12)
Tam goi vay. Co tac gia goi la ngoai ong t, tha ong t.
128


VP
V AP
go quickly
Adv
VP
V AP
gehen schnell
Adv
VP
V AP
i nhanh
Adv
ong t khong nhat thiet phai can en trang t (xem nh la chon):

(64) VP V (AP)

Trong tieng Anh va tieng Viet, trang t co the nam ben trai ong t:

(65) VP (AP) V

a. Anh ta thng noi ...
b. He often speaks ...

Trang t cung co the xuat hien cung luc ben trai va ben phai ong t:

(66) VP (AP) V (AP)

a. Anh ta thng noi cham rai ...
b. He often speaks slowly ...

va cung co the e cho mot ng oan gii t PP phu ngha:

(67) VP (AP) V (AP)(PP)

Lan thng khoc mot mnh trong bong toi.

VP
AP V AP PP
thng khoc mot mnh trong bong toi
Adv Adv
129
Co khi trang t c lap lai nhieu lan:

(68) VP (AP+) V (AP+) (PP)

Lan [
AP+
[thng] [hay]] khoc [
AP+
[le loi] [mot mnh]] trong bong toi.

o la nhng quy tac c ng dung cho ong t bat xuyen tnh. oi vi ong t
xuyen tnh, quy tac can c m rong cho bo ng. Bo ng nam di dang mot
ng oan danh t NP:

(69) VP V (NP)

a. Toi hat mot bai ca.
b. I sing a song.
c. Ich singe ein Lied.


VP
V NP
sing a song
D N
VP
V NP
singe ein Lied
D N
VP
V NP
hat mot bai ca
D N
Tieng Viet khong thieu nhng cau truc nh:

(70) VP V (NP) (AP)

Ba Hai [
VP
[
V
ghet] [
NP
ba Ba] [
AP
khung khiep]]

(71) VP (AP+) V (NP)

Han [
VP
[
AP
thc s] [
V
cam thu] [
NP
ong chu han]]
Hung [
VP
[
AP
rat] [
V
thng] [
NP
v]]

130

Hoac con nhieu trng hp kho hn na ma tieng Anh, tieng c khong co:

Han thng v lam ay.
ay ng sau trang t.
Han thng v lam ma.
Ma ng sau trang t.
Han ma thng v han.
Ma ng trc ong t.
Han co thng g v han.
Co ng trc ong t. G ng sau ong t.
Han thng ech g v han.
ech g ng sau ong t.

Cach thanh lap ong t trong tieng Viet thng cha tnh muc ch. Cu the,
ngi Viet co the xep hai ba ong t i chung:

i + tu i tu
i + chi i chi
i + lam viec i lam viec
i + an trom i an trom
i + lam an + buon ban i lam an buon ban

hoac ong t thng xen ke vi danh t, cho ra mot chuoi t cha nhieu ong t:

Han xoay sang, nhp mat, nhn toi, ci khong noi, lam ra ve hieu het
nhng ieu toi ang ngh.
Han om v, vuot ve, xin loi, the bo ru che c bac, rang i lam, kiem tien,
mua gao ve nuoi v, nuoi con.

ong t cung la mot e tai kha thu v va phc tap khong thua kem g danh t
hnh thc. ay la mot iem m danh cho cac ban thch tm hieu.

Tom lai, quy tac ng oan VP cua tieng Anh co the c tong quat hoa cho hau
het moi trng hp n gian:

(72) VP (AP+) V (NP) (AP+) (PP)

131
S. Cao

Cau, theo ngon ng hoc co truyen, thng c hieu la mot cau truc bao gom
chu t, ong t hoac co them tuc t. Ke t ay, ta nen hieu, cau la mot chuoi t
gom co hai phan: chu ng (subject), tc chu t, va v ng (predicate phrase), tc
nhng g theo sau va bo ngha cho chu ng. Chu ng thng la mot ng oan
danh t NP. V ng la mot ng oan ong t VP. Quy tac cau truc ng oan cua
mot cau co hnh dang tieu bieu:

(73) S NP VP
(S viet tat cua sentence, ky hieu cho cau)

V du cau The man has a hard job co the c phan tch nh sau:

NP VP
D N V NP
The man has a hard job
D NP
S

(74)

Cau cua ngon ng Au chau thng co ong t phu (auxiliary verb)
13)
. Mot ng
dung la dung e dien ta th (tense), neu can:

(75) S NP (T) VP
(T viet tat cua tense)

a. I will go.
b. Ich werde gehen.
c. Toi se i.

13)
Thng goi la tr ong t. Chung toi sa lai cach dch cho thong nhat vi cach bo/phu ngha
ben phai (right attributed) theo kieu tieng Viet.
132

a. S tieng Anh b. S tieng c c. S tieng Viet

S
NP T VP
I will go
N V
S
NP T VP
Toi se i
N V
S
NP T VP
Ich werde gehen
N V
Tieng Viet cung co nhng t co cong dung dien ta th: a, ang, se,
sap... The nhng ay khong phai la ong t ma co le ch thuan la loai trang t
ch thi gian.

Dien ta th bang ong t phu la mot ng dung. Ngoai ra con nhng ng dung
khac nh dung should, would, could, must, ... trong tieng Anh. Tng t,
ngi Viet cung co the dung muon, phai, nen, ... nh ong t.

Dung ong t phu thc ra la mot hnh thc dung mot cum ong t (ong t phu +
ong t chnh) ma ngon ng nao cung co. Tieng Viet cung co nhng mau cau
n gian nh nhng tieng Au chau:

a. Toi khong i.
b. Toi khong muon i.
c. Toi phai i ngay.

Hoac nhng cau phc tap dung nhieu ong t:

d. Toi khong biet phai i au.
e. Toi cha biet co nen i khong.
f. Toi con ang phan van khong biet co nen i khong.

Tren thc te con rat nhieu trng hp phc tap khac. Tieu bieu la nhng cau
phc tap cha cau nho hn. V du cau Toi biet toi khong the nao i c. Cau
nay cha cau toi khong the nao i c:

[
S
toi khong the nao i c]

133
Thc chat cua cau toi khong the nao i c la mot menh e phu
(subordinate clause) (thng goi la cau phu), trong tieng Anh c anh dau
bang that, trong tieng c bang da, trong tieng Viet bang rang (tnh c
giong vay ?):

a. I know that I cant go.
b. Ich wei, da ich nicht gehen kann.
c. Toi biet rang toi khong the nao i c.

That, da, rang c xem nh nhng tac t bo ng hoa
(complementizer) (ky hieu bang C):

a. [
S
I know [
S
[
C
that] [
S
I cant go]]]
b. [
S
Ich wei [
S
[
C
da] [
S
ich nicht gehen kann]]]
c. [
S
Toi biet [
S
[
C
rang] [
S
toi khong the nao i c]]]
(S ky hieu cho menh e phu)

V ly do nay, gii ngon ng hoc Au chau a a ra mot quy tac ac biet:

(76) S (C) S

Menh e phu S gi vai tro bo ng. Co trng hp menh e phu c chuyen
sang v tr chu ng, mot hnh thc chuyen v (movement).

a. [
S
[
S
That I cant go] is my problem]
b. [
S
[
S
Da ich nicht gehen kann] ist mein Problem]
c. [
S
[
S
Rang toi khong the nao i c] la van e cua toi]

Cau tieng Viet tren hiem thay s dung ngoai i hien tai. Khong ro cau truc cua
no co b lai ngon ng Au chau hay khong, can xet ky lai. The nhng cau truc
Rang ... rat thng gap trong Kieu cua Nguyen Du.

oi vi trng hp chuyen v, quy tac S danh cho tieng Anh phai c m rong:

(77) S NP (T) VP
(78) S S (T) VP

Viet gon thanh:

134

(79) S {NP | S} (T) VP
({NP | S} oc la hoac NP hoac S, tc ch c chon mot trong hai trng hp.

(80) VP (AP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AP+)
(81) VP (AP+) V (S) (PP+) (AP+)

Viet gon thanh:

(82) VP (AP+) V ({NP | S}) (PP+) (AP+)

Xet cho cung, nhng g va c trnh bay mi ch la vai quy tac cau truc ng
oan c a ra nham giai thch ng phap. Tren thc te, van e khong n gian
the, nhat la oi vi tieng Viet. Co the noi, neu giai thch tieng Viet bang ng
phap cau truc ng oan, chung ta phai ng au vi nhieu quy tac phc tap ma
tieng Anh khong co. Rat nhc au. Ca tieng c cung khong de nh tieng Anh,
nhng dau sao van con nhc au hn. Dung y a tieng Anh, tieng c vao
lam v du so sanh la e cho thay ieu o.

Khach quan ma noi, ngi Viet s dung ngon ng kha uyen chuyen. ay la mot
trong nhng nguyen do lam cho cau truc ng phap tieng Viet qua a dang. S a
dang khong nhng ch nam tren bnh dien cu phap ma con tren bnh dien ng
ngha. Trong tieng Viet con co nhng trng hp hanh ngon ma tng chng nh
mot loai ngon ng vu tru (universal language), kho giai thch vo cung. No xuat
hien khap ni qua ca dao, tuc ng, thanh ng, th, van t bnh dan cho ti bac
hoc. Tnh ng dung phong khoang cung co nguyen do cua no, ac biet la trong
the gii van chng. Co nhieu trng hp, no a khong tuan thu quy tac ng
phap nh tuan thu thi phap v ly do luat bat thanh van, hoac lam ng phap
phc tap them, hoac con e ra cac kieu ng phap mi, la ky. Phi logic hay
khong, khong dam noi, nhng ro rang nhng kieu dung t ng, ng phap ay oi
khi m m ao ao, lung linh nh chnh tam hon no vay.

(83) Ba gia i ch cau ong,
Hoi tham thay boi co chong li chang.
Thay boi xem que noi rang,
Li th co li nhng rang khong con.
(Ca dao)

Li dong 2 c hieu la ong t, nhay sang dong cuoi, li bien thanh danh
t.
135

(84) Thang Bm co cai quat mo.
Phu ong xin oi ba bo, chn trau.
(Ca dao)

Cau au nghe ung, qua cau th nh, ng phap sai ngay. ung ng phap, khong
ai noi ba bo, chn trau ma phai noi la ba con bo, chn con trau. Ro rang
ay la mot bang chng cho thay, van chng a co ly do mien phuc tung ng
phap v phai ton trong thi phap (luc bat).

Tom lai, pham tru ng phap bao gom hai pham tru: pham tru t vng va pham
tru cu phap. Pham tru t vng an nh ten goi cua tng lp t rieng biet. Moi lp
t cha nhng t tng can. Pham tru cu phap an nh ten goi cua mot thanh to.
Ten goi cua thanh to la ten cua au t vng ai dien cho no. Ng oan la mot
thanh to co ten.

Pham tru ng phap (grammartical
category)
Ky hieu
Danh t (danh t rieng, danh t chung,
ai danh t nhan vat, ai danh t s hu,
ai danh t nghi van, ai danh t ho
tng, ai danh t quan he, ...)
N
ong t V
Pham tru Tnh t (tnh t, trang t) A
t vng Gii t C
(lexical Lien t P
category) Ch nh t (mao t, ai danh t tai quy,
, ...)
D
Phan m rong cho nhng ngon ng khac v.v.
Cau S
Pham tru Ng oan danh t NP
cu phap Ng oan tnh t AP
(syntax Ng oan gii t PP
category) Ng oan ong t VP
Phan m rong cho nhng ngon ng khac

v.v.

136

VAI VAN E TRONG NGON NG

1. Tnb boi qoy

Menh e phu thng dan en mot van e, o la tnh hoi quy (recursive) (con
goi la e quy). Quy tac hoi quy c hieu la quy tac lai ng dung chnh no va c
the tiep tuc chay vong vo trong cai vong vo tan (endless loop). Tnh hoi quy xuat
hien trong tieng Anh qua quy tac S S VP, roi S (C) S, roi S S VP,
roi S (C) S ...:

(85) The dog that chased the cat that chased the mouse ...
(Con cho ma uoi con meo ma uoi con chuot ... )

Tuy vay, can phan biet tnh hoi quy vi tnh lap lai lien tuc cau truc ong t +
danh t trong tieng Viet:

(86) S NP VP +
(87) VP V N

(88) Con meo ma [
VP
treo cay cau]

[
VP
Hoi tham chu chuot] [
VP
i au] vang nha.
[
NP
Chu chuot] [
VP
i ch] ng xa,
[
VP
Mua mam] [
VP
mua muoi] [
VP
gio cha chu meo]
(Ca dao)

(89) Ong ta nh toi day co con gai hoc an.

Hoac muon noi dai hn, ngi ta cung co the lap cau ai e nh sau:

(90) No nghe Ba ke Ngi ta on Co noi Cha nghi Ch noi Ong bao cong an
Mu la ... van van va van van.

o la hien tng bo ng lam chu ng cho mot v t (ong t) ke tiep. V t nay
hng ti mot bo ng, roi bo ng ay lai tr thanh chu ng cua mot v t mi tiep
theo, ...

v du au, hoi tham la v t hng ti bo ng chu chuot. Tiep theo, chu
chuot lai tr thanh chu ng cua v t i.

137
v du cuoi, trong oan No nghe Ba, no la chu ng, nghe la v t, ba la
bo ng. Sau o, ba lai lam chu ng cho ke. Ke hng ti bo ng la ngi
ta. Sau o ngi ta lai bien thanh chu ng, ... Noi theo ngon ng hoc truyen
thong la tuc t cua cau trc lai co kha nang i vi ong t e tao thanh cau
mi.

Hoi tham chu chuot i au vang nha
cau mi
cau cu

(91)

Ong ta nh toi day co con gai hoc an
cau mi
cau cu
iem ang chu y ni cach hanh ngon nay la cau tiep tuc c m rong theo
nguyen tac tnh tien:

Hoi: Ong ta nh ai ?
Tra li: ... nh toi
Hoi: ... lam g ?
Tra li: ... day
Hoi: ... day ai ?
Tra li: ... day co con gai
Hoi: ... lam g ?
Tra li: ... hoc
Hoi: ... hoc g ?
Tra li: ... hoc an.

2. Tnb da ngbia

Mot cau noi trong ngon ng t nhien khong phai bao gi cung ch co mot ngha
duy nhat ma co the cha tnh a ngha (ambiguity). ay la hien tng mot cau
co the c hieu theo hai ngha vi hai cau truc ng phap khac nhau. Xem th
mot cau:
138

(92) a. Anh hoa s ve co gai khoa than qua ep.

Cau nay co the hieu theo hai ngha, hoac:

b. Co gai khoa than qua ep.

hoac cha chac g co ta a ep ma la:

c. Chang hoa s ve qua ep.

Ve ra cay cu phap, ta co hai cau truc khac nhau:

trng hp b., ng oan tnh t AP qua ep phu ngha cho co gai:

S
NP VP
Anh hoa s ve co gai khoa than qua ep
D N V NP
N AP AP
A AP A
A

b.

trng hp c., qua ep phu ngha cho ve:

139

S
NP VP
Anh hoa s ve co gai khoa than qua ep
D N V NP AP
N AP AP A
A A

c.

Cau truc ng phap tren la mot trong nhng cau truc tieu bieu nhat cua tieng Viet
cha tnh a ngha. cau truc nay, ngi ta khong biet phu ng c s dung
cho phan t nao. Mot v du khac:

(93) E ! Anh hoa s ve co gai khoa than ka.

Trong cau nay, chac g co gai ang khoa than ma la anh hoa s th sao ? Neu
thc vay, th nen them dau phay vao e tach ri hai hanh ong ve va khoa
than cua anh ta:

(94) E ! Anh hoa s ve co gai, khoa than ka.

Co ieu viet con phay c, nhng noi th hi ... ket.

TOM LC

1) V tr t trong cau quyet nh tnh ung sai ng phap. V tr t ung, cau se
ung. V tr t sai, cau se sai.
2) T co quan he le thuoc lan nhau. T cho ra cum t. Cum t noi c la
mot thanh to.
140

3) Mot thanh to co ten danh t, ong t, tnh t, gii t c goi la mot ng
oan.
4) Co 4 loai ng oan c ban (theo ngon ng hoc Au chau,): ng oan danh
t NP (noun phrase), ng oan ong t VP (verb phrase), ng oan tnh t
AP (adjective phrase), ng oan gii t PP (prepositional phrase).
5) Quy tac cau truc ng oan mo ta ng oan. Quy tac co the c mo ta
bang cay cu phap. (Xem chi tiet chng sau)
6) Nhieu ng oan tao thanh cau. Cau truc c ban: S NP VP
7) Muc ch cua cu phap la xep at cac t theo quy tac nhat nh e tao nen
thanh to va cau.
8) Ng phap la mot tap hp gom tat ca cac quy tac dien ta v tr va moi quan
he le thuoc cua cac t do cu phap tm ra.
9) Mo hnh ng phap c trnh bay ben tren la mo hnh ng phap cau truc
ng oan (Phrase Structure Grammar). Loai ng phap nay la can ban cua
ng phap tao sinh (Generative Grammar). Sang kien cua ng phap tao
sinh la dung quy tac ng phap e tao ra ngon ng. T tao sinh a bat
nguon t y ngha ay.
10) Mot cau co the cha tnh hoi quy hoac tnh a ngha.

NHAN XET VA IEM M

Sau khi a khao sat s ve ng phap tao sinh can ban, co le ai cung nhan thay vai
iem yeu, iem manh cua mo hnh nay oi vi tieng Viet. Co nhng iem m
ma chung ta co the khao sat them. Th e y en nhng iem sau ay:

1) Ng phap tao sinh can ban co the giai thch c nhng cau truc nho,
tng oi t phc tap. oi vi cac cau truc phc tap, can ban nay co thch
hp khong. Th xet cac trng hp dung nhng tieng tam goi la tieng
em (o, ma, ch, nhe, ...): i au o, An i ma, Ngu i ch, ...
2) Ng phap tao sinh can ban co thch hp cho tnh tnh tien cua tieng Viet
khong ?
3) Co the dung sang kien cua quy tac cau truc ng oan e lap trnh. Th
dng mot bo phan tch (parser) nho nho e phan tch cac cau truc n gian
tieng Viet. Xem th mc o ng dung tin hoc cua ng phap nay toi u ra
sao.
4) Qua phan tch tren, chung ta a nhan thay vai khac biet gia cau truc
tieng Viet va cau truc cac ngon ng khac, nh Anh, c. Th liet ke that
nhieu cau truc tieng Viet va so sanh vi tieng Anh, tieng c, tieng Phap
141
e xem tieng Viet b cac tieng ay anh hng en o nao. Tai sao cac
ngoai ng ay kho b lc bo t do nh tieng Viet ? Trong th t do Viet
Nam, ngi lam th thng lc bo t hoac ngat oan cau. Th phan tch
ng oan, thanh to, xem trng hp nao hu ly, trng hp nao sai, thanh
to sau co quan he g vi thanh to trc va co hp ly khong ? Neu khong,
phai lc bo, ngat oan trong cau th nh the nao ma cau truc ng phap
khong b ton thng ?
5) Tm tnh a ngha trong tieng Viet trong trng hp mot phu ng (tnh
t/trang t) nam cuoi cau. Tnh a ngha trong tieng Viet con xuat hien
di dang nao, tai sao ?
6) Chung ta a giai thch c phan nao ve cau truc e dien, the nhng hoan
toan khong e cap g en pham tru ng ngha. Th tm nhng v du s
dung sai tnh e dien cua tieng Viet trong van viet (sach v, phng tien
thong tin ai chung, ...)

142

Choong 6

CAY C| lHAl

Mot trong nhng hnh thc c dung e mo ta cau truc cu phap (syntax
structure) la cay cu phap (syntax tree). Cay cu phap minh hoa moi quy tac c
goi chung la quy tac san sinh (production rule) hoac P-marker (theo cach goi cua
Chomsky 1965). Cay cu phap c dung rat nhieu trong ngon ng hoc. Ca trong
tin hoc, mo hnh nay cung c dung e mo ta ngon ng hnh thc (formal
language), v du, rat thng gap trong bo mon thiet lap trnh bien dch (compiler
design). Sau ay chung ta se tm hieu chi tiet hn ve cay cu phap theo ngha cua
ngon ng hoc. Viec lam nay can thiet cho nhng ly thuyet ve sau.

CAY CU PHAP

1. Hnb boc coa cay

Quy tac cau truc ng oan co the c mo ta bang cay cu phap. V tr va ton ti
cua moi t c dien ta qua hnh anh nhng nut va canh nhanh. Hnh anh nay
minh hoa hnh hoc cua cay (geometry of tree):

a. Moi cay khac loai nh ten goi.
b. Nh phan loai cay, moi quan he cua cay trong toan the cau truc se c
lam sang to.

Th quan sat mot cay cu phap tru tng:

A
B X
D E F
Y Z

(1)

143
CH|ONC 6 CAY C| lHAl
Cay tren mo ta cac quy tac:

(2) a. A B X
b. B D E F
c. X Y Z

Mot vai nh ngha:

i. Nhanh (branch) la ng thang noi hai iem trong cay.
ii. Nut (node) la nhng iem noi trong cay: A, B, ...
iii. Nhan hieu (label) la ten cua moi nut: A, B, ...
iv. Nut nh (root node)
1)
la nut cao nhat. Tren no khong co nhanh nao noi
vi no: A.
v. Nut tan cung (terminal node) la nut thap nhat, di no khong con nhanh
nao am ra: D, E, F, Y, Z.
vi. Nut khong tan cung (non-terminal) la nut co nhanh noi ti nut khac: A,
B, X.

2. Tnb cbi pboi

o la mat hnh hoc. Ngoai ra, con phai xet ve moi quan he chieu doc gia
nhng nut vi nhau. Moi quan he chieu doc c hieu nh ton ti cua cau truc,
trong o co nut nam tren cao kiem soat nut nam pha di; co nut nam ngang
nhau. Moi quan he nay noi len tnh chi phoi (dominance) hoac tnh u the cua
tng nut trong cay.

Tnh chi phoi (dominance): Mot nut A chi phoi mot nut B neu va ch neu
v the A trong cay cao hn v the B. Nhanh ch noi t A tr xuong. Tat
nhien A chi phoi tat ca cac nut nam di B va noi vi B.

A
B X
D E F
Y Z

(3)

1)
Root (tieng Anh) la re. Ly do khong dch root node la nut re v nut re khong ro ngha hn nut
nh.
144

Trong cay, A chi phoi tat ca cac nut nam pha di. B chi phoi D, E, F. Nut X chi
phoi Y, Z, nhng khong chi phoi D, E, F v khong co nhanh nao t X noi xuong
D, E, F.

Tnh chi phoi c Higginbotham (1985) nh ngha mot cach hnh thc nh sau:

Chan ly tnh chi phoi (Axioms of Dominance):

Vi he thc x y, co ngha x chi phoi y, ta co:

a) x x
b) neu x y z, th x z
c) neu x y x, th x = y
d) neu x z va y z, th hoac x y hoac y x hoac x = y

nh ngha nut da tren tnh chi phoi:

i. Nut me (mother node): A la nut me cua B neu A chi phoi B.
ii. Nut con [gai]
2)
(daughter node): B la nut con cua A neu B b A chi phoi.
iii. Nut nh: A la nut nh neu A chi phoi tat ca moi nut, nhng khong b nut
nao chi phoi.
iv. Nut tan cung: Y la nut tan cung neu Y khong chi phoi bat ky nut nao.
v. Nut khong tan cung: X la nut khong tan cung neu X chi phoi nhng nut
khac.

Ngoai ra:

Chi phoi trc tiep (immediately dominate): A chi phoi trc tiep B neu A
trc tiep noi B nam di.

Trong cay:

A
B X
D E F
Y Z

(4)

2)
oc la con. Dch sat ngha la con gai.
145
A chi phoi trc tiep B va X.
B chi phoi trc tiep D, E, F.
X chi phoi trc tiep Y, Z.

Da vao tnh chi phoi trc tiep, cac nut con c nh ngha nghiem ngat hn:

i. Nut me: A la nut me cua B neu A chi phoi trc tiep B.
ii. Nut con [gai] (daughter): B la nut con cua A neu B b A chi phoi trc tiep.
iii. Nut ch [em] (sisters): Hai nut la ch em neu co cung nut me.

V du trong cay:

A la nut me cua B, X. Ngc lai, B, X la nut con cua A.
B la nut me cua D, E, F. Ngc lai, D, E, F la nut con cua B.
X la nut me cua Y, Z. Ngc lai, Y, Z la nut con cua X.
B, X la 2 nut ch em.
D, E, F la 3 nut ch em.
Y, Z la 2 nut ch em.

Them mot goc nhn khac ve tnh chi phoi:

S chi phoi tan mc (exhaustive domination): Mot nut A chi phoi tan
mc mot tap hp nut {B, C, ...} neu A chi phoi trc tiep tat ca moi phan t
trong tap hp va khong mot nut nao b A chi phoi trc tiep ma khong nam
trong tap hp nay.

Trng hp 1: Gia s ta co mot tap hp SET = {B, C, D}. S kien A chi phoi
trc tiep tat ca cac phan t chnh la moi quan he cau truc:

A
B C D

(5)

Trng hp 2: Gia s mat khac:

146

A M
B C D E
N

(6)

A ch chi phoi trc tiep B, C ch khong chi phoi trc tiep D. Vay, A khong c
ke la co kha nang chi phoi tan mc tap hp {B, C, D}.

Da vao nhng nh ngha hnh thc tren, mot thanh to se c nh ngha chat
che nh sau:

Thanh to (constituent): Thanh to la mot tap hp bao gom moi nut b mot
nut chi phoi tan mc.

Trong cay (6), thanh to N bao gom A, M. Thanh to A bao gom B, C. Thanh to M
bao gom D, E.

Can phan biet gia hai khai niem thanh to va thanh to cua. Hai khai niem
nay de gay lan lon, the nhng tiec rang ly thuyet dung chung, cho nen khong the
bo qua:

Thanh to cua (constituent of): A la thanh to cua B neu va ch neu B chi
phoi A.

Trong cay (6), B va C la thanh to cua A. Trong khi o, D, E la thanh to cua M.
Ca hai nut A va M la thanh to cua N. Nhng nut B, C, D, E eu la thanh to cua
N.

Tat nhien con co moi quan he chat che hn:

Thanh to trc tiep cua (immediate constituent of): B la thanh to trc
tiep cua A neu va ch neu A chi phoi trc tiep B.

Mot v du cu the:

147

NP VP
D N V NP
D NP
S

(7)

S chi phoi trc tiep NP va VP, cho nen v the o, NP va VP la thanh to
trc tiep cua S
NP la mot thanh to v D, N la thanh to cua NP

3. Tbc ticn v|

Tnh chi phoi dien ta ton ti cua cau truc cay; ai e la co tren co di. The
nhng khong phai ch xet en quan he cau truc theo chieu doc la u ma con phai
xet theo chieu ngang, xem v the tng nut trong cau truc nam trc sau the nao.
o la the tien v (precedence).

Mot v du: Quy tac S NP VP khong nhng ch noi rang:

(a) cau S bao gom hai ng oan NP va VP

ma con noi:

(b) ng oan danh t NP ng trc ng oan ong t VP

D nhien chung ta ang xet en nhng ngon ng viet t trai qua phai nh trng
hp tieng Viet. Moi quan he cai g ng trc c hieu la the tien v, noi n
gian la ng trc. nh ngha mot cach hien ngon:

The tien v (precedence): Nut A the tien v oi vi nut B neu va ch
neu

148

1. A ben trai B, khong co trng hp A va chi phoi B, B chi phoi A
va
2. Moi nut chi phoi A hoac B

The tien v c Higginbotham (1985) nh ngha mot cach hnh thc nh sau:

Chan ly the tien v (Axioms of Precedence):

Vi phep co ngha ng trc (hay the the tien v oi vi), ta co:

1. neu x y, th NOT (y x)
2. neu x y z, th x z
3. neu x y hoac y x, th NOT (x y) va NOT (y x)
4. x y, oi vi tat ca phan t tan cung u, v, neu x u va y v, suy ra u v

S d can nh ngha the tien v that chat che la e tranh tnh trang hieu khong
ro, tng oi. Chang han khong the hieu va ve mot cau truc cay treo ngc nh
nay:

NP VP
D N V NP
D N
S

(8)

Tng t tnh chi phoi trc tiep, ta co:

The tien v trc tiep (immediate precedence): Nut A the tien v trc
tiep oi vi nut B, neu khong co nut nao ng gia A va B.

N
A B C

(9)

149
Nut A the tien v trc tiep oi vi nut B, tc ng trc tiep trc nut B.

4. tcnb-C

Trong tat ca cac quan he cau truc, co le loai quan he c goi la lenh-C (c-
command)
3)
la quan he tru tng nhat. Cai ten nghe hi la ky nhng lai la mot
quan he hu ch, ac biet oi vi ly thuyet rang buoc (binding theory) ma
chung ta se gap sau nay. Vay, lenh-C la g ?

Hieu nom na th lenh-C la moi quan he gia mot nut A oi vi mot nut ch em B
va nhng nut con cua B. nh ngha ky hn:

Lenh-C (c-command): Nut A co moi quan he lenh-C vi nut ch em B,
neu mot nut chi phoi A, cung se chi phoi B va khong co trng hp A hoac
B chi phoi nut khac.

(10)

Cay dien ta moi quan he lenh-C gia nut A va nut ch em B. Moi quan he
nay con co gia tr oi vi tat ca cac cac nut nam di B.

3)
Cai ten Lenh C (c-command) a lam khong t ngi thac mac ve nguon goc cua no. Ngi ta ch
biet, ch command c vay mn t mon ng phap truyen thong. Co ngi on rang, c trong
ch c-command la ky hieu viet tat t ch constituency. Co ngi th bao, bi trong ng phap
tao sinh co hai khai niem ham ngha menh lenh: Command va Kommand, e phan biet C vi
K, ngi ta goi la c-command vi c thay v vi k. The nhng o ch la truyen thuyet trong
gii ngon ng hoc.
A B
E F
N
G H
150

Moi quan he lenh-C con c phan biet gia oi xng (symetric) va bat oi xng
(asymetric):

Lenh-C oi xng (symetric c-command) c hieu la hai nut ch em co
cung moi quan he vi nhau.

Lenh-C bat oi xng (asymetric c-command) c hieu la ch co mot
nut co moi quan he vi nut ch em kia, ngc lai th khong.

Tnh noi bo cua quan he cau truc a c lam ro da vao hai nh ngha tnh
chi phoi trc tiep va the tien v trc tiep. Tng t vay con co moi quan he
trc tiep cua lenh-C. Quan he nay c goi la s chi phoi (government). Quan
he chi phoi rat pho bien trong nhng cong trnh nghien cu tiep theo ve ng
phap tao sinh vao khoang nhng nam 1981-1991. Tren thc te con co ca ly
thuyet rieng c goi la ly thuyet chi phoi va rang buoc (Government and
Binding Theory) (s.s. Chomsky 1993), (Haegeman 1991). Phan nay se c ban
chi tiet cac chng sau.

CACH VE CAY CU PHAP

Quy tac cau truc ng oan va cay cu phap a c trnh bay chi tiet. Dung cay
cu phap, cac nha ngon ng hoc co the mo ta quy tac cau truc ng oan cua mot
chuoi t. Chung ta cung co the lam giong vay bang hai phng phap di ay.

1. Vc cay to dooi Icn trcn

Ve cay t di len tren (bottom up) co le la cach de nhat e mo ta cau truc mot
chuoi t. Theo nguyen tac tong quat, trc nhat nh loai tng t mot, xem no
thuoc lp t nao. Ke tiep la i tm nhng cum t noi c. Sau o xet moi quan
he cua t roi xac nh mot loai ng oan cho cum t ay. Lap lai thao tac nay cho
en khi at ti nut nh (tc a hoan tat mot cau). Cu the lam tng bc nh sau:

Bc 1: Viet ra chuoi t muon phan tch, v du cau:

Tieng Viet la mot ngon ng tnh tien tieu bieu.

151
Trc khi nh loai t, cung xin lu y, e n gian hoa van e, chung ta se
khong phan tch chi tiet mot danh t ghep ma hay xem no nh mot n v danh
t. V du tieng Viet la mot n v danh t. Trong trng hp nay, chung ta ve
hnh tam giac thay v mot ng thang. Gia s xem la la ong t:

Tieng Viet la mot ngon ng tnh tien tieu bieu
N V D N A A

So sanh ky hieu viet tat trong bang tom tat:

Pham tru ng phap
(grammatical category)
Ky hieu
Danh t (danh t rieng, danh t chung, ai
danh t nhan vat, ai danh t s hu, ai
danh t nghi van, ai danh t ho tng, ai
danh t tng oi, ...)
N
ong t V
Pham
tru
Tnh t (tnh t, trang t) A
t vng Gii t C
(lexical
Lien t P
category)
Ch nh t (mao t, ai danh t ch nh,
ai danh t tai quy, , ...)
D
Cau S
Pham
tru
Ng oan danh t NP
cu phap Ng oan tnh t AP
(syntax
Ng oan gii t PP
category)
Ng oan ong t VP

Bc 2: Tm tat ca moi cum t noi c va xet ky moi quan he cua nhng t ay
oi vi nhau. Ke tiep, xac nh loai ng oan, tot nhat, nen theo th t:

1. Ng oan tnh t AP.
2. Ng oan danh t NP va ng oan gii t PP.
152

3. Ng oan ong t VP.
4. Cau.

Lap lai bc nay cho en khi at c nut nh S.

Bat au: Tieng Viet a c coi la danh t, khong can xet. Hay xet cum t noi
c: mot ngon ng tnh tien tieu bieu.

Trc nhat, xet ve moi quan he cua tnh t. Gia hai tnh t tnh tien va tieu
bieu, th tnh t tnh tien quan trong hn, bi y muon nhan manh tieng Viet
la mot ngon ng tnh tien. Tnh t tieu bieu ch la mot phu ng co chc nang
phu ngha cho tnh t tnh tien. Do o v the cua tieu bieu phai thap hn v
the cua tnh tien. e dien ta tieu bieu co v the thap hn mot bc, chung ta
chem them mot nhan hieu AP vao ma phai la ng oan tnh t AP e ai dien
cho mot tnh t:

Gop hai nut A va AP, ta c mot ng oan tnh t AP:
AP
N V D N A A
AP
AP
N V D N A A

a xong loai ng oan tnh t AP, ta xet qua loai ng oan danh t NP. Xem
cum t ngon ng tnh tien tieu bieu nh mot ng oan danh t NP la hp ly.
153
Tot na, gop luon mao t mot vao cho gon. ng quen, nut danh t N Tieng
Viet cung la mot NP:

AP
AP
NP NP
N V D N A A

Ve xong phan NP, ch con sot lai nut ong t V (la). ong t V ket hp vi
NP cho ra mot ng oan ong t VP (VP V NP):

N V D N A A
AP
AP
NP NP
VP

Xong 3 loai ng oan AP, NP va VP, ta ch con hai nut h: NP va VP. Noi hai
nut nay lai la xong:

154

N V D N A A
AP
AP
NP NP
VP
S

Cay cu phap hoan tat. Tat ca cac nut t tren xuong di dien ta nhng quy tac
cau truc ng oan sau:

1) S NP VP
2) VP V NP
3) NP N
4) NP D N AP
5) AP A AP
6) AP A

Kiem chng lai, ta se thay, cac quy tac c tm thay ay eu trung lap vi
nhng quy tac ma ta a lam quen.

Phng phap ve cay cau truc t di len tren con c xem nh mot phng
phap tm quy tac ng phap. Tren thc te, phng phap nay c ng dung rat
pho bien trong cong oan phan tch cu phap (syntax analyse) cua trnh bien dch
(compiler) hoac cua cac he thong nhan dien ngon ng (language recognizing
system (LRS)). (LRS la mot he thong c thiet lap tren c s ng dung phng
phap tr thong minh nhan tao (artificial intelligence) nham nhan dien, hieu va
noi c tieng ngi. LRS la mot lnh vc khoa hoc thuoc nganh ngon ng hoc
ien toan (computational linguistics). Tr thong minh nhan tao la mot lnh vc
khoa hoc thuoc nganh tin hoc (informatics)).
155
2. Vc cay to trcn xoong dooi

Ngc vi cach ve cay t di len tren (bottom up) la ve cay t tren xuong di
(top down). Cac nha ngon ng hoc chuyen ve cu phap thng a chuong phng
phap nay v no nhanh hn. Nhng bu lai, no oi hoi ngi s dung phai nam moi
quy tac ng phap; neu khong can than, rat de sai. Cu the phng phap nay,
chung ta se bat au t nut nh S, t o khai trien ra nhng ng oan mi. Co
nhng ng oan mi, phai kheo leo chon la nhng quy tac thch hp ke tiep sao
cho ung ng dan en s trung lap vi mau chuoi t hoac mau cau cho san.
Nut nao mi sinh ra, phai thanh toan ngay nut o. Lap lai chu trnh nay cho ti
khi nao noi c tat ca cac nut tan cung.

Tng t cach ve t di len tren, hay th nghiem bang hai bc cu the sau ay:

Bc 1: Viet ra chuoi t muon phan tch, v du cau:

Tieng Viet la mot ngon ng tnh tien tieu bieu.
roi nh loai:

N V D N A A

Bc 2: Bat au t quy tac cao nhat S NP VP roi lan lan i xuong vi ieu
kien la trong au a thuoc long nhng quy tac:

1) S NP VP
2) VP V NP
3) NP N
4) NP D N AP
5) AP A AP
6) AP A

Theo quy tac S NP VP, ta co:

156

NP VP
S
N V D N A A

Ke tiep, dung 2 quy tac NP N va VP V NP cho 2 nut h NP va VP va ve
ra:

N V D N A A
NP VP
S
NP

Gap nut D, N va NP, vay dung NP D N AP la hp ly nhat:

157
N V D N A A
NP VP
S
NP
AP

Con 3 nut h la A, A, AP. Xem hai nut tnh t A, nut nao phu ngha nut nao.
Nhan thay tnh t tieu bieu la phu ng, vay dung quy tac AP A AP la ung
nhat (thay v AP A):

N V D N A A
NP VP
S
NP
AP
AP

Cuoi cung ch con lai 2 nut h A vaAP. Noi hai nut lai bang quy tac AP A la
xong:
158

N V D N A A
NP VP
S
NP
AP
AP

NHAN XET VA IEM M

Cay cu phap rat hu ch trong viec mo ta quy tac cau truc ng oan, noi chung la
cac oan cau. Thay v phan tch bang tay, chung ta co the t ong hoa bang cach
lap trnh. V du:

1) Lap bo phan tch cu phap (syntax analyse).
2) nh ngha cau truc ng oan: Khi a mot chuoi t vao, chng trnh se
cho phep nh ngha tng t mot theo pham tru ng phap va sau o t
ong san sinh ra nhng quy tac cau truc.

T hai ng dung tren, th lap mot he nhan dien tieng Viet nho nho ma cha can
en thanh phan phan tch ng ngha. He thong nay se giup chung ta nhan dien
rat nhanh chong nhng dang ng oan ton tai trong tieng Viet. V du khi a mot
bat ky mot van ban nao vao may, no se t ong tm nhng ng oan no biet va
se mo ta ro rang tren man hnh. Gap nhng trng hp la, may khong hieu,
chung ta phai nh ngha hoac sa lai quy tac ng phap nh mot hnh thc day
cho no hieu nhng thong tin mi. Cuoi cung chung ta se c mot kho tang quy
tac cau truc ng oan. Sau o co the toi u hoa chung. Vai e ngh:

159
Nen thc hien bang t vng bang bang d lieu manh (v du ORACLE), v
so t rat ln va se tang theo thi gian.
e cha quy tac, khong nhat thiet phai dung bang d lieu.
Can can than khi nh ngha quy tac ng phap, bi v neu may hieu sai, no
co the ieu chnh nhng quy tac a ung thanh ra sai het. o la mot trong
nhng tai hai cua viec s dung phng phap tr thong minh nhan tao trong
tin hoc.

160

Choong 7

1lNH kANC |OC

Con ngi co the mo ta oi tng bang ngon ng. oi tng co the la ngi, vat,
suy ngh, tam t, s tnh, bien co, ... , khong phan biet cu the hay tru tng. V
du, tnh yeu la mot oi tng thng c gii nghe s dung lam chu e sang
tac. Mot bai th tnh, mot ban nhac tnh, cau chuyen tnh, v.v.. Muc ch cua
toan bai th, ban nhac, cuon truyen la nham dien ta oi tng tnh yeu. The
nhng co the trong o con co nhieu chi tiet tri, trang, may, gio, nhan vat nay,
nhan vat no, ... Moi th nay cung la oi tng va co the c dien ta chi tiet hn
trong cau.

Th xet mot oan th Mau tm hoa sim cua Hu Loan c Pham Duy pho nhac
nh sau:

(1) Nang co ba ngi anh i bo oi lau roi.
Nang co oi ngi em,
Co em cha biet noi.
Toc nang hay con xanh.
Toc nang hay con xanh.
...
Toi la ngi chien binh, xa gia nh i chien au.
Toi yeu nang nh yeu,
ngi em gai toi yeu,
ngi em gai toi yeu ...

Van ban tren cha nhieu oi tng; cau nao cung co: nang, ngi em gai,
toi, toc nang... Nhn ky, ta se thay, co chuoi t/cau khong gay hieu nham,
nhng co chuoi t/cau khong c sac ben neu khong e y ti ng canh pha
trc. V du:

(2) Ngi em gai toi yeu.

161
CH|ONC 7 1lNH kANC |OC

Cach dien at nay de b hieu nham neu hieu ngi em gai toi la mot cum t
viet tat cua ngi em gai cua toi ai e nh nha toi cua Van Cao:

(3) Nha toi ben chiec cau soi nc.
(Ben Xuan Van cao)

Neu noi khi khi ngi em gai toi yeu ma khong e y en ng canh, ngi
nghe rat de am thac mac: co ay yeu ai ? Chuoi t ngi em gai toi yeu bao
gom hai ca the ngi em gai va toi hay ch mot ca the duy nhat: ngi em
gai toi ?

Ch nh moi trng ng canh, chung ta mi hieu rang cum t ngi em gai toi
yeu co ngha ai khai la toi xem nang nh mot ngi em gai va toi yeu co.
Noi cho ro la:

(4) Ngi em gai ma toi yeu.

Ngan na la:

(5) Ngi em gai, toi yeu (vi dau phay).

Theo cam xuc, cau nay ngan gon va hay nhat, thanh th tac gia mi bo ch
ma
1)
i.

Vai v du khac trong tieng Anh:

(6) Mary and Rosi vitsited Viet nam.

Neu hoi ai ve Mary va c biet, Mary noi rang ...:

(7) Mary said that she vitsited Vietnam.

Neu hoi Mary: Rosi lam g ? va c Mary tra li ...:


1)
Th, la, ma trong tieng Viet la nhng tieng co cong dung phan gii cau truc cu phap. oi
vi cu phap, ay mot iem manh cua tieng Viet, the nhng ngi Viet thng khong thch dung,
ac biet la gii van chng. Hien tng thieu th, la, ma rat de gay lan lon trong cau.

162

han ta phai thay y ngha hai cau tra li khac nhau, du hai cau giong het nhau.
She trong cau (7) am ch chnh Mary, she trong cau (8) am ch Rosi. Giong
nh ngi Anh, ngi c cung co cach tng thuat tng t:

(9) Mary und Rosi haben Vietnam besucht.
(Mary va Rosi a i tham Viet Nam)
(10) Mary sagte, da sie Vietnam besucht hat.
(Mary ke, co a i tham Viet Nam)
(11) Mary sagte, da Rosi Vietnam besucht hat.
(Mary ke, Rosi a i tham Viet Nam)
(12) Mary sagte, da sie Vietnam besucht hat.
Ngha la: Mary ke, Rosi a i tham Viet Nam. Ngi Viet khong dung
co trong cau nay e am ch Rosi bang cach noi: Mary ke, co a i tham
Viet Nam.

Cac oi tng c e cap ti trong nhng v du tren eu co moi quan he rang
buoc lan nhau. S rang buoc khong nhng ch ton tai tren bnh dien cu phap ma
con tren bnh dien ng ngha. Trong chng nay, ta th xem ly thuyet rang
buoc (binding theory) se giai thch the nao ve y ngha nay.

S RANG BUOC

Cach de nhat e nhan ra tnh rang buoc cua mot oi tng oi vi mot oi tng
la tra li cau hoi, oi tng nao dan ch (refer) ti oi tng nao. Trong cau
Mary and Rosi vitsited Vietnam, ng oan danh t NP Mary and Rosi dan ch
ti Vietnam. Loai ng oan danh t NP nay gi vai tro nh mot bieu thc dan
ch.

Bieu thc dan ch (referring expression) la mot ng oan danh t NP
nhan y ngha bang cach dan ch vao mot s vat.

Tnh dan ch khong nhng ch noi len s rang buoc cua mot chu the oi vi s
vat ben ngoai ma con oi vi chnh chu the ay.

(13) Lao a hai mnh bang tro chi co phieu.

v du tren, lao va mnh am ch mot oi tng duy nhat. Lao dan ch ti
mnh va ngc lai mnh dan ch ngc ve lao. Noi nom na la mnh tc
163

la cai laoay. Mnh gi chc nang nh mot trung ng va can ng canh pha
trc.

Trung ng (anaphor) la mot ng oan danh t NP nhan y ngha t mot
ng oan danh t NP khac trong cau.

Tieng Anh co nhng trung ng nh myself, yourself, himself, herself, themselves,
each other. V du:

(14) The murder killed himself with a gun.

Tnh rang buoc cua ng oan danh t NP con xuat hien dang ai danh t.

ai danh t (pronoun) la mot ng oan danh t NP co the nhan y ngha
t mot t khac trong cau.


She la ai danh t nhan vat va nhan y ngha t Mary.

Quan he rang buoc ch cho phep ba phan t bieu thc dan ch, trung ng va ai
danh t nam v tr nhat nh trong cau. oi v tr t, cau co the b ton thng:

(16) a. The murder killed himself with a gun.
b. * Himself killed murder with a gun.

Cau a. noi c. Cau b. khong noi c. Ng oan danh t NP the murder
trong cau a. la tien ng ng trc trung ng himself.

Tien ng (antecedent) la mot ng oan danh t NP nhan y ngha t mot
ai danh t hoac mot trung ng.

Rieng tieng Viet, can can than khi dung mnh:

(17) a. Lao a hai mnh bang tro chi co phieu.
b. Mnh a hai lao bang tro chi co phieu.

164

Y ngha hai cau tren khac nhau. Mnh trong tieng Viet co hai ngha, mot la
chnh ca nhan o, hai la toi, ta, chung ta. Ng oan danh t NP lao
trong cau a. la tien ng v ng trc trung ng mnh.

Bi co s lap lai oi tng bang nhng ng oan khac nhau, cho nen can nh ro
chc nang va v the cua tng ng oan e phan biet cho ro tng oi tng mot.
Muon vay, ngi ta dung ch so (index). Bang cach nay, ng oan dien ta mot
oi tng giong nhau se c anh ch so giong nhau. Loai ch so nay con c
goi la ch so phu (coindex). (c ghi chu bang i, j, k, l, m, ... ben phai, pha
di ngoac vuong ]).

(18) [Mary]
i
und [Rosi]
j
haben [Vietnam]
k
besucht.

Cau tren bao gom ba ng oan danh t NP khac nhau: Mary, Rosi,
Vietnam. Moi ng oan mang mot ch so khac nhau: i, j, k. Ta vay:

(19) [Lao]
i
a hai [mnh]
i
bang [tro chi co phieu]
j
.

bao gom ba ng oan danh t NP: lao, mnh, tro chi co phieu. Mnh va
lao ch cung oi tng, c ghi chu bang i. Tro chi co phieu (khong am
ch mnh hoac lao) mang ch so j. Cau truc cau nay rat giong cau truc cau
tieng Anh di ay:

(20) [The murder]
i
killed [himself]
i
with [a gun]
j
.

a mng tng c tnh rang buoc, chung ta th i sau vao van e. Gia s lay
cau tieng Anh va neu lam c s phan tch:

(21) [The murder]
i
killed [himself]
i
with a gun

.

M rong cau tren bang hai v du:

(22) a. [The murder
i
s lawyer]
j
killed [himself]
j
with a gun.
b. * [The murder
i
s lawyer]
j
killed [himself]
i
with a gun.

Cau a. noi c. Himself khong co cung ch so nh murder ma cung ch so
nh ng oan [The murder
i
s lawyer]
j
. oi tng chnh khong phai la ke sat
nhan (murder) ma la ong luat s (lawyer). Mat khac, neu anh ch so nh
trng hp cau b., cau truc cau se hong ngay. Himself ch co the dan ch ti
165

toan the chu ng The murders lawyer ch khong the dan ch ti mot ng oan
danh t NP ( ay la the murder) trong mot chu ng NP. Tng t vay:

(23) a. [The lawyer of the murder
i
]
j
killed [himself]
j
with a gun.
b. * [The lawyer of the murder
i
]
j
killed [himself]
i
with a gun.

Cac v du noi c eu thoa cac quy tac cau truc ng oan:

1. S NP VP
2. NP (D) (NP) (AP+) N
3. VP V (NP) (PP+)
4. PP P NP

D the | a
N murder | lawyer | himself | gun
V killed
P with

Cay cu phap cua cau [The murder]
i
killed [himself]
i
with a gun:

S
NP
i
VP
D N V NP
i
PP
The murder killed himself with a gun
N P NP
D N

(24) a.

Ng oan danh t NP
i
ben trai (c khoanh tron) chi phoi trc tiep murder va
co quan he lenh-C vi ng oan ong t VP (tc nut ch em). Va nh a biet, no
cung co cung moi quan he vi nhng nut con cua VP ben di, ngay cho NP
i
chi
phoi trc tiep himself. Trong khi o, cay cu phap cua [The murder
i
s lawyer]
j

killed [himself]
i
with a gun lai co dang khac:

166

NP VP
NP
i
N V NP
i
PP
The murders lawyer killed himself with a gun
D N N P NP
S
D N

(24) b.

NP
i
ben trai chi phoi trc tiep murder. NP
i
ben phai chi phoi trc tiep
himself. Tuy vay, NP
i
ben trai khong co quan he lenh-C vi NP
i
ben phai.
Ket qua: hai NP co cung ch so phu i nhng cau truc lai khong on.

Hay at ieu kien chat che hn:

Rang buoc (bind): Mot nut A b rang buoc vao nut B, neu va ch neu:

1. A la tien ng oi vi B va
2. A co quan he lenh-C vi B va
3. A va B co cung ch so.

Vi cac ieu kien ke tren, ta co the giai thch hai cau sau ay la sai ng phap:

(25) a. * Himself killed murder with a gun.
b. * [The murder
i
s lawyer]
j
killed [himself]
i
with a gun.

bi khong co trung ng nao b rang buoc. Tam thi tong quat hoa bang nguyen
tac:

Nguyen tac rang buoc A (binding principle A): Mot trung ng bao gi
cung b rang buoc.

Xin nhac lai, b rang buoc co ngha la va co cung ch so vi mot NP, va la
tien ng, va co moi quan he lenh-C vi chnh mnh. Trng hp di ay
khong c. Ng oan himself khong phai la tien ng cua murder:

167

* S
NP
i
VP
N V NP
i
PP
Himself killed the murder with a gun
D N P NP
D N

(26)

Tnh rang buoc cua tieng Anh hay gap rac roi ngay menh e phu:

(27) a. Mary said that she vitsited Vietnam.
b. * [Mary]
i
said that [herself ]
i
vitsited Vietnam.

b.

* S
NP
i
VP
N V S
Mary said that herself vitsited Vietnam.
C S
NP
i
VP
V NP
N
Trong chuoi t Mary said that herself vitsited Vietnam, [Mary] va co cung ch
so nh [herself], va co moi quan he lenh-C vi herself, va va la tien ng. V
du nay hoan toan thoa nguyen tac rang buoc A, the nhng lai sai ng phap. S
khac biet gia hai trng hp a. va b. ch nam cho she va herself. Nh
vay, co the phong oan, herself khong the ong vai tro chu ng. Noi cach
khac la trung ng herself can mot tien ng trong cau ma chnh no phai nam
168

trong o, du o la menh e phu. Tnh chat nay a ch ra tnh han che cuc bo
(locality constrain) trong pham vi rang buoc (binding domain), o, mot
trung ng bat buoc phai co tien ng ng gan no. V ly do nay, tnh rang buoc
oi hoi them ieu kien:

Nguyen tac rang buoc A (m rong): Mot trung ng bao gi cung b rang
buoc trong pham vi rang buoc cua no.

Tuy vay, nhng ieu kien cua tnh rang buoc ke tren co le ch thoa cho tieng
Anh va tieng c.

(28) a. Mary said that she vitsited Vietnam (tieng Anh).
b. Mary sagte, da sie Vietnam besucht hat (tieng c).
c. * [Mary]
i
said that [herself ]
i
vitsited Vietnam (tieng Anh).
d. * [Mary]
i
sagte, da [selbst ]
i
Vietnam besucht hat (tieng c)..

Tieng Viet t b van e hn. Thay v dung trung ng nh myself, yourself, himself,
herself, ..., tieng Viet co rat nhieu ai danh t nhan vat co u kha nang dien ta
chnh xac tng nhan vat mot. Nh the ma mot cau noi khong b hieu nham oi
tng hoac b sai ng phap.

Cu the, khi noi:

(29) Mary va Rosi a tng en Viet Nam.

Neu hoi mot ngi, Mary noi g va nghe ke:

(30) Mary noi la co a tng en Viet Nam.

th ngi Viet se hieu ngay, co ay la Mary ch khong ai khac. Con neu hoi
Mary ve Rosi, th cau tra li phai la:

(31) Mary noi la Rosi a tng en Viet Nam.
(32) Co noi la ba/ch ay a tng en Viet Nam.

oi vi nhng trng hp di ay, ngi Viet cung co the dien ta ro rang hn.
Thay v noi:

(33) Lao a hai mnh bang tro chi co phieu.
169

ngi ta thng noi:

(34) Lao a hai i mnh bang tro chi co phieu.

Hoac muon dien ta tinh than cua cau tieng Anh:

(35) The murder killed himself with a gun.

ngi Viet co the noi theo cach dch 1-1:

(36) Ten sat nhan a t sat bang sung.

hoac dch xuoi theo tnh chat thi gian cua tnh tnh tien:

(37) Ten sat nhan a cam sung, t sat.

NHAN XET VA IEM M

Tnh rang buoc la mot van e phc tap trong cac tieng Au chau. Chomsky
(1981), Aoun (1985) a phan tch goc canh nay rat chi tiet qua ly thuyet chi phoi
va rang buoc (Government and Binding Theory).

Tieng Viet co mot iem li la nh s phong phu cua ai danh t nhan vat, nen
de tranh c van e ay. The nhng hay th xem tnh rang buoc con xuat hien
au ? Nhng kien thc nay co the s dung c khong ?

170

Choong 8

LY 1H|YL1 X-CACH

Ngon ng khong bat nh ma co cau truc ng phap. Tnh tuyen tnh cua cau truc
ng phap xac nh c nh v tr t. Ngoai tnh tuyen tnh, cau truc ng phap
con co ton ti. Ton ti cua cau truc ng phap lam ro moi quan he cua t oi vi t
trong ng oan. Co t quan trong ong vai y chnh cua thanh to. Co t ch gi
nhiem vu them ngha cho t khac ch khong quan trong. V du noi mot cau:

(1) Nguyen Du la mot thi s rat noi tieng

th cum t:

(2) Mot thi s rat noi tieng

la mot ng oan danh t NP chieu theo quy tac:

(3) NP (D) N (N+) (AP+)
1)

NP
D N AP
Mot thi s rat noi tieng
Adv A
o la cach phan tch theo bai ban cu phap cau truc ng oan (phrase structure
syntax) truyen thong.

1)
Xin nhac lai: Phan t mang dau + co ngha la co the lap lai nhieu lan. Phan t c ong trong
ngoac () ch la mot la chon, co the co, co the khong.
171
CH|ONC 8 LY 1H|YL1 X-CACH

Ta thay, hnh thc cua cum t thi s rat noi tieng trong cay cu phap tren cha
phai la mot thanh to chuan. Muon thay dang thanh to, ta phai co mot cay chi tiet
ai e nh sau:

NP
D ???
N AP
Adv A

(4)

Pham tru ??? cha chuoi N AP, the nhng no la g ? Du co the oan ??? la
mot ng oan danh t NP, nhng chac chan no khong phai la mot NP thng
gap.

Th xem mot cau khac:

(5) Mot thi s rat noi tieng c nhieu ngi biet ti la Nguyen Du

Cau nay noi c. Mot thi s rat noi tieng la mot ng oan danh t NP chuan
cua cau. Song neu bo mot ngay au cau:

(6) Mot thi s rat noi tieng c nhieu ngi biet ti la Nguyen Du

ta se co cam giac la cau b thieu ngay. Ngh ky lai, ta se thay rang cum t thi s
rat noi tieng trong trng hp nay khong phai la mot ng oan danh t NP bnh
thng. Nh the nao o, no co ve ln hn danh t nhng lai nho hn ng oan
danh t NP thng gap, ai e la nam chnh gia. Qua thc vay, o la mot bnh
dien trung gian (intermediate level) nam gia 2 pham tru: pham tru t vng va
pham tru cu phap (tc pham tru ng oan).

172

a them bnh dien trung gian vao nham mo ta chi tiet cau truc ng phap chnh
la sang kien cua ly thuyet X-gach (X-Bar Theory)
2)
(Chomsky 1970),
Jackendoff (1977). Sau ay, chung ta se tap trung tm hieu nguyen tac nay.

(Can lu y: cac quy tac ng phap trong ly thuyet nay nguyen thuy da tren tieng
Anh va c dung chu yeu cho tieng Anh, cho nen cha chac a ung cho moi
ngon ng khac. Tuy vay, c th xem cach giai thch ve tieng Anh va canh o
xem tieng Viet the nao)

NGUYEN TAC X-GACH

Nh bai ban cua thuyet X-gach, viec phan tch cu phap khong con b gii han
trong 4 loai ng oan NP, VP, AP, PP, ngc lai, ngi phan tch co the t nh
ngha mot ng oan mi cho ngon ng ang c xet en. Theo ly thuyet, ngi
ta co the nh ngha vo so pham tru. Moi pham tru gach (bar-category) tng
ng vi mot pham tru t vng X t tao c goi la bong chieu X-gach (X-bar
projection) cua X.

1. X (X khong gach hoac X
0
la pham tru t vng, v du N, V, A, P, ...)
2. X (X mot gach
3)
hoac X
1
la pham tru X-gach n (X-single-bar))
3. X (X hai gach hoac X
2
)
4. X (X ba gach hoac X
3
)
5. X (X bon gach hoac X
4
)
6. ...

Qua sang kien tong quat hoa s phan oan o, cu phap cau truc ng oan truyen
thong ch con la mot tieu tap hp cua cau truc X-gach.

Th xem mot v du cho de hieu bang cach ve lai cay cu phap (4) theo s o X-
gach nh sau. Pham tru N co ngha la N-gach (nh X-gach):

2)
Tam dch la ly thuyet X-gach. Gach co ngha la cai gach tren au mau t X (
X
). Ly thuyet
X-gach c Chomsky gii thieu lan au tien va c nhng ngi theo sau (nh Jackendoff) m
rong.
3)
Dau thay cho dau gach tren.
173

N
D N
N AP
Adv A

(7)

Xin lu y, e tien viec anh may, ke t ay, chung toi dung dau phay ( ) the
cho dau gach (-):

N
D N
N AP
Adv A

(8)

Nh a biet, moi ng oan eu co mot au (head). N la au cua NP, V la au
cua VP, v.v.. Trong cu phap X-gach cung the. Moi ng oan X-gach phai co mot
X nhat nh lam au.

Nguyen tac au (head) X-gach: Moi ng oan X-gach ch co mot au.

1. X-gach n (X tc X
1
) phai co X (X
0
) lam au
2. X-hai gach (Xtc X
2
) phai co X-gach n (X
1
) lam au
3. X-ba gach (Xtc X
3
) phai co X
2
lam au
4. X-bon gach (X tc X
4
) phai co X
3
lam au
5. ...

174

(9) Ong ay oc truyen Kieu.

V NP
V
oc truyen Kieu
V co au la V (tc oc la au cua ng oan V oc truyen Kieu).

Lap thc theo quy tac san sinh, ta co:

1. X
1
... X ...
2. X
2
... X
1
...
3. X
3
... X
2
...
4. ...

Tong quat:

5. X
n
... X
n-1
...

co ngha (theo Chomsky), mot ng oan thuoc pham tru X vi n gach phai cha
mot au la mot thanh to thuoc pham tru X vi n-1 gach (Radford 1985: 103).

Xin nhac lai, au co the c nh ngha t do tuy pham tru t vng cua tng
ngon ng ch khong nhat thiet phai la N, V, A, P, ...

Tren thc te, pham tru t vng X
0
co the khong nam trc tiep di bnh dien X
1

ma la di nhieu bnh dien. T nh ng oan muon i xuong X
0
, ta phai i
xuyen qua nhieu bnh dien. Tuyen ng nay c goi la tuyen chieu (projection
line).

Nguyen tac tuyen chieu (projection line): ng t nh ng oan dan
xuong mot au c goi la tuyen chieu.

Cu the, trong ng oan danh t NP mot thi s rat noi tieng ben tren, thi s la
mot t thuoc pham tru t vng danh t N (lam trung tam cho ng oan).
175

Ta co the nhan ra tuyen chieu (t nh ng oan N (NP) dan xuong danh t thi
s nh sau:

(10)

Nguyen tac di truyen cua au trong ng oan: ac iem hnh v cua
ng oan dan en au. Noi cach khac, ac iem nay se c thc hien
au.

N tuyen chieu (projection line)
D N
N AP
Adv A
Mot v du ve ac iem hnh v oi cach (accusative, viet tat: Acc) cua mot ng
oan dan en au (Stechow 1988):

(11) Ottos Vorschlag zu diesem Thema
(e ngh cua Otto ve e tai nay)

N (Acc)
NP N (Acc)
Ottos Vorschlag zu diesem Thema
N (Acc) PP

Nguyen tac ng oan: Ngoai tr au, phan con lai la ng oan.
Nguyen tac bnh dien: au cua mot pham tru X
i
la mot pham tru X
j
;
0 j i.

Cung quan iem vi Hornstein va Lightfoot, Radford cho rang con co nhng
trng hp mot cau truc cha cau truc phu (substructure):
176

(12)

Khong han:

6. X
n
... X
n-1
...
v du N ... N ...

ma:

7. X
n
... X
m
... ( m = n hoac m = n-1)
v du N ... N ...
N
... N ...

ay la trng hp cau truc co tnh hoi quy. Chang han mot danh t co nhieu tnh
t gi chc nang phu ngha (Radford 1985: 103):

(13) a tall, dark, handsome stranger

Trong chuoi t, ca 3 tnh t eu v the ngang nhau, tc cung nam bnh dien
A. Tnh t khong chi phoi lan nhau. Cay cu phap co dang:

N
D N
a tall dark handsome stranger
A N
N
A N
A N

(14)

Nguyen tac X-gach la nh the, sau ay hay xem vai v du.
177

VAI V DU X-GACH

Phep the - nh a biet - la mot trong nhng phng phap phan tch cau truc ng
phap thng dung trong ngon ng hoc. Phng phap nay thc ra khong co g la.
Ngoai i, chung ta van thng dung no mot cach vo tnh e noi tat:

(15) No quen ong xep ln cua Microsoft, toi cung vay.

Vay la cach noi tat (thay the) cho quen ong xep ln cua Microsoft, ngha la
cung quen .... Neu cha nghe cau No quen ong xep ln cua Microsoft ma noi
trong khong toi cung vay, th khong ai hieu c. Vay ay oi hoi mot ng
canh i trc. Chuoi t quen ong xep ln cua Microsoft chnh la ng canh o.
Ngi ta noi, chuoi t nay a di truyen y ngha o ti vay.

Cau truc cau co ton ti, trong o, tng ng oan co bnh dien (level) cao thap khac
nhau. Di truyen y ngha c hieu nh mot phep chieu (projection). V du ng
oan quen ong xep ln cua hang Microsoft nam mot bnh dien nhat nh nao
o va a chieu (project) sang vay.

Mot trong nhng iem ang chu y trong ly thuyet X-gach la mot ng oan cua
mot bnh dien gach (bar-level) chnh la cai cau truc hoan hao cua phan noi tat
pha sau.

Sau ay chung ta hay th khao sat s qua nhng cach chieu trong tieng Anh,
cu the la bong chieu bnh dien gach (bar-level projection) cua 4 trng hp:

1. N-gach (N-bar)
2. V-gach (V-bar)
3. A-gach (A-bar)
4. P-gach (P-bar)

1. N-gacb

Xet en N-gach ngha la xet en hnh thc X-gach mo ta mot ng oan danh t
NP.

(16) The big boss of Microsoft with the secondhand rucksack

178

V du nay thoa quy tac:

(17) NP (D) N (AP+) (PP+)

Ve cay cu phap theo cau truc ng oan truyen thong, ta co:

NP
D AP N PP PP
The big boss of Microsoft with the secondhand rucksack

Gia s trong boi canh cau phat bieu nguyen thuy tren, co ai o noi:

(18) I see the big [boss of Microsoft with the seconhand rucksack] not the small
[one].

ta se thay, not the small khong the i vi ng oan the big boss of Microsoft
with the seconhand rucksack ma la i vi ng oan boss of Microsoft with the
seconhand rucksack. Bang phep the-one (one-replacement), tieng Anh
mi co cau tren.

the big [boss of Microsoft with the seconhand rucksack] not the small [one]
chieu sang
Con co trng hp mot phep chieu i t boss of Microsoft vao one:

(19) I see the big [boss of Microsoft] with the seconhand rucksack not the small
[one] with a Samsonite.

the big [boss of Microsoft] with the seconhand rucksack not the small [one]
with a Samsonite
chieu sang
179

Chuoi t the big boss of Microsoft with the secondhand rucksack thoa cac quy
tac N-gach :

(20) NP (D) N
(21) N (AP) N | N (PP)
(22) N N (PP)

(| : phep hoac (OR) trong logic)

Nhan xet: Cac quy tac X-gach tren c soan tong quat cho ng oan danh t
NP cua tieng Anh, o, bnh dien N ong vai mot ng oan trung gian di
dang NP.

Cay cu phap X-gach cua The big boss of Microsoft with the secondhand
rucksack co dang:

(23)

NP
D N bnh dien X-gach 3
The big boss of Microsoft with the secondhand rucksack
N PP bnh dien X
0
(tc bnh dien
t vng)
AP N bnh dien X-gach 2
N PP bnh dien X-gach 1
Cay mo ta 3 bnh dien X-gach (1, 2, 3). Moi ng oan trung gian nam mot bnh
dien nhat nh. Hai ng oan N va N bnh dien 1 va 2 la hai ng oan ma
one co the the c.

Bnh dien cua N c danh san cho mao t the. Co trng hp, thay v dung
the, ngi ta dung that (that one):

180

(24) I see [
NP
this [
N
secondhand rucksack]] not [
NP
that [
N
one]].

Rong hn na la trng hp s dung lien t, v du and:

(25) The big boss of Microsoft with the secondhand rucksack and the old hut

o la vai trng hp the bang phep the-one trong tieng Anh. Nay ta hay th
xem tieng Viet co tng t the khong. Gia s noi:

(26) Toi quen ong xep ln cua Microsoft.
(27) Toi quen ong xep ln cua Microsoft ch khong quen ong xep nho.

Hai cau eu noi c. Ng oan danh t ong xep tng ng vi one cua
tieng Anh. Tuy vay, trong tieng Viet, ngi noi khong the noi tat hoac lc t de
dang, chang han nh lc bo t xep trong cau pha di:

(28) ? Toi quen ong xep ln cua Microsoft ch khong quen ong xep nho.

Cau nay nghe kha lan can v mat tnh chat xep. Co phai v thieu ch xep,
mot vai tro trung tam khong the thieu ? Vay, th bo ong:

(29) Toi quen ong xep ln cua Microsoft ch khong quen ong xep nho.

Nh the nao o, cau nghe van khong c t nhien cho lam. Tren nguyen tac,
danh t hnh thc (formal noun) ong ai dien cho xep, nhng cha chac bao
gi no cung khang nh c vai tro trung tam.

Mot v du khac:

(30) Toi quen ba v cu cua ong ta.
(31) Toi quen ba v cu cua ong ta ch khong quen ba v mi.

Lc bo danh t v (giong trng hp xep tren), ta co:

(32) Toi quen ba v cu cua ong ta ch khong quen ba v mi.

Cau noi c, nhng se kho nghe neu bo ba:

(33) ? Toi quen ba v cu cua ong ta ch khong quen ba v mi.
181

Trong trng hp nay, ta lai thay, danh t hnh thc ba gi vai tro trung tam
mot cach hu hieu. Xem them vai trng hp gan giong:

(34) Toi quen thang con nho cua ong ta.
(35) Toi quen thang con nho cua ong ta ch khong quen thang con ln.
(36) Toi quen thang con nho cua ong ta ch khong quen thang con ln.

Tng t trng hp lc bo ba v du tren, neu lc bo thang, cau se b
van de:

(37) * Toi quen thang con nho cua ong ta ch khong quen thang con ln.

Ket qua: Ca hai danh t hnh thc ba, thang khong bo c v phai gi vai
tro ai dien cho trung tam ng oan. Ngoai ra con co ca trng hp danh t hnh
thc lan danh t chnh eu gi chc nang ay:

(38) Toi quen ong cha s ho Vn Xoai.
(39) Toi quen ong cha s ho Vn Xoai ch khong quen ong cha s ben x Bui
Phat.
Phat.
Phat.

Mot lan na, qua phep tnh lc, ta lai thay tnh phc tap va uyen chuyen cua
cau truc ng oan danh t trong tieng Viet. Phep tnh lc la mot e tai kha thu
v, the nhng xin mien ao sau vao chi tiet ay ma xin nhng cho mot chuyen
luan khac.

2. V-gacb

Xet en V-gach ngha la xet en hnh thc X-gach mo ta mot ng oan ong t
VP.

Mot v du trong tieng Anh:

(42) Peter [ate spaghetti with fingers].
182

Cau truc ng oan ong t VP ate spaghetti with fingers co quy tac truyen
thong:

(43) VP V (NP) (PP)

Cay cu phap:

VP
V NP PP
ate spaghetti with fingers

M rong cau truc tren bang quy tac V-gach:

(44) VP V
(45) V V (PP)
(46) V V (NP)

ta co cay cu phap:

VP
V PP
ate spaghetti with fingers
V NP
V

Nh cau truc X-gach, ngi Anh co the giai thch c trng hp phep the-
do so (do-so-replacement):

(47) Peter [ate spaghetti] with fingers but Mary [did so] with forks.
(48) Peter [ate spaghetti with fingers] and Mary [did so] too.
183

Ngay v du nay, ngi Viet cung co cach dien ta tng t song khong dung mot
loai ong t giong do so e noi tat ma dung cung vay, cung the, cung
ra:

(49) Ngi ta [an cm bang ua], no [cung vay].

[Cung vay] the cho ng oan ong t [an cm bang ua] nhng khong the the
cho [an cm] (giong [ate spaghetti] trong tieng Anh):

(50) * Ngi ta [an cm] bang ua, no [cung vay] bang ua.

Muon dien ta cung an cm, ngi Viet thng noi:

(51) Ngi ta an cm bang ua, con no (an) bang muong.
(52) Ngi ta an cm bang ua, con no (th) bang muong.
(53) Ngi ta an cm bang ua, no (th) bang muong.

hoac ngan na:

(54) Ngi ta an cm bang ua, no th muong.

[th] ai dien cho cau truc [(th) an cm bang].

Hien tng noi tat qua ang thng lam cau noi b cam ng canh (context
sensitive). Thay v noi, an cm bang ua, hoac tht bo beaf steak bang dao,
chung ta van thng nghe noi tat:

(55) An ua nha ?
(56) An dao nha ?

ay la mot trng hp cam ng canh tieu bieu: Muon an tht bo hay an dao ?

Ha tien ch qua khien ngon ng de tr nen coc loc, thieu trong sang. The nhng
cung co trng hp du khong bo ch, ng ngha van co the b ton thng v dung
ch khong ung. Chang han dung gii t vi ngay v du nay. Neu noi:

(57) An tht bo vi dao

suy ra, cung co the noi:
184

(58) An cm vi ua.

Cau truc hai kieu noi tren giong het nh:

(59) An cm vi nc mam.

Ngh logic, nc mam nuot vao bung c, suy ra ua, dao cung nuot vao
bung c !?

Muon tranh hieu nham, ch con cach, thay v dung vi th nen dung bang.

3. A-gacb

Xet en A-gach ngha la xet en hnh thc X-gach mo ta mot ng oan tnh t
AP.

(60) Peter is [very serious about this problem].

Vi cau truc ng oan truyen thong:

(61) AP (AP) A (PP)

ta co cay cu phap:

AP
AP A PP
very serious about this problem

M rong cau truc bang s o A-gach:

(62) AP A
(63) A (AP) A
(64) A A (PP)

185

ta co:

AP
AP A
very serious about this problem
A
A PP

Nh cau truc A-gach, tieng Anh co the thay the ng oan tnh t AP [very
serious about this problem] bang phep the-so (so-replacement) :

(65) Peter is [very serious about this problem] but Mary is not [so].

Ngi Viet cung co the dien ta tng t bang cach dung cung vay, cung the,
cung ra :

(66) Mua ong Thuy ien [lanh lam], mua ong Canada [cung vay].
(67) Canh [buon], ngi [cung ra].
(68) Mon an Viet [rat ngon va a dang], mon an Tau [cung the].

The nhng gap trng hp phu nh, ta lai phai them v.d. the, phai the vao:

(69) Ong bo rat nghiem khac vi con cai nhng ba me th khong.
(70) Ong bo rat nghiem khac vi con cai nhng ba me th khong the.
(71) Ong bo rat nghiem khac vi con cai nhng ba me th khong phai the.

4. F-gacb

Xet en P-gach ngha la xet en hnh thc X-gach mo ta mot ng oan gii t
PP.

(72) Peter slept [on the bed].

Cau truc truyen thong:
186

(73) PP (PP) P (NP)

PP
P NP
on the bed
Cau truc P-gach:

(74) PP P
(75) P P (PP)
(76) P P (NP)

PP
P NP
on the bed
P
TONG KET CAC QUY TAC X-GACH CUA TIENG ANH

a xem qua nhng v du X-gach cua 4 pham tru ng phap danh t N, ong t V,
tnh t A va gii t P, han chung ta a thay chieu sau cua cau truc a c lam
ro nh the nao. Xin nhac lai, cu phap X-gach khong b gii han trong 4 pham tru
ay ma co the la nhng pham tru tru tng do ngi s dung t nh ngha nham
giai thch mot cau truc ngon ng khong nhat thiet phai ton tai trong tieng Anh.

oi vi tieng Anh, cac quy tac X-gach c dung e giai thch 4 pham tru ng
phap danh t N, ong t V, tnh t A va gii t P ben tren co the c tom gon
nh sau:

(77) NP (D) N
(78) N (AP) N | N (PP)
(79) N N (PP)

(80) VP V
187

(81) V V (PP)
(82) V V (NP)

(83) AP A
(84) A (AP) A
(85) A A (PP)

(86) PP P
(87) P P (PP)
(88) P P (NP)

Tat ca cac ng oan NP, VP, AP, PP tren eu co nut au (head). Khac vi N, V,
A, P, cac nut N, V, A, P thuoc bnh dien trung gian (intermediate level).
Bnh dien trung gian khong tan cung bang mot t ma dan xuong ng oan sau
hn. Toan the cau truc gom co 3 bnh dien: bnh dien chnh (NP, VP, AP, PP),
bnh dien trung gian (N, V, A, P) va bnh dien tan cung (N, V, A, P). Tong
quat hoa cac quy tac bang bien so X, Y, W, Z, ta co:

1. nb dicn cbnb

(89) NP (D) N
(90) VP V
(91) AP A
(92) PP P

NP, VP, AP, PP la bon bnh dien chnh. Dung bien so X the cho nhng pham tru
ng phap N, V, A, P, vi tap hp X = {N, V, A, P}, ta se c mot quy tac gon
gang:

(93) XP (YP) X

(XP: X-Phrase, YP: Y-Phrase). Xin lu y, YP la bien so cua D trong quy tac NP.

2. nb dicn trong gian

Cac nut N, V, A, P mang tnh hoi quy:

188

(94) N (D) N | N (PP)
(95) V V (PP)
(96) A (AP) A
(97) P P (PP)

The N, V, A, P bang bien so X, Z, ta co:

(98) X (ZP) X | X (ZP)

Z ai dien cho D, PP, AP, PP.

3. nb dicn tan cong

Cuoi cung, the cac quy tac sau:

(99) N N (PP)
(100) V V (NP)
(101) A A (PP)
(102) P P (NP)

bang bien so X va W, ta c quy tac:

(103) X X (WP)

W ai dien cho PP, NP.

4. Tong kct cac qoy tac

Cuoi cung ch con 3 quy tac c rut gon nh bien so X, Y, Z, W:

(104) XP (YP) X
(105) X (ZP) X | X (ZP)
(106) X X (WP)

Tren ly thuyet, ch can ba quy tac tong quat, gii ngon ng hoc Tay phng a
co the giai thch c hau het cac cau tieng Anh. Tuy vay, khong phai la khong
con van e. Mat khac, cha chac cac quy tac tren eu dung c cho moi ngon
189

ng du cung co cac pham tru danh t N, ong t V, tnh t A va gii t P. Chung
ta se phan tch chi tiet van e nay cac chng sau.

TOM LC

Bai ban quy tac cau truc ng oan truyen thong khong the mo ta chieu sau cau
truc cua nhieu ngon ng. T o, no a c m rong bang ly thuyet X-gach.

Sang kien chnh cua ly thuyet X-gach la dung nut trung gian X-gach. au cua
tng ng oan X khong nhat thiet phai la danh t N, ong t V, tnh t A, gii t
P, ... nh trc nay ma co the la mot pham tru tru tng c ngi s dung t
nh ngha.

Cac ac iem chnh cua ly thuyet X-gach:

1. Nguyen tac au ng oan: Moi ng oan ch co mot au, co the c
nh ngha t do tuy pham tru t vng cua tng ngon ng.
2. Nguyen tac di truyen au trong ng oan: ac iem hnh v cua ng
oan dan en au.
3. Nguyen tac ng oan: Phan phu cua au la mot ng oan.
4. Nguyen tac bnh dien: au mot pham tru X
i
la mot pham tru X
j
; 0 j i.

Tuyen chieu (projection line) la ng mot pham tru phc tap dan xuong au
t vng. Noi ngc lai, au t vng se chieu ac iem cua no qua tuyen nay, the
nhng khong chieu len toan the cay cu phap ma ch tng phan.

o phc tap cua bnh dien (level complexity): oi vi moi pham tru t vng
X {N, V, A, P, ...}:

X
0
: bnh dien t vng (lexical level).
X
max
: bnh dien ng oan (phrase level = XP)

V du: bo ng, tc phan t c coi nh pham tru phu, nam bnh dien 1 (X
1
);
phu ng bnh dien 2 (X
2
), ... Xin xem them chi tiet ve bo ng, phu ng
chng sau.

190

IEM M

1) Ng oan danh t NP: ng dung hoac neu can, phai khai trien ly thuyet
X-gach the nao e giai thch cach thanh lap ng oan danh t cha danh
t hnh thc (cai, chiec, con, cay, ...). Co trng hp nao co cung
cau truc ng phap ma khong noi c ? Con s khac biet nao cha ro ?
2) Ng oan ong t VP: Giai thch cach bo ngha trong ng oan ong t
co trang t, tnh t, gii t, danh t (menh e phu).
3) Th xet sau hn ve phep tnh lc trong tieng Viet. Phep chieu co the ng
dung cho nhng trng hp b lc bo nao ? Th lap quy tac X-gach, xem
cach noi tat nao hp ly, cach noi tat nao khong.
4) Co the tom gon nhng cau truc can ban cua tieng Viet thanh nhng quy
tac X-gach nh tieng Anh c khong ?
5) Th phan tch vai v du cu the sau ay e xem ta co the t nh ngha
c nhng pham tru khac N, V, A, P a neu tren hay khong. Xet ky cac
t nh ha, au, a, nha, ka, i, nh... xem chung co chc
nang g. Neu tnh lc nhng t nay, cau con noi c khong hoac y ngha
b thay oi the nao ?

An cm i ch ha.
Anh cha an au.
oi thay mu noi ma cha an a.
Lang quang la an on ay nha.
i chi nha.
i chi vui nha.

6) Th phan tch chieu sau ng ngha cua nhng v du di ay. Nhng danh
t nao thc s lam chu ng logic trong cau ? ng dung s o X-gach nh
the nao e giai thch cac trng hp: chu ng logic khong co mat trong
cau hoac cau b tnh lc ?

Bc tranh treo tren tng.
Bc tranh nam tren ban.
Bc tranh ri xuong at.
E ! Quan ao ang ban xon ka. i mua i.
Ba Ba mi mua cai nha ma a ban mat tieu.
Ba Ba mi mua cai nha ma a chay mat tieu.
Hung phai i cat toc.
Ong Nam ang cat toc cho khach.
191

C en ngay Chu nhat la phai chuan b tien e thoi. Kho lam,
khong co tien le la khach bo i mua cho khac ngay.
(Trch bao Tuoi Tre, 21.09.2001)
Lo hang gia co cua DN t nhan Van Le (ong Nai) xuat qua My
au tuan roi khong cap cang c, phai neo lai ngoai khi, mai en
au tuan nay mi giai toa c hang.
Nam nao cung vay, sau khi a a c con vao trng la phu
huynh lai bat au nm np ch i khong biet nam nay ong bao
nhieu ? ma lo ngai nhat co le van la tien xay dng trng. Mot
trng tieu hoc quan 1, TP.HCM mi xay vai nam nay vi mot c
ngi kha o so ....
Ngoai mo Ruby a a vao khai thac va mo mi phat hien,
Petronas cung a khoan tham nh va phat hien kh mo Emerald
nam trong lo nay
192

Choong 9

LY 1H|YL1 X-CACH O NC|, lH| NC|

BO NG, PHU NG

Trong mot ng oan, co t ong vai chnh, co t ong vai phu. T ong vai chnh
c coi la t lam trung tam. T nay bao ham y chnh cua ng oan va c
xem nh chu iem muon noi. T ong vai phu ch gi nhiem vu them ngha.
Song, them ngha khong ch thuan la them ngha. Co hnh thc them ngha nham
bo tuc cho ay u ngha, co hnh thc nham phu them ngha ch khong quan
trong. Mot v du:

(1) Ngi con gai Viet Nam da vang

Trong v du nay, t Viet Nam c coi nh gi chc nang bo ng
(complement), bi v no bo ngha cho oi tng ngi con gai e oi tng
nay c ay u y ngha. Trong khi o, da vang ch la phu ng (adjunct).
Cong dung cua no la phu ngha them ch khong can thiet. Thanh th khi nghe
cum t Ngi con gai Viet Nam da vang, chung ta se cam thay Viet Nam co
ve gan bo vi cum t ngi con gai hn so vi cum t da vang. ay la y
ngha cua bo ng va phu ng trong ngon ng hoc. Sau ay chung ta se i vao chi
tiet.

Chep lai v du tieng Anh chng roi:

(2) The boss of Microsoft with the secondhand rucksack

Nguyen tac X-gach cho phep giai thch cac ng oan tru tng. ng dung s o
nay e giai thch hai loai ng oan bo ng, phu ng, ta co cay cu phap:

193
CH|ONC 9 LY 1H|YL1 X-CACH O NC|, lH| NC|

(3)

NP
D N phu ng
The boss of Microsoft with the secondhand rucksack
P P NP
N PP
2
bo ng
N PP
1
P
P NP
Cau truc tren mieu ta hai ng oan gii t PP nam hai bnh dien khac nhau.
PP
2
v the cao hn PP
1
. Trong khi PP
2
la ch em cua N, tc bnh dien gach n
(single bar-level), th PP
1
la ch em cua N. Nut N kiem soat nut N. Nut PP
2
thoa
quy tac:

(4) X X (ZP)

mat khac, PP
1
thoa:

(5) X X (WP)

o la hai loai ng oan gii t PP. Moi loai gi nhiem vu hoac bo ngha hoac
phu ngha. nh ngha:

Phu ng (adjunct) la ng oan XP co quan he ch em vi nhng bnh dien
gach n (N, V, A, P) va ong thi la con cua mot bnh dien gach n
(N, V, A, P).

Bo ng (complement) la ng oan XP co quan he ch em vi au (N, V,
A, P) va ong thi la con cua cua mot bnh dien gach n (N, V, A, P).

Quy tac ng oan dien ta phu ng va bo ng trong tieng Anh co the c lap
thc nh sau:
194

(6) Quy tac phu ng: X X (ZP)
(7) Quy tac bo ng: X X (WP)

Cay cu phap tong quat:

XP
X ZP phu ng
X WP bo ng
X

(8)

Sau ay, chung ta se tuan t xet them chi tiet ve tnh chat bo ng va phu ng
trong cac loai ng oan NP, VP, AP, PP.

Trc nhat, hay xet en bo ng va phu ng trong ng oan danh t NP. Ta dung
lai hai v du tieng Anh:

(9) The boss of Microsoft
(10) The boss with the rucksack

Mac du tnh cach them ngha cho the boss trong hai v du co ve giong nhau,
the nhng gii ngon ng hoc Tay phng lai cho la khong giong. S khac biet
nam o sau.

Trng hp bo ngha:

NP
N PP
1
The boss of Micorsoft
D N

(11)

Ng oan gii t PP
1
lam bo ng cho the boss:

195
Trng hp phu ngha:

NP
N PP
2
The boss with the rucksack
D N
N

(12)

Ng oan gii t PP
2
lam phu ng cho the boss. PP
2
khong phai la ch em cua
au ng oan N nh trng hp tren ma la ch em cua bnh dien gach n N.
Mi nhn s th thay PP
1
va PP
2
co ve giong nhau, the nhng nhn sau hn th
khac: PP
1
nam sat the boss e bo tuc cho ay ngha. Nghe noi The boss,
nhng the boss nao ? A, the boss of Microsoft. Trong khi o, PP
2
ch gi
nhiem vu phu ngha, ch khong xac nh the boss ro rang nh PP
1
. Trong hang
Microsoft co nhieu boss, co boss xach Samsonite i lam, co boss eo ba
lo, co boss i tay khong.

S phan oan mot t hoac mot ng oan ong vai tro g, bo ng hay phu ng,
thc ra ch co tnh cach tng oi. Hau het cac t hoac ng oan tieng Anh theo
sau of eu la bo ng (d nhien cung co trng hp ngoai le). Phu ng thng
theo sau nhng gii t nh from, as, to, with, under, ...

Theo kinh nghiem, bo ng thng ng trc tiep ben canh oi tng muon noi,
tc la au, v du ng oan danh t NP di ay:

(13) [
NP
The boss [of Microsoft] [with the rucksack]]
au bo ng phu ng

Cau nay noi c, nhng neu oi v tr bo ng va phu ng, cau se co van e:

(14) * [
NP
The boss [with the rucksack] [of Microsoft]]
au phu ng bo ng

Cay cu phap cua (13):

196

NP
N PP quy tac phu ng
The boss of Micorsoft with the rucksack
D N
N PP quy tac bo ng

(15)

Quy tac phu ng con cha them mot ac iem la tnh hoi quy. Ngc lai, quy tac
bo ng dng nh khong co tnh nay:

(16) Quy tac phu ng: X X (XP)
(17) Quy tac bo ng: X X (XP)

Quy tac bo ng i t X vao X va dng o. Trong khi o, quy tac phu ng i t
X vao X, X lai phai sinh ra X va c the tiep tuc lap lai chnh no, lam cau truc
n rong:

(18)

X XP phu ng
X
X XP phu ng
X XP phu ng
X XP phu ng
Mot trng hp dung nhieu phu ng:

(19) [
NP
The boss [of Microsoft] [with the rucksack] [living in USA]]
au bo ng phu ng phu ng

197

NP
N XP
The boss of Micorsoft with the rucksack living in USA
N XP
N XP
D N
Xin lu y: XP c hieu mot cach tong quat, khong rieng g PP trong v du tren.

Th t cua bo ng va phu ng kha quan trong. V du tren noi c, nhng neu
oi v tr bo ng va phu ng nh di ay, ca chuoi t se khong con noi c:

(20) * [
NP
The boss [with the rucksack] [living in USA] [of Microsoft]]
au phu ng phu ng bo ng

Nhieu nha ngon ng hoc Tay phng cho rang, v tr gia bo ng va phu ng
khong oi c, nhng hoan v phu ng th c (Carnie 2000).

(21) The book [of poems] [with a red cover] [from Blackwell] [by R. Burns]
au bo ng phu ng phu ng phu ng

(22) The book [of poems] from Blackwell with a red cover by R. Burns
(23) The book [of poems] from Blackwell by R. Burns with a red cover
(24) The book [of poems] by R. Burns from Blackwell with a red cover
(25) The book [of poems] by R. Burns with a red cover from Blackwell
(26) The book [of poems] with a red cover by R. Burns from Blackwell
(27) * The book with a red cover [of poems] from Blackwell by R. Burns
(28) * The book with a red cover from Blackwell [of poems] by R. Burns
(29) * The book with a red cover from Blackwell by R. Burns [of poems]

Nhan nh nay co le ch tng oi, bi ngay trng hp [The boss [of Microsoft]
[with the rucksack] [made in China], neu oi v tr phu ng, chung ta se gap
van e:
198

(30) * The boss [of Microsoft] [made in China] [with the rucksack]
au bo ng phu ng phu ng

Phep hoan v con dan en trng hp a ngha. Chang han dung ng oan gii
t PP from China:

(31) The boss [of Microsoft] [with the rucksack] [from China]
(32) The boss [of Microsoft] [from China] [with the rucksack]

Co hai cach hieu: hoac cai ba lo cua ong xep la ba lo made in China, hoac ong
xep xuat x t Tau. Hai oi tng ba lo va ong xep khac nhau.

Phep the one co the thay the ng oan trung gian N:

(33) The [
N
boss of Micorsoft with the rucksack]
(34) The one

Hoac thay the N thap hn:

(35) The [
N
boss of Microsoft]

with the rucksack
(36) The one with the rucksack

NP
N PP
The boss of Micorsoft with the rucksack
D N thay the bang one
N PP
(37)

Phep the -one khong dung c cho N:

(38) * The one of Microsoft with the rucksack

Lu y: Khi giai thch ng phap bang s o X-gach, mot loi thng gap la s lan
lon gia bo ng va phu ng.
199
(39) A programming language

Neu xem programming la bo ng, th cau truc X-gach phai la:

NP
AP N
A programming language
D N
A N
A

(40)

Phu them mot tnh chat v du nh high vao, th high se ong vai phu ng:

(41) A high programming language
phu ng bo ng

D N
A AP
2
N
A high programming language
AP
1
N
A A N
A
NP
(42)

Sau ay la vai nhan xet cua ngon ng hoc Tay phng ve bo ng va phu ng
trong tieng Anh:

200

1. Mot ng oan danh t NP co the co nhieu phu ng nhng ch mot bo
ng:

(43) An efficient high programming language

2. Bo ng ng gan au ng oan hn phu ng:

(45) * A programming high language

3. Tuy quan he le thuoc, phu ng hoan v c, nhng v tr bo ng van
gan au ng oan:

(46) A modern, efficient programming language
(47) An efficient, modern programming language

4. Phu ng co the ng trc one trong phep the-one, con bo ng
th khong:

(48) The efficient programm language but not the inefficient one
(49) * The programm language but not the natural one

5. Phu ng co the lien ket vi phu ng, bo ng co the lien ket vi bo
ng, nhng bo ng khong the lien ket vi phu ng:

(50) A strong and efficient high programming language
(51) A efficient projecting and programming language
(52) * A high and programming language

Noi them: Neu ke ve ngon ng ien toan, th ngon ng lap trnh (programming
language) la mot loai ngon ng hnh thc (formal language) dung e viet chng
trnh. Mat khac con co loai ngon ng ac biet c goi la ngon ng lap o
(projecting language). Loai nay thng c dung e lap o an trong ky thuat t
ong hoa (automation technique). Hoac co loai va dung cho lap trnh va va
dung cho lap o, v du STEP 7. Trong trng hp nay, programming va
projecting eu co chc nang bo ngha: projecting and programming language.
Trng hp nay ro rang, nhng trng hp di ay lai co van e. Neu noi:

201
th high lai co chc nang phu ngha. The nhng neu noi:

(54) An efficient high programming language

co le high phai c coi la yeu to bo ngha. High khong the lien ket vi
efficient bang cach noi:

(55) * An efficient and high programming language

Nhieu khi mot danh t co the c bo ngha cung luc. Khang nh mot t lam bo
ng hoac phu ng co le ch tng oi. Chang han nh ngi Anh noi:

(56) the German teacher

Co hai cach hieu, hoac ong thay (teacher) la ngi c (German), hoac ong ta
day tieng c. Song neu noi:

(57) the English German teacher

co le xac suat hieu ong thay c day tieng Anh cao hn. Hay neu noi:

(58) the English and German teacher

th cang ro na: ong thay ay va day tieng Anh va day tieng c, ch kho co
the hieu ong ta va lai Anh, va lai c. ay, English bo ngha cho
teacher, German cung vay. English and German la mot to hp bo ng.
Trng hp dung and nay co ly, nhng trng hp:


programming lai bo ngha cho language. High cung vay, v khi noi en
high language ngha la muon am ch high programming language, song
high khong the lien ket vi programming bang lien t and e thanh:

(60) * A high and programming language

Kha rac roi. Mat khac, neu xem high lam bo ng cho programming
language, th lai sai quy tac X-gach. Cho nay khong on lam.
202

Tng t tieng Anh, nhng quy tac X-gach cua ng oan danh t NP cung dung
c cho tieng Viet. Ch khac la ng oan tnh t AP trong tieng Viet nam ben
phai danh t:

(61) NP (D) N
(62) N N (AP) | N (PP)
(63) N N (PP)

Xem mot trng hp na na nh v du tieng Anh ben tren:

(64) Tieng Viet la mot ngon ng t nhien phc tap.

Neu xem t nhien lam bo ng cho ngon ng, ta co cau truc X-gach nh sau:

NP
N AP
Mot ngon ng t nhien
D N
N A
A

(65)

Cong them tnh t phc tap lam phu ng:

NP
N AP
1

Mot ngon ng t nhien phc tap
D N
N AP
2
A
A
N A A

(66)

203
Trong trng hp nay, quy tac X-gach thoa tieng Viet giong tieng Anh. Xem
mot v du khac chi tiet hn:

(67) Mot v sao sang trong em lanh vang
(Thanh Trang)

NP
N PP
Mot v sao sang trong em lanh vang
D N
N AP P NP
N A P N
A N AP
N
Ca trng hp phc tap cha ng oan gii t PP cung thoa.

Khong nhng tieng Viet ch thoa nhng trng hp tren ma con co trng hp
mot oi tng bo ngha cho mot oi tng:

(68) Nang Sai Gon, anh i ma cht mat,
Bi v em mac ao lua Ha ong
(Nguyen Sa)

Ng oan ao lua Ha ong cha hai oi tng ao va lua. Lua bo ngha
cho ao e ao c ay u y ngha nh mot loai ao (ao the, ao s mi, ao dai,
ao ba ba, ao am, ao vet, ao ca sa, ...). Mat khac, nen hieu rang Ha ong
ay khong phu ngha cho oi tng ao ma la cho oi tng lua. Tng t
ao, lua cung co nhieu loai khac nhau: lua Ha ong, lua Phap, lua An, ...
Ca cum t lua Ha ong bo ngha cho ao, ch khong rieng g lua. Xem
cay cu phap ben di, chung ta se thay ro chieu sau ng ngha trong cau truc
tieu bieu nay cua tieng Viet.
204

NP
N AP
Ao lua Ha ong
N N
N A
A
N NP
N

(69)

Cay cu phap tren can them mot quy tac mi:

(70) N N (NP)

Hieu nh tren ngha la hieu mot loai ao c lam bang vat lieu lua Ha
ong. Y ngha nay khac vi trng hp: Ha ong bo ngha cho oi tng
ao lua. Bi ao lua ay cha chac la ao lam bang lua Ha ong ma la mua
Ha ong th sao. Trong trng hp nay, ta co mot cau truc khac:

NP
N AP
1

Ao lua Ha ong
N
N AP
2
A
A
N A A

(71)

205
Van e xac nh bo ng va phu ng trong ng oan danh t NP oi khi khong ro
rang. Co ro rang hn, co le la ng oan ong t VP.

Theo cac nha ngon ng hoc Tay phng, trong tieng Anh, phan t nao ng ngay
ben ong t, phan t ay se c xem la bo ng.

(72) He loved [my wife] [intensely] [with all my heart].
ong t ng oan danh t NP trang t ng oan gii t PP
bo ng phu ng phu ng

V NP
VP
V A(dv)P
V PP
V
loved my wife intensely with all my heart
Trong cau truc nay, my wife ng ngay sau ong t va lam bo ng. Cau tren
ung v khong the noi:

(73) * I loved intensely my wife with all my heart.

Noi mot cach tong quat, bo ng cua tat ca pham tru t vng (N, V, A, ...) la oi
tng ng ngha cua au trong ng oan.

Vai v du bo ng cua t vng (ong t, tnh t, danh t) trong tieng Anh:

(74) He fears his wife. (verb)
(75) He is afraid of his wife. (adjective)
(76) He has a fear of his wife. (noun)

(Of) his wife trong tat ca cac cau tren eu la bo ng.

206

Tnh phu/bo ngha trong Tieng Anh co le n gian hn tieng Viet. Mac du
chng nay khong chu y ban chi tiet, the nhng chung ta hay th nhn s qua vai
hien tng phu/bo ngha cho ong t trong tieng Viet:

1. Phu/bo ng la danh t N hoac ng oan danh t NP:

(77) Lao Hac thoi [
NP
cai noi cm], cham om. Toi a thong ieu va bo ieu
roi. (Lao Hac Nam Cao)

(78) Quy tac X-gach: V V (NP)

V NP
V
thoi cai noi cm
VP
2. Phu/bo ng la ong t V hoac ng oan ong t VP:

(79) i [
V
lam], i [
V
chi], i [
V
hoc], i [
VP
xem trien lam], i [
VP
nghe nhac
thnh phong], i [
VP
coi a banh], ...
(80) Em i [
VP
tray hoi non song],
Ci me anh sang muon long xuan xanh.
(Ben kia song uong Hoang Cam)

(81) Quy tac X-gach: V V (VP)

V VP
V
i lam
V VP
V
V NP
V
i nghe nhac thnh phong
207
3. Phu/bo ng la tnh t, trang t hoac ng oan tnh t AP:

(82) Cau chuyen nay nghe [
AP
hap dan qua].

Xin nhac lai. Tieng Viet co mot iem ac biet can lu y la nhieu khi ong t
trong cau khong han thuoc ve chu ng cua cau (tc chu ng ng phap
(grammatical subject)). ong t co the lien quan ti mot chu the (subject) nao o
ben ngoai cau. V du ay, cau chuyen (la chu ng trong cau) t no khong
nghe c. Cau nay am ch la chung ta, tc chu the ng ben ngoai, mi
nghe c. Hien tng nay t thay nhng ngon ng Au chau. ong t trong
nhng ngon ng Au chau thng xuat phat t chu ng trong cau.

Trng hp chu ng mang tnh ong:

(83) Cau chuyen nay lan [
AP
rong qua].

e giai thch 2 cau tren, ta can mot quy tac bo ng thuoc dang ng oan tnh t
AP ng sau ong t:

(84) Quy tac X-gach: V V AP

V AP
V
nghe hap dan qua
V AP
V
lan rong qua
Trng hp nay can bo ng, v cau se khong noi c neu thieu AP bo ngha cho
ong t:

(85) * Cau chuyen nay nghe.
(86) * Cau chuyen nay lan.

Tong quat hn, co trng hp ong t khong can AP ng sau, co the ong
ngoac ():

(87) Quy tac X-gach: V V (AP)
208

(88) No ngay (kho kho).
(89) No ngu (say sa).

Trng hp AP phu/bo ngha cho ong t:

(90) No uong say sa ca em.
(91) No ngu say sa ca ngay.

Ca em, ca ngay gi nhiem vu phu ngha. Say sa gi nhiem vu bo ngha
bi say sa thng i vi ngu, uong hn la ca em, ca ngay. e dien
ta tnh phu ngha, chung ta can quy tac:


Cay cu phap tng ng cua cau no ngu say sa ca ngay:

VP
V AP
V AP
V
ngu say sa ca ngay

(93)

4. Phu/bo ng la gii t P hoac ng oan gii t PP:

(94) Quy tac X-gach: V V (PP) (giong tieng Anh)

(95) Hai v chong ay song [
PP
vi nhau] [
AP
a lau roi].

5. Phu/bo ngha ben phai ong t:

209

(97) Hng a tr thanh mot ca s noi tieng.


(99) Co ta hat hay.

VP
V AP
V
hat hay
6. Trang t/tnh t phu/bo ngha ben trai ong t:

(100) Co ta hay hat.
(101) Co ta ch hat nhac tien chien.

(102) Quy tac X-gach: V (AP) V

VP
AP V
V
hay hat
7. Trang t/tnh t phu/bo ngha hai ben ong t:

(103) Co ta hay hat lam.
(104) Co ta van hat hay.
(105) Co ta van luyen giong thng xuyen.

210

Cau truc X-gach thng co dang nh phan (binary), tc mot nut khong tan cung
(non-terminal) ch co hai nhanh. Tren thc te con co trng hp phai can en ba
nhanh, tieu bieu la ng oan cha lien t (conjunction) (Radford 1985: 105):

N CONJ N
N
this tall boy and that short girl

(106)

ay la mot iem cha ro v co en hai au N (this tall boy va that short
girl) trong khi cu phap X-gach ch cho phep co mot au. Mat khac, trng
hp trang t/tnh t phu/bo ngha van hat hay, neu dien ta cay cu phap bang
quy tac X-gach: V (AP) V (AP) nh sau:

VP
AP V AP
V
van hat hay

(107)

X-gach se mat ngay tnh nh phan, bi v nut V sinh ra ba nhanh AP, V va AP.
Khong thay thuyet X-gach nhac en trng hp nay. Muon hai nut AP khong
c nam cung bnh dien, ch con cach la at mot AP vao bnh dien phu ng. Co
le AP ben trai thoa tnh chat nay. Th ve cay cu phap cho gia thiet ay:

VP
V AP
AP V
van hat hay
V

(108)

211
Xet mat ng ngha, hanh ong hat trong v du noi len hai y ngha cua hai trang
thai:

Neu noi hat hay, th o la mot hanh ong hat co chat lng, khac vi
hat d, hat ngheu ngao, ... T hat c t hay bo tuc y ngha, noi
len chat lng tot. Cho nen hay co the gi chc nang nh mot bo ng,
neu ngi ta muon the.

Mat khac, trang thai van hat dien ta mot hanh ong con ang tiep dien.
Y ngha nay khac vi van hat hay. Van hat hay dien ta hanh ong con
hat nhng phai la hat hay. Y ngha nay hien nhien khac y ngha van hat
nhng cha chac con hay na. The nen, van trong cum t van hat hay
hnh nh gi chc nang phu ngha cho hanh ong hat hay nhieu hn la
bo ngha. T ban than hat hay hieu tong quat - a dien ta tnh lien tuc
cua chat lng tot.

Neu chap nhan cach giai thch tren, ta co:

(109) Quy tac X-gach: V (AP) V
V V (AP)

Con mot hien tng kha pho bien la trang t bo ngha ben trai ong t. Tieu
bieu la trang t rat:

(110) Co ta rat thch nhac Van Cao.
(111) Co ta rat me nhac Van Cao.

Trang t rat ng trc ong t vi cng v cua mot bo ng nham dien ta
hanh ong co cng o. Trang t rat ket hp vi ong t thanh mot to hp
chat che. Cach nhan manh ay khien yeu to bo ngha theo sau ong t yeu i,
lam nh ch con tac dung phu ngha. Theo thuyet X-gach, ng oan nhac Van
Cao lai c xem nh bo ng. Tieng Viet lai vng phai trng hp bo ng
nam ben trai lan ben phai ong t. Muon thoa thuyet X-gach, ch con cach, mot
la xem ng oan danh t NP nhac Van Cao nh mot phu ng cua ong t va
ng nhien khong the chap nhan c, hai la coi ca cum t rat + ong t nh
mot VP va c NP nhac Van Cao bo ngha.

212

VP
AP V
V NP
rat thch nhac Van Cao
V

(112)

V (AP) V

8. Phu/bo ngha au cau:

(114) Thng thng, co ay ch thch nhac Van Cao.
[Thng thng] la trang ng (coi nh mot AP)

(115) Ca th tien chien, co ta cung thch.
(116) Nhac nay toi khong thch lam.
Xem phep chuyen v (chng 12).

9. Phu/bo ngha cuoi NP:

(117) Ai mua trang, toi ban trang cho.
Trang nam im tren canh lieu, i ch
(Han Mac T)
(118) Tri a thu roi em au.
Nam trong ay mo, chac em sau.
Thu i, anh thc hon ma day.
Ta muon vao tham ay huyet sau
(inh Hung)

(119) Quy tac X-gach: V V (?P) (?P = can nh ngha)
V V (NP)

213

V NP
V ?P
ban trang cho
V
V NP
V ?P
anh thc hon ma day
V
10. Ng oan gii t PP phu/bo ngha sau VP:

(120) Co ta a hoc nhac hoi con nho.

(121) Quy tac X-gach: V V (PP)
V V (NP)

11. Ng oan gii t PP phu/bo ng trc VP:

(122) Em thanh Sn chay giac ve.
Toi t chinh chien mi ra i.
Cach biet bao ngay que Bat Bat.
Chieu xanh khong thay bong Ba V.
(Quang Dung)

(123) Quy tac X-gach: V (PP) V
V (AP) V

AP V
T chinh chien mi ra i
V
PP V
VP
214

Nh tren la mot vai ac iem cua tnh phu/bo ngha trong tieng Viet. Sau khi th
nghiem dung cac quy tac c lap rieng cho tieng Anh, chung ta thay tieng Viet
co le khong n gian, cu the la ng oan danh t va ong t. Can lu y la nhng
quy tac a ra can c kiem nghiem ky cang hn. Co nhieu trng hp cau truc
giong nhau song ng ngha lai khac.

BIET NH NG

Chung ta a xem qua hai quy tac cau truc ng oan X-gach dung cho tieng Anh:

(124) Quy tac phu ng: X X (ZP) | (ZP) X

Cung muc ch them ngha cho cai muon noi, cac nha ngon ng hoc Tay phng
con e ngh them mot quy tac, tam goi la biet nh ng (specifier):

(126) Quy tac biet nh ng: X (YP) X

Vi v du cu:

(127) [The] [boss] [of Microsoft] [with the rucksack].
biet nh ng au bo ng phu ng

ta co cay cu phap:

(128)

N PP bo ng
The boss of Microsoft with the rucksack
biet nh ng D N
N PP phu ng
NP
au ng oan

nh ngha:
215
Biet nh ng (specifier) la mot ng oan X-gach co quan he ch em vi
mot bnh dien X va la con cua mot ng oan XP.

v du tren, D co quan he ch em vi N nam ben phai cung bnh dien. D ong
thi la con cua ng oan danh t NP.

Theo kham pha cua gii ngon ng hoc Tay phng, co mot ieu ang ngac
nhien la trong tieng Anh, ch nh t the khong nam trong ng oan danh t
NP. iem nay co the nhn thay trong sinh cach (con goi la s hu cach):

S khac biet cua biet nh ng trong tieng Anh oi vi bo ng va phu ng la
khong co tnh hoi quy. Khong the noi:
(129) * The this big boss
Bi muon phan tch chi tiet cau truc ng phap, ngi ta a giai thch trng hp
co ch nh t the cua tieng Anh bang cach coi nh biet nh ng (ngoai the
con co a, that, this, those, these, ... ). ay, tieng Anh se gap van e. Trong v
du tren, ca ng oan danh t NP boss of Microsoft with the rucksack lam bo
ng cho the, tc the la au trong ng oan. ieu nay mau thuan vi ly
thuyet X-gach, bi tat ca moi phan t khong phai la au eu la ng oan. au
trong ng oan danh t NP ch co the la mot danh t. The th thc chat cua the
trong ng oan danh t NP la g ? Chung ta se tm hieu di ay.

NG OAN CH NH T

sinh cach-of (of genitive) hoac sinh cach t do (free genitive)
sinh cach-s (s genitive).
Sinh cach t do s dung gii t of e dien ta net quan he s hu gia 2 ng
oan danh t NP:

(130) The rucksack of the boss
(131) The rucksach of the boss standing over there

Mat khac, sinh cach-s ong vai tro nh mot dau hieu s hu nam ngay sau
ng oan danh t NP:
216

(132)

[
NP
The boss standing over there]s rucksack

V the ma khong the noi:
(133) * The bosss standing over there rucksack

hoac:
(134) * The bosss the rucksack

Sinh cach-s khong cho phep 2 danh t eu co ch nh t (determiner). e giai
thch iem nay, Abney a a ra gia thuyet, ch nh t khong nam trong ng
oan danh t NP ma ch la au cua mot phep chieu ng oan cua chnh no
(Abney 1987):
Neu nhn theo cach cu:

D N
N
NP

(135)

th D la nut tan cung va ch co the tan cung bang mot ch nh t. D khong san
sinh ra quy tac cha bien so. Theo gia thuyet cua Abney, D chnh la ng oan
DP:

D
D NP ...
DP
N
N

(136)

Gia thuyet nay xem ra co phan hu ly, bi ngi ta co the giai thch trng hp
sinh cach-s da vao nhan nh: ch nh t va sinh cach-s cung nam trong
217
the phan bo bo sung (complementary distribution). oi vi ngon ng hoc, hai
phan t nam trong the phan bo bo sung khi chung cung la thc the cua mot vat
giong nhau. V du, an ong, an ba la hai thc the cung nam trong mot lp
(class): lp con ngi. an ong, an ba khac nhau the nao, ai cung biet, the
nhng s khac biet ch la hnh thc, chc nang chi tiet thuoc ve ca the khong
ang noi. ieu muon noi la nhng iem chung, con ngi nao cung co nh toc,
tai, mat, mui, au mnh, t chi, ... Ch nh t va s cung the. Chung ch khac
nhau ve danh tnh thuoc mot loai giong nhau.

Gia s s la ch nh t va gia s gia thuyet ng oan ch nh t DP ung, th
v tr tng oi cua s oi vi phan chu (possessor) co the giai thch c. Phan
t s c a vao v tr cua au D. Phan chu con lai nam trong biet nh ng:

Mot v du cu the:

DP D
D NP
DP
chu (possessor) s

(137)

DP
2
D
1
D D
1
NP
DP
1
the boss standing over there s rucksack
D NP N
N N
N VP
N

(138)

218

Phan chu DP
2
thuoc biet nh ng cua DP
1
co au la s. Noi cach khac, the
boss standing over there the cho biet nh ng cua DP
1
. Cach giai thch thoa
ieu kien ly thuyet X-gach: tat ca phan nao khong phai la au, eu la ng oan.
Ng oan co au la mot ch nh t c goi la ng oan ch nh t
(determiner phrase), viet tat DP, hoac ch nh ng. Quy tac X-gach tng ng:
(139) DP DP D

(142) Toi a ra i va ln len suot ca thi th au tren mot mom at u hiu nam
ben b bien ong mien Nam nc Viet. Thc ra ay khong phai la nguyen
quan cua toi, v Ba toi ngi Bac, con Me toi ngi Hue.

(143)
(144)

(140) D D NP
Van e khong n gian. Ke ca tieng Viet.
Tieng Viet cung co s hu cach nh moi ngon ng khac. Co trng hp, tieng
Viet dung gii t cua (tng ng of cua tieng Anh), co trng hp khong:
(141) Nha toi ben chiec cau soi nc,
Em en toi mot lan
(Ben xuan Van Cao)

Nha toi c hieu la nha cua toi.

Mac du tieng Viet khong gap rac roi v sinh cach-s nh tieng Anh hoac tieng
c nhng khong phai la khong co trng hp phc tap oi hoi ngi nghe phai
hieu ngam cai nao thuoc ve cai nao. V du oan van tren, cau au khong co
cua. Cau truc cau co the c dien giai bang 2 cach khac nhau:
[
NP
mom at u hiu nam ben b bien ong] (cua) [
NP
mien Nam nc
Viet]
mom at u hiu nam ben [
NP
[
NP
b bien ong] (cua) [
NP
mien Nam nc
Viet]]

iem can c lam noi bat la 2 oi tng chnh: mom at va b bien. Mot
cau truc dien ta mom at ... cua mien Nam nc Viet, mot cau truc dien ta
b bien ... cua mien Nam nc Viet. Ranh gii cua ng oan thieu sac ben
de dan en hien tng a ngha.

219
TOM LC

Nguyen tac X-gach cho phep giai thch cac ng oan tru tng (bo ng, phu
ng, biet nh ng, ch nh ng)

Bo ng co chc nang bo ngha cho cai muon noi ay u y ngha. Phu ng co
chc nang them ngha nhng khong can thiet. Bo ng quan trong hn phu ng.

NHAN XET VA IEM M
2) Ngc vi tieng Anh, tieng c, mot ng oan danh t NP tieng Viet
c them ngha ben phai; tat ca lam thanh mot ng oan danh t NP ln
hn. Vay, lam sao biet c o la mot ng oan danh t hay mot
cau/menh e. V du:
a. Ba ngi anh i bo oi lau roi.
b.

1) Biet nh ng, ch nh ng trong tieng Viet ra sao ?

Nang co [
NP
ba ngi anh i bo oi lau roi].
220

CAC LOAl NC| DOAN KHAC

Bang nhieu v du cu the, chung ta a xoay quanh 3 quy tac X-gach trong chng
roi:


Nhng quy tac tren chu yeu da vao tieng Anh. Tren thc te, co nhieu ngon ng
khong theo cac quy tac o, ien hnh la tieng Viet. Hay vai v du khac:
Tieng Nhat:

(4) [Phong-ga] [sensei] [desu].
Chu ng bo ng v t
(Phong la thay giao)
(5) Hung-ga ookii desu.
(Hung (th) ln)
(6) Phong-ga Hung-o mita.
(Phong (a) thay Hung)
(Hung oc)
(8) Hung-ga hon-o yonda.
(Hung oc cuon sach)

Tieng Tho Nh Ky:

Choong l0

LY 1H|YL1 X-CACH

THONG SO VA TH T CUA T

(7) Hung-ga yonda.
221
CH|ONC l0 LY 1H|YL1 X-CACH CAC LOAl NC| DOAN KHAC
(9) [Can] [kitab-i] [oku-du].
Chu ng bo ng v t
(Can (a) oc cuon sach)

Th t v tr bo ng va v t cua cau tieng Nhat va tieng Tho Nh Ky khong
giong nh cua tieng Anh. o la nhng ngon ng co cau truc Subject-Object-
Verb (SOV) thay v Subject-Verb-Object (SVO). Tren thc te, v tr cua bo ng,
phu ng hoac biet nh ng cua tng ngon ng co the khac nhau ma cac quy tac
tren khong giai thch c. Do o, quy tac X-gach a c e ngh tong quat hoa
nh sau (Carnie 2000):


(10) Quy tac biet nh ng: X X (YP) | (YP) X
(12) Quy tac bo ng: X X (WP) | (WP) X
Quy tac X-gach tong quat bao gom hai trng hp, v tr cua ng oan (YP, ZP,
WP) hoac nam ben phai hoac nam ben trai bien so X.
Xet cho cung, sang kien chnh cua ly thuyet X-gach la dung bnh dien trung gian
e giai thch chieu sau cua cau truc ng phap. Muon ng dung no, moi ngon ng
phai t giai thch nhng trng hp cua mnh sao cho thch hp. V tr cua t ch
la thong so (parameter) (Travis 1984).

NG OAN TH VA NG OAN TAC T BO NG HOA

Tren ly thuyet, ly thuyet X-gach co the giai thch c hau het cac loai ng
oan gi chc nang them ngha. Tuy vay van con lai hai van e gay tr ngai, ke
ca oi vi ban than tieng Anh: menh e phu va cau co th:

(13) Menh e phu: S (C) S
(14) Cau co th: S NP (T) VP

(Xin nhac lai: T viet tat cua tense (th). C viet tat cua complementizer, tam
dch la tac t bo ng hoa).
Sau ay, chung ta se thong qua mot vai khai niem trc khi vao chi tiet.
222

1. Mcnb dc

Theo quan niem cua gii ngon ng hoc Tay phng th menh e (clause) c
hieu nh mot chuoi t gom chu ng (subject) cong v ng (predicate phrase).
Chu ng thng la mot ng oan danh t NP. V ng la ng oan ong t VP,
thng c hieu nom na la ong t cong vi tuc t trong ngon ng hoc co ien.

(15) Nang co ba ngi anh i bo oi lau roi
(Mau tm hoa sim -Th Hu Loan, Pham Duy pho nhac)

Trong cau tren, nang la chu ng, co ba ngi anh i bo oi lau roi la v ng.
V ng gom ong t co cong vi phan bo ng con lai (ba ngi anh i bo oi
lau roi). Xin lu y, thay v goi la ong t, chung ta se goi la v t (predicate).

(16)

Neu hieu cau Nang co ba ngi anh i bo oi la co mot ngi con gai nao o
ma co ba ngi anh eu i bo oi ca, ta co the tng tng ra mot cau theo kieu
tieng Anh, tieng c nh sau:
chu ng v ng
chu ng v t (ong t) bo ng
Nang co ba ngi anh i bo oi lau roi.

Mot cau ay u chu ng, v ng (khong can them g na) c coi la menh e
chnh (main clause). Mot menh e chnh co the cha menh e phu
(subordinate clause) (thng goi la cau phu). Menh e phu con c (tam) goi
la menh e long (embedded clause), tc c long vao menh e chnh. Vai v
du tieng Anh, tieng c (ong ngha):

(17) She said [that she had three brothers].
(18) Sie sagte [dass sie drei Brder hatte].

Ca hai cau tren eu la menh e chnh. Phan ong trong ngoac [...] la menh e
phu.

223
(19) She had three brothers, [who were soldiers]. (tieng Anh)
(20) Sie hatte drei Brder, [die Soldaten waren]. (tieng c)
Sao chep cau truc cu phap tren sang tieng Viet, ta co:
(21) Nang co ba ngi anh, [(nhng) ngi i bo oi lau roi].
The nhng ngi Viet khong noi vay ma thng la:
Ma ay co chc nang gii thieu phan noi them (phan dien) cho ba ngi
anh. Con trong tieng Anh, c, ngi ta dung who, die e am ch ba
ngi anh o va c dung lam chu ng trong menh e phu. ay la mot iem
khac biet ve chc nang ng phap. iem khac biet th hai la neu lc bo ma,
ta se c mot cau truc khac:
(23) Nang co ba ngi anh i bo oi lau roi.

Cach lc bo ma nh tren dan en mot cau truc ac biet la bo ng trc tiep
tc direct object
1)
lai lam chu ng cho menh e (phu) theo sau:

Cau/menh e trong tieng Anh chu yeu bat au bang mot chu ng ng phap va
cham dt bang v ng. Neu muon dien ta them ve mot oi tng, ngi ta co the

(22) Nang co ba ngi anh [(ma a) i bo oi lau roi].

chu ng v t bo ng trc tiep
Nang co ba ngi anh i bo oi lau roi.
chu ng v ng
chu ng v ng

(24)

1)
Xa nay thng goi la tuc t trc tiep. Co tac gia con goi la tan ng. Tan ngha la khach
(object) (Phan Khoi 1997).
224

dung menh e phu. Menh e phu cung co cau truc chu v vi tnh chat nh tren.
Tieng Viet cung co cau truc chu v song lai co nhng iem khac biet so vi ngon
ng Au chau.
Th xet them vai v du na e xem cau truc chu v cua ly thuyet Tay phng co
thc s giai thch c het cau truc tieng Viet hay khong.
(25) Ba Nam mi mua cai nha ma a chay mat tieu.
ong t mua trong cau dung cho chu ng ba Nam. a chay dung cho cai
nha. Ngay ay, cau truc sau va cau truc be mat giong nhau. Cau truc sau quyet
nh ng ngha thc cua phat bieu. Cau truc be mat la cau truc cua cau noi thc
te.
(27) Mi mua cai nha ma a ban mat tieu.
Tng t la nhng cach noi:

Trong tieng Viet co trng hp, oi tng trong cau cha chac a gi ung vai
tro cua mot bo ng hoac chu ng oi vi v t (ong t):

Cung mot cau truc ng phap y het vay, neu thay the ong t chay bang ban,
th ong t ban lai khong dien ta hanh ong cua cai nha ma la hanh ong
cua ba Nam.

(26) Ba Nam mi mua cai nha ma a ban mat tieu.

S vang mat cua chu the that (ngoai chu the) cung la mot loi noi thong thng
cua ngi Viet:

Ngha la ai o (v du nh ba Nam) mi mua cai nha nhng a ban mat roi. Ai o
la chu the that nhng khong nam trong cau, ch co ngi hanh ngon mi biet.

(28) Mi mua cai nha ma a chay mat tieu.

Trong cau, v t chay dung cho cai nha, nhng v t mua lai thieu chu
ng. Ngay ay, thuyet v-ng cung khong giai thch c.

(29) Quan ao ang ban xon ka. i mua i !
225
Ngi nghe co the hieu ngam, ngoai chu the la ngi ta, sieu th, ch
tri... :

(30) Quan ao (ngi ta) ang ban xon ka. i mua i !
(31) Quan ao (sieu th) ang ban xon ka. i mua i !
(32) Quan ao (ch tri) ang ban xon ka. i mua i !
Hoac:
(33) Nhac nao hat cung c.
(34) Nhac nao (co) hat cung c.
(35) Nhac nao (ong) hat cung c.
(36) Nhac nao (chung toi) hat cung c.
(37) Nhac nao (ho) hat cung c.
(38) Nhac nao (ca oan) hat cung c.

(39) Mon g an cung c.
(40) Mon g (no) an cung c.
(41) Mon g (ba) an cung c.
(42) Mon g (tui toi) an cung c.
(43) Mon g (ke thieu an) an cung c.
(44) Cai g (ong tnh trng) an cung c.
(45) Cai g (trau bo) an cung c.

Khong dung chu ng (chu t) ng phap, ngi Viet co c hoi dien ta noi dung
bang nhieu ngoai chu the khac nhau. o la iem li, v du hnh thc noi bong
gio, the nhng cung la iem hai, bi s s dung ngon ng mot cach phong
khoang thng de sinh ra nhng cau thieu sac ben, a ngha. V du cau:

(46) Ngi nao cung chi.

ay la mot cau hoan chnh. Chu ng ngi nao thc s lam chu ong t
chi. Nhng trong mot hoan canh nao o, neu hieu theo kieu, cau co ngoai
chu the, th ngi nao se khong con lam chu ong t chi na:

(47) Ngi nao (no) cung chi.
(48) Ngi nao (Ch Pheo) cung chi.
226

Hoac con co trng hp chang biet ai la ai; chu the c hieu chung chung la
ngi ta, chung ta, mot ngi quan sat chung chung nao o ang tng thuat:

(49) Trai qua mot cuoc be dau.
Nhng ieu trong thay ma au n long
(Kieu Nguyen Du)

Ai trai qua mot cuoc be dau ? Ai trong thay ma au n long ? Cau khong noi.
Chac chan trong thay khong phai la v t cua nhng ieu.

Noi tom lai, cau/menh e cua tieng Viet co nhng iem khac nhng tieng Au
chau. Noi the khong co ngha la khac hoan toan. Tat nhien cung co trng hp,
tieng Viet van noi c y het nh tieng khac. V du, ngi Anh noi:

(50) She said [that she had three brothers].

Ngi Viet cung co the noi:

(51) Nang ke [rang nang co ba ngi anh].
(52) Nang ke [la nang co ba ngi anh].

Cay cu phap tng ng:

chu ng DP VP v ng
V
S menh e chnh
She said that she had three brothers
V S
C S menh e phu
chu ng DP VP v ng
Nang ke la/rang nang co ba ngi anh

227
2. Ngo doan tac to bo ngo boa CF

Bay gi chung ta hay tr lai hai van e van con gay tr ngai cho ly thuyet X-
gach e xem cac nha ngon ng hoc Tay phng giai quyet ra sao.
Quy tac menh e phu a ch ra rang, ban than S la mot cau nam di dang
menh e phu, co nhiem vu bo ngha cho menh e chnh. Trong menh e phu S,
phan t C, hay tam goi, la tac t bo ng hoa (complementizer) va loai ng oan
nay la ng oan tac t bo ng hoa (complementizer phrase), ky hieu la CP.
e ng dung s o X-gach, chung ta thay the S bang CP:
Mot v du tieng Viet va tieng Anh:

(55) CP C
(56) C (C) S

Ng oan trung gian C c xem nh bnh dien X-gach thoa quy tac C (C)
S. Phan t C mang gia tr that (rang/la). (Gia tr nay ch la mot chon la,
khong bat buoc phai co. Neu khong can that (rang/la), C coi nh trong (null)
hoac co tr (zero)).

Cay cu phap tng ng:

a. C co that (rang/la) b. C co tr trong (khong can that (rang/la)):

C
C S
CP
...

C
C S
CP
that (rang/la) ...

228

Ngoai viec dung tac t bo ng hoa C e giai thch trng hp that, cac nha
ngon ng hoc Tay phng tin rang, C con dung c cho viec giai thch s
chuyen v ong t trong cau xac nh len au cau hoac at ong t au cau e
DP VP
V
S
She said that she had three brothers
V CP
C S
DP VP
Nang ke la/rang nang co ba ngi anh
C

(57)

Mot v du tieng Viet va tieng c khong co dass (rang/la), tc C co tr :

DP VP
V
S
Sie sagt sie hat drei Brder
V CP
C S
DP VP
Nang ke nang co ba ngi anh
C

(58)

229
c cau hoi co/khong (yes/no question). Hien tng nay thng thay nhng
ngon ng nghch ao chu ng/ong t phu (subject/aux inversion)
2)
, ien hnh
la tieng Anh, tieng c. Trong tieng Anh, muon thanh lap cau hoi co/khong,
ngi ta phai at ong t phu (auxiliary verb) au cau. Tieng c tng t,
song khong ch ong t phu ma ca ong t th nhat trong cau. Vai v du oi
chieu co ngha gan giong:
Cau xac nh:
(59) The sons looked for the treasure. (tieng Anh)
Cau hoi co/khong:
(66) Ist der Vater gestorben ? (tieng c)
Cay cu phap cua cau xac nh:

(60) Their father had died. (tieng Anh)
(61) Die Kinder wollten die Erbe. (tieng c)
(62) Der Vater ist gestorben. (tieng c)

(63) Did the sons look for the treasure ? (tieng Anh)
(64) Had their father died ? (tieng Anh)
(65) Wollten die Kinder die Erbe ? (tieng c)

C
C S
CP
Their father had died
NP T VP
Der Vater ist gestorben

(67)

Cay cu phap cua cau hoi co/khong (ja/nein):

2)
Thuat ng subject/aux inversion , theo chung toi, co ve hi han hep. Dung subject/verb
inversion co le tong quat hn.
230

C
C S
CP
Had their father died
NP (T) VP
Ist der Vater gestorben

(68)

Bang cach chuyen v ong t phu had, ist t v tr T len v tr C, cau xac
nh se bien thanh cau hoi. Cau truc cau hoi c giai thch tng oi de dang.
Trong cau truc cau hoi, v tr T trong. ieu nay chap nhan c bi T la mot la
chon, khong bat buoc phai co. Cach giai thch tren cung thoa cho ca nhng
trng hp phc tap, v du co lien t:

(69) The sons looked for the treasure but had their father died ?
C
C S
CP
their father had died
NP T VP
C
C S
CP
the sons looked for the treasure
NP (T) VP

[-Q]
[+Q]
CP
Conj
but

Cung mot cau truc C C S, tac t bo ng hoa C va mang tnh chat cau xac
nh [-Q]
3)
, va mang tnh chat cau hoi [+Q]. phan cay ben trai, C co tr trong
[-Q]
, trong khi o, phan cay ben phai, C co tr trong
[+Q]
. Neu chuyen v
had vao v tr C, menh e their father had died se tr thanh cau hoi: had
their father died ?.

3)
Q viet tat cua Question. +Q co ngha co tnh chat cau hoi, ngc lai la Q.
231
Cau truc cau hoi co/khong cua nhieu tieng Au chau la vay, song tieng Viet
khac. Cau hoi co/khong trong tieng Viet co nhieu loai. Xem th vai loai thng
gap:
1. Cau xac nh + khong
Loai nay bao gom mot cau xac nh kem theo trang t khong pha sau. Phoi
hp vi t ch thi gian thng khong thch hp. V t (ong t, tnh t) thng
c dung e tra li van tat, hoac e phu nhan (i kem vi khong).
Cau hoi:

(75) Toi hieu ky van e nay. ((Da/vang/, ...) hieu)
Cau phu nh:
(76) (Khong). Toi khong thch hoc tieng Viet. (Phu nh van tat: khong)

(80) * Cau hoi tieng Viet a a dang khong ?

(70) Anh thch hoc tieng Viet khong ?
(71) Cau hoi tieng Viet a dang khong ?
(72) Anh hieu ky van e nay khong ?
Cau xac nh:
(73) Toi thch hoc tieng Viet. (Tra li van tat: (Da/vang/, ...) thch)
(74) Cau hoi tieng Viet a dang. ((Da/vang/, ...) a dang)

(77) (Khong). Cau hoi tieng Viet khong a dang. (Phu nh van tat: khong)
(78) (Khong). Toi khong hieu ky van e nay. (Phu nh: khong/khong hieu)

(Khong) : Noi them cung c. Co the phu nh van tat bang khong + v t.
Thong thng, cau xac nh khong i cung vi t ch thi gian ang, a,
se. Khong the noi:

(79) * Anh ang thch hoc tieng Viet khong ?
(81) * Anh se hieu ky van e nay khong ?

T ch thi gian dung trong phan bo ng trc tiep cua cau hoi:

232

Cau hoi:

(82) Anh ngh tnh huong se thay oi khong ?
(83) Anh tin tnh huong se thay oi khong ?

Cau xac nh:

(84) Toi ngh tnh huong se thay oi.
(85) Toi tin tnh huong se thay oi.

cau phu nh, chung ta se gap hai trng hp eu noi c. Mot mat, khong
ng trc ong t cua chu ng:

(86) (Khong). Toi khong ngh tnh huong se thay oi.
(87) (Khong).Toi khong tin tnh huong se thay oi.

Mat khac, khong ng trc ong t chnh cua bo ng; noi theo ly thuyet X-
gach, khong gi chc nang bo ngha cho ong t.
Phai chang ay la trng hp ngoai le ?

(88) (Khong). Toi ngh tnh huong se khong thay oi.
(89) (Khong).Toi tin tnh huong se khong thay oi.

Menh e phu Tnh huong se khong thay oi co kha nang ng mot mnh nh
mot cau, suy ra chung ta co the at cau hoi:

(90) Tnh huong se thay oi khong ?

Hien tng dung c t ch thi gian se nay am ra mau thuan vi cac trng
hp khong noi c:

(91) * Anh ang thch hoc tieng Viet khong ?
(92) * Cau hoi tieng Viet a a dang khong ?
(93) * Anh se hieu ky van e nay khong ?

Xet tiep, chung ta con thay, t ch thi gian con dung c ca trong trng hp
co ng oan gii t PP nam au cau:

233
Cau hoi:
Cau xac nh:
(102) Theo toi, (th) ho se khong hoa giai.
Bo ng oan gii t, chung ta lai gap trng hp Ho se hoa giai qua cau hoi:

(94) Theo anh, (th) tnh huong se thay oi khong ?
(95) Theo anh, (th) tnh huong se sang sua hn khong ?
(96) Theo anh, (th) ho se hoa giai khong ?

Xin lu y, dau phay ay thay the cho th.

(97) Theo toi, (th) tnh huong se thay oi. (Tra li van tat: (Se) thay oi)
(98) Theo toi, (th) tnh huong se sang sua hn. ((Se) sang sua (hn))
(99) Theo toi, (th) ho se hoa giai ((Se) hoa giai).

Cau phu nh:

(100) Theo toi, (th) tnh huong se khong thay oi.
(101) Theo toi, (th) tnh huong se khong sang sua hn.

(103) Ho se hoa giai khong ?

Mot trng hp tng t cung noi c:

(104) Lch s se lap lai khong ?

Mot gia thuyet: Phai chang nhng t co tnh cach dien bien eu dung c vi
t ch thi gian ?
2. Cau xac nh vi co ... khong
Loai cau hoi nay cung tnh chat nh loai tren, ch khac la co them t co sau
chu ng.

Cau hoi:
(105) Anh co thch hoc tieng Viet khong ?
234

(106) Cau hoi tieng Viet co a dang khong ?
(107) Anh co hieu ky van e nay khong ?

Cau xac nh:

(108) Toi thch hoc tieng Viet. (Tra li van tat: (Da/vang/, ...) thch)
(110) Toi hieu ky van e nay. ((Da/vang/, ...) hieu)

(115) * Cau hoi tieng Viet a co a dang khong ?

(109) Cau hoi tieng Viet a dang. ((Da/vang/, ...) a dang)

Cau phu nh:
(112) (Khong). Cau hoi tieng Viet khong a dang. (Phu nh van tat: khong)
(113) (Khong). Toi khong hieu ky van e nay. (Phu nh van tat: khong)
(Khong) : Noi them cung c. Co the phu nh van tat bang khong + v t.
Thong thng, cau xac nh khong i cung vi t ch thi gian ang, a,
se. Khong the noi:
(114) * Anh ang co thch hoc tieng Viet khong ?
(116) * Anh se co hieu ky van e nay khong ?
T ch thi gian dung c trong phan bo ng trc tiep:
Cau hoi:
(117) Anh co ngh tnh huong se thay oi khong ?
(118) Anh co tin tnh huong se thay oi khong ?
Cau xac nh:
(119) Toi ngh (tnh huong) se thay oi.
(120) Toi tin (tnh huong) se thay oi.
Nhng trng hp con lai eu giong nh loai ke tren. Nay, hay th at co vao
trng hp co ng oan gii t PP au cau:
235
Cau hoi:

(121) Theo anh, (th) tnh huong co thay oi khong ?
(123) Theo anh, (th) ho co hoa giai khong ?

(126) Theo toi, (th) ho co hoa giai ((Co) hoa giai).
Cau phu nh:
(127) Theo toi, (th) tnh huong khong thay oi.
(129) Theo toi, (th) tnh huong khong co g thay oi.
(122) Theo anh, (th) tnh huong co sang sua hn khong ?

Xin lu y, dau phay ay thay the cho th.
Cau xac nh:
(124) Theo toi, (th) tnh huong co thay oi. (Tra li van tat: (Co) thay oi)
(125) Theo toi, (th) tnh huong co sang sua hn. ((Co) sang sua (hn))

(128) Theo toi, (th) tnh huong khong co thay oi.
(130) Theo toi, (th) tnh huong khong sang sua hn.
(131) ? Theo toi, (th) tnh huong khong co sang sua hn. (Cau nay nghe kha lan
can).
(132) Theo toi, (th) tnh huong khong co g sang sua hn. (Nghe c nhng cau
di ay van t nhien hn)
(133) Theo toi, (th) tnh huong khong co g sang sua (ca).
(134) Theo toi, (th) ho khong hoa giai.
(135) Theo toi, (th) ho khong co hoa giai.

Th nghiem dung ch cho thay, mac du ung ng phap nhng khong phai cau
noi bao gi cung de nghe. Ngon ng nao cung vay.

3. Cau xac nh vi phai khong

Loai cau hoi nay gom cau xac nh + phai khong cuoi cau. Tat ca cac cau
co dien t la eu co cau hoi di dang nay. Cach s dung t ch thi gian
ay khong b gii han nh cac trng hp tren.

Cau hoi:

236

(136) Anh thch hoc tieng Viet phai khong ?
(137) Cau hoi tieng Viet rat a dang phai khong ?
(138) Ch la ngi Viet phai khong ?

Cau xac nh:

(139) Toi thch hoc tieng Viet. (Tra li van tat: (Da/vang//ung, da ung...))
(140) Cau hoi tieng Viet rat a dang. (Da/vang//ung, da ung, da phai, ...)
(141) Toi la ngi Viet. (Da/vang//ung, da ung, da phai, ...)

(142) (Da/vang//ung, da ung...). Toi thch hoc tieng Viet.
(143) (Da/vang//ung, da ung, da phai, ...). Cau hoi tieng Viet rat a dang.
(144) (Da/vang//ung, da ung, da phai, ...). Toi la ngi Viet.
Cau phu nh:

(146) (Khong). Cau hoi tieng Viet khong a dang. (Phu nh van tat: khong
(phai))
(147) (Khong phai). Toi khong phai la ngi Viet. (Phu nh van tat: khong
(phai))

(Khong), (Khong phai) : Noi them cung c. Khong ng trc ong t bnh
thng hoac tnh t. Khong phai ng trc la.

Loai cau hoi nay co the i cung vi t ch thi gian ang, a, se, a
tng, ...:

(148) Anh a hoc tieng Viet phai khong ?
(149) Anh a tng hoc tieng Viet phai khong ?
(150) Anh se hoc tieng Viet phai khong ?
(151) Anh ang hoc tieng Viet phai khong ?
(152) Anh ang co y nh hoc tieng Viet phai khong ?
Co gi chc nang nh mot ong t va dung c vi phai khong, khac vi
trng hp di ay khong noi c:
(153) * Anh co thch hoc tieng Viet phai khong ?
237
The nhng, trng hp sau lai noi c:

ong t thch, muon phai co mot tnh chat g ay, cho nen mi khong dung
co c. Se tng t vay:
(155) * Anh se muon hoc tieng Viet phai khong ?

(158) Toi ngh tnh huong se thay oi.
(159) Toi tin tnh huong se thay oi.
Cau hoi co ng oan gii t PP au cau:
(160) Theo anh, (th) tnh huong se thay oi phai khong ?
(162) Theo anh, (th) ho se hoa giai phai khong ?

(154) Anh co hoc nhac phai khong ?

Cau hoi co phan bo ng trc tiep:
(156) Anh ngh tnh huong se thay oi phai khong ?
(157) Anh tin tnh huong se thay oi phai khong ?

Cau tra li bang cach xac nhan:

(161) Theo anh, (th) tnh huong se sang sua hn phai khong ?

Ngoai dang phai khong, ngi Viet con dung ung khong, ch g, ...
4. Cau xac nh vi Co phai ... khong
Loai cau hoi nay gom Co phai + cau xac nh + khong. Dang nay thng
i vi la. Cach s dung t ch thi gian ay khong b gii han nhieu.
Cau hoi:
(163) Co phai anh thch hoc tieng Viet khong ?
(164) *? Co phai cau hoi tieng Viet rat a dang khong ? (Khong dung vi rat
c)
(165) Co phai ch la ngi Viet khong ?
238

Cau xac nh:
(166) Toi thch hoc tieng Viet. (Tra li van tat: (Da/vang//ung, phai, da ung,
da phai, ...))
(167) Toi la ngi Viet. (Da/vang//ung, da ung, da phai, ...)

(169) (Khong phai). Toi khong phai la ngi Viet. (Phu nh van tat: khong
(phai))
(Khong), (Khong phai) : Noi them cung c. Khong ng trc ong t bnh
thng hoac tnh t. Khong phai ng trc la.
Loai cau hoi nay co the i cung vi t ch thi gian ang, a, se, a
tng, ...:

(179) i ngu cha ?

Cau phu nh:

(170) Co phai anh a hoc tieng Viet khong ?
(171) Co phai anh a tng hoc tieng Viet khong ?
(172) Co phai anh se hoc tieng Viet khong ?
(173) Co phai anh ang co y nh hoc tieng Viet phai khong ?

5. Cac loai cau hoi co/khong khac:
Ngoai ra, trong tieng Viet con co nhieu cach lap cau hoi co/khong khac:
(174) Co Khanh Ly hat bai o ch g ?
(175) Nang co hong bang oi moi em ? (khong dung khong cuoi cau)
(Trnh Cong Sn)
(176) Phai chang nen van hoc Viet Nam khong tien noi ?
(177) i chi nhe ?
(178) Co an hay khong ?
(180) o la viec cua gii thi van /h/ha/a/sao/chang/... ?
v.v.
239
Sau khi a lt s qua cac trng hp cau hoi co/khong, chung ta nhan thay
rang, tieng Viet khong co trng hp chuyen v ong t len au cau nh tieng
Anh, tieng c. Nh vay quy tac X-gach C C S khong thch hp cho tieng
Viet trong viec giai thch loai cau hoi nay.

Van e con lai la cau truc cau co th (tense):
(183) S NP (T) VP
Muon thoa ly thuyet X-gach, ieu can e y la xem phan t nao co the ong vai
au ng oan. Cac nha ngon ng hoc Tay phng a e ngh mot mo hnh: thay
the S bang TP:
(184) TP NP T

3. Ngo doan tb

Cau truc menh e phu S (C) S co the chuyen sang s o X-gach, o, CP
thay the S:

(181) CP C
(182) C (C) S

(185) T T VP

TP la ng oan th (tense phrase):

NP T
T VP
TP

(186)

Cay cho thay, NP nam trong TP, va VP lam bo ng. Vi cau truc nay, ngi ta
co the giai thch cach s dung th trong ngon ng Au chau, nhat la tieng Anh.
ong t chnh nam v tr VP, ong t phu nam v tr T. Trong trng hp
khong dung ong t phu, T se co tr zero. Cu the e dien ta th hien tai, ong t
chnh co the the nguyen mau hoac the bien the (inflection). V du going la
240

mot bien the cua ong t go nham dien ta hanh ong ang i, hoac slept,
worked la cac bien the cua sleep, work c dung cho qua kh, v.v..

(187) We work.
(188) We are working.
(189) We will work.

(190)

Con co trng hp phc tap hn na nh:
(193) We have worked.
NP T
T VP
TP
We work
NP T
T VP
TP
We are working
We will work

The nhng co trng hp, can chuyen v dau hieu ch th ed:

(191) We worked.

NP T
T VP
TP
We work
-ed V
V

(192)

241
Trong trng hp nay, quy tac X-gach bat buoc phai c m rong ( ay xin
mien ban chi tiet, co the xem them Pollock 1989).

TOM LC
Co nhieu ngon ng khong co cau truc Subject-Verb-Object (SVO). Quy tac X-
gach a c tong quat hoa nh sau:

So vi cac ngon ng Au chau, cach dung th trong tieng Viet khong theo hnh
thc chia ong t. Ngay v tr T, chung ta ch co the a nhng trang t ch thi
gian nh ang, a, se, sap, ... vao:

(194) Chung toi lam viec.
(195) Chung toi ang lam viec.
(196) Chung toi se lam viec.

(197)
NP T
T VP
TP
Chung toi lam viec
NP T
T VP
TP
Chung toi ang lam viec
Chung toi se lam viec

Tuy nhien, s giai thch ay can c xet lai, bi mot la, theo nguyen tac, trang t
phai nam trong VP vi t cach phu ngha, hai la cach mo ta thi gian trong tieng
Viet con phu thuoc vao cac t ch thi gian khac, nh hom qua, bay gi,
ngay mai, ngay xa, ngay xa ... Xin mien ban sau ve chu e nay ay ma
coi o nhng mot iem m.

Ngoai cac quy tac tren, ngi ta co the dung s o X-gach e giai thch th va
menh e/cau.
242

Theo ngon ng Au chau, menh e c hieu la mot chuoi t gom chu ng cong
v ng.

Van e menh e phu va cau co th c giai thch xuyen qua ng oan tac t bo
ng hoa va ng oan th.

Ngoai viec dung tac t bo ng hoa C e giai thch trng hp that, cac nha
ngon ng hoc Tay phng con dung ng oan nay e giai thch s chuyen v
ong t trong cau xac nh thanh cau hoi co/khong (yes/no question) cac ngon
ng nghch ao. Tieng Viet khong phai la ngon ng nghch ao (Cau hoi
co/khong trong tieng Viet khong bat buoc chuyen v ong t).

Ly thuyet X-gach co bai ban va c lap thc ro rang. S o X-gach cho phep
thanh lap cac ng oan tru tng. Cac quy tac san sinh cu the khong nhng ch
giup chung ta nhan dien ng phap cua ngon ng mnh ma con co the dung trong
viec lap trnh, noi chung la ng dung c tin hoc vao ngon ng.
NHAN XET VA IEM M

Khi thuy, ly thuyet X-gach c dung e giai thch tieng Anh. Nhng quy tac
san sinh t o khong thoa ap moi ngon ng. Muon s dung ly thuyet nay, moi
ngon ng phai t tm cho mnh nhng li giai thch hp. Mot v du ien hnh:
Quy tac C C S dung giai thch cau truc cau hoi co/khong cua ngon ng Au
chau chac chan khong thch hp cho tieng Viet. ong t trong cau tieng Viet
khong b chuyen v e tr thanh cau hoi.

Noi chung, xuyen qua cac chng ban ve ly thuyet X-gach, han ai trong chung ta
cung nhan thay rang, tieng Viet co nhieu cai ac biet ma tieng Anh khong co.
o la nhng iem m ma ta co the ao sau, nghien cu them. Trong khuon kho
chng nay, th xet vai iem sau ay:

1) Quan he chu ng-ong t (Subject-Verb): Lap quy tac X-gach giai thch
s vang mat cua chu the trong cau. Lam the nao e xac nh c ong t
nao thuoc chu ng nao (chu ng that, chu the (chu ng) ng phap) ?
2) Th, la, ma: Th giai thch cac trng hp cha th,la, ma bang ly
thuyet X-gach.
3) Menh e phu: Phan tch them menh e phu bang ly thuyet X-gach.
243
4) Cau hoi co/khong: Th giai thch cau hoi co/khong cua tieng Viet bang
quy tac X-gach.
5) Th giai thch cau truc cau phu nh bang quy tac X-gach. Th xem trng
hp dung tieng em (v du au) e nhan manh cau.

Em au co i au.
No au a an g au.

6) Th dung ly thuyet X-gach giai thch sau hn ve th trong tieng Viet.
7) Th xet trng hp menh lenh cach pha lan cau hoi khi s dung tieng
em:
An cm i ch ha

An cm nhe ?

Ngu i ch
8) Th xet trng hp cau hoi khi s dung tieng em:
An cm ha ?
i chi nhe ?
9) Th xet trng hp tnh chat cau hoi co tieng em se bien mat khi s dung
them trang t:
An cm ngon nhe.
i chi vui nhe.

244

Choong ll

(7) Co ay hat mot bai ca. (tieng Viet)
1lL| lHAM 1k|, 1| V|NC
X-CACH HAN CHL

Nh a biet, ngon ng Au chau thien ve cau truc chu-v (chu ng-v ng,
subject-predicate). Cau truc nay xuat hien trong cau/menh e. Tieu bieu la quy
tac cu phap:

(1) S NP VP

Cau/menh e S la mot ket qua cua mot chu ng di dang NP va mot v ng
di dang VP. V ng le thuoc chu ng. Noi mot cach n gian, v t (ong t)
thuoc ve chu ng trong trong cau. Chu ng cau c hieu la chu ng ng phap
(grammatical subject).

(2) She sings. (tieng Anh)
(3) Sie singt. (tieng c)
(4) Co ay hat.

ong t hat (sings, singt) xuat phat t chu ng co ay (she, sie): co ay hat,
ch khong ai khac.

Tieng Viet cung co cau truc chu-v, song khong phai ch co cau truc ay. Co
trng hp, ong t khong thuoc ve chu ng trong cau ma lai lien quan en mot
ngoai chu the khong co mat trong cau ma ta a thay chng roi.

Cau truc cau/menh e cua tng ngon ng co the khac nhau. Song neu xet ve v
ng, th co le moi ngon ng eu co nhng iem chung. V t co khi khong can
bo ng hoac co khi can.

(5) She sings a song. (tieng Anh)
(6) Sie singt ein Lied. (tieng c)
245
CH|ONC ll 1lL| lHAM 1k|, 1| V|NC - X-CACH HAN CHL

Mot bai ca (a song, ein Lied) la bo ng trc tiep co nhiem vu bo ngha cho v
t. Hoac mot hnh thc khac:

(8) She sings with me. (tieng Anh)
(9) Sie singt mit mir. (tieng c)
(10) Co ta hat vi toi. (tieng Viet)
(12) VP V
Mac du nhng cau tren ung ng phap, ngha la thoa quy tac chu-v S NP
VP, nhng lai khong noi c. Ro rang la khong the dung ong t hat (sings,
singt) cho mot ngi an ong (a man, einen Mann).

Vi toi (with me, mit mir) la mot ng oan gii t PP.

Da vao quy tac cu phap truyen thong:

(11) VP V (NP) (PP)

hoac s o X-gach:

(13) V V (PP)
(14) V V (NP)

ngi ta co the giai thch c cac kieu noi tren. The nhng neu at cau hoi,
trng hp nao dung bo ng cho hp ly, trng hp nao khong, th cac quy tac
ay khong giai thch c. Vai v du:

(15) * She sings a man. (tieng Anh)
(16) * Sie singt einen Mann. (tieng c)
(17) * Co ay hat mot ngi an ong. (tieng Viet)

Ngh ra mot bo ng cho thch hp vi v t la kha nang tham nh y ngha t ng
cua con ngi. Moi con ngi eu biet phan biet v t nao can bo ng, v t nao
khong, va khi can, th can loai nao. Nhng thong tin ng ngha ay c cha
trong kho t vng (lexical) khong lo cua bo oc chung ta.

Trong chng nay, chung ta se ban ve t vng va viec han che s dung s o X-
gach, tam goi la X-gach han che (constrain X-bar). Han che co the hieu nom na
la s oi hoi v t hoac nhng phan t co lien quan en no phai c s dung
246

sao cho hp ly. Noi ngan gon, tnh han che co nhiem vu bat buoc cach dung quy
tac X-gach sao cho cau ung ng phap va ng ngha. Nhng trng hp phi ly se
b loai tr.

T VNG

1. V| to va tbam so

Han chung ta ai cung hieu y ngha cua ham so (function). Gia s co mot hp
tap goc, neu ng dung mot ham so len mot phan t thuoc tap hp nay, ta se c
mot anh tng ng va ch mot anh duy nhat. ay la mot loai quan he 1-1.

V ng (predicate phrase), hieu theo nh ngha cua ngon ng hoc Au chau, la
phan ong t cong vi bo ng cua mot cau hoac menh e. ong t gi chc
nang nh mot v t (predicate)
1)
.

Xet ve mat cau truc th v t c xem nh la au cua v ng. Ngoai ra, con mot
kha canh cung can c xet en, o la tnh quan he (relation) cua v t. Tnh
quan he ay c hieu theo ngha toan.

a
b
c
x
y
f(a)
f(b)
f(c)
Tap hp goc gom co 3
phan t goc: a, b, c
Tap hp anh gom co 2
phan t anh x, y la ket
qua anh xa cua ham f.

V du, ham so f ng dung len phan t goc a, sinh ra anh f(a) = x.

1)
Predicate co luc co ngha la v ng, co luc co ngha la v t. ay la mot iem kha lon xon cua
thuat ng predicate ma gii ngon ng hoc Tay phng thng vng phai. e tranh hieu nham,
chung toi goi v t la predicate, v ng la predicate phrase.
247

Khac vi tnh 1 oi 1 cua ham so, mot quan he (relation) tong quat cho phep
mot phan t co quan he vi nhieu phan t. (Ch can hieu n gian vay cung u
hieu phan ly thuyet sau nay).

ong t (v t) dien ta moi quan he cua nhng phan t co mat trong cau. Nhng
phan t tham d c coi la nhng tham so (argument). V du khi noi:

(18) She sings a song.

th she va a song la hai tham so. Hai tham so nay noi nhau thanh mot cau.
V t sing la cau noi.

a. Mot tham so: ay la trng hp ong t bat xuyen tnh (intransitive
verb), tc loai ong t ch co tac dung rieng cho chu ng ch khong hng
en bo ng ben ngoai. Chu ng la mot tham so.

[She]
1
sings.
(She la 1 tham so)

Nh vay, ong t can mot so lng tham so bat buoc e bao am cau ung ng
phap. So lng tham so c goi la hoa tr (valence)
2)
. Co t nhat 3 trng hp:

b. Hai tham so: ay la trng hp ong t xuyen tnh (transitive verb),
tc loai ong t co tac dung xuyen ra khoi chu ng va hng en bo ng
ben ngoai. Chu ng, bo ng la hai tham so.
[She]
1
sings [a song]
2
.
(She, a song la 2 tham so)
c. Ba tham so: ay la trng hp ong t nh xuyen (ditransitive verb),
tc loai ong t co tac dung hng en hai ca the thuoc phan bo ng. Chu
ng cong vi 2 ca the trong phan bo ng la 3 tham so.
[She]
1
gives [me]
2
[a book]
3
.

2)
mot thuat ng vay mn t nganh hoa hoc.

248

(She, me, a book la 3 tham so)
Xuyen tnh:
(22) She sings a song. (tieng Anh)

(25)
(26)

(27)
(28) * I love [
CP
that you know].

Co trng hp, mot ong t mang hai tnh chat: xuyen tnh va bat xuyen tnh. V
du sing (singen, hat) :

Bat xuyen tnh:

(19) She sings. (tieng Anh)
(20) Sie singt. (tieng c)
(21) Co ay hat. (tieng Viet)

(23) Sie singt ein Lied. (tieng c)
(24) Co ay hat mot bai hat. (tieng Viet)

Khi xem mot ong t co bao nhieu tham so, ngi ta ch xet en cac yeu to biet
nh (specify) va bo ngha (complement) (bo tuc cho ay u y ngha). Yeu to phu
ngha (adjunct) khong dung c ay.
The nhng hai yeu to biet nh va bo ngha cung b gii han; co trng hp dung
c, co trng hp khong. ien hnh la trng hp mot ng oan danh t NP
hoac mot ng oan tac t bo ng hoa CP gi nhiem vu them ngha cho ong t:
I know [
NP
that].
I know [
CP
that you know].

ong t know dung c cho hai trng hp NP va CP, trong khi o love
ch dung c cho NP:
I love [
NP
that].

Nh vay moi ong t con oi hoi moi tham so phai co ng ngha hp ly. Ta ghi
nh iem nay trc khi vao chi tiet.

249

2. Tico pbam tro

Ly thuyet truyen thong a liet ong t vao pham tru t vng tieu chuan ong t
V, song tren thc te, ong t co nhieu loai khac nhau (bat xuyen tnh, xuyen tnh,
...). e bao am cach dung sao cho hp vi so lng tham so, ngi ta phai chia
nho loai ong t thanh nhng tieu pham tru (subcategory).

Tam ngng dung s o X-gach, chung ta xem lai quy tac VP truyen thong cua
tieng Anh:
(29) VP V NP
Quy tac nay co the c m rong thanh:

(30)
VP V
p
PP
VP V
t2
NP NP

VP V
i

VP V
t
NP
VP V
tp
NP PP

(i = intransitive, t = transitive, p = preposition, tp = transitive with preposition, t2
= ditransitive)
Vi cach phan loai ay, pham tru ong t khong con n thuan la ong t na.
Nhng loai ong t V
i
, V
t
, V
p
, V
tp
, V
t2
c coi nh tieu pham tru cua V.

(31) She smiles.

NP VP
She smiles
N V
i
S

Cau she smiles khong the dung quy tac VP V
t
NP, v smiles thuoc tieu
pham tru V
i
(ong t bat xuyen tnh).
250

S kien mat tnh tong quat dan en van e la lam sao co the mo ta c cai cau
truc toan the cua ng oan ong t VP.

(33) X yZ

NP VP
She smiles
N V
t
NP
S

(32)

Y tng chia nho pham tru thanh nhng tieu pham tru a lam mat tnh tong quat
cua quy tac VP V NP. Ngi ta noi, tieu pham tru mang tnh cuc bo nghiem
ngat (strikt local); moi tieu pham tru ch con chap nhan mot quy tac cuc bo
ung cho moi trng hp nhat nh a c la chon t tap hp pham tru ln. V
du, gap ong t bat xuyen tnh, bat buoc phai dung quy tac VP V
i
; gap ong
t xuyen tnh, bat buoc phai dung quy tac VP V
t
NP, ...

Hay xem mot chut ly thuyet va cach giai quyet van e:

a. Ton ty Cbomsky
Quy tac ng phap tao sinh cua Chomsky phan anh mo hnh ng phap cau truc
ng oan (Phrase Structure Grammar (PSG)). Moi quy tac bao gom hai ve: ve
trai va ve phai. Ve trai sinh ra ve phai (ky hieu mui ten )
3)
.
(34) y value
Moi ky hieu X, Z (viet hoa) la mot bien so (variable) hoac phan t khong tan
cung (non-terminal), tc con khai trien c. Ngc lai, neu a tan cung bang
mot tr so value nao o, v du y (viet nho), no se c coi nh mot nguyen t
(atom) hoac phan t tan cung (terminal).

3)
Co ngi oc la ve trai c thay the bang ve phai, ve trai gom ... , ...
251

Theo ton ty Chomsky (Chomskys hierarchy) (S.s. Chomsky 1965), (Hopcroft,
Ullman 1979), ng phap c chia ra lam 4 loai:

Loai 0 (type 0) : Ng phap vu tru (universal grammar)
Loai 1 (type 1) : Ng phap cam ng canh (context sensitive grammar)
Loai 2 (type 2) : Ng phap phi ng canh (context free grammar)
Loai 3 (type 3) : Ng phap chnh quy (regular grammar)

Ng phap chnh quy (regular grammar) la loai ng phap n gian nhat, co
dang:

(34) X t
X la mot phan t tan cung bang tr t

Ch nh t D the | a | der | die | das
Ng phap phi ng canh (context free grammar) co dang:
(35) X yZ
X, Z la nhng phan t khong tan cung; y la phan t tan cung, co the nam
ben phai hoac ben trai Z.
V du:

V du:
Danh t N house | car | Frau | Mann | ...
(| la ky hieu cua phep hoac (OR) trong logic).

VP V NP

Ng phap phi ng canh la tap hp cha ng phap chnh quy.
Ng phap cam ng canh (context sensitive grammar) co dang:

(36) AXB AYB

252

A, B, X, Y la nhng phan t khong tan cung. Ve ben trai khong c cha
nhieu phan t hn ve ben phai. X co the c the bang Y, ngha la tuy
ng canh, X co the sinh ra mot hien tr nhat nh. X va Y co the trong
(NULL).

Ng phap cam ng canh la tap hp cha ng phap phi ng canh.
Ng phap vu tru (universal grammar) bao gom tat ca cac loai ng phap.
e giai quyet van e ng oan ong t VP V NP, ngi ta co the bien quy
tac nay thanh loai ng phap cam ng canh bang cach xem ong t V nh mot
phan t khong tan cung va tiep tuc khai trien no:

(37)

b. Tico pbam tro va dac dicm co pbap
(hay thng tre mo coi):

V V
i

V V
t
NP
V V
p
PP
V V
tp
NP PP
V V
t2
NP NP

Giai quyet van e bang ng phap cam ng canh khong phai la cach toi u. Loai
ng phap nay rat phc tap ma ngi ta co tranh. Thay v the, ngi ta khai thac
nhng ac iem cua tieu pham tru.

Cu the, ta co the xem pham tru t vng la mot thuoc tnh cha nhng tr danh t,
ong t, tnh t, ... Cung vi tinh than ay, thuoc tnh la pham tru ng ngha bac
hai (secondary) cha cac thuoc tnh nh phai tnh, so lng, the cach, ... Phai tnh
co cac tr nh giong c, giong cai, giong trung. So lng co cac tr nh so nhieu,
so t. The cach co cac tr nh danh cach, oi cach, tang cach.

Xem mot v du ve nhng ac iem cua danh t Kind (tre con) trong mot cum
t tieng c di ay:

(38) liebt die Weisenkinder.

253

Danh t nguyen mau Kind nam di dang so nhieu (Kinder), noi chung gom
cac thuoc tnh:

Thuoc tnh Tr
Pham tru Danh t
Phai tnh giong trung
So lng so nhieu
The cach oi cach (accusative) ong vai
bo ng trc tiep

trng hp khac:

(39) helft den Weisenkindern
(hay giup tre mo coi)

(40) Danh t co ac iem pham tru danh t: N [+N]
(42) Tnh t co ac iem pham tru tnh t: A [+A]

c. Tico pbam tro pbi ngo canb
ta thay ong t helft (nguyen mau: helfen = giup) bien Kind thanh bo ng
gian tiep. Bo ng gian tiep c chia di dang tang cach (dative). Trong khi o,
tieng Anh hoac tieng Viet khong co cach bien the nay.
Neu mot thuoc tnh mang mot ac iem thc s, th ac iem ay c xem nh
co tnh dng, ngc lai, co tnh am. ac iem nay c ghi chu bang dau +
hoac trong ngoac [ ]. Vai v du:

(41) ong t co ac iem pham tru ong t: V [+V]
(43) Cai ban co ac iem danh t so t: [+N, +so t]. Cai ban khong cha
ac iem ong t va so nhieu: [-V, -so nhieu].
(44) ac iem Kind trong liebt die Weisenkinder: [+N, +trung, +so nhieu,
+oi cach].

e de hieu tieu pham tru phi ng canh (context free category), hay lay mot
ac tnh tieu bieu cua danh t lam v du: danh t rieng (proper noun) va danh
t chung (common noun).

254

Danh t rieng la nhng ten rieng nh T, Su, Hue, Sai Gon, Ha Noi, ... Trai lai,
danh t chung la nhng danh t ch nhng th chung chung ai loai nh ban ghe,
xe co, nha ca, ... noi chung la moi th khong cha tnh chat g rieng t ca. Hai
ac iem nay oi lap nhau trong pham tru t vng danh t.

Mot danh t co the c anh gia hoac la danh t chung, hoac la danh t rieng
qua ky hieu am/dng:

(45)
hoac viet gon:
(46) [+N] [danh t chung]
Haus (nha), Auto (xe hi), Kuh (bo), Tisch (ban)
(49) [+danh t chung, +em c, -cu the], nh:

[+danh t chung]
[+N]
[-danh t chung]

Loai quy tac nay c goi la quy tac tieu pham tru phi ng canh (context
free subcategory rule).

Danh t chung con cha nhng tnh chat khac nh em c hay khong em
c, cu the hay khong cu the. T o mi co them quy tac thng thay ngon
ng An-Au:

(47) [+danh t chung] [em c, cu the]

V du tieng c:

(48) [+danh t chung, +em c, +cu the], nh:

Idee (sang kien), Gedanke (suy ngh)
(50) [+danh t chung, -em c, +cu the], nh:
Wasser (nc), Sand (cat), Mbel (ban ghe)

(51) [+danh t chung, -em c, -cu the] nh:
Liebe (tnh yeu), Glauben (niem tin)

255

Tnh cu the con c xem co song (alive) that khong:

(52) [+cu the] [song]

Neu song, co mang tnh ngi khong:
(53) [+song] [ngi]
Sau khi phan tch t tong quat en chi tiet, ta thay, mot danh t co the lam chu
mot tap hp cha nhng ac tnh nhat nh, v du nh:

(54) N --> [+N]
(55) N --> [+N, +danh t chung]
(56) N --> [+N, +danh t chung, +em c, +cu the]
(57) N --> [+N, +danh t chung, +em c, +cu the, +song]
(58) N --> [+N, +danh t chung, +em c, +cu the, +song, -ngi]

oi vi tieng c, tieng Anh, nhng danh t thu vat Kuh(bo), cow, Pferd
(nga), mustang, Hund (cho), dog, Katze (meo), cat, ... la nhng danh
t chung, em c, cu the, song, khong mang tnh ngi:

(59) N --> [+N, +danh t chung, +em c, +cu the, +song, -ngi]

Nhan ay xin lu y. Khi ban en tnh em c trong tieng Viet, chung ta nen
can than. Trong tieng Viet co nhieu danh t cu the tng chng em c nhng
lai khong. Ngi Viet khong noi mot bo, hai nga, ba cho, bon meo, ...
ma noi mot con bo, hai con nga, ba con cho, bon con meo, ... tc la
phai dung them danh t hnh thc (chang han con) trc danh t chnh.

d. Tnb ngbicm ngat coa tico pbam tro

Mot t trong cau truc cu phap c cong nhan la mot phan t tan cung neu ac
iem cua no gi tnh nghiem ngat khap ni. Da vao nguyen tac nay, ngi ta
co the giai quyet van e ng oan ong t VP V NP tot hn. Moi loai ong t
se c anh dau bang SUBCATx; x la so ac trng cho moi tieu pham tru.
Thay v dung cac quy tac:
256

(60) VP V
i

(61) VP V
t
NP
(62) VP V
p
PP
(63)
(64)

(66) VP [+V, SUBCAT1] NP
(68) VP [+V, SUBCAT3] NP PP
SUBCAT4 bieu th ong t nh xuyen vi hoa tr 2
(74) chi: [+V, SUBCAT0]
(75) a: [+V, SUBCAT1]
v.v.

VP V
tp
NP PP
VP V
t2
NP NP

ta dung:
(65) VP [+V, SUBCAT0]
(67) VP [+V, SUBCAT2] PP
(69) VP [+V, SUBCAT4] NP NP

SUBCAT0 bieu th ong t bat xuyen tnh
SUBCAT1 bieu th ong t xuyen tnh
SUBCAT2 bieu th ong t i vi ng oan gii t PP
SUBCAT3 bieu th ong t xuyen tnh i vi ng oan gii t PP

Mot v du ng dung ky thuat lap trnh: Th thanh lap bang t vng (lexical
bank) vi mot bang t cha nhng thong tin ve ac iem cua tng t nh:

Tieng Anh:
(70) play: [+V, SUBCAT0]
(71) kick: [+V, SUBCAT1]

Tieng c:
(72) spielen: [+V, SUBCAT0]
(73) kicken: [+V, SUBCAT1]

Tieng Viet:

257

3. Qoan bc cbo dc va vai tro tbcta
Viec dung bo ng con le thuoc vao tieu pham tru; noi chnh xac la con le thuoc
vao s gii han tieu pham tru hoa (subcategorization restriction). Khong
nhng vay, mot bo ng hp ly con tuy thuoc vao s gii han cua ng ngha.
Chuan tac ng ngha noi len s gii han chon la (selectional restriction). Sau
ay, th xem cac nha ngon ngon hoc Tay phng giai thch the nao ve moi quan
he le thuoc gia cac phan t tham gia qua ly thuyet quan he chu e (thematic
relation) va vai tro theta (theta role).

(77) Bill a trai banh.
(79) Bill accidentally broke the glass.

Mot trong nhng cach giai thch s gii han chon la la lam sang to moi quan he
chu e. Moi quan he nay bao ham cac ve ng ngha c dung e mo ta s hoa
hp cua cac tham so oi vi v t.
Khi noi en hanh ong, ngi ta co the tng tng nh sau:

Tac nhan (agent, actor) la ngi gay ra hanh ong, ngi khi ong (initiator).
Tac nhan phai la mot vat the song (alive) va co kha nang lam theo y muon.
(76) Bill kicks the ball.

Bill la mot tac nhan, mot vat the song, co kha nang hanh ong theo y muon la
a trai banh. Tuy nhien, khong phai mot cau bao gi cung co mot tac nhan theo
tinh than va ke.

(78) The rain is falling on the leaves.

The rain (ma) khong c ke la tac nhan v ma khong phai la vat the song.
Ma ch la hien tng thien nhien.

Du tac nhan co kha nang lam theo y muon, song nhieu khi mot hanh ong khong
han phai la s co y:

Bill van c ke la tac nhan theo nh ngha tren. Tac nhan thng la chu ng,
nhng van co the xuat hien v tr khac.

258

Cam nhan (experiencer) la ngi co kinh nghiem, hoac cam nhan, hoac hieu
c mot cai g o. Cam nhan co the xuat hien nh mot tham so nam trong phan
chu ng hoac phan bo ng:

(80) Monica loved Bill.

Bill la muc tieu. Ngc vi muc tieu la nguon goc (source), tc khi iem
chuyen ong. Monica hai v du tren la nguon goc.
Hien trng xay ra bien co c goi la v tr (location):
(81) Bill kissed Monica.
Monica la cam nhan. Monica co the ong vai chu ng va bo ng.
Nhng g xuyen qua hanh ong c noi ti, c cam nhan, c hieu nh y
chnh, th c coi nh chu e (theme).
(82) Monica talked about her love story.

Her love story la chu e, la cau truyen tnh c noi ti.
iem can hng ti c hieu la muc tieu (goal).

(83) Monica went to Bill.

Bill la muc tieu ma Monica muon tien ti.
Co mot loai muc tieu ac biet: thu nhan (recipient), tc ngi nhan. Thu nhan
i vi ong t se lam thay oi s hu chu:
(84) Monica gave Bill her hand.
(85) Bill was kissed by Monica.

(86) Monica met Bill in Washington.

Nhng g c dung e gay ra hanh ong c hieu la dung cu (instrument):

(87) Monica took a Taxis to visit Bill.

259

Taxis la dung cu.

Con mot mot v tr ac biet na c goi la ca the c phuc vu, cong hien
(benefactive):

(88) Monica bought the flowers for Bill.
(89) She cooked him dinner.

Can e y, mot ch nh ng DP khong phai bao gi cung ch co mot quan he chu
e. Chang han ch nh ng Monica sau ay cha mot quan he chu e va la tac
nhan, va la nguon goc:

(90) Monica wrote a letter to Bill.
a goi la quan he (relation) c hieu theo toan hoc th khong the bao am s
lien he cua no giong nh phep ap 1 1, ngha la t iem goc, no ch chieu
qua mot iem anh theo nguyen tac 1 noi 1. Quan he chu e va tham so tng
t vay. V le o ma cac nha ngon ng Tay phng a e ngh mot cau truc ac
biet c goi la vai tro theta ( role). Vai tro nay cho phep thanh lap quan he
1 1 dung cho tham so (giong hnh thc ham so). Muon vay phai xem vai tro
tng ng vi mot tham so nam di dang mot tap hp cac quan he chu e
dnh chum thanh mot. V du tham so Monica tren va la tac nhan, va la
nguon goc, tc mot tap hp gom hai tham so {tac nhan, nguon goc} nhng ch
gi mot vai tro duy nhat.

Hay xem vai tro mo ta cau truc tham so cua ong t. Th xet mot ong t v
du nh put. ong t put oi hoi 3 tham so:

1. Mot chu ng lam tac nhan.
2. Mot bo ng trc tiep lam chu e.
3. Mot bo ng gian tiep lam muc tieu hay v tr.

(91) Bill put the Samsonite on the table.

Ngoai cach s dung nay ra, tat ca moi cach di ay eu sai ng phap do thieu
hoac d tham so:

(93) * Bill put the Samsonite.
(92) * Put the Samsonite on the table.
260

(94) * Bill put on the table.
(95) * Bill put the Samsonite on the table the hut.
Cau nay vo ngha v cac ch nh ng DP khong ong ung vai tro theta. The
rain khong the ong vai tro tac nhan, the mountain khong the ong vai tro
chu e va cung khong the lay xe hi (with the car) ch ca qua nui i cho khac.
e lam sang to s oi hoi tham so cua ong t, ngi ta thng dung li theta
(theta grid) (Haegeman 1991). Mot v du cho ong t put:

(97)

Cau sau cung sai ng phap:

(96) * The rain put the mountain with the car.

Trc nhat, ve ra 3 cot tng ng vi 3 tham so ma v t put oi hoi. Moi cot
co hai dong. Dong tren ghi ten vai tro theta (co the co nhieu vai tro khac nhau).
Dong di xac nh ch so cua tng vai tro:
[Bill]
i
put [the Samsonite]
j
on [the table]
k.
.

Ch so i bieu th vai tro tac nhan Bill, ch so j bieu th chu e the Samsonite,
...

(98) put:

ngoai chu e noi chu e
goc/tac nhan chu e muc tieu
i j k

Vai tro theta co hai loai (Marantz 1984):

Vai tro theta ngoai (external theta role) ch chu ng. Vai tro nay thng
c gach di (trong li).
Vai tro theta trong (internal theta role) ch bo ng trc tiep (va gian
tiep).

261

TIEU PHAM TRU HOA

2. Mot kho t vng cha t ng cua tng ngon ng, trong o moi t eu co
nhng thuoc tnh cu phap.

a xuyen qua tieu pham tru va vai tro theta, nay chung ta tiep tuc xet chi tiet
hn ve vai tro cu phap cua t vng.

Mot ng phap tao sinh gom co ba thanh phan:
1. Mot tap hp quy tac ng oan, con c goi la quy tac pham tru
(categorial rule).
3. Mot quy tac long t vng (lexical insertion rule) ch cach gan t vao ung
v tr trong ng oan.

V du:

1. Quy tac ng oan:
(i) S NP VP
(ii) NP D N
(iii) VP V NP

2. T vng:
bite = V, chase = V
dog = N, cat = N, mouse = N
the = D, ...

3. Quy tac long t vng:
T co the c gan vao nut tan cung co cung pham tru t vng.

NP VP
the cat bites the mouse
N D V NP
S
N D

(99)

262

Trong v du tren, bite la ong t xuyen tnh. No can mot bo ng NP. Ta ky
hieu:

Theo cach trnh bay tren, ta noi, bite a c tieu pham tru hoa
(subcategorised) va cho phep mot ng oan danh t NP theo sau. Nhng thong
tin ong trong ngoac [...] c goi la khung tieu pham tru hoa (subcategorisation
frame).
Mot ong t va xuyen tnh, va bat xuyen tnh cung co the c ky hieu tng
t, v du ong t eat :
(103) eat: V, [- NP]

(100) bite: V, +[- NP]
Ky hieu muon noi, bite la mot ong t va co the gan vao v tr - trc NP.
(- la cho danh san cho V). Trong khi o:
(101) fall: V, -[- NP]
fall la ong t bat xuyen tnh, khong the ng trc bo ng NP (c ky hieu
la [- NP]). Khong the noi:

(102) * the cat falls the mouse

Theo mo hnh va ke, mot phan t t vng khong nhng ch cha thong tin ve
pham tru ma con cha thong tin ve tieu pham tru hoa. M rong quy tac long t
vng:

Quy tac long t vng (lexical insertion rule) cho phep gan mot t a
c tieu pham tru hoa vao mot nut tan cung co cung pham tru t vng.

Mot v du khac:

(104) put: V, +[- NP PP]

Cach tieu pham tru hoa put cat ngha c tnh ung/sai ng phap vi bo ng
on the table la ng oan gii t PP :
263

(105) Bill put the Samsonite on the table.
(106) * Bill put the Samsonite.
(107) * Bill put on the table.

Cung la ng oan gii t PP, song neu dung cac gii t khac nh for, from,
to, cau se sai ngay:

(109) *Bill put the Samsonite from the table.
Chuan tac theta (theta criterion):
i. Moi tham so phai nhan mot va ch mot vai tro theta.

(112)
(108) *Bill put the Samsonite for the table.
(110) *Bill put the Samsonite to the table.

Nh vay, dung bo ng PP cua put sao cho thch hp con tuy vao v tr
(location). Ta them ky hieu LOC (viet tat cua locative) e tro net nay.

(111) put: V, + - NP PP
+LOC

X-GACH HAN CHE

Ly thuyet X-gach tong quat co the e ra cau sai ng phap. Tnh han che co
nhiem vu loc trng hp sai. No can mot chuan tac c goi la:

ii. Moi vai tro theta phai nhan mot va ch mot tham so.

Cu the, th phan tch ong t love bang li theta.
oi vi mot cau cha v t love, ta xem tng tham so ong vai tro g va cho no
mot ch so tng ng. Chang han cau:
[Monica]
i
loves [Bill]
j
.

Cau nay ung ng phap v dung ung so lng tham so va vai tro. Monica la
cam nhan va Bill la chu e.

264

(113) love:
cam nhan chu e
i j

Ngc lai, mot cau sai ng phap v thieu chu e:

(114) [Monica]
i
loves.

love:
cam nhan chu e
i

iem nay khong thoa chuan tac theta, bi moi vai tro theta phai nhan mot va ch
mot tham so .

(115)

Cau sau cung sai ng phap v d tham so:
[Monica]
i
loves [Bill]
j
. [Tom]
k

love:
cam nhan chu e
i j k

Ch co 2 vai tro theta nhng co en 3 tham so. Tom khong nhan vai tro theta
nao ca. iem nay khong thoa chuan tac: Moi tham so phai nhan mot va ch mot
vai tro theta.

MO HNH NG PHAP
Cu phap hoc la mot khoa hoc nhan thc (cognitive science). Theo Chomsky, s
hieu biet ngon ng cua con ngi da tren hai thanh phan can ban: t vng
(lexical) va phan tnh (computational component):
265

Phan tnh cha ng moi quy tac va tnh han che. Nh quy tac, con ngi co the
tao sinh ra cau cu, va cung qua o, nh han che, nhng ng ngha vo ly se b loai
tr. Phan tnh khong the lam viec vi chan khong ma can t vng.

T vng la mot cuon t ien song khong lo cua con ngi. No cha ng tat ca
cac thong tin ve t. oi vi moi v t, moi vai tro theta eu c nh ngha ro
rang, tinh vi va ch rieng cho v t ay. T vng con bao gom ca nhng trng hp
ngoai le. Nh mot n v t vng (lexical item), moi t cha t nhat nhng
thong tin:

Y ngha
Cach phat am
Nhng thong tin ngoai le
Li theta

Hoc mot t mi ngha la phai hoc va nh nhng thong tin ke tren. Ta co the
mng tng mot mo hnh cua he thong ng phap tru tng nh sau:

Phan tnh

Quy tac X-gach

Chuan tac theta

au ra (output)
T vng
(vai tro theta)

T vng cung cap cho phan tnh moi thong tin tng ng. Phan tnh se rap t vao
quy tac X-gach sau khi loc la t theo nhng chuan tac theta nhat nh. San
pham cuoi cung la cau au ra. Trong qua trnh nay, moi d lieu t vng c
s dung phai co kha nang mo ta moi bnh dien sao cho ung ng phap e tao ra
hnh thc cau.

266

NGYEN TAC CHIEU M RONG
(119) It snows. (tieng Anh)
(121) Tri tuyet.

(122)

(123) It is likely

[
CP
that Monica loves Bill].
e giai thch cac trng hp tren, vai tro theta c m rong:

Theo nguyen tac vai tro theta, moi v t can s gop mat cua cac vai tro theta.
Song d nhien cung co nhng trng hp ngoai le, t du nh trong tieng Anh,
tieng c. Vai v du:

a. Chu ng gia nh it, es:

(116) It rains. (tieng Anh)
(117) Es regnet. (tieng c)
(118) Tri ma.
(120) Es schneit. (tieng c)

Ro rang cac v t dien ta thi tiet ay khong chap nhan cac ai danh t it,
es nh cac vai tro theta. The nhng v nh a noi, cac ngon ng Au chau thien
ve cau truc chu-v, tc v t bat buoc phai co chu ng, cho nen ngi ta phai
dung cac ai danh t it, es nh mot hnh thc bo the (expletive) e tram
vao cho trong o. Ngoai ra, con co trng hp:

b. Chu ng la mot menh e:
[
CP
that Monica loves Bill] is likely.

Menh e that Monica loves Bill la mot bo ng. Cau tren co the hieu cung mot
ngha mac du b ao ngc. It lai ong vai bo the:

Nguyen tac chieu m rong (Extended Projection Principle (EPP)): Tat
ca cac menh e phai co chu ng. D lieu t vng phai c mo ta ro rang.

Neu s o X-gach khong chon la c vai tro theta thch hp, no se loai bo cau
nay. Gap trng hp hi khac nghiet nay, cac nha ngon ng hoc a e ngh them
quy tac long bo the (expletive insertion). Nguyen tac nay co the hieu n gian
la phai long cac ai danh t it, es vao cau e chung gi chc nang chu ng.
267

Mo hnh cua he thong ng phap cu c m rong nh sau:

Phan tnh

Quy tac X-gach

Chuan tac theta (han che)

Long bo the (Expletive Insertion)

Nguyen tac chieu m rong EPP

au ra (output)
T vng
(vai tro theta)

TOM LC
V t dien ta moi quan he cua nhng phan t co mat trong cau. Nhng phan t
nay c goi la tham so. Moi v t co mot so tham so nhat nh tuy loai bat
xuyen tnh, xuyen tnh, ...

Ly thuyet truyen thong liet ong t vao pham tru t vng tieu chuan ong t V,
song tren thc te, ong t co nhieu loai khac nhau. Chung c chia nho thanh
nhng tieu pham tru nham bao am cach dung ong t sao cho hp vi so lng
tham so.

Y tng chia nho pham tru thanh nhng tieu pham tru lam mat tnh tong quat
cua quy tac VP V NP. Tieu pham tru mang tnh cuc bo nghiem ngat. ieu
nay dan en van e la lam sao co the mo ta c cai cau truc toan the cua ng
oan ong t VP. Mot trong nhng giai phap la da vao loai ng phap cam ng
canh. Ngi ta xem ong t V nh mot phan t khong tan cung va tiep tuc khai
trien no:
268

V V
i

V V
t
NP
V V
p
PP
V V
tp
NP PP
V V
t2
NP NP

Giai quyet van e bang ng phap cam ng canh khong phai la phng cach toi
u. Co mot sang kien khac la khai thac nhng ac iem cua tieu pham tru: thuoc
tnh cua t. Tot na la dung tieu pham tru phi ng canh. V du:

VP [+V, SUBCAT0]
VP [+V, SUBCAT1] NP
VP [+V, SUBCAT2] PP
VP [+V, SUBCAT3] NP PP
VP [+V, SUBCAT4] NP NP

- SUBCAT0 bieu th ong t bat xuyen tnh.
- SUBCAT1 bieu th ong t xuyen tnh.
- SUBCAT2 bieu th ong t i vi ng oan gii t AP.
- SUBCAT3 bieu th ong t xuyen tnh i vi ng oan gii t AP.
- SUBCAT4 bieu th ong t nh xuyen vi hai hoa tr.

Mot bo ng hp ly con tuy thuoc vao s gii han cua ng ngha. Chuan tac ng
ngha noi len s gii han chon la (selectional restriction).

Mot trong nhng cach giai thch s gii han chon la la lam sang to moi quan he
chu e. Moi quan he nay bao ham cac ve ng ngha c dung e mo ta s hoa
hp cua cac tham so oi vi v t.

Noi en hanh ong, ngi ta co the tng tng en nhng vai tro nh: tac nhan,
cam nhan, chu e, muc tieu, thu nhan, nguon goc, v tr, dung cu, ... ay la
nhng vai tro (theta). Vai tro nay cho phep thanh lap quan he 1 1 dung cho
tham so (giong quan he 1 1 cua ham so). Vai tro theta tng ng vi mot
tham so nam di dang mot tap hp cac quan he chu e dnh chum thanh mot. V
du, ong t put can 3 tham so:

Mot chu ng lam tac nhan.
Mot bo ng trc tiep lam chu e.
Mot bo ng gian tiep lam muc tieu hay v tr.
269

Vai tro cu phap cua t vng c xac nh qua khung tieu pham tru hoa.

Ly thuyet X-gach tong quat co the e ra cau sai ng phap, cho nen can han che.
Cu the bang chuan tac theta:

Moi tham so phai nhan mot va ch mot vai tro theta.
Moi vai tro theta phai nhan mot va ch mot tham so.

Du vay van khong the tranh nhng trng hp ngoai le (tieng Anh, tieng c)
nh chu ng gia (it, es), chu ng la mot menh e. Vai tro theta c m rong
bang nguyen tac chieu m rong: Tat ca cac menh e phai co chu ng. Thong tin
t vng phai c mo ta ro rang. Ngoai ra, con co them quy tac long bo the. Quy
tac nay cho phep long cac ai danh t it, es vao cau e gi chc nang chu
ng.

NHAN XET VA IEM M

Ngon ng Au chau thien ve cau truc chu-v (subject-predicate). ay la mot trong
nhng ac iem c s c dung trong ly thuyet cu phap. Theo cau truc nay, v
t trong cau le thuoc vao chu ng trong cau. Tieng Viet cung co cau truc nay
nhng cung co trng hp chu the khong nam trong cau.

Vai e ngh cho iem m:

1) Th tm them nhng vai tro theta khac ma tieng Viet co the co.
2) Th ng dung khung tieu pham tru hoa e thanh lap mot bang d lieu
cha vai v du ong t, tnh t, ... ac biet la cac t ha, au, a,
nha, ka, i, nh, ... Th xac nh cac trng hp cau/menh
e/thanh to thng b tnh lc.

270

Choong l2

lHLl lLN HlNH

Y NGHA CUA PHEP BIEN HNH

Moi cau noi trong thc te eu co mot cau truc cu phap: cau truc be mat (surface
structure). Theo Radford (1981:146), co the gia nh rang bnh dien nay mieu ta
cai cau truc cu phap tho thien nhat cua cau. Cong viec chung ta a va ang gang
lam la a ra mot cu phap hp ly nham xac nh moi cau truc be mat chuan hnh
cua mot ngon ng. Cu the la da vao mot tap hp quy tac pham tru (v du: cau
truc ng oan), t vng va quy tac long. Tuy nhien, khong phai la khong ton tai
nhng trng hp ma cac loai quy tac ay khong u kha nang giai thch cho hp
ly. ien hnh la cau hoi- wh (wh-question). Muon giai thch, Chomsky e ngh
dung quy tac bien hnh (tranformation rule).

Trc het, hay xem vai cach hoi wh (who, what, why, when, which, where,
how) trong tieng Anh.

V du mot ngi A noi:

(1) I bought a car.

Khi nghe vay, mot ngi B co the ngac nhien, hoi:

(2) You bought a car ?

Cach hoi nay la cach lap lai cau truc cau noi cua ngi A. Loai cau hoi nay
(tam) goi la cau hoi hoi ngon (echo question). No giong nh cau hoi co/khong
(yes/no question) bi ngi A co the tra li bang yes/no. Tng t, ngi B cung
co the hoi:

(3) You bought a what ?

271
CH|ONC l2 lHLl lLN HlNH

Cung la mot cau hoi hoi ngon nhng ngi ta se khong tra li bang yes/no ma la
a car chang han.

o la trng hp lap lai cau xac nh. Ngoai ra con co trng hp hoi ngon
trong cau hoi thc s:

(4) A: Did you buy a house ?
(5) B: Did I what ?

Hoac co the hoi hoi ngon vi cau cung loai, v du cau menh lenh:

(6) A: Dont touch my hand.
(7) B: Dont touch your what ?

Nhng cach hoi hoi ngon va neu rat pho bien trong tieng Viet.

(8) A: Toi mi mua cai nha.
(9) B: Anh mi mua cai g ?

Ngc vi cau hoi hoi ngon trong tieng Anh la cau hoi phi hoi ngon (nonecho
question), ien hnh la cau hoi-wh (s.s. Radford 1981:149). Th xet cau sau ay:

(10) Which car will your father put in the garage ?

Neu xem:

Which car, your father la ng oan danh t NP.
Will la ong t phu (tr ong t) AUX.
Put in the garage la ng oan ong t VP, vi put la ong t V va in
the garage la ng oan gii t PP,

chieu theo quy tac cau truc ng oan:

(11) S NP AUX NP VP
(12) VP V PP
(13) PP P NP
(14) NP D N

272

ta co cay cu phap:

(15)

Put nam v tr V la hp ly. Song khong phai bao gi cach long nay cung
ung cho moi trng hp.

Chung ta con nh phan t vng, put c tieu pham tru hoa nh sau:

(18) put: V, + - NP PP
+LOC

(21) *John put in the garage.
Chuoi t John put in the garage khong noi c v thieu bo ng NP, (put cai
g). Vay, co the suy ra nh the nay c khong, Which car will your father put
in the garage khong noi c v trong cau cung xuat hien mot cau truc thieu bo
ng NP tng t your father put in the garage ?
S
Which car will your father put in the garage
NP AUX NP VP
D N D N V PP
P NP
D N
Put can mot bo ng NP va mot bo ng PP ch v tr. V du mot cau noi c:

(19) John put the car in the garage.
trong khi o, nhng trng hp sau khong noi c v thieu bo ng:

(20) *John put the car.

Mat khac, mot cau noi c:
273

(22) Will your father go in the garage ?

ta khong can bo ng NP bi v go c tieu pham tru hoa:

(23) go: V, + - PP
+LOC

Tuy nhien, khong phai v the ma co the noi:

(25) A: My father will put the Mercedes in the garage.
Cau truc cau xac nh va cau nghi van giong nhau:

(24) *Which car will your father go in the garage ?
Cau nay sai ng phap.

Noi tom lai, ro rang, nhng g ta a biet trc nay khong the giai thch c
trng hp cau hoi-wh, neu wh nam au cau (v.d. which car).
Quay ve trng hp cau hoi hoi ngon.

(26) B: Your father will put which car in the garage ?

(27)
S
Your father will put which car in the garage
NP AUX VP
D N V NP PP
D N P NP
D N

274

Neu which car nam sau ong t, th khong co van e. Con khong, e giai thch
cau Which car will your father put in the garage trong cach hanh ngon ngoai
i, ta phai dung en quy tac chuyen v-wh (wh-movement), ngha la chuyen v
tr wh (which car).

(28)
Your father will put which car in the garage
which car will your father put - - - - - - - - - - in the garage
chuyen v WH

V tr - - - - - - - - la cho cua which car luc cha b chuyen v. Song song o
ong t phu will cung b chuyen v.

Qua phan tch, ngi ta co the tien gia nh: co en hai bnh dien cau truc cu
phap: Mot la cau truc be mat lien quan, hai la them mot bnh dien cau truc tru
tng (Chomsky goi la cau truc sau (deep structure) (D-Structure, Base
Structure, Underlying Structure)). Ngay trng hp nay, Underlying Structure co
lien quan en cau truc be mat trong qua trnh dung quy tac bien hnh (cu the:
chuyen v-wh ).
o la y ngha cua phep bien hnh. Tiep theo, th xem lai cac quy tac X-gach
(Carnie 2000).

Ly thuyet X-gach nguyen thuy a da tren nen tang ng phap tieng Anh. Cac
quy tac ng phap tieng Anh co the c tom gon bang 3 quy tac chnh:


V ly do, cac quy tac tren hoac khong giai thch c cau truc cac ngon ng
khac, hoac ch tng phan, chung a c tong quat hoa:

275

Mac du a giai quyet xong khuc mac nay nhng van cha het van e. Chnh
tieng Anh cung co nhng cau truc khong thoa cac quy tac tong quat va neu,
ien hnh la trng hp menh e phu va cau co th:


e giai thch cac trng hp tren, gii ngon ng tao sinh a a ra them 2 loai
ng oan mi: ng oan tac t bo ng hoa (complementizer phrase) CP va
ng oan th (tense phrase) TP. The S bang CP, c:

(37) Ng oan tac t bo ng hoa: CP C

C (C) S
The S bang TP, ta c:

(38) Ng oan th: TP NP T
T T VP
Cuoi cung, cach giai thch ay cung da vao tnh chuyen v. Mot v du:

C
C S
CP
NP T VP

(39)

Ngon ng trung trung iep iep. Chung ta tha biet, khong phai ngon ng nao
cung giong tieng Anh, ke ca cac trong noi bo ngon ng Tay phng (Phap, Y,
Tay Ban Nha, Bo ao Nha, ...). Tuy nhieu ngon ng Au chau co dang can ban
Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), song khong phai bao gi cung tuyet oi the. Tieng
c la mot v du:
276

(40) Sie mag Rosen sehr gern.
Subject verb Object (adv)
Co ta thch hoa hong lam
(41) Rosen mag sie sehr gern.
Object verb Subject (adv)
Hoa hong thch co ta lam
(Cau nay co cau truc Object-Verb-Subject (OVS) )

Cac ngon ng A chau nh tieng Trung Hoa, Nhat, ... lai cang khong giong tieng
Au chau.

Tieng Tho Nh Ky:

(42) [Can] [kitab-i] [oku-du].
(I) (eat) (often) (of. the) (apples)
(46) Toi hay an tao.
Ngay v du nay, ta thay trang t souvent cua tieng Phap nam gia ong t
mange (an) va pommes (tao), trong khi o tieng Anh khong phai vay va
tieng Viet cung khong.
Noi ngan gon, cau truc tng ngon ng co the giong ma cung co the khac nhau.
ien hnh la hnh thc cau hoi cua tieng Viet giong nh cau hoi hoi ngon cua
tieng Anh song nhng t nghi van wh cua tieng Viet khong b chuyen v nh
cau hoi-wh cua tieng Anh.
Subject Object verb
(Can (a) oc cuon sach)

Tieng Nhat:

(43) [Phong-ga] [Hung-o] [mita].
Subject Object verb
(Phong (a) thay Hung)

Cau truc vi th t SVO khong dung c cho nhng ngon ng ke tren. Ngay
tieng Phap mac du mang cau truc SVO nhng khong phai la khong co van e:

(44) Je mange souvent des pommes.
(45) I often eat apples.

277

S bien hnh t cau truc sau sang cau truc be mat c gii ngon ng tao sinh
giai thch qua mo hnh di ay:

Phan tnh

Quy tac X-gach
(X-bar rules)

Cau truc D
(D-structure)
(b chuan tac theta han che)

Quy tac bien hnh
(transformation rules)

Cau truc S
(S-Structure)
(b nguyen tac chieu m rong EPP
han che)

T vng
(vai tro theta)
phan c
ban

Phan t vng va phan quy tac X-gach c coi nh phan c ban. Hai phan nay
gi nhiem vu tao sinh cay cu phap. Ket qua au tien la cau truc D (D-
structure) hoac cau truc sau (deep structure). Theo Chomsky, cau truc nay
mieu ta ng ngha nguyen thuy va co gia tr chung cho moi ngon ng. S kien
moi ngon ng co cach noi khac nhau co the giai thch c bang quy tac bien
hnh. Da vao quy tac bien hnh, th t cua t trong cau truc D se c chuyen
v sao cho thch hp vi ng phap cua ngon ng ay trong thc te. Ket qua nay la
cau truc S (S-structure), cau truc be mat (surface structure) sau khi a c
gan loc bang nguyen tac chieu m rong EPP.

o la nguyen tac, sau ay chung ta i sau vao quy tac bien hnh.

Quy tac bien hnh co hai loai: quy tac chuyen v (movement rules) va quy tac
long (insertion rules). Quy tac chuyen v co nhiem vu chuyen v tr t trong cau.
278

Quy tac long them nhng t mi vao cau. Xin lu y, quy tac long ay khong
hoan toan ong ngha vi quy tac long chng trc (se c giai thch sau).

Trc nhat, hay xem mot loai quy tac chuyen v tam goi la chuyen v au ti
au (head-to-head movement).

CHUYEN V AU TI AU

(I) (eat) (often) (of the) (apples)

Y ngha cua loai quy tac bien hnh nay la chuyen v tr cua au ng oan nay
sang v tr cua au ng oan khac. Co hai trng hp: chuyen v ong t va
chuyen v th.

1. Cboycn v| dong to V (V T)
Dung lai v du cau tieng Phap ben tren:

(48) Je mange souvent des pommes.

Gii ngon ng hoc Tay phng cho ay la hien tng mot phu ng xuat hien
gia au ng oan ong t VP va bo ng. Mange la ong t, des pommes la
bo ng, ng gia o la phu ng souvent. Trng hp nay khac trng hp
phu ngha ben trai ong t trong tieng Anh, v du often:
(49) I often eat apples.

Ngi Viet cung co the noi tng t: toi hay an tao, co ta hay an tao, no
hay an tao, v.v..

Theo nguyen tac X-gach, cau tren co cay cu phap:

279

V
AvdP V
CP
I often eat apples
V NP
NP T
T VP
C TP
C

(50)

Hay e y, cau truc nay co mot au ng oan T ng gia NP va trang t (often).
Nut T la cho danh rieng cho ong t phu, nhng ay khong dung ti. Bang ben
di cho thay tng v tr t trong trng hp khong dung ong t phu va trng
hp dung en:

1 2 3 4 5
I often eat apples
Je mange souvent des pommes
I have often eaten apples
Je ai souvent mange des pommes

Muon cay cu phap tren cung dung c cho tieng Phap, bat buoc phai thanh lap
mot quy tac mi. Quy tac nay co cong dung chuyen ong t mange ra khoi
ng oan VP va a no vao v tr T. o la y ngha cua quy tac bien hnh V T
(tc verb raising, tam goi la len cap ong t). nh ngha:

Quy tac len cap ong t (verb raising) V T la quy tac a au ong
t V len au th T.
280

Cau truc D cua cau Je mange souvent des pommes co hnh dang:

V
AvdP V
CP
Je souvent mange des pommes
V NP
NP T
T VP
C TP
C

(51)

Chuyen v ong t mange len v tr T, cau truc D se oi thanh cau truc S:

V
AvdP V
CP
Je souvent mange des pommes
V NP
NP T
T VP
C TP
C

(52)

281

Can e y, cau truc D khong phai la cau ung ng phap cua tieng Phap ma la cua
tieng Anh (hoac tieng Viet). No phai sinh ra cau truc S ung vi cau tieng Phap
trong thc te:

(53)

Je mange
i
souvent t
i
des pommes.
Trong cau truc tren, t
i
c coi nh mot dau vet (trace) nam v tr ong t cua
cau truc D. Ca tieng Anh cung can yeu to nay khi muon giai thch hnh v ong
t ngoi ba so t. ien hnh la trng hp them s sau ong t:

(54) She often eats apples.

-s V
AvdP V
CP
She often eat apples
V NP
NP T
T VP
C TP
C

(55)

Ngay ay, ta can mot ong tac chuyen v t tren xuong di: T V. Tam goi la
hnh thc xuong cap ong t (verb lowering).

o la trng hp cau xac nh, ke tiep, th xem trng hp cau phu nh.

Lap bang giong nh tren, ta co:

282

1 2 3 4 5
I do not eat apples
Je ne-mange pas des pommes
I have not eaten apples
Je nai pas mange des pommes

Trc het, tam thi ng e y en hnh v ne trong tieng Phap ma hay tap
trung vao nhng v tr phu nh pas, not. Ta thay trng hp nay na na nh
cau co trang t. Tat ca cac ong t phu cua tieng Anh va tieng Phap eu ng
trc v tr phu nh. Hay quan sat s chuyen v xung quanh ong t trong cay cu
phap di ay.

(56)

Gia s not la au ng oan cua mot phep chieu ac biet, tam goi la phep
chieu phu nh (negation projection), ky hieu la NegP (Pollock 1989). Phep
chieu nay lam bo ng cho ng oan th TP va chi phoi ng oan ong t VP.

V
Neg VP
CP
Je pas t
i
des pommes
V NP
NP T
T NegP
C TP
C
Neg

283

Mui ten trong cay ch hng chuyen v ong t xoay quanh pas. Bang cach
nay, ngi ta co the giai thch c nhieu ngon ng, the nhng khong phai la tat
ca. Xem them mot ngon ng khac, chang han tieng c:

(57) Sie it die pfel.
(She) (eats) (apples)

She eats apples.
Co ta an tao.

Trong trng hp cau ch co ong t chnh, cau truc cau tieng c se giong
tieng Anh (hoac tieng Viet ngay v du nay). It xuat phat t ong t nguyen
mau essen, c chia cho ai danh t nhan vat ngoi 3 so t. Essen la mot
ong t bat quy tac. Neu trong cau co ong t phu, ong t chnh se khong nam
sau ong t phu ma nam cuoi cau. V du ngay nay: ong t phu = hat, ong
t chnh = gegessen.

(58) Sie hat die pfel gegessen.
(She) (has) (apples) (eaten)
She has eaten apples.

Cau truc nay khac tieng Anh hoac tieng Viet:

V
CP
Sie hat die pfel gegessen
NP V
NP T
T VP
C TP
C

(59)

284

mot loai th qua kh nh tren, T khong can s tr giup cua ong t chnh,
nhng trng hp khac, chang han th hien tai, th lai can. Trng hp nay co
the giai thch c nh thao tac chuyen v:

2. Cboycn v| tb T (T C)

V
CP
Sie it die pfel t
NP V
NP T
T VP
C TP
C

(60)

Tom lai, chuyen v ong t la hnh thc chuyen v tr ong t oi vi v tr cua
th T. Co luc chuyen len bang quy tac len cap ong t: V T, co luc chuyen
xuong bang quy tac xuong cap ong t T V.

chng trc, chung ta a biet qua loai cau hoi co/khong (yes/no question) cua
nhng ngon ng cha cau truc nghch ao chu ng/ong t phu (subject/aux
inversion)
1)
(tieng Anh, tieng c, tieng Phap). V du:

Cau xac nh:

(61) The sons looked for the treasure.
(62) Their father had died.

1)
Thuat ng subject/aux inversion, theo y chung toi, co ve hi han hep. Dung subject/verb
inversion co le tong quat hn. Bi v trong tieng c, co nhng trng hp nghch ao ma khong
nhat thiet phai la ong t phu.
285

(63) Die Kinder wollte die Erbe.
(64) Der Vater ist gestorben.

Cau hoi:

(65) Did the sons look for the treasure ?
(66) Had their father died ?
(67) Wollten die Kinder die Erbe ?
(68) Ist der Vater gestorben ?

Muon bien cau tra li tr thanh cau hoi, nhng ngon ng nghch ao hoac phai
them ong t phu au cau (trng hp tieng Anh) hoac cung co the chuyen v
ong t chnh len au cau (trng hp tieng c). ay la cach chuyen v th T
(T movement) ti au mot tac t bo ng hoa C: T C.

(69)

Cay cu phap cau xac nh:

C
C S
CP
NP T VP

Cay cu phap cau hoi yes/no (ja/nein):

C
C S
CP
NP (T) VP
Ist der Vater gestorben

(70)

286

nh bien thanh cau hoi. Viec giai thch cau truc cau hoi tng oi de dang.
Trong cau truc cau hoi, v tr T trong. ieu nay chap nhan c, bi T la mot la
chon, khong bat buoc phai co.

(71) The sons looked for the treasure but had their father died ?

Khong giong nh tieng Viet, tieng Ba Lan, Irish, ... khi lap cau hoi, ngi ta ch
can them mot t ac biet nh cha, phai khong, Czy, An, v.v., tieng
Anh, tieng c can gan them tnh chat cau hoi [+Q]
2)
vao v tr tac t bo ng hoa
C. Trong trng hp cau xac nh, C co tr zero, tc mot tac t bo ng hoa trong
[-Q]
. V du:

C
C S
CP
their father had died
NP T VP
C
C S
CP
the sons looked for the treasure
NP (T) VP

[-Q]
[+Q]
CP
Conj
but

Cung mot cau truc C C S, tac t bo ng hoa C va mang tnh chat cua mot
cau xac nh [-Q], va mang tnh chat cua mot cau hoi [+Q]. phan ben trai cua
cay, C co tr trong
[-Q]
, trong khi o phan ben phai cha C co tr trong
[+Q]
.
Neu chuyen v had vao v tr C, menh e their father had died se tr thanh
cau hoi: had their father died ?.

Tu trung, nhng ngon ng co cau truc nghch ao chu ng/ong t phu eu can
quy tac chuyen v au ti au. Ngay trng hp nay, ta co phep chuyen v t au
T ti au C (T C). Can lu y, oi vi cau hoi, trong tieng Anh, ch co ong t
phu mi chiem cho au ng oan T. ong t chnh khong c. Noi cach khac
la ch co ong t phu mi ap dung c quy tac chuyen v T C, trong khi o,

2)
Q viet tat cua Question. +Q co ngha co tnh chat cau hoi, ngc lai la Q.
287

v du nh tieng c, ong t chnh lai can quy tac chuyen v T C. Khi at cau
hoi, neu trong cau khong co ong t phu, ong t chnh phai c chuyen len
au cau:

Cau xac nh:

(72) Sie essen die pfel. (tieng c)
(73) They eat the apples. (tieng Anh)
(74) Ho an tao.

Cau hoi:

(75) Essen sie die pfel ? (tieng c)
(76) * Eat they the apples ? (tieng Anh)
(77) Ho an tao a ?
ong t chnh essen (an) cua tieng c trong cau xac nh c ao nghch e
bien thanh cau hoi. Tieng Anh khong noi c ma phai can ong t phu do.
e thc hien phep bien hnh, tieng c phai chuyen v hai lan. Trc nhat
chuyen dau vet t
i
vao v tr T (tc V T) va sau o vao v tr C (tc T C) :

t
i
t
NP
V
CP
Essen sie die pfel
V NP
[+Q]
+T NP T
T VP
C TP
C
t
i
2
1

(78)

288

QUY TAC LONG

(81) Thang be lam bai tap nha.

(85)

Hnh thc bien hnh chuyen v au ti au co the giai thch nhieu ngon ng.
Ngoai hnh thc nay con co quy tac long (insertion rules). Xin lu y, quy tac long
ay khac vi quy tac long bnh thng. Y ngha quy tac long bnh thng la
long tng t cho ung v tr nut tan cung (terminal node) trong cay cu phap. Quy
tac long ay co ngha la long them mot phan t t, v du phan t ong t phu
do trong cau hoi tieng Anh.

the xac nh, ong t do la mot ong t chnh (main verb) bnh thng:

(79) The boy does the homework. (tieng Anh)
(80) Der Junge macht die Hausaufgabe. (tieng c)

Khi hoi, ngi c se at ong t macht (lam) (nguyen mau: machen)
au cau; tieng Anh khong c:

(82) Macht der Junge die Hausaufgabe ? (tieng c)
(83) * Does the boy the homework ? (tieng Anh)

Cau hoi tieng Anh can long them ong t phu do (do chia thanh does cho
nhan vat ngoi ba, so t the boy):

(84) Does the boy do the homework ? (tieng Anh)

Giong trng hp dung ong t phu have cho th qua kh, trong cau Had their
father died ? ben tren, ong t do c coi nh mot h t (dummy word) hao
hao nh have va c long vao v tr C:

C
C S
CP
Does the boy do the homework
NP (T) VP

289

Neu khong xet en hnh v ong t, th chuoi t [the boy do the homework] trong
cay cu phap tng ng vi cau xac nh trong tieng Viet Thang be lam bai
tap nha. So vi cau hoi tieng Anh Does the boy do the homework, co le cau
hoi sau ay cua tieng Viet:

(86) Co phai thang be lam bai tap nha khong ?

gan giong nhat. ay, co phai na na nh does. Ch co khac la trong cau hoi
tren cua tieng Viet con co them khong cuoi cau. Ngoai ra, tieng Viet con co
nhieu cach hoi khac nhau:

(87) Thang be co lam bai tap nha khong ?
(88) Thang be co lam bai tap nha hay khong ?
(89) Thang be lam bai tap nha phai khong ?
(90) Thang be lam bai tap nha, ch g ?
(91) Thang be lam bai tap nha a ?
(92) Thang be lam bai tap nha ?
(93) Thang be lam bai tap nha ha ?
(94) Thang be lam bai tap nha h ?

... v.v.

S lc ve quy tac long la vay. Nay chung ta se xem tiep mot loai bien hnh
khac: chuyen v NP (NP movement).

Chuyen v NP la mot loai chuyen oi v tr cua ng oan danh t NP va biet nh
ng CP (hay xem nh NP cho gon).

CHUYEN V NP

Khong giong nh loai chuyen v au ti au, chuyen v NP khong nham muc
ch chuyen oi th t cua t sao cho thch hp vi cac quy tac cau truc ng
oan ma la nham giai quyet trng hp mot ng oan danh t NP nam v tr
khong thch hp oi vi vai tro theta, ngha la mot ng oan danh t NP khong
thoa chu e (theme). Th xem mot v du vi ong t sing cua tieng Anh.
ong t sing can mot tham so bat buoc, o la tac nhan (actor, agent), tc
ngi gay ra hanh ong sing (hat).
290

(95) Mary sings.
(96) Mary sings a song.

Vai tro tac nhan phai nam trong menh e cha sing (nam ngoai la sai ng
phap):

(97) * I want Mary [that sings].

Nguyen tac vai tro theta han che noi rang, mot tham so nhan mot vai tro theta t
v t (predicate) bat buoc phai co tnh cuc bo oi vi v t, ngha la phai nam gan
v t o. Noi ro hn:

)
Mot cau khac:

ieu kien ve tnh cuc bo (locality condition oi vi vai tro theta: Vai
tro theta phai c at trong cung mot menh e nh v t.

V du mot cau ung ng phap tieng Anh:

(98) I want [that Mary sings].

(99) Mary is likely [to sing].

Cau nay noi c. Mary la tac nhan cua sing nhng lai nam trong menh e
chnh thay v phai nam trong menh e [to sing] cho gan v t. So sanh cau truc
tren vi hai cau truc:

(100) It is likely [that Mary sings].
(101) [That Mary sings] is likely.
ta thay, menh e [that Mary sings] la mot bieu e (proposition) (tam dch) dien
ta s viec Mary gay ra hanh ong. Trng hp nay khac vi trng hp Mary is
likely, o, Mary khong nhan bat c vai tro theta nao cua is likely. Trng
hp nay khong thoa ieu kien tnh cuc bo oi vi vai tro theta va noi. Do o
cong viec phai lam trc khi bien hnh cau truc ng phap la phai xac nh vai tro
theta. Cau truc D cua cau Mary is likely [to sing] trong giong cay cu phap di
ay:

291

(102)
V
CP
Mary to sing
C TP
T
T VP
C TP
C
NP T
T VP
V
V
V CP
C bieu e
tac nhan

Sau khi a lap xong mot ng oan danh t NP ngay v tr chu ng cua menh e
long (ang gi vai tro tac nhan), cong viec ke tiep la a no ve dang cau truc be
mat. e thc hien viec nay, can co mot phep bien hnh co kha nang chuyen v
ng oan danh t NP (Mary) len bnh dien biet nh ng cua menh e chnh.
Phep bien hnh nay la phep chuyen v NP (NP movement). ay la hnh thc
chuyen v len cap NP, tc NP se c chuyen t v tr thap len v tr cao hn.
Nhan t
i
trong cau truc D la dau vet e lai:

292

(104) * Mary th dng nh [e hat].
Cung mot ng ngha, ngi Viet co the noi ai khai:

(103)
CP
V
Mary to sing
C TP
NP T
T VP
C TP
C
t
i
T
T VP
V
V
V CP
C
chuyen v NP

Hnh thc chuyen v NP mot cau tieng Anh kha rac roi. Cau Mary is likely to
sing khong the dch sat ngha qua tieng Viet:

(105) Dng nh Mary muon hat.

Nguyen cau la ca mot menh e va dng nh ong vai trang t. n gian la
vay ch khong can kieu long bo the it nh It is likely [that Mary sings] hoac
[e hat] g ca.

293

Chuyen v NP la mot hnh thc lam ro vai tro theta (tac nhan, thu nhan, ...) trong
mot cau tng chng sai ng phap. nhieu ngon ng, ngi ta thng dung
cach (case) e phan biet vai tro theta:

Danh cach (nominative) ong vai chu ng.
oi cach (accusative) ong vai bo ng trc tiep.
Tang cach (dative) ong vai bo ng gian tiep.

Hnh v t co the dien ta cach. Cach mo ta moi quan he ng phap cua cac oi
tng ang gi tng vai tro trong cau. Chang han trong tieng Nhat, ngi ta anh
dau ga cho danh cach, -o cho oi cach, -ni cho tang cach:

(106) Hanakata-ga ronbun-o kai-ta.
(Hanakata) (e tai) (a viet)
(danh cach) (oi cach)
(107) Hanakata-ga heya-ni haitte-kita.
(Hanakata) (phong) (a i vao)

Tieng c con co them:
(danh cach) (tang cach)

Cach trong tieng Anh khong c anh dau nh trong tieng Nhat ma ch dang
ai danh t (khong ke cau hoi):

Danh cach: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
oi cach: me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
Tieng c tng t:
Danh cach: ich, du, er, sie, es, wir, ihr, sie
oi cach: mich, dich, ihn, sie, es, uns, euch, sie

Tang cach: mir, dir, ihm, ihr, ihm, uns, euch, ihnen

Cach cua tieng c khong nhng ch c bieu th xuyen qua ai danh t ma
con qua mao t, danh t, tnh t, s hu t, gii t, ... rat phc tap. Tieng c la
mot ngon ng giau hnh v. Trai lai, co ngon ng ngheo hnh v, tieng Anh chang
han. Tat nhien cung co ngon ng khong co hnh v.

294

Khong at nang ve hnh v, cac nha ngon ng e y en cach tru tng
(abstract case) cua nhng ng oan danh t NP. Theo Chomsky (1981), mot ng
oan danh t NP co the mang tnh chat cua mot trong nhng cach tru tng sau
ay:

Danh cach (nominative, viet tat NOM ): Cach nay dien ta mot biet nh ng
cua th T hu han (finite T).
oi cach (accusative, viet tat ACC): Cach nay la ch em cua mot ong t
xuyen tnh.
Tang cach (dative, viet tat DAT): Cach nay gan vi mot gii t.

Viec au tien phai lam trc khi chuyen v mot ng oan danh t NP la loc la
cach. Nguyen tac:

Loc cach (Case Filter): Tat ca ng oan danh t NP eu phai c ghi
chu bang mot dau hieu ch cach (case). Con khong, khong the phai sinh.

Mot v du tieng Anh:

(108) She

feminine
3
rd
person
singular
nominative

Ma tran tren cha cac tnh chat cua she. ac biet, she la mot ai danh t ch
c dung cho danh cach. Nguyen tac loc cach ch cho phep mot danh cach i
vi mot ong t dang danh cach tng ng, v du is. Ngoai ra, nh a biet,
danh cach dien ta mot biet nh ng cua th T hu han (finite T), va loc cach co
nhiem vu kiem tra ac tnh nay. V du trong cay cu phap di ay, she va is
c ghi chu bang dau hieu [NOM] (nominative):

NP T
T ...
TP
[NOM]
[NOM]
He is
kiem tra

(109)

295

Trng hp oi cach tng t:
(110) Him

[ACC] [ACC]

(114) * It is likely Mary to sing.

masculine
3
rd
person
singular
accusative
(111) Mary loves him.

V
V NP
VP
[ACC] [ACC]
loves him
kiem tra

Cay cu phap cho thay oi cach ton tai trong trng hp mot ng oan danh t
NP ong vai ch em cua ong t V. Him la ch em cua loves.
Xem lai cac cau v du cua tieng Anh cha menh e vi th T hu han:

(112) It is likely [that Mary sings].
(113) [That Mary sings] is likely.

ta thay cac ng oan danh t NP eu la danh cach va la biet nh ng, trong khi
o, th phi han T (non-finite T), ngha la cha to, nh:

(115) * Mary to sing is likely.
khong cha tnh danh cach [NOM]. Nguyen tac loc cach b ton thng la s cat
ngha, tai sao cau khong noi c. Nhng cau di ay lai noi c:

(116) Mary is likely to sing.
296

Trong cau nay, menh e chnh cha T hu han. Ng oan danh t NP Mary se
c chuyen ti v tr biet nh ng e nhan vai tro danh cach:

Ngoai trng hp cau chu ong (active) va neu, ca trng hp cau b ong
(passive) cung giai thch c (co the xem chi tiet phan Generalization cua
Burzio (1986)). Ngoai ra cung can lu y, cach nhan xet nh tren ve tang cach ch
tng oi ung. Khong nh tieng Anh, tang cach trong tieng c khong bat buoc
phai i vi gii t.
(118) Ich habe das Buch von Dir bekommen.
V
Mary is to sing
C TP
Danh cach NP T
T VP
TP
phi cach (non-Case) t
i

T VP
V
V
V CP
C
chuyen v NP
[NOM]
[NOM]

(117)

Quan sat ky, ta se thay, t mot v tr khong co cach (phi cach), mot ng oan
danh t NP co the c chuyen v len v tr co cach. Mac du v tr ay khong co
cach nhng van cha vai tro theta.

Cau co tang cach i sau gii t:

(Toi) (a) (cuon sach) (t/cua) (anh) ((a) nhan)
[ACC] [prep] [DAT]

297

Cau co tang cach khong co gii t:
(120) Ich lese das Buch.

[ACC] [NOM]

(119) Gib mir das Buch.
(a) (toi) (cuon sach)
[DAT]

V tr cach tru tng cua tieng Anh thng theo th t t trai sang phai: danh
cach + oi cach. Tieng c, tieng Viet tng t, song cung co trng hp ao
nghch: oi cach + danh cach.

(Toi) (oc) (cuon sach)
[NOM] [ACC]

(121) Toi oc cuon sach.
[NOM] [ACC]

Cung noi dung ay, ngi c co the noi:

(122) Dieses Buch habe ich schon gelesen.
(cuon sach nay) (a) (toi) (roi) ((a)oc)
[ACC] [NOM]
Ngi Viet cung thng hay noi:

(123) Cuon sach nay toi a oc roi.

cach noi tren, cuon sach nayc hieu la ang ong vai chu e. Th so
sanh hai cau tieng Anh va tieng Viet:
(124) I read the book.
(125) Toi oc cuon sach.
The book va cuon sach la cai ang c noi en, tc chu e (theme). Neu
nh ngi Viet noi Toi oc cuon sach, th ay la mot cach dien ta rat bnh
thng, ngha la mot nhan vat ang lam g o. Cach lap cau nay khong khac vi
cac ngon ng khac. Song khi noi Cuon sach nay, toi a oc roi th co ngha
chu e cuon sach nay i trc roi se c dien giai, bo sung sau, v du:
298

(126)

Mot v du tng t:
(129) Ich mag diese Musik nicht so sehr.

(nhac nay) (thch) (toi) (khong) (lam)

toi mua ngoai ch.
toi a oc roi.
toi thay khong hay lam.
anh ng nen oc.
Cuon sach nay
Chu e Dien giai

Cau truc e dien (chu e dien giai, theme rheme
3)
) la mot cau truc ngon ng
ma ngi Viet thng dung.

Cach noi vi thanh to c at pha trc cung thng thay trong tieng c. o
cung la mot hnh thc nhan manh:

(127) Von ihm will ich nicht mehr hren.
(t) (han) (muon) (toi) (khong) (na) (nghe)

Hieu theo tieng Viet ai e la toi khong muon nghe noi g ve han na. Cum
ch von ihm nhan manh nhan vat han. Ngay ay, von ihm khong phai la
ng oan danh t NP ma la mot ng oan gii t PP (co quan he le thuoc vi
ong t hren). Cau khong ao nghch co dang:

(128) Ich will nicht mehr von ihm hren.

(toi) (thch) (nhac nay) (khong) (lam)
Hieu theo tieng Viet la Toi khong thch nhac nay lam. Thay v noi xuoi, ngi
c cung thng noi ngc bang cach ay cum t Diese Musik len pha trc:
(130) Diese Musik mag ich nicht so sehr.

Cau tren co trat t na na nh ngi Viet thng noi:

(131) Nhac nay toi khong thch lam.

3)
cach goi cua Halliday1994. Goi interpretation (dien giai) co le tong quat hn.
299

Diese Musik va nhac nay la hai ng oan danh t NP tng ng va la
danh cach nam au cau. Cach lap cau va lam ro tnh chat chu e va cho
thay cau truc e dien vi

(134) Nhac nay th toi khong thch lam.

(cai nha ma) (toi ...)
phan e la Diese Musik va nhac nay,
phan dien la mag ich nicht so sehr, toi khong thch lam

Gia s o la cach e dien trong tieng c, th ranh gii gia hai phan co the
nhan dien c nh v tr ong t. ong t ng sau chu ng trong mot cau xuoi
se c a len pha trc chu ng trong cau ao:

Cau xuoi:

(132) Ich mag diese Musik nicht so sehr.
(chu ng) (ong t) (bo ng)

Cau ao:

(133) Diese Musik mag ich nicht so sehr.
(bo ng) (ong t) (chu ng)
(phan e) (-------------- phan dien ----------------)
Bnh thng trong cau truc e dien cua tieng Viet, ngi ta thng dung th,
la, ma e phan ranh gia phan e va phan dien:

(phan e) (-------- phan dien ---------)
Khong dung th, cau noi co ve gon gang, van ve hn, song bien gii gia phan
e va phan dien se tr nen lu m, hoac co khi con dan en hien tng a ngha
ngoai y muon:
(135) Nha toi khong c sach lam.
Neu hieu nha toi theo tinh than cai nha ma toi :
300

th khong sao, nhng hieu nha toi nh ong/ba xa toi th hi nguy. Do o,
muon bo th, la, ma, thiet ngh cung nen them cai dau phay vao cho chac.
Co hai trng hp:
(137) Nha, toi khong c sach lam.
Xet cho cung, dau phay cung khong phai la mot giai phap tuyet oi. Viet con
phay c, noi th khong the. Cau truc m ho thng la mot tr ngai ln trong
cong oan phan tch cu phap cua he nhan dien ngon ng ma chac han ngi
nghien cu ngon ng nao cung a tng gap phai. D nhien con nhieu van e
khac, nhng theo kinh nghiem chung, may khong the nhan dien tieng Viet de
dang nh tieng Anh, c cung bi v cau truc tieng Viet kha a dang va hay
cha nhng trng hp khong sac ben hoac cha nhieu yeu to/thanh to zero.

Nh a biet, trong cac ngon ng nghch ao (Anh, Phap, c, ...), cau truc cau
xac nh ngc han cau hoi. Gii ngon ng tao sinh giai thch iem nay bang
sang kien chuyen v-wh. Chuyen v-wh chang qua la mot trong nhng hnh thc
cua quy tac bien hnh. Cau hoi co/khong la mot trng hp tieu bieu.

V du ng vi mot cau xac nh cua tieng Anh, tieng c:
(139) Kieu had died.
(140) Kieu ist gestorben.
(Kieu a chet)

Th cau hoi se la:

(141) Had Kieu died ?
(142) Ist Kieu gestorben ?


CHUYEN V - WH

Cay cu phap cau xac nh:
301

(143)

Cay cu phap cau hoi yes/no (ja/nein):

nh bien thanh cau hoi.
Tng t cau hoi co/khong, cac loai cau hoi khac cung co cau truc ngc vi
cau xac nh. Cu the, vi what, who, where, ... (tieng Anh), was, wer,
wo, ... (tieng c):
C
C S
CP
Kieu had died
NP T VP
Kieu ist gestorben

C
C S
CP
Had Kieu died
NP (T) VP
Ist Kieu gestorben

(144)

(145) Who was Nguyen Du ?
(146) Wer war Nguyen Du ?
(147) Nguyen Du la ai ?

Giong cau hoi co/khong, loai cau hoi wh, cau truc cau nghi van cua tieng Viet
cung khong ngc vi cau truc cau xac nh. Neu thay the ai bang mot gia tr
302

hu ly, v du nh mot ai thi hao, ta se c cau tra li. Cau truc van gi
nguyen. ay la trng hp cau hoi hoi ngon ma tieng Anh cung co.

Cau hoi hoi ngon thng ch theo sau mot cau va c noi ra bang cach s
dung lai cau truc cua cau noi ra ay. Co trng hp cau hoi hoi ngon i t mot
cau xac nh hoac menh lenh:

(148) A: I bought a car.
(149) B: You bought a car ?
(150) A: Dont touch my hand.
(151) B: Dont touch your what ?

co trng hp cau hoi hoi ngon i t mot cau hoi:

(152) A: Did you buy a house ?

theo tinh than ngi Viet khi hoi:

(153) B: Did I what ?
nhng cung co trng hp, ngi Anh khong the oi mot cau hoi hoi ngon thanh
cau tra li bang cach a mot gia tr xac nh vao v tr nghi van-wh. V du
khong the the whom trong cau nghi van:

(154) Whom did Kieu love ?

bang Kim Trong e c cau xac nh:

(155) *Kim Trong did Kieu love.
(156) Kieu thng ai ?
va c tra li la:
o la trng hp hoi ngon, nhng neu la mot cau hoi-wh thc s, ngha la t
nghi van-wh nam au cau, th cau hoi cua tieng Anh, t nghi van whom lai
nam xalove, hoac tieng c, wen lai nam trc liebte (Wen liebte Kieu
?).
303

Muon c mot cau xac nh co ngha tng ng vi cau truc khong b oi nh
tieng Viet, ngi Anh, ngi c khong the the whom, wen bang Kim
Trong mot cach de dang:

(159) Kim Trong liebte Kieu.

(163)

(158) * Kim Trong did Kieu love.
(160) Kieu a thng Kim Trong.
Ta thay, cau tieng Viet noi c, cau tieng Anh khong noi c, con cau tieng
c lai co ngha khac hoan toan: Kim Trong a thng Kieu ch khong phai
Kieu a thng Kim Trong. Muon ung, bat buoc phai ao ngc cau truc cau
tieng Anh va tieng c.
(161) Kieu loved Kim Trong.
(162) Kieu liebte Kim Trong.

Trong cau tra li, Kim Trong la oi cach. Xin nhac lai, oi cach ch ton tai
cau truc mot ng oan danh t NP la ch em cua mot ong t V:

V
V NP
VP
[ACC] [ACC]
loved Kim Trong
liebte Kim Trong

Nhng cau hoi-wh, oi cach cua tieng Anh va tieng tieng c khong phai la
ch em cua ong t V, noi cach khac la khong nam ung v tr vai tro theta va
tham ch cung khong co cach (case) g ca. Th nhn cau truc sau (cau truc D), tc
cau tra li, di ay:

304

e a cau truc D ve cau truc S, tieng Anh va tieng c phai chuyen v
whom, wen len nut biet nh ng CP. Khong nhng vay, ong t phu dien ta
th did cung c chuyen i. Tieng Anh chuyen c nhng tieng c th
khong v khong co ong t phu trong trng hp nay. Tieng Viet van gi mot
cau truc tnh khong thay oi: cau truc D va S giong nhau.
(166) * Nguyen Du knew [whom has Kieu loved] ?
Dch y het noi dung cau nay sang tieng c, ta co:
CP
V
Kieu did love whom
Kieu liebte wen
Kieu a thng ai
NP T
T VP
C TP
C
V NP
(164)

ay, tieng Anh con b mot iem lan can na la cau hoi cua menh e long
(embedded clause) khong c phep chuyen v. o la trng hp [whom Kieu
has loved] cua cau sau:

(165) Nguyen Du knew [whom Kieu has loved] ?

(167) Nguyen Du wusste [wen Kieu geliebt hat].

Neu cau hoi la menh e chnh, no se co dang:

(168) Wen hat Kieu geliebt ?
(169) Kieu a yeu ai ?

305

Chung ta se nhan ra ngay, neu cau hoi tieng c la mot menh e long, th ong
t phu se nhay xuong cuoi cau. Cu the, ong t phu hat b xuong cap, ngc
vi ong tac len cap T C trong trng hp cau hoi la menh e chnh.

Mot ong t can co them ac iem WH e phan biet gia cau hoi co/khong va
cau hoi-wh.

(170) What are you reading ?

Cau truc D co hnh dang:
(171)

CP
V
You are reading what
NP T
T VP
C TP
C
V NP

[+Q, +WH]

Cau truc D cua cay cu phap dien ta, ay la cau hoi c anh dau bang [+Q] va
la loai tac t bo ng hoa C cha gia tr [+WH]. Trong cau hoi, you va what
nhan vai tro theta va cach. You la danh cach, what la oi cach. Qua trnh
chuyen v se trai qua hai bc, mot, chuyen v T C e ien vao tac t bo ng
hoa C mang dau hieu cau hoi [+Q], hai, ng dung chuyen v wh e cho biet ay
la loai cau hoi WH.

Chuyen v T C:

306

CP
V
You are reading what
NP T
T VP
C TP
C
V NP

[+Q, +WH]

(172)

Chuyen v wh:

CP
V
are you t reading what
NP T
T VP
C TP
C
V NP
[+Q, +WH]

(173)

Ben tren la trng hp cau chu ong. Sau ay la mot v du cau b ong:

(174) Who was fined ?

Cau truc D co dang:

307

(175)

Who ch la mot trong nhng tham so cua cau va ong vai nh mot bo ng cua
ong t. V dang b ong, no khong the nhan cach v tr nay ma phai c
chuyen len phan biet nh ng cua TP e c kiem tra danh cach o:

(176)

Sau khi kiem tra cach va neu nhan c danh cach, no se tiep tuc c chuyen
len biet nh ng cua CP e c kiem tra ac tnh WH. ong t phu chuyen v
vi quy tac T C va nhan ac tnh [+Q]:
CP
V
was fined who
[+NOM]
T
T VP
C TP
C
V NP

[+Q, +WH]
[NOM]

CP
V
was fined who
[+NOM]
T
T VP
C TP
C
V NP

[+Q, +WH]
[NOM]

308

(177)
CP
V
was fined who
[+WH, +NOM]
T
T VP
C TP
C
V NP

[+Q, +WH]
[NOM]
kiem tra ac tnh WH
kiem tra danh cach
1
2
3

Qua trnh chuyen v gom ba giai oan. Mot, chuyen v NP, hai, chuyen v T C,
va ba, chuyen v wh. Xin lu y, chuyen v wh ch chuyen nhng NP a c
kiem tra cach.

Ngoai nhng hnh thc chuyen v ke tren con co nhng hnh thc khac, v.d. nh
bien hnh cau truc Verb-Subject-Object (VSO) sang dang Subject-Verb-Object
(SVO), tieu bieu la tieng Irish, hoac chuyen v N D trong tieng Hebrew, Y
(Carnie 2000, Ritter 1988).

TOM LC
Quy tac bien hnh la mot quy tac ac trng cua hng ng phap tao sinh. Muc
ch cua quy tac bien hnh la nham giai thch cau truc ngon ng trong qua bien
hoa t nhan thc-nhan dien sang cach dien at thc te. Quy tac bien hnh bao
gom nhieu hnh thc chuyen v: chuyen v wh, chuyen v NP, chuyen v au ti
au (th, ong t), ...

Chuyen v wh la mot cach bien hnh tieu bieu danh cho cac cau hoi wh
thuoc nhom ngon ng nghch ao. nhng ngon ng nay, cau truc cau hoi
ngc vi cau truc cau xac nh.

309

trng hp khac, muon bien cau tra li tr thanh cau hoi, nhng ngon ng
nghch ao hoac phai them ong t phu au cau (trng hp tieng Anh) hoac
cung co the chuyen v ong t chnh len au cau (trng hp tieng c). o la
hnh thc chuyen v au ti au.

Chuyen v au ti au co hai trng hp: chuyen v ong t va chuyen v th.
Rieng trng hp chuyen v ong t, co luc ong t c chuyen len bang quy
tac len cap ong t: V T, co luc c chuyen xuong bang quy tac xuong cap
ong t T V.
Chuyen v NP la mot loai chuyen oi v tr cua ng oan danh t NP va biet nh
ng CP.

NHAN XET VA IEM M

Hnh thc cau hoi cua tieng Viet giong nh cau hoi hoi ngon. Nhng t nghi van
wh cua tieng Viet khong b chuyen v nh cau hoi-wh cua tieng Anh. Hay th
xem:
1) Cau truc nao trong tieng Viet co the ng dung c quy tac bien hnh ?
2) Quy tac bien hnh co ng dung c cho cac cau truc e dien khong ?
3) Cau truc cau hoi tieng Viet thng giong cau truc cau tra li, ngha la theo
nguyen tac tnh (tnh tien). Co trng hp nao co hai cau truc khac nhau
khong ?

310

FH tC

311

312
BANG OI CHIEU THUAT NG VIET - ANH

A
A-gach
syllable
speech sound
am v
variable

bieu thc dan ch
bo ng
cach case

A-bar
an khp matching
am tiet
am to
phoneme
am v hoc phonology
an so

B

bao gom involve
bang list
bang mau trung hp pattern maching list
bang d lieu database
bang t vng lexical bank
bat oi xng asymetric
bien hnh transform
bien so variable
bien the inflection
biet nh ng specifier
bieu at utterance
bieu thc expression
referring expression
bnh dien level
bnh dien trung gian intermediate level
b ong passive
bong chieu bnh dien gach bar-level projection
bong chieu X-gach X-bar projection
complement
bo the expletive

C

313
ANC DOl CHlL| 1H|A1 NC| VlL1 - ANH
cach tru tng abstract case
cam e
experiencer
cau
cau b ong
cleft sentence
cau che gia
active sentence
cau hoi co/ khong
echo question
nonecho question
cau truc be mat
cau truc Chu t-ong t-Tuc t (SVO)
(SVO)
Subject-Object-Verb structure
minimal syntax structure
substructure
cau truc sau
D-structure
chi phoi tan mc
function
chuan hnh
theta criterion
subject/theme sensitive
cam ng canh context sensitive
cam nhan
sentence
passive sentence
cau che
pseudo-cleft sentence
cau chu ong
yes/no question
cau hoi hoi ngon
cau hoi phi hoi ngon
surface structure
Subject-Verb-Object structure
cau truc Chu t-Tuc t-ong t (SOV)
(SOV)
cau truc cu phap syntax structure
cau truc cu phap toi thieu
cau truc phu
deep structure
cau truc-D
cau truc-S S-structure
cay tree
cay cu phap syntax tree
chan ly axiom
ch nh ng x. ng oan ch nh t
ch nh t determiner
ch so index
ch so phu coindex
chi phoi dominance, government
exhaustive domination
chi phoi trc tiep immediately dominate
chieu project
chnh quy regular
ch cai x. mau t
chc nang
well-formed
chuan tac theta
314

chu possessor
chu e
chu e dien giai
chu ng ng phap grammatical subject
chu ong
subject
logical subject
chu the ng phap
psychological subject
chuyen v
chuyen v-alpha alpha-movement
chuyen v len cap
head-to-head movement
chuyen v T (th T)
speech-community
syntax
cu phap hoc
danh ng
noun
danh t chung
formal noun
express
dien thc
theme
theme - rheme
chu ng subject
active
chu the
chu the logic
grammatical subject
chu the tam ly
chu t x. chu ng
move, movement
raising movement
chuyen v au ti au
T-movement
chuyen v-wh wh-movement
cong hien benefactive
cong ong tieng noi
cuc bo nghiem ngat strikt local
cum ky t group of characters
cu phap
syntax

D

danh cach nominative
x. ng oan danh t
danh t
common noun
danh t hnh thc
danh t rieng proper noun
dan ch refer
dau hieu symbol
dau vet trace
dien giai interpretation
dien at
expression
d lieu data
315
d lieu mau pattern
d lieu muon tm sample
dung cu instrument
dung nang ngon ng language performance
ng dung
pragmatic
dung phap hoc
head-to-head
ai danh t
relative pronoun
ieu kien ve tnh cuc bo
accusative
oi lap
object
oi tng chat lieu
oi xng
pragmatic
dung phap
pragmatics

a ngha ambiguous, ambiguity
a ngon ng multi-lingual
au head
au t vng lexical head
au ti au
pronoun
ai danh t ch th demontrative pronoun
ai danh t ho tng reciprocal pronoun
ai danh t nghi van interrogative pronoun
ai danh t nhan vat personal pronoun
ai danh t quan he
ai danh t s hu possessive pronoun
ai danh t tai quy reflexive pronoun
e dien Theme-Rheme
i trc precede
ieu kien condition
locality condition
oi cach
opposition
oi tng
material object
oi tng hnh thc formal object
oi v paradigmatic
symetric
ong ngha synonymous
ong ng x. ng oan ong t
ong t verb
ong t chnh main verb
ong t nguyen mau infinitive verb
316

ong t nh xuyen ditransitive verb
ong t phu auxiliary verb
n v cu phap syntax unit
n v t vng lexical item
gia thuyet
selectional restriction
x. ng oan gii t
H
han che cuc bo
paradigm
he nhan dien ngon ng
present
hnh thai hoc
formal
derivational morpheme
hoi quy
ng trc precede

G

hypothesis
giong tnh gender
giong voice
gii han chon la
gii han cua ngon ng delimitation of a language
gii han tieu pham tru hoa subcategorization restriction
gii ng
gii t preposition

locality constrain
ham chon la selecting function
ham ac tnh characteristic function
ham ac trng characteristic function
ham so function
hau to postfix
he chuyen gia expert system
he hnh
language recognizing system
he thong ky hieu system of symbols
hien tai
morphology
hnh thc
hnh thc lien t (dang lien t) subjunctive form
hnh t ideo-graph
hnh v morpheme
hnh v phai sinh
h t dummy word
recursive
hoan v permutation
317
hu han finite
hoa tr
channel
ket thuc
kho t vng
non-terminal
khung tieu pham tru hoa
control
ky hieu
character

len cap (giang cap) ong t
lenh-C
asymetric C-command
symetric C-command
fuzzy logic
logic v ng
loc cach
theta grid
lp ch nh t
verb class
equivalent class
Ly thuyet tieu chuan
valence

K

kenh
x. tan cung
khang nh maintain
vocabulary
khoa hoc nhan thc cognitive science
khong zero
khong tan cung
subcategorisation frame
kiem soat
symbol
ky t
L

le thuoc ng ngha according to the context
verb raising
C-command
lenh-C bat oi xng
lenh-C oi xng
lien i interpendency
lien t conjunction
loai t vng lexical type
logic m
predicate logic
case filter
long bo the expletive insertion
li theta
determiner class
lp danh t noun class
lp ong t
lp tnh t adjective class
lp t word class
lp tng ng
Standard Theory
318

Ly thuyet tieu chuan m rong Extended Standard Theory
Ly thuyet chi phoi va rang buoc Government and Binding Theory
Ly thuyet nguyen tac va thong so

binary code
mao t article
mao t bat nh non-specified article
mao t xac nh
accentual pattern
mau t
mau-trung hp
clause
subordinate clause
structure description
muc tieu
ngh break
interrogative
ngoai e
dead language
ngon ng c the
Principles and Parameters
Theory
Ly thuyet rang buoc Binding theory
Ly thuyet X-gach X-bar theory
M

ma tran matrix
ma nh phan
specified article
mau cau truc structure pattern
mau phat am
alphabet
pattern-matching
menh lenh ng imperative phrase
menh e
menh e chnh main clause
menh e long embedded clause
menh e phu
mo ta cau truc
goal

N

N-gach N-bar
nghi van
nghch ao chu ng/ong t phu subject/aux inversion
ngoai chu the external subject
external theme
ngon ng chet
body language
ngon ng con ngi human language
ngon ng hnh thc formal language
ngon ng hoc ien toan computational linguistics
319
ngon ng lap o projecting language
ngon ng lap trnh programming language
ngon ng lap trnh cao high programming language
ngon ng may machine language
inversion language
ngon ng ngoai hoa
ngon ng t nhien
Extended Projection Principle
(EPP)
infinitive
nguyen t
break, stop
phonetics
semantic
verb phrase (VP)
ng oan tac t bo ng hoa (CP)
ng oan tnh t (AP)
Ng phap bien hnh tao sinh
Ng phap cau truc ng oan tong quat hoa
Functional Grammar
ngon ng ngheo hnh v morphologically poor language
ngon ng nghch ao
externalized language
ngon ng noi hoa internalized language
ngon ng th nhat (ngon ng chnh) primary speech
natural language
ngon ng vu tru universal language
nguon goc source
nguyen mau infinitive
nguyen tac chieu m rong
nguyen the
atom
ngng
ng am hoc
ng canh context
ng ngha
ng ngha hoc semantics
ng oan phrase
ng oan ch nh t (DP) determiner phrase (DP)
ng oan danh t (NP) noun phrase (NP)
ng oan gii t (PP) prepositional phrase (PP)
ng oan ong t (VP)
complementizer phrase (CP)
ng oan th (TP) tense phrase (TP)
adjective phrase (AP)
ng phap grammar
Generative Transformation
Grammar
Ng phap cau truc ng oan Phrase Structure Grammar
Generalized Phrase Structure
Grammar
ng phap cam ng canh context sensitive grammar
ng phap chnh quy regular grammar
Ng phap chc nang
320

Ng phap chc nang t vng Lexical Functional Grammar
ng phap phi ng canh context free grammar
Ng phap tao sinh Generative Grammar
ng phap truyen thong traditional grammar
ngi khi ong initiator
ngi oi thoai colocutor
ngi noi tieng me e native speaker
nhan label
nhan hieu
nhan dang
nhn trc
nut khong tan cung
root node
pham vi rang buoc
derivation
phai tnh
distribution
phan bo bo sung
x. nhan
nhanh branch
recognition
nhan dien x. nhan dang
nhan manh stress
nhan thc recognition
nhan vat person
look ahead
n (lan) rong expansion
nut node
nut ch em sister node
nut con daughter node
non-terminal node
nut me mother node
nut nh
nut tan cung terminal node

P

P-gach P-bar
pham tru cu phap syntax category
pham tru ng phap grammatical category
pham tru rong empty category
pham tru t vng lexical category
pham tru trong empty category
binding domain
phai sinh
gender
phat am pronunciation
phan bo
complementary distribution
321
phan loai taxonomy
phan oan segment
phan tch cu phap syntax analyse
phan tch ng ngha semantic analyse
phan tch tn hieu signal analyse
phan tnh computational component
phep tnh lc
phep the-do so
non-natural
phu ng

quan he le thuoc
structure dependence
quy tac
phrase structure rule
phep bien hnh transformation
phep bo tr coordination
phep chieu bnh dien gach bar-level projection
phep chieu phu nh negation projection
reduction
phep the substitution
do-so-replacement
phep the-one one-replacement
phep the-so so-replacement
phi ng canh context free
phi t nhien
adjunct
phng ng dialect
phng phap truyen thong method of communication
phng tien giao lu communicative devices
Q

quan he relation
quan he (logic) coherence
quan he chu e thematic relation
quan he chu ong-b ong active-passive relation
dependency
quan he le thuoc cau truc
quan he ng phap grammatical relation
qua kh past
quet scan
quy nap induction
rule
quy tac bien hnh transformation rule
quy tac cau truc ng oan
quy tac long insertion rule
quy tac long t vng lexical insertion rule
322

quy tac logic
quy tac san sinh
R
bind
rong null,
metalanguage
sinh cach
logic rule
quy tac ng phap grammatical rule
quy tac pham tru categorial rule
production rule
quy tac tieu pham tru phi ng canh context free subcategory rule

rang buoc
empty

S

sieu ngon ng
genitive
sinh cach t do free genitive
sinh cach-s s genitive
sinh cach-of of genitive
so sanh comparison
so (lng) number
so t singular
so nhieu plural
song alive

T

tac nhan agent, actor
tac t bo ng hoa complementizer
tan than t interjection
tan cung terminal
tan ng (thng goi: tuc t) object
tang cach dative
tham so argument
thao tac procedure
thanh to constituent
thanh to trc tiep immediate constituent
thai voice
thai b ong passive voice
thai chu ong active voice
tham nang ng dung pragmatical competence
323
tham nang giao lu communicative competence
tham nang ngon ng language competence
tham nang ng phap grammatical competence
the tien v precedence
the tien v trc tiep immediate precedence
th tense
thoi quen ngon ng language habit
thong bao convey
thong so parameter
thong tin information
thu nhan recipient
thuoc chu possessed
tien ng antecedent
tien to prefix
tieng sound
tieng a phng dialect
tiep v ng suffix
tieu pham tru subcategory
tieu pham tru hoa subcategorised
tieu pham tru phi ng canh context free subcategory
tm search
tn hieu au vao input signal
tin hoc informatics
tnh t s hu
artificial intelligence
trung ng anaphor
tuc t
tnh ng x. ng oan tnh t
tnh t adjective
possessive adjective
Toi thieu luan Minimalism
ton ti hierarchy
ton ty Chomsky Chomskys hierarchy
trang t adverb
tr thong minh nhan tao
trong empty, NULL
tr ong t auxiliary verb
trung hp matching
x. tan ng, bo ng
tuc t gian tiep indirect object
tuc t trc tiep direct object
tuyen chieu projection line
324

tuyen tnh linear
t word
t di len tren bottom up
t ghep compound word
t ien
V
V-bar
external theta role
vai tro theta trong
trace
v ng
endless loop
xuong cap (nang cap) ong t
lexicon
t n single word
t tren xuong di top down
t vng lexical
tng lai future

U

u the dominance

V-gach
vai tro theta theta role
vai tro theta ngoai
internal theta role
vet
predicate (phrase)
v t predicate
v tr location, position
v tr u the dominant position
vo han infinite
vong vo tan
vu tru universal

X

X-gach han che constrain X-bar
verb lowering

325

326
BANG OI CHIEU THUAT NG ANH - VIET

A
accentual pattern
accusative
cau chu ong
chu ong
adjective

A-bar A-gach
abstract case cach tru tng
mau phat am
according to the context le thuoc ng ngha
oi cach
active sentence
active
active voice thai chu ong
active-passive relation quan he chu ong-b ong
tnh t
adjective class lp tnh t
adjective phrase (AP) ng oan tnh t (AP)
adjunct phu ng
adverb trang t
agent tac nhan
alive song
alphabet mau t, ch cai
alpha-movement chuyen v-alpha
ambiguity a ngha
ambiguous a ngha
anaphor trung ng
antecedent tien ng
argument tham so
article mao t
artificial intelligence tr thong minh nhan tao
asymetric bat oi xng
asymetric C-command lenh-C bat oi xng
atom nguyen t
auxiliary verb ong t phu, tr ong t
axiom chan ly

B

bar-level projection bong chieu bnh dien gach
327
ANC DOl CHlL| 1H|A1 NC| ANH - VlL1

benefactive cong hien
binary code
rang buoc
Ly thuyet rang buoc
body language

case cach
phng tien giao lu
phan bo bo sung
complementizer tac t bo ng hoa
complementizer phrase (CP)
condition ieu
conjunction lien t
ma nh phan
bind
binding domain pham vi rang buoc
Binding Theory
ngon ng c the
bottom up t di len tren
branch nhanh
break ngng, ngh
C

case filter loc cach
categorial rule quy tac pham tru
C-command lenh-C
channel kenh
character ky t
characteristic function ham ac trng, ham ac tnh
Chomskys hierarchy ton ty Chomsky
clause menh e
cleft sentence cau che
cognitive science khoa hoc nhan thc
coherence quan he (logic)
coindex ch so phu
colocutor ngi oi thoai
common noun danh t chung
communicative competence tham nang giao lu
communicative devices
comparison so sanh
complement bo ng
complementary distribution
ng oan tac t bo ng hoa (CP)
compound word t ghep
computational component phan tnh
computational linguistics ngon ng hoc ien toan
kien
328

constituent thanh to
constrain X-bar X-gach han che
context ng canh
context free phi ng canh
context free grammar
coordination
database
ngon ng chet
deep structure
ng oan ch nh t (DP)
dialect
tuc t trc tiep
ong t nh xuyen
ng phap phi ng canh
context free subcategory tieu pham tru phi ng canh
context free subcategory rule quy tac tieu pham tru phi ng
canh
context free subcategory rule quy tac tieu pham tru phi ng
canh
context sensitive cam ng canh
context sensitive grammar ng phap cam ng canh
control kiem soat
convey thong bao
phep bo tr

D

data d lieu
bang d lieu
dative tang cach
daughter node nut con
dead language
cau truc sau
definite article mao t xac nh
delimitation of a language gii han cua ngon ng
demontrative pronoun ai danh t ch th
dependency quan he le thuoc
derivation phai sinh
derivational morpheme hnh v phai sinh
determiner ch nh t
determiner class lp ch nh t
determiner phrase (DP)
tieng a phng, phng ng
direct object
distribution phan bo
ditransitive verb
dominance u the, chi phoi
dominant position v tr u the
329

do-so-replacement phep the-do so
D-structure cau truc-D
rong, trong
expletive bo the
dien thc, bieu thc

finite hu
dummy word h t

E

echo question cau hoi hoi ngon
embedded clause menh e long
empty
empty category pham tru trong, pham tru rong
endless loop vong vo tan
equivalent class lp tng ng
exhaustive domination chi phoi tan mc
expansion n (lan) rong
experiencer cam nhan
expert system he chuyen gia
expletive insertion long bo the
express dien at
expression
Extended Projection Principle (EPP) Nguyen tac chieu m rong
Extended Standard Theory Ly thuyet tieu chuan m rong
external subject ngoai chu the
external theme ngoai e
external theta role vai tro theta ngoai
externalized language ngon ng ngoai hoa

F

han
formal hnh thc
formal language ngon ng hnh thc
formal noun danh t hnh thc
formal object oi tng hnh thc
free genitive sinh cach t do
function chc nang, ham so
Functional Grammar Ng phap chc nang
future tng lai
fuzzy logic logic m
330

G

gender giong tnh, phai tnh
Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar
Ng phap bien hnh tao sinh
government
ng phap
head-to-head
high programming language
gia thuyet
hnh t
immediate constituent
the tien v trc tiep
immediately dominate
Ng phap cau truc ng oan tong
quat hoa
Generative Grammar Ng phap tao sinh
Generative Transformation Grammar
genitive sinh cach
goal muc tieu
chi phoi
Government and Binding Theory Ly thuyet chi phoi va rang buoc
grammar
grammatical category pham tru ng phap
grammatical competence tham nang ng phap
grammatical relation quan he ng phap
grammatical rule quy tac ng phap
grammatical subject chu ng ng phap, chu the ng
phap
group of characters cum ky t

H

head au
au ti au
head-to-head movement chuyen v au ti au
hierarchy ton ti
ngon ng lap trnh cao
human language ngon ng con ngi
hypothesis

I

ideo-graph
thanh to trc tiep
immediate precedence
chi phoi trc tiep
imperative phrase menh lenh ng
index ch so
331

indirect object tuc t gian tiep
induction quy nap
infinite vo han
infinitive
bien the
informatics
thong tin
nghi van
interrogative pronoun
bao gom
language competence
he nhan dien ngon ng
level
t vng
lexical bank
pham tru t vng
lexical insertion rule
loai t vng
nguyen mau, nguyen the
infinitive verb ong t nguyen mau
inflection
tin hoc
information
initiator ngi khi ong
input signal tn hieu au vao
insertion rule quy tac long
instrument dung cu
interjection tan than t
intermediate level bnh dien trung gian
internal theta role vai tro theta trong
internalized language ngon ng noi hoa
interpendency lien i
interpretation dien giai
interrogative
ai danh t nghi van
inversion language ngon ng nghch ao
involve

L

label nhan hieu, nhan
tham nang ngon ng
language habit thoi quen ngon ng
language performance dung nang ngon ng
language recognizing system
bnh dien
lexical
bang t vng
lexical category
Lexical Functional Grammar Ng phap chc nang t vng
lexical head au t vng
quy tac long t vng
lexical item n v t vng
lexical type
332

lexicon t ien
linear tuyen tnh
list bang
ieu kien ve tnh cuc bo
logic rule

khang nh
matching
cau truc cu phap toi thieu
Minimalism
hnh v
morphologically poor language
nut me
native speaker
natural language
N-gach
negation projection
nut
nominative

locality condition
locality constrain han che cuc bo
location v tr
quy tac logic
logical subject chu the logic
look ahead nhn trc

M

machine language ngon ng may
main clause menh e chnh
main verb ong t chnh
maintain
trung hp , an khp
material object oi tng chat lieu
matrix ma tran
metalanguage sieu ngon ng
method of communication phng phap truyen thong
minimal syntax structure
Toi thieu luan
morpheme
ngon ng ngheo hnh v
morphology hnh thai hoc
mother node
move chuyen v
movement chuyen v
multi-lingual a ngon ng

N

ngi noi tieng me e
ngon ng t nhien
N-bar
phep chieu phu nh
node
danh cach
333

non-echo question cau hoi phi hoi ngon
non-natural phi t nhien
non-specified article mao t bat nh
non-terminal
non-terminal node nut khong tan cung
noun danh t
noun class lp danh t
noun phrase (NP) ng oan danh t (NP)
null rong, trong
so (lng)

O

oi tng, tan ng (thng goi:
tuc t)
of genitive

paradigm
qua kh
pattern-matching mau-trung hp
P-gach
permutation
personal pronoun
am v
phonetics
khong tan cung
number

object
sinh cach-of
one-replacement phep the-one
opposition oi lap

P

he hnh
paradigmatic oi v
parameter thong so
passive b ong
passive sentence cau b ong
passive voice thai b ong
past
pattern d lieu mau
pattern maching list bang mau trung hp
P-bar
hoan v
person nhan vat
ai danh t nhan vat
phoneme
ng am hoc
phonology am v hoc
phrase ng oan
334

Phrase Structure Grammar Ng phap cau truc ng oan
phrase structure rule
possessed
chu
pragmatic dung phap, ng dung
pragmatical competence
i trc, ng trc
tien to
hien tai
psychological subject

quy tac cau truc ng oan
plural so nhieu
thuoc chu
possessive adjective tnh t s hu
possessive pronoun ai danh t s hu
possessor
position v tr
postfix hau to
tham nang ng dung
pragmatics dung phap hoc
precede
precedence the tien v
predicate v t
predicate (phrase) v ng
predicate logic logic v ng
prefix
preposition gii t
prepositional phrase (PP) ng oan gii t (PP)
present
primary speech ngon ng th nhat (ngon ng
chnh)
Principles and Parameters Theory Ly thuyet nguyen tac va thong so
procedure thao tac
production rule quy tac san sinh
programming language ngon ng lap trnh
project chieu
projecting language ngon ng lap o
projection line tuyen chieu
pronoun ai danh t
pronunciation phat am
proper noun danh t rieng
pseudo-cleft sentence cau che gia
chu the tam ly
R

raising movement chuyen v len cap
335

recipient thu nhan
reciprocal pronoun ai danh t ho tng
recognition nhan dang, nhan dien, nhan thc
recursive hoi quy
reduction phep tnh lc
refer dan ch
referring expression bieu thc dan ch
reflexive pronoun
chnh quy
ng phap chnh quy
relation
relative pronoun
sinh cach-s
sample
tm
segment
ng ngha
semantic analyse
semantics
t n
nguon goc
specified article
biet nh ng
speech-community
ai danh t tai quy
regular
regular grammar
quan he
ai danh t quan he
root node nut nh
rule quy tac

S

s genitive
d lieu muon tm
scan quet
search
phan oan
selecting function ham chon la
selectional restriction gii han chon la
semantic
phan tch ng ngha
ng ngha hoc
sentence cau
signal analyse phan tch tn hieu
single word
singular so t
sister node nut ch em
so-replacement phep the-so
sound tieng
source
mao t xac nh
specifier
cong ong tieng noi
speech sound am to
336

S-structure cau truc-S
Standard Theory Ly thuyet tieu chuan
stop ngng
cuc bo nghiem ngat
structure dependence
structure description
mau cau truc
subcategorised
gii han tieu pham tru hoa
Subject-Verb-Object structure (SVO)
suffix
cau truc be mat
symetric
cu phap, cu phap hoc
syntax analyse
syntax tree
system of symbols
stress nhan manh
strikt local
quan he le thuoc cau truc
mo ta cau truc
structure pattern
subcategorisation frame khung tieu pham tru hoa
tieu pham tru hoa
subcategorization restriction
subcategory tieu pham tru
subject chu the, chu ng (thng goi: chu
t)
subject/aux inversion nghch ao chu ng/ong t phu
Theme-Rheme e dien
subject/theme sensitive cam e
Subject-Object-Verb structure (SOV) cau truc Chu t-Tuc t-ong t
(SOV)
cau truc Chu t-ong t-Tuc t
(SVO)
subjunctive form hnh thc lien t (dang lien t)
subordinate clause menh e phu
substitution phep the
substructure cau truc phu
tiep v ng
surface structure
syllable am tiet
symbol dau hieu, ky hieu
oi xng
symetric C-command lenh-C oi xng
synonymous ong ngha
syntax
phan tch cu phap
syntax category pham tru cu phap
syntax structure cau truc cu phap
cay cu phap
syntax unit n v cu phap
he thong ky hieu
337

T

taxonomy phan
tense th
ng oan th (TP)
terminal
nut tan cung, nut ket thuc
thematic relation
chu e
chu e dien giai
theta criterion
theta grid
chuyen v T (th T)
t tren xuong di
trace vet
traditional grammar
bien hnh
transformation
V-bar V-gach
len cap (giang cap) ong t
vocabulary
giong; thai
loai
tense phrase (TP)
tan cung, ket thuc
terminal node
quan he chu e
theme
theme - interpretation
chuan tac theta
li theta
theta role vai tro theta
T-movement
top down
ng phap truyen thong
transform
phep bien hnh
transformation rule quy tac bien hnh
tree cay
universal vu tru
universal language ngon ng vu tru
utterance bieu at

V

valence hoa tr
variable an so, bien so

verb ong t
verb class lp ong t
verb lowering xuong cap (nang cap) ong t
verb phrase (VP) ng oan ong t (VP)
verb raising
kho t vng
voice
338

well-formed
word t
word class
X
bong chieu X-gach
X-bar theory

Z

zero khong

W

chuan hnh
wh-movement chuyen v-wh
lp t

X-bar projection
ly thuyet X-gach
yes/no question cau hoi co/ khong

339

340
TAI LIEU THAM KHAO

Bauer, Laurie (1983) English Word-formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bloomfield, Leonard (1926) A Set of Postulates for the Science of Language. In: Language
2, 15364.
Bhler, Karl (1934) Sprachtheorie. Die Darstellungsfunktion der Sprache. Frankfurt:
Ullstein Verlag, 1978 (Ullstein Buch Nr. 3392)
Carnie, Andrew (1995) Head Movement and Non-Verbal Predication. Ph.D. Dissertation,
MIT.
Chafe, Wallace L. (1970) Meaning and the structure of language. Chicago: The University
of Chicago Press.
Cheng, Lisa (1997) On the Typology of Wh-Questions. New York: Garland Press.

Abney, Steven (1987) The English Noun Phrase in its Sentential Aspect. Ph.D.
Dissertation. MIT.
Abraham, Werner (Hrsg.) (1978) Valence, Semantic Case and Grammatical Relations.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Aoun, Joseph (1985) A grammar of Anaphora. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Arens, Hans (1969) Sprachwissenschaft. Der Gang ihrer Entwicklung von der Antike bis
zur Gegenwart. 2 Bde. Frankfurt: Athenum Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag.
Baker, Mark, Kyle Johnson, and Ian Roberts (1989) Passive Arguments Raised. Linguistic
Inquiry 20: 219-251.
Baltin, Mark (1981) Strict Bounding. In Baker C. L. and John McCarthy (eds) The Logical
Problem of Language Acquisition. Cambridge: MIT Press: 257-295.
Baltin, Mark and Anthony Kroch (1989) Alternative Conceptions of Phrase Structure.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Bierwisch, Manfred (1966) Strukturalismus.Geschichte, Probleme und Methoden. In:
Kursbuch 5 (1966), 77-152. Verbesserter Abdruck in: Ihwe (1971), 17-90.
Bloomfield, Leonard (1933) Language. London: Allen & Unwin, 1935.
Borsley, Robert (1996) Modern Phrase Structure Grammar. Cambridge Mass: Blackwell.
Bresnan, Joan (ed. ) (1982). The Mental Representation of Grammatical Relations.
Cambridge: MIT Press
Bresnan, Joan (forthcoming) Lexical Functional Grammar. Oxford: Blackwell.
Bui Ky, Tran Trong Kim (1925) Kieu. Ha Noi: Vnh Hng long th quan.
Burzio, Luigi (1986) Italian Syntax. Dordrecht: Reidel.
Bnting, Karl-Dieter (1987) Einfhrung in die Linguistik. 12. Auflage, Frankfurt:
Athenum.
Carnie, Andrew (2000) Syntax. Arizona: University of Arizona Press.
Chametzky, Robert (1996) A Theory of Phrase Markers and the Extended Base. Albany:
SUNY Press.
Chomsky, Noam (1957) Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton.
Chomsky, Noam (1964) Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. The Hague: Mouton.
Chomsky, Noam (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge (Mass.): The M.I.T.
Press (Dt. Aspekte der Syntax-Theorie. Frankfurt/M: Suhrkamp, 1969)
Chomsky, Noam/Halle, Morris (1968) The Sound Pattern of English.: New York;
Evanston; London: Harper & Row, Publishers.
341
1Al LlL| 1HAM KHAO
Chomsky, Noam (1970) Remarks on Nominalization in R. Jacobs and P. Rosenbaum (eds.)
Readings in English Transformational Grammar. Waltham: Ginn. pp 184-221.
Chomsky, Noam (1975) The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory. New York: Plenum
Chomsky, Noam (1977) On Wh-movement. In Peter Culicover, Thomas Wasow and Adrian
Akmajian (eds). Formal Syntax. New York: Academic Press. pp. 71-132
Chomsky, Noam (1979) Language and Responsibitity. New York: Pantheon Books.
Chomsky, Noam (1980) On Binding. Linguistic Inquiry 11, 1-46
Chomsky, Noam (1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory. In Kenneth L. Hale
and Samuel J. Keyser (eds) The View from Building 20. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Dalrymple, Mary, Ronald Kaplan, John Maxwell &Annie Zaenen (eds) (1995) Formal
Issues in Lexical-Functional Grammar. Stanford: CSLI.
o Quang Chnh (1972) Lch s ch Quoc Ng 1620-1659. Saigon: Nxb. Ra Khi.
Falk, Yehuda N. (forthcoming) Lexical Functional Grammar: An Introduction to Parallel
Constraint-Based Syntax. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
Chomsky, Noam (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding. Dordrecht: Foris.
Chomsky, Noam (1995) The Minimalist Program. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Duden (1981) Das groe Wrterbuch der deutschen Sprache in sechs Bnden. Hrsg. und
bearb. v. Wiss. Rat und den Mitarbeitern der Dudenredaktion unter Leitung von
Gnther Drosdowski; Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut.
Edmondson, Jerold and Donald A. Burquest (1998) A Survey of Linguistic Theories. (3 rd
ed.) Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Esser, Wilhelm K. (1970) Wissenschaftstheorie I. Definition und Reduktion. Alber:
Freiburg;Mnchen.
Fabb, Nigel (1994) Sentence Structure. London: Routledge.
Fillmore, Charles J. (1968) The case for case. In: Universals in linguistic theory. New
York: Ed. by E.Bach & R.J. Harms.
Fleischer, Wolfgang (1972) Wortbildung der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Tbingen:
Niemeyer.
Gazdar et al. (1985) Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar. Cambridge: Harward
University Press
Gleason, H. A. (1961) An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics. Revised edition, New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Glinz, Hans (1965) Grundbegriffe und Methoden inhaltbezogener Text- und Sprachanalyse.
Grewendorf, Gnther/Hamm, Fritz/Sternefeld, Wolfgang (1989) Sprachliches Wissen. Eine
Einfhrung in moderne Theorien der grammatischen Beschreibung. 3. Aufl.:
Frankfurt/M: Suhrkamp (suhrkamp taschenbuch wissenschaft 695)
Grimshaw, Jane (1990) Argument Structure. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Haegeman, Liliane. (1991) Introduction to Government and Binding Theory. Oxford: Basil
Blackwell.
Habermas, Jrgen (1971) Vorbereitende Bemerkungen zu einer Theorie der
kommunikativen Kompetenz. In: Jrgen Habermas/ Niklas Luhmann (Hrsg.),
Theorie der Gesellschaft oder Sozialtechnologie Was leistet die
Systemforschung? Frankfurt/M: Suhrkamp, 101141
Halliday, M.A.K, Angus McIntosh, Peter Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and
Language Teaching. London: Longmans.
Halliday, M.A.K (1994) An introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold.
Heim, Irene and Kratzer, Angelika (1998) Semantics in Generative Grammar. Malden:
Blackwell.
342

Higginbotham, James (1980) Pronouns and Bound Variables. Linguistic Inquiry 11, 697-
708.
Higginbotham, James (1985) A Note on Phrase Markers. MIT Working Papers in
Linguistics 6: 87-101.
Hopcroft, J.E. and , J.D. Ullman (1979) Introduction to automata theory, languages and
computation. New York: Addison-Wesley.
Hymes, Dell (1972) Competence and performance in linguistic theory. In: R. Huxley & E.
Ingram (eds.), Language Acquisition: Models and Methods. New York: Academic
Press, 328
Jackendoff, Ray (1977) X-bar Syntax: A Theory of Phrase Structure. Cambridge: MIT
Press.
Jackendoff, Ray (1983) Semantics and Cognition. Cambridge (Mass.): MIT Press
Leont'ev, A.A. (1971) Sprache - Sprechen - Sprechttigkeit. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer
Holzman, Mathilda (1997) The Language of Children (2nd Edition). Cambridge:
Blackwell.
Ihwe, Jens (Hrsg.) (1971) Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik. Ergebnisse und
Perspektiven. Bd. 1: Grundlagen und Voraussetzungen. Frankfurt: Athenum.
Jackendoff, Ray (1993) Patterns in the Mind. London: Harvester-Wheatsheaf.
Jaeggli, Osvaldo (1986) Passive. Linguistic Inquiry 17. 4: 587-622.
Jaeggli, Osvaldo and Kenneth Safir (eds) (1989) The Null Subject Parameter. Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic Press.
Jelinek, Eloise (1984) Empty Categories, Case, and Configurationality. Natural language
and Linguistic Theory 2: 39-76.
Kaplan, Ronald (1995) The Formal Architecture of Lexical Functional Grammar. in
Dalrymple, Mary et al. (eds). Formal Issues in Lexical Functional Grammar.
Stanford: CSLI.
Kaplan, Ronald and Annie Zaenen (1982) Lexical Functional Grammar: A Formal System
for Grammatical Representation. In Joan Bresnan (ed. ) (1982). The Mental
Representation of Grammatical Relations. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Kastovksky, Dieter (1982) Wortbildung und Semantik. Dsseldorf: Pdagogischer Verlag
Schwann; Bagel, Bern & Mnchen: Francke Verlag. (Studienreihe Englisch 14)
Lasnik, Howard (1989) Essays on Anaphora. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Le Cong Lieu (1973) ai Viet Thong S cua Le Quy on (1759). Ha Noi: Vien S Hoc.
Le Manh Lieu (1973) Le Quy on: ai Viet Thong S. Saigon: Bo Van Hoa Giao Duc
va Thanh Nien.
Le Quy on (1977) ai Viet Thong S. Vien S Hoc Ha Noi, Nxb. Khoa hoc Xa hoi.
Le Van Ly (1948) Le Parler Vietnamien. Paris: Huong Anh.
Lightfoot (1976) Trace Theory and Twice Moved NPs. Linguistic Inquiry 7: 559-582
Lightfoot, David (1991) How to Set Parameters: Evidence from Language Change.
Cambridge: MIT Press.
Lightfoot, David and Norbert Hornstein (eds) (1994) Verb Movement. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Leech, Geoffrey (1981) Semantics. The Study of Meaning. Second Edition, London:
Penguin Books.
Lewandowski, Theodor (1990) Linguistisches Wrterbuch. 3 Bde., Heidelberg; Wiesbaden:
Quelle & Meyer (UTB 518)
343
1Al LlL| 1HAM KHAO
Linke, Angelika; Nussbaumer, Markus; Portmann Paul R. (1991) Studienbuch Linguistik.
Tbingen: Niemeyer (Reihe Germanistische Linguistik; 121: Kollegbuch)
Lyons, John (1981) Language and Linguistics. An Introduction. Cambridge etc.:
Manzini, H. Rita (1983) On Control and Control Theory. Linguistic Inquiry 14: 421-446.
Reclam (Hrsg.) (1986) Friedrich Schiller: Maria Stuart. Stuttgart: Reclam.
Ritter, Elizabeth (1988) A Head Movement Approach to Construct State Noun Phrases.
Linguistics 26, 909-929.
Robins, R.H. (1964) General Linguistics. An Introductory Survey. London: Longmans.
Robins, R.H. (1973) Ideen- und Problemgeschichte der Sprachwissenschaft. Frankfurt/M:
Athenum.
Lyons, John (1977) Semantics. 2 vols. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press
Maas, Utz (1973) Grundkurs Sprachwissenschaft I: Die herrschende Lehre. Mnchen: List
Verlag (List Taschenbcher der Wissenschaft 1424)
Marantz, Alec (1984) On Grammatical Relations. Cambridge: MIT Press.
May, Robert (1985) Logical Form. Cambridge: MIT Press.
McCloskey, James (1983) A VP in a VSO language in Gazdar, G., G. Pullam, and I. Sag
eds. Order Concord and Constituency. Foris, Dordrecht. 9-55.
Nguyen Kim Than (1997) Nghien cu ng phap tieng Viet. Ha Noi: Nxb. Giao Duc.
Nguyen Kim Than (1999) ong t trong tieng Viet. Ha Noi: Nxb. Khoa hoc Xa Hoi.
Nguyen Tai Can (1999) Ng phap tieng Viet. Ha Noi: Nxb. HQG Ha Noi.
Perlmutter, David (1979) Syntactic Argumentation and the Structure of English. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Petter, Marga (1998) Getting PRO under Control. The Hague: Holland Academic Graphics.
Phan Khoi (1997) Viet Ng Nghien Cu. a Nang: Nxb. a Nang.
Pinker, Steven (1995) The Language Instinct. New York: Harper Perennial.
Pollard, Carl and Ivan Sag (1994) Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar. Standford:
CSLI Publications and Chigago: The University of Chicago Press.
Pollock, Jean-Yves (1989) Verb-movement, Universal Grammar, and the Structure of IP
Linguistic Inquiry 20, 365-424.
Postal, Paul (1974) On Raising. Cambridge: MIT Press
Radford, Andrew (1981) Transformational Grammar: A students guide to Chomskys
Extended Standard Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Radford, Andrew (1988) Transformational Grammar: A First Course. Cambridge:
Radford, Andrew (1997) Syntactic Theory and The Structure of English: A Minimalist
Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Radford, Andrew (1997) Syntax: A Minimalist Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Rauh, Gisa (1988) Tiefenkasus, thematische Relationen und Thetarollen. Die Entwicklung
einer Theorie von semantischen Rollen. Tbingen: Narr.
Redslob, Edwin (1967) Goethes Leben. Reclam, Stuttgart.
Ries, J. (1931) Was ist ein Satz?
Robins, R.H. (1966) The development of the word class system of the European
grammatical tradition. Foundations of Language, 2. 3-19.
Rosenbaum, P. S. (1967) The Grammar of English Predicate Complement Constructions.
Cambridge: MIT Press.
344

Saito, Mamoru and Howard Lasnik (1994) Move Alpha: Conditions on its application and
output. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Sapir, Edward (1921) Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
Stowell, Tim (1981) Origins of Phrase Structure. Ph.D. Dissertation, MIT.
Thai Doan Hieu, Hoang Lien (1994) Ca dao dan ca Tnh yeu. TP.HCM: Nxb. TP. HCM
Travis, Lisa (1984) Parameters and Effects of Word Order Derivation. Ph.D. Dissertation,
MIT.
Saussure, Ferdinand de (1916) Cours de linguistique gnrale. Publi par Charles Bally et
Albert Sechehaye, Paris: Payot, 1968.
Seidel, E. (1935) Geschichte und Kritik der wichtigsten Satzdefinitionen.
Sells, Peter (1985) Lectures on Contemporary Syntactic Theories. Stanford: CSLI.
Soames, Scott and David M. Perlmutter (1979) Syntactic Argumentation and the Structure
of English. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Somers, H.L. (1987) Valency and Case in Computational Linguistics. Edinburgh:
University of Edinburgh Press.
Suppes, Patrick (1957) Introduction to Logic. Princeton: van Nostrand
Speas, Margaret (1990) Phrase Structure in Natural Language. Dordrecht: Kluwer
Academic Publishers.
Stechow (1988) Bausteine syntaktischen Wissens. Wesdeuscher Verlag, Opladen,
Ta Hung Bch Ha (1996), T ien Toan hoc. Nxb. ong Nai.
Uriagereka, Juan (1998) Rhyme and Reason: An Introduction to Minimalist Syntax.
Cambridge Mass: MIT Press.
Wagner (1999) Syntax. In Linguistik Grundlage. Hamburg: Uni Manuskrift.
Williams, Edwin (1994) Thematic Structure in Syntax. Cambridge: MIT Press.
345
1Al LlL| 1HAM KHAO

346
CHl tC

ch g 63
ung ch g 64
th, la, ma 29, 49, 56
A
A-gach 185
Alexandre de Rhodes 6
am v (phoneme) 3
bong chieu bnh dien gach (bar-level
projection) 178
bo ng trc tiep 294
cach tru tng (abstract case) 295
cau hoi co/ khong (yes/no question) 63, 230
a 63
e 63
ung khong 64
to 63
Abney 217, 341
A-gach (A-bar) 178
Amiral 6
ASCII 73
Assembler 7
anh trong 18
am 67
am thanh 67
am tiet (syllable) 75
am to (speech sound) 75
B
Ba tham so 248
Barbosa 6
bang (list) 72
bang mau trung hp (pattern maching list)
74
Bang d lieu (database) 71
bang t vng (lexical bank) 70
bai ban 12
bien hnh 116
bien so 21, 112
bien the (inflection) 240
biet nh ng (specifier) 52
Biet nh ng (specifier) 216
Bieu thc dan ch (referring expression)
163
bnh dien (level) 178
Bnh dien chnh 188
bnh dien gach (bar-level) 178
Bnh dien tan cung 189
bnh dien trung gian 172, 188
b ong 32
Bit 73
Borri 6
bong chieu X-gach (X-bar projection) 173
bo ngha/phu ngha 38
bo ng (complement) 52, 85, 193
bo ng gian tiep 294
bo phan tch 115
bo the (expletive) 267
Bloomfield 2, 89
Bresnan 16
Bui Ky 48
Burzio 297
Byte 72
C
Cathechismus (Phep giang tam ngay) 7
cam e (subject/theme sensitive) 34
Cam nhan (experiencer) 259
cau 2, 67, 76, 132
cau b ong 297, 307
cau b ong (passive sentence) 59
cau che (cleft sentence) 39, 62, 95
Cau che gia (pseudo-cleft sentence) 96
cau co th 222
cau hoi phai khong 63
cau hoi co/khong (yes/no question) 230
cau hoi hoi ngon (echo question) 271, 274,
277, 303, 310
347
CHl L|C
cau hoi phi hoi ngon (nonecho question)
272
cau hoi- wh (wh-question) 271, 272, 274,
277, 303, 304, 306, 310
cau nghi van 274, 303
cau phu 223
cau phu nh 282
cau truc be mat (surface structure) 271, 278
cau truc cu phap (syntax structure) 100, 143
cau truc phu (substructure) 176
cau xac nh 272, 274, 282, 286, 287, 288,
290, 301, 302, 303, 304, 310
cay cu phap (syntax tree) 23, 143
chu ng (subject) 223
chu ong 32
chu the logic (logic subject) 36
Chu t-ong t-Tuc t 22
chuyen v (movement) 134
chuyen v au ti au (head-to-head
movement) 279
chuyen v NP (NP movement) 290, 292
chuyen v wh (wh-movement) 22
cong hien (benefactive) 260
cong ong tieng noi ong nhat 10, 77
cu phap cau truc ng oan 171
D
cau truc cu phap toi thieu (minimal syntax
structure) 93
cau truc D 278, 281, 282, 292, 304, 305
cau truc D (D-structure) 23
cau truc luan 3
cau truc ng phap 57
cau truc S 278, 281, 282, 305
cau truc S (S-structure) 24
cau truc sau (deep structure) 278
cay (tree) 110
cay tru tng 143
Chan ly the tien v (Axioms of
Precedence) 149
Chan ly tnh chi phoi (Axioms of
Dominance) 145
chat lieu 4
ch nh t 103, 117
ch so (index). 165
ch so phu (coindex) 165
chi phoi (government) 151
chi phoi tan mc (exhaustive domination)
146
Chi phoi trc tiep (immediately
dominate) 145
chia ong t 70
Chomsky 2, 10, 11, 12, 77, 113, 143, 173,
271, 275, 278, 295
chuan hnh (well-formed) 75
Chuan tac theta (theta criterion) 264
chuoi t 67, 70
chu (possessor) 218
chu e 17
chu e (theme) 36, 259
chu ng 132
chu ng ng phap (grammatical subject) 33,
245
chu the 20, 32
chu the ng phap (grammatical subject)
36
chu the tam ly (psychological subject) 36
chu-v (subject-predicate) 245, 270
chuyen v len cap (raising movement) 25
Chuyen v ong t V (V T) 279
chuyen v th T (T movement) 285, 286
chuyen v-wh 275, 301
ch 70
ch Han 6
ch Nom 6
ch viet 67
chc nang truyen thong 3
communicative competence 11
competence 10
Cours de linguistique generale 4
cong ong tieng noi (speech-community) 2
cuc bo nghiem ngat (strikt local) 251
cum ky t (group of characters) 67
cum t 67, 70
Cu phap 14
cu phap hoc (syntax) 75
danh cach 253
danh cach (nominative) 86, 294
danh ng 113
danh t 68, 69, 74, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85,
86, 88, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105,
106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113,
348

115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124,
127, 131, 135, 136, 137
danh t chung 102, 103, 136
danh t hnh thc 103, 107, 108, 119, 120
dien giai 20
dung nang ngon ng 58
dung phap hoc (pragmatics) 75
a ngha 11
ai danh t (pronoun) 164
ai danh t tai quy 101, 103, 136
au 188
au thanh to 109
au t vng (lexical head) 110
em c 118
ieu kien ve tnh cuc bo 291
o Quang Chnh 6
oi cach (accusative) 86, 294
oi v 90
ong ngha 11
ong t bat xuyen tnh 248, 250, 251, 257,
263, 269
ong t kiem soat bo ng 87
ong t kiem soat tnh t 85
ong t kiem soat trang t 84
ong t nh xuyen 248, 257, 269
Ferdinand de Saussure 4, 9
gii han chon la (selectional restriction)
258, 269
danh t chung (common noun) 254
danh t hnh thc (formal noun) 107
Danh t kiem soat danh t 85
Danh t kiem soat tnh t 84, 86
danh t rieng 102, 103
danh t rieng (proper noun) 254
dau (symbol) 67
dau phay 53
dau vet (trace) 282
discovery procedures 89
dung nang ngon ng (language
performance) 11
d lieu mau (pattern) 72
d lieu muon tm (sample) 72

a ngha (ambiguity) 138
ai danh t ho tng 101, 102, 103, 136
ai danh t nghi van 101, 102, 103, 136
ai danh t nhan vat 101, 102, 103, 136
ai danh t nhan vat (personal pronoun) 27
ai danh t nhan vat kiem soat ong t
88
ai danh t quan he 101, 102, 103, 136
ai danh t s hu 101, 102, 103, 136
ai Viet Thong S 47
au ong t V 280
au th T 280
e Dien (Theme-Rheme) 36
iep ng 28
o phc tap cua bnh dien (level
complexity) 190
oi cach 176, 253, 254
oi tng 4, 17
oi tng chat lieu 4
oi tng cua ngon ng hoc 4, 10
oi tng hnh thc 4, 5
oi tng nghien cu 4
oi tng vat chat 5
ong ng 113
ong t 68, 69, 70, 74, 78, 79, 84, 85, 87, 88,
94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104,
106, 110, 113, 115, 128, 129, 131, 132,
135, 137
ong t bat xuyen tnh (intransitive verb)
128
ong t kiem soat danh t 85
ong t nguyen mau (infinitive verb) 69
ong t phu 25
ong t phu (auxiliary verb) 132
ong t xuyen tnh 248, 251, 257, 263, 269
ong t xuyen tnh (transitive verb) 128
n v cu phap 76
n v cu phap (syntax unit) nho nhat 68
n v cu phap nho nhat 99
n v ky t co y ngha 75
n v t vng (lexical item) 266
ung (true) 19
F
G
349
CHl L|C
gii han tieu pham tru hoa
subcategorization restriction) 258 (
gii t 68, 101, 102, 110, 113, 115, 136
Gleason 4
grammatical competence 11
Habermas 11
Hai tham so 248
Halliday 3
Hau to (postfix) 68
he thong sieu ca the 10
hnh thai hoc (morphology) 75
hnh v 20, 69
Hymes 11
Internet 8
kiem soat 82, 83
Kieu 6
Koine 6
langage 10
langue 10
Leontev 5, 9
Lewandowski 4, 76, 102
Le Cong Lieu 47
Le Li 48
Le Quy on 42, 47, 52, 54
le thuoc cau truc (structure dependence) 3
Le Van Ly 13
Loc cach (Case Filter) 295
long bo the (expletive insertion) 267
gii ng 113
Gii t 103, 136
Glinz 89
Goethe 39, 41
H
Haegeman 261
han che cuc bo (locality constrain) 169
ham chon la (selecting function) 19
ham ac tnh (characteristic function) 19
ham so 18, 247, 248, 260, 269
hanh ong ngon ng 52
Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar
(HPSG) 16
he chuyen gia (expert system) 8
he hnh 90
he nhan dien ngon ng 70
he nhan dien ngon ng (language
recognizing system) 8
he thong ky hieu t tao 2
hnh hoc cua cay (geometry of tree) 143
hnh t (ideo-graph) 67
Hjelmslev 10
Hoa ao Thi 45, 51
hoa tr (valence) 248
Ho Xuan Hng 6, 42, 46, 51, 54
hoi quy 177
hoi quy (recursive) 137
I
J
Jackendoff 173
K
Kaplan 16
kha nang ngon ng 10
khoa hoc nhan thc (cognitive science)
15, 265
khong tan cung (non-terminal) 111
khung tieu pham tru hoa (subcategorisation
frame) 263
kiem tra danh cach 308
Kim Van Kieu 48, 56
ky t 67
ky t (character) 10, 67
L
La Dictionarium Annamaticum Lusitium et
Latinum 7
Le Van ang 44, 51
lenh-C (c-command) 150
Lenh-C bat oi xng (asymetric c-
command) 151
Lenh-C oi xng (symetric c-command)
151
lien t 53, 68, 91, 103, 136
loai t vng (lexical type) 100
logic m (fuzzy logic) 15
la chon 121
lc t 53
350

lng 86
t
Lp ch nh t (determiner class) 102
Lp tnh t (adjective class) 102
Lp t (word class) 103
Ly thuyet tieu chuan (Standard Theory) 16
M
Maurice Durand 46
menh e long (embedded clause) 223
menh e phu (subordinate clause) 39, 61,
223
Mot tham so 248
ngoai chu the (external subject) 33
ngon ng con ngi (human language) 67
ngon ng hoc ien toan 7
Nguyen nh Chieu 6
Nguyen tac bnh dien 176
Nguyen tac chieu m rong (Extended
Projection Principle (EPP)) 267
Nguyen tac di truyen cua au trong ng
oan 176
Nguyen tac au (head) X-gach 174
li theta ( heta grid) 261
Lp danh t (noun class) 102
Lp ong t (verb class) 102
lp t 110
lp t tng ng 102
Lp tng ng (equivalent class) 102
Luc Van Tien 6
Lyons 2, 3
Ly Thng Kiet 42, 43
Ly thuyet chi phoi va rang buoc
(Government and Binding Theory (GB))
16
ly thuyet chi phoi va rang buoc
(Government and Binding Theory) 151
ly thuyet rang buoc (binding theory) 150
Ly thuyet tieu chuan m rong (Extended
Standard Theory) 16
ly thuyet X-gach (X-Bar Theory) 173
Marantz 261
ma nh phan (binary code) 72
mao t 83, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106,
107, 117, 118, 120, 136
mao t bat nh (non-specified article)
104
mao t xac nh (specified article) 104
mau (pattern) 75
mau cau truc 12
mau t (alphabet) 67
mau-trung hp (pattern-matching) 72
menh e (clause) 223
menh e chnh (main clause) 61, 223
menh e phu 95, 222
Mo ta cau truc (structure description)
113
muc tieu (goal) 259
N
Nam Quoc Sn Ha 43
NegP 283
N-gach (N-bar) 178
nghch ao chu ng/ong t phu
(subject/aux inversion) 230
ngoai chu the 54
ngon ng 1
ngon ng c the (body language) 1
ngon ng con ngi 2
ngon ng hnh thc (formal language) 1,
143
ngon ng hoc ien toan (computational
linguistics). 75
ngon ng hoc sinh hoc 9
ngon ng hoc tam ly 9
ngon ng hoc xa hoi 9
ngon ng lap trnh (programming language)
1
ngon ng lap trnh cao 7
ngon ng may (machine language) 7
ngon ng nghch ao (inversion language)
23
ngon ng ngoai hoa 12
ngon ng noi hoa 12
ngon ng toan 2
ngon ng t nhien (natural language) 1, 67
ngon ng tuyen tnh 21
ngon ng vu tru (universal language) 135
nguon goc (source) 259
Nguyen Cong Tr 42, 49
Nguyen Du 6, 42, 47, 56
Nguyen Kim Than 14
Nguyen tac ng oan 176
351
CHl L|C
Nguyen tac rang buoc A (binding
principle A) 167
Nguyen tac rang buoc A (m rong) 169
Nguyen tac va thong so (Principles and
Parameters (P&P)) 16
nguyen t 112
ng am 6
ng canh 11
s
ng oan danh t (noun phrase) 111
(
(
ng oan th (tense phrase) 240
ng oan th (tense phrase) TP 276
ng oan tnh t AP 124, 185
ng phap 6, 76
Ng phap bien hnh tao sinh (Generative
Transformation Grammar) 16
Ng phap cau truc ng oan tong quat hoa
(Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar
(GPSG)) 16
Ng phap cam ng canh (context
sensitive grammar) 252
Ng phap chc nang t vng (Lexical
Functional Grammar) 16
ng phap tao sinh (Generative Grammar)
16, 113
ngi noi/nghe ly tng 10, 65
nut (node) 110
Nut nh (root node) 144
O
P
P-gach 186
Nguyen Trai 6, 42, 44, 45, 51
ng am hoc (phonetics) 75
ng canh (context) 80
ng ngha 6
ng ngha hoc (semantics) 8, 75
Ng oan (phra e) 110
ng oan ch nh t (determiner phrase)
219
Ng oan danh t 113
ng oan danh t NP 112, 116, 123, 128,
130, 132, 178, 272, 290, 292, 295, 296,
297, 299, 300, 304, 310
Ng oan gii t 113
ng oan gii t (prepositional phrase) 40
ng oan gii t PP 186, 246, 263, 264
Ng oan gii t PP 127
Ng oan ong t 113
ng oan ong t VP 128, 132, 182
ng oan tac t bo ng hoa 222
ng oan tac t bo ng hoa
complementizer phrase) 228
ng oan tac t bo ng hoa
complementizer phrase) CP 276
Ng oan tac t bo ng hoa CP 228
Ng oan th 222
Ng oan tnh t 113
Ng oan tnh t AP 124
ng phap bien hnh tao sinh (Generative
Transformation Grammar) 10
Ng phap cau truc ng oan (phrase
structure grammar) 113
Ng phap chnh quy (regular grammar)
252
ng phap chuan hnh (well-formed
grammar) 31
ng phap hoc 15
Ng phap phi ng canh (context free
grammar) 252
Ng phap vu tru (universal grammar)
252, 253
nhan hieu 123
Nhan hieu (label) 144
nhanh 111
Nhanh (branch) 144
nhn trc (look ahead) 74
nhan cach hoa 80
nhan dang t 75
nhan dien nhan thc 18
noi tat 30
Nut (node) 144
Nut ch em (sisters) 146
Nut con (daughter node) 145
Nut khong tan cung (non-terminal) 144
Nut me (mother node) 145
Nut tan cung (terminal node) 144
Object-Verb-Subject (OVS) 277
performance 10
P-gach (P-bar) 178
pham tru cu phap 109
352

pham tru cu phap (syntax category) 101,
110
pham tru gach (bar-category) 173
(
phai tnh 20, 86, 253
phan dien 38
phan tch cu phap (syntax analyse) 70
Phan tch ng ngha (semantic analyse)
71
phep ap 18
P-marker 143
Pollock 242, 283
pragmatical competence 11
quan he le thuoc 97, 110
Quan he le thuoc (dependency) 82
quy tac san sinh (production rule) 112,
143
(
Ries 76
pham tru ng phap (grammatical
category) 101
pham tru t vng lexical category) 101
pham vi rang buoc (binding domain) 169
Phan Khoi 70, 107, 224
phai sinh 115, 282, 295
phan bo bo sung (complementary
distribution) 218
phan loai (taxonomy) 12
phan e 38
phan oan (segment) 89
Phan tch cu phap (syntax analyse) 71
phan tch tn hieu 71
phan tch tn hieu (signal analyse) 70
Phan tch tn hieu (signal analyse) 71
phan tnh (computational component)
265
phan t anh 18
phan t goc 18
phan t oi lap 90
Phep bien hnh 95
Phep bien hnh (transformation) 89
Phep bo tr 91
Phep bo tr (coordination) 89
phep chieu (projection) 178
phep chieu phu nh (negation projection)
283
Phep hoan v 94
Phep hoan v (permutation) 89
Phep tnh lc 93
Phep tnh lc (reduction) 89
phep the (replacement, substitution) 178
Phep the (substitution) 89
phep the-do so 183
phep the-one 179
phep the-so 186
Phep th cau hoi 91
Phep th cau hoi (question test) 89
phi ban nang 2
phi t nhien (non-natural) 3
phu ng (adjunct) 52, 85, 193
phng phap truyen thong 2
Pollard 16
pragmatic 11
PROLOG 72
Q
quan he 247, 248, 258, 260, 268, 269
quan he chu e (thematic relation) 258
Quan he chu ong-b ong (active-passive
relation) 96
QUAN HE LE THUOC 81
quan he le thuoc cua t 82
quet (scan) 74
Quoc Am Thi Tap 44
quy tac bien hnh 271, 275, 278, 279, 280,
301, 309, 310
quy tac bien hnh (transformation rule) 22
quy tac cau truc ng oan (phrase structure
rule) 112
quy tac chuyen v (movement rules) 278
quy tac suy dien (deduction rule) 115
Quy tac len cap ong t (verb raising) V
T 280
quy tac long (insertion rules) 278, 289
quy tac long t vng (lexical insertion rule)
262
quy tac pham tru (categorial rule) 262
quy tac tieu pham tru phi ng canh
context free subcategory rule) 255
R
Radford 175, 271, 272
Rang buoc (bind) 167
Robins 4, 6
353
CHl L|C
S
Sag 16
sai (false) 19
Sanskrit 6
Sapir 2
Schiller 41
Schtzenberger 113
Seidel 76
SELECT 72
sinh cach-"of" 216
sinh hoc 8
(
thanh to cung loai 90
thai b ong (passive voice) 32, 40
tham nang ng dung 11
tham nang ngon ng 1, 77
the cach 86, 253
th T hu han (finite T) 295
thieu chu ng 30
thong so (parameter) 222
Tien to (prefix) 68
Tieng Viet ngay nay 57
tieng xa hoi 10
sieu ngon ng (metalanguage) 80
sinh cach (genitive) 86
sinh cach t do (free genitive) 216
sinh cach-"s" 216
sinh hoat ngon ng 57
so lng 253
s hu 20
SQL 72
Stechow 12, 176
Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) 222
Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) 222, 276, 309
s lien i (interpendency) 88
T
tac nhan 60
tac nhan (actor) 36
Tac nhan (agent, actor) 258
tac t bo ng hoa complementizer) 134
tac t bo ng hoa C 286, 287, 306
tang cach 253, 254
tang cach (dative) 86
Tang cach (dative) 294
tam ly hoc 7, 8
tan cung (terminal) 111
tap hp goc 18
thanh thao ngon ng 77
thanh to 82, 90, 95, 99
Thanh to 109
thanh to (constituent) 75, 147
Thanh to cua (constituent of) 147
Thanh to trc tiep cua (immediate
constituent of) 147
thanh to zero 54
thai chu ong (active voice) 32, 40
tham nang giao lu 11
tham nang ngon ng (language
competence) 10
The tien v (precedence) 148
The tien v trc tiep (immediate
precedence) 149
th (tense) 25
th phi han T (non-finite T) 296
thiet lap trnh bien dch (compiler design)
143
thong so 12
Thong so va th t cua T 221
thc the em c 108
thuan cau truc 3
thuan cam giac 78
thuan trc giac 14
thuan tuy ngi 1
thu nhan (recipient) 259
thuyet rang buoc (binding theory) 163
tien danh t 107
Tien ng (antecedent) 164
tieng 70
tieng (sound) 72
tieng La tinh 42
tieng a phng 10
tieng Phan 6, 42
Tieng Viet xa 43
tieu pham tru (subcategory) 250
tieu pham tru hoa 273, 274
tieu pham tru hoa (subcategorised) 263
tieu pham tru phi ng canh (context free
category) 254
tieu tap hp hoa 28
tm 72
tn hieu au vao (input signal) 71
tin hoc 7
354

Tnh cam e 32, 54
tnh chi phoi (dominance) 144
Tnh giau thong tin cu the 52
Tnh hoi quy 137
Tnb ngbicm ngat coa tico pbam tro 256
tnh ng 113
tnh tnh lc 29, 30, 53
Tnh t kiem soat trang t 84
Toi thieu luan (Minimalism (MP)) 16
t nghi van 21, 277, 303, 310
t tren xuong di (top down) 156
trnh bien dch 115
trung hp 72
tuyen tnh 18
van viet 42, 65
vat ly 7
v ng (predicate phrase) 223

tnh u the 144
Tnh tnh tien 21, 50
tnh t 68, 69, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87,
88, 98, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 109,
110, 112, 113, 115, 121, 123, 124, 125,
126, 127, 128, 136, 142
Tnh t kiem soat tnh t 84
tnh tuyen tnh (linearity) 82
ton ti (hierarchy) 82
ton ty Chomsky (Chomskys hierarchy)
252
t 70
t nhien 3
tnh tien 26, 127
T 41, 67
t (word) 68, 101
t di len tren (bottom up) 151
t ghep 28
t lay 28
t n (single word) 68
t vng (lexical) 68, 246, 265
Tran Te Xng 42, 49
Tran Trong Kim 42, 48
trang t 82, 101, 102, 103, 113, 116, 124,
125, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131, 136, 142
Travis 222, 345
tr thong minh nhan tao (artificial
intelligence) 8, 155
triet hoc 8
trong 228
trong (NULL) 72
trung tam y ngha 82, 109
Trung ng (anaphor) 164
tuyen chieu (projection line) 175
U
UNICODE 73
V
vai tro theta 290, 291, 294, 297, 304, 306
vai tro theta ( role) 260
vai tro theta (theta role) 258
Vai tro theta ngoai 261
Vai tro theta trong 261
V-gach 182
V-gach (V-bar) 178
van ban thanh 6
van noi 42, 65
van pham 76
van dung tham nang 58
v ng 53, 132
v t 32
v tr (location) 259, 264
v tr t 82, 97
Vnh Banh Troi 46
W
Wagner 76
X
xa hoi hoc 8
X-gach han che (constrain X-bar) 246
xuong cap ong t (verb lowering) 282
Z
zero 228, 240
355

Dũng-Vũ - Tiếng Việt và ngôn ngữ học hiện đại - Sơ khảo về cú pháp

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dũng-Vũ - Tiếng Việt và ngôn ngữ học hiện đại - Sơ khảo về cú pháp

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

tong vot vu ngon ngo hoc hon du

You might also like