Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Arithmetic of
Music
1
The Arithmetic of Music. Copyright by Dr. Nestor S. Pareja.
Parts of this book may be reproduced solely for personal
use. For information, telephone and fax no. (632) – 552-
7911; mobile phone no. 09162571055; address 30-G RPR I,
Padre Faura, Ermita, MetroManila, Philippines;
e-mail,nspareja@mail.upm.edu.ph,nspareja@gmail.com,or
nspareja@yahoo.com
2
PREFACE
3
people assumed to be interested. There was no response
from most. Of the few who did, it was most probably out of
kindness and was only meant to be polite. This was however
taken by the author as an affirmation. Upon review of the
original manuscript which has been kept in hibernation for
several years, the truth behind the earlier response was
revealed. The author himself discovered that contrary to the
intent of simplifying the presentation, the medium used could
barely be understood.
The author strongly believes that these ideas are useful
and worth sharing. Revisions have been undertaken to make
the book simpler and easier to understand. Principles of
tone/sound production, its physical attributes and
appreciation by the receiver have been integrated to add to
an easier and better understanding of music.
The Author
4
The Arithmetic of Music
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
5
Option:
Music may be defined as the art and science of transmitting emotions or ideas
with the use of sounds (of varying pitches) and silences that are considered
pleasing to the listener.
Musical sounds or notes are produced by strings, tubes or percussed suitable
materials.
A musical note is defined or characterized by its pitch (high, low or anything in
between). The pitch of a note is determined by the frequency with which the
string or the column of air in a tube vibrates. Together with the pitch, a musical
note is also defined by its timbre. The timbre allows us to differentiate the sound
of a guitar from that of a violin.
The timbre is determined by final sound a musical instrument produces. The final
sound is influenced by the interplay of the primary tone and its overtones.
Let us take for example a guitar string vibrating at a frequency of 264 cycles per
second. This string does not only vibrate at 264 cps on its whole length ( called
the primary length. It also vibrates 528 cps (264 X 2) on ½ of its length. 528 cps
is an overtone of 264 cps (the primary tone of the example guitar string).
This string also vibrates at 792 cps (264 X 3) on !/3 of its length. 792 cps is also
an overtone of 264 cps.
This string vibrates at 1056 cps (264 X 4) on ¼, 1320 cps (264 X 5) on 1/5 its
length and so on down the line.
These simultaneous vibrations influence how the final sound of that string will be
produced by tha particular string. That final sound is the timbre.
6
THE ARITHMETIC OF MUSIC
By Dr. Nestor S. Pareja
INTRODUCTION
7
subscribes to this idea. This will introduce numbers that will
allow us to measure and to describe music understandably
and easily. This knowledge will enable us to read and write
music sheets/scores and begin to play our favorite music
instrument or yet be able to compose songs.
This is primarily for those with little or no background in
music but who are willing to learn the essentials to
understand how it works. These essentials will help us
understand music articles, many of which presume such
knowledge. This knowledge will make us understand what
Key of C or C Scale and the other Keys or Scales mean.
This will make us understand why a symphony or a song is a
B flat minor or a D flat composition. We will understand what
Ionian Mode, Dorian Mode or Lydian Mode mean.
This is also for those who already are into music, the
professionals, those with advanced knowledge and the
“gifted”. This book presents a simple complementary view
that will help those with advanced knowledge in music
further grasp/comprehend/internalize and make the most of
their present concepts and know-how.
Music teachers may find practical ways of teaching the
basics of music.
8
WHAT THIS BOOK CONTAINS
9
The ninth chapter touches briefly on melody, musical
form and design. This will introduce terms that will help us
better understand and appreciate music.
STRATEGY
The basic strategy of this book is repetition, saying the
same idea in different ways. The ideas are presented from
different points of view, so that we may acquire a 3 (even a
4?) dimensional picture of the concepts. This is to ensure
that concepts are well understood. They are important
building blocks in our understanding of music. As is true in
many disciplines, concepts in music are simple when taken
individually/separately but seem complicated when taken all
together at one time.
Chapters are arranged mainly to facilitate explanation.
They are intended to stand alone and could be understood
even without having full comprehension of the others.
Although ideas are interrelated, a chapter may be
understood without reading other chapters. Chapters
generally refer to the same ideas but are taken from different
views/perspectives.
Music concepts are basically simple but are prone to
many different and complex interpretations, because of
10
mysteries/confusions created by vague statements. The use
of numbers avoided such statements and has facilitated
definition and explanation of concepts. Sentences in this
book are meant to be simple and direct but inevitably
repetitious because of the basic strategy.
Learning these concepts and keeping them at our
fingertips will allow us to devise our own learning
exercises for our chosen musical instruments and/or
music activities. This will allow us to determine our own
pace and our own level of involvement. We will not be
limited by availability of specific learning materials because
hopefully we will be able to devise our own. We are offered
choices.
Numbers are liberally used so ideas can be measured,
can be easily described or defined and stated in no uncertain
way.
The importance of practice and of guidance by a
competent music teacher can not be overemphasized.
When we students are ready, the teacher in this book will
appear.
11
SYNOPSIS
12
give us that ratio or interval. In Western music two kinds of
intervals are identified. One measures the interval created by
notes with a common reference note, the tonic. The other
measures the interval between nearby or adjacent notes.
In the first kind, the most pleasing interval is the
unison. It is created by notes with the same frequency as
the tonic. Almost as pleasing are those created with the
octaves (the 8th natural note or semitone 13). The
octaves are notes whose frequencies are either ½ or 2
times the frequency of the tonic.
The next pleasing intervals, after the unison and the
octaves, in descending order, are created by notes whose
frequencies are 3 times, 4 times, 5 times, 6 times and so on,
that of the tonic. These frequencies are correspondingly
produced by the (1/2), 1/3, ¼, 1/5, 1/6 and so on the other
secondary lengths of a vibrating string. The shorter the
secondary length, the higher the frequency of the note/sound
the vibrating string produces and the note produced is less
harmonious with the tonic.
The frequencies of the notes within an octave (a group
of 8 natural notes) are partials of the frequencies produced
by the secondary lengths. This is explained further from
another view and in a more easily digestible form in Chapter
13
Two.
The second kind of interval is that created between
adjacent notes. There are 2 types that are identified, the
semitone (or half tone, half step, a 16/17 or its reciprocal
17/16, interval) and the whole tone (or whole step, a 16/18
or its reciprocal 18/16, interval). If we divide the frequency of
one note with the frequency of the next higher
adjacent/nearby note and get the ratio 16/17 or 0.94, the
interval is a semitone. If the ratio between the frequency of
the lower note with the frequency of the higher adjacent note
is 16/18 or 0.89, the interval is a whole tone.
In the chromatic scale there is only one kind of
interval, the semitone. Dividing the frequency of the lower
semitone with the frequency of the higher gives us the ratio
of a semitone interval. The inverse/reciprocal (frequency of
the higher divided by the frequency of the lower note),
likewise defines a semitone interval.
Musical scales with 2 types of intervals between
adjacent natural notes, whole tones and half tones, are
called diatonic scales.
The notes of a melody may sound lacking in fluidity,
rhythm and unity if played without other sounds. The notes
of music chords correct these. They supply additional
14
“color” and character to the melody. They serve as the
framework and body to a set of melodic notes.
Silences between notes play a significant role as well.
Tryreadingasentencewithoutspacesinbetweenwords.
The character, personality, atmosphere, ambiance or
mood of a set of melodic and harmonic notes depends on
the location of the semitone and whole tone intervals. Thus
we have the emergence of the different scales: the diatonic,
the modal, the pentatonic, the whole tone and the major and
the minor scales. These scales on analysis are derivatives
and/or modifications of the mother scale, the chromatic
scale.
15
CHAPTER ONE
16
Sounds are waves that are heard. Other waves are
seen. Others are felt. The ripples created by a stone
thrown into a quiet body of water are waves.
Waves that are seen are those coming from a light
bulb and those that are reflected/bounced back from
objects. Reflected light waves give color to the objects.
Objects that bounce off all light waves of natural light will
look white. Objects that do not bounce off light waves will
look black.
Light waves are energy and energy is heat. Dark
colored clothes do not reflect most of the light waves they
receive. Most are absorbed. Light colored clothes
bouncing off most of the light waves they receive explains
why they feel cooler than are dark colored ones.
17
To illustrate; the function of the eye is to see light.
Stimulation of the eye, other than by light, will still be
interpreted as light. As an example, touch your eye with
your eyelid closed. The eyelid will feel your finger. A dark
spot with a halo of light about the area of the finger that is
in contact with the eyelid will be sensed or “seen”.
WHAT IS A WAVE?
18
If the up and down movement of this point is plotted
on paper that is behind and moving horizontally (across) at
an even speed, the vertical distance AB (also equal to AC)
traveled by the midpoint on the paper is called the
amplitude of the wave. The amplitude of a wave determines
its loudness, volume or intensity. The horizontal distance
traveled by the midpoint on the paper during one cycle is
called the length of the wave or wavelength. The number of
cycles completed during/within a unit of time is called the
frequency of the wave, example, cycles per second (cps or
Hertz, Hz). The frequency determines the pitch/key of a
note, the higher the frequency, the higher the pitch/key.
Joseph Fourier, a French physicist, discovered
that any complex wave could be broken down into its
19
component simple sine waves. Waves are simple or
complex. A sine wave is the simplest waveform. It has a
constant amplitude and frequency.
20
waves allowing us to recognize the sound of each
instrument.
21
WHAT ARE OVERTONES?
A vibrating guitar string produces a complex wave. It
does not produce only one sound wave. Sound waves
are simultaneously produced by the whole length, by the
½ length, by the 1/3, by the ¼ length, by the 1/5, 1/6, 1/7
and on the other secondary lengths of the string. They
have different frequencies.
Let us take for example, a guitar string 1-meter long
(its primary length), vibrating at 264 Hertz (its primary
tone) on its primary length. At ½ meter, this string is
also vibrating at 528 Hertz which is 2x the frequency of
the primary tone.
The ½, 1/3, ¼, 1/5, 1/6 meter and so on are called
the secondary lengths of the 1-meter primary length.
On its 1/3 meter, it will be vibrating 3x that of the
primary tone, 3x 264 =792; on the ¼ meter, 4x 264 =
1056; on the 1/5 meter, 5x 264 = 1320, and so on.
These statements say that the frequency of the wave
produced on a secondary length is equal to the
frequency of the primary tone multiplied by the
reciprocal or inverse of the secondary length. The
reciprocal or inverse of ½ is 2/1 or 2; that of 1/3 is 3/1 or
3; ¼ is 4 and so on.
22
On the other hand, the volume of the sound
produced diminishes in direct proportion with the
secondary length. The volume of the wave produced by
the ½ secondary length is ½ that of the primary length.
The volume and intensity of a wave is determined by the
wave’s amplitude. The amplitude is directly proportional
to the secondary length of a vibrating string.
Each of the secondary lengths is producing
overtones of their own on so-called tertiary lengths.
Likewise these tertiary lengths are producing overtones
of their own on the quaternary lengths and so on down
the line.
23
of overtones and the resulting final wave form will give
this particular vibrating string its timbre.
“Color” of Sounds
For some people, sounds of musical instruments
are easily distinguishable from one another. It is not that
easy for others. This is due to varying levels of sensitivity
to small differences in the shapes of the wave. This
ability to distinguish subtle differences in the
“color” of a sound can be acquired and developed.
To support this statement an interesting and
24
revealing scientific experiment is worth mentioning. A
group of kittens was raised in an environment whose
lines were mainly horizontal and another group in an
environment whose lines were mainly vertical.
When they matured and were released to normal
environments, the “horizontal group” kept running into
legs of chairs, tables and objects whose lines were
mainly vertical They “could not see” vertical lines. Those
in the vertical group would bump on object whose lines
were mainly horizontal.
On microscopic examination, differences in their brain
cell structures were identified and authenticated, verified
and/or validated.
This experiment demonstrates that light waves
influence brain cell development. Light and sound are
waves. Waves share common properties. It can be
inferred that sound waves influence brain structure as
well.
25
CHAPTER TWO
Music Intervals
26
with us.
Music interval is the ratio of the frequency of a
note with the frequency of another note. Ratio is the
proportional relation of one frequency to another. Dividing
the frequency of a note with that of another will give us
this ratio/interval. Ex: The frequency of note C is 264 Hz.
The frequency of note G is 396. The interval between these
notes can be stated either as 264/396 or its inverse 396/264
(2/3 or 3/2, if 264 and 396 are divided by 132, a number
common to both, the greatest common number/divisor).
Music intervals are defined 2 ways: (1) intervals
produced by notes with a common reference note, the
tonic and (2) intervals produced between adjacent/nearby
notes. The consecutive natural notes of the Key of C are
given letter names: C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C’. Examples of the
first kind of interval are those between notes C and D, notes
C and E, notes C and F, notes C and G, notes C and A,
notes C and B and finally notes C and C’. Note C is the
reference note, the tonic note of the Key of C.
Examples of intervals between adjacent notes are,
those between notes C and D, notes D and E, notes E and
F, notes F and G, notes G and A, notes A and B and finally
notes B and C’. The interval C and D belongs to both kinds
27
of intervals.
The interval between adjacent notes in a diatonic
scale is either a whole tone or a semitone (half tone or half
step). The whole tone interval is practically or essentially
equal to 16/18 (or 0.89), if we divide the frequency of the
lower note with the frequency of the higher note. If we divide
the frequency of the higher note with that of the lower note
we get the reciprocal 18/16 (or 1.125).
The semitone interval is essentially equal to 16/17
(or 0.94) or its reciprocal 17/16 (or 1.0625).
In the popular Key of C whose notes are assigned
letter names C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C’, note D is the 2nd natural
note and its interval with the tonic C is called a 2nd interval.
Note E is the 3rd natural note and its interval with C is called
the 3rd interval. The interval with the 4th natural note is
called the 4th interval and so on. There are other special
names for all these intervals as we shall see later. They are
more descriptive and specific but somehow tend to muddle
and confuse the issue for others. These names will however
be discussed later for whatever purpose they may serve.
The most popular musical scale is the major diatonic
scale. This scale is associated with the familiar do-re-mi
sound. Let us take an example the C major diatonic scale,
28
also called Key of C, Scale of C or the C Scale. It has 7
easily distinguishable and convenient to remember tones or
notes that are assigned the letters C, D, E, F, G, A, B. For
purposes of practice and convenience these letter notes may
be sung do-re- mi- fa- sol- la- ti.
If you tried to sing that, how did the scale end? Did it
feel that something more was to come after the note -ti? The
feeling that the –ti sound gave, describes what a leading
note does.
Next, instead of singing the scale ending in -ti, sing
do- re- mi- fa- sol- la- ti- do. Doing so creates an atmosphere
of finality.
These feelings are evoked, elicited or produced if one
is familiar with the do-re-mi sound.
The C major diatonic scale is usually written C, D, E,
F, G, A, B, C’. Notice the prime sign (’) on the 2nd C. The
interval C to C’ is an octave. The term octave may also
refer to the 8th natural note of a scale, in this case, note C’.
Octave can also refer to a group of 8 natural notes.
29
INTERVALS WITH THE TONIC
30
are essentially the same. Notes D and D’ are essentially the
same notes, as they produce essentially the same
overtones; but D’ belongs to the next higher octave, scale or
key. The same is true with the other octave intervals
(semitone13).
The interval between the tonic note C and the 2nd
natural note D is called a 2nd interval or a Major 2nd or M2
interval.
The interval between the tonic C and the 3rd natural
note E is called a 3rd interval or a Major 3rd or M3.
The interval between the tonic C and the 4th and the
5th natural notes are respectively referred to as Perfect 4
or P4 and Perfect 5th or P5.
The interval between the tonic and the 6th natural note
is called a Major 6th or M6. The interval with the 7th natural
note is called a Major 7th or M7. After the octave are the 9th,
10th, 11th, 12th, 13th intervals.
31
The harmonic overtones produced on the secondary
lengths (½, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6, 1/7, 1/8, 1/9 and so on) are
progressively and proportionately increasing in frequency.
Harmony with the tonic however proportionately
diminishes with the increase in frequency.
The amplitudes of the waves proportionately
diminish with the secondary lengths. And because the
amplitude determines the volume of the overtones, they are
progressively less heard.
32
Perfect
Unison
Octave
Dominant
Subdominant
Major
Mediant
Submediant
Supertonic
Leading Note
Accidentals
Augmented
Diminished
Minor
PERFECT INTERVALS
33
The simultaneous playing of notes whose frequencies
are an octave apart is practically a unison. Notes that are an
octave apart produce practically the same overtones. The
prime sign (‘) after the letter note is used to signify a note
which is one octave higher, like C’ is one octave higher than
C. The notes C, D, E, F, G, A and B will sound essentially
the same as the notes C’, D’, E’, F’ G’, A’ and B’ although
they are one octave apart.
The overtone created on the ½ length, the 2nd
harmonic overtone creates the octave interval with the
tonic.
As mentioned earlier, the term octave also refers to
the 8th natural note, like C’ is the octave of C, and the other
way around. Octave is also conveniently used to mean a
group of 8 natural notes. The group of the notes namely C,
C#, D, D#, E, F, F#, G, G#, A, A#, B and C’ has 13 notes.
Although it has 13 notes, this group of notes is still called an
octave, because it has only 8 designated natural notes.
Dominant
The overtone that creates the next most pleasing
interval with the tonic is the 3rd harmonic overtone. The 1/3
secondary length produces this. Its waves dominate the
other subsequent harmonic overtones by overshadowing
34
them as to loudness and as to influence in determining the
final waveform of the tonic. The 1/2 partial of this overtone is
assigned to the dominant and 5th natural note of the major
diatonic scale of its tonic.
The frequencies of the notes within an octave are
equal to the partials of the frequencies of the harmonic
overtones of the tonic.
The range of frequencies of the notes in an octave
starts with the frequency of the tonic and ends with the
frequency of the 8th natural note (the octave note, semitone
13, the 2nd harmonic overtone or the overtone produced by
the ½ secondary length). In our reference scale the Key of
C, the frequencies of the notes start with 264 Hz (tonic C)
and ends with 528 Hz (note C’, the 8th natural note, the
octave note of C, semitone 13 or frequency of the 2nd
harmonic overtone of tonic C).
The frequency of the 3rd harmonic overtone of note
C is 264 x 3 = 792 Hz. This is beyond the 264 to 528 Hz
range. If we divide 792 by 2 we get the frequency 396 Hz.
This frequency is assigned to note G, the designated 5th
natural and dominant note of this reference scale, the Key
of C. As we shall see farther, the frequencies of the other
notes in this scale, natural and accidental, are portions/parts
35
of or partials of the frequencies of the harmonic overtones
produced by the secondary lengths.
The interval that the dominant note G creates with its
tonic (note C) is called a 5th interval because the assigned
note to it is the 5th natural note of the C Scale. This interval
is also known as Perfect 5th or P5. The interval is 8
semitones. The frequency of note G is 264 x 3/2 = 396
Hertz.
Subdominant
Another perfect interval with the tonic is the Perfect
4th (P4). The interval it creates with the tonic is less
harmonious than that created by P5. The interval is 6
semitones. Its frequency is a partial of the 4th harmonic
overtone. The 4th harmonic overtone is produced by the ¼
length of a vibrating string. !/3 of this frequency is assigned
to the 4th natural note of the diatonic scale of its tonic.
The 4th harmonic overtone of tonic C is 264 x 4 = 1056
Hz. 1/3 of 1056 is 352 Hz. This frequency is assigned to
note F, the designated 4th natural note of the Key of C, In
the Key of C, note F is a natural note below the dominant
note G. Note F is less dominant to and less harmonious with
tonic C. Note F is consequently called the subdominant of
36
the Key of C
MAJOR INTERVALS
Mediant
The overtone that creates the next most pleasing
interval with the tonic is the 5th harmonic overtone. The 1/5
length of a vibrating string produces it. The frequency of the
5th harmonic overtone of note C is 264 x 5 = 1320. The ¼
partial of this frequency is 330 Hz. This frequency falls right
in the middle of the frequency of the tonic (264 Hz) and that
of the 5th note (396 Hz). This note is consequently called
the mediant of the Key of C. This note is designated as the
3rd natural note of the C major diatonic scale. The interval it
creates with the tonic is called a Major 3rd (M3) or 5
semitones. The mediant of the C Scale is note E. Its
frequency is 264 x 5/4 = 330 Hertz.
Submediant
37
secondary length of a vibrating string. The frequency of
the submediant is 1/3 of the 5th harmonic overtone. The
submediant of the C Scale is note A. The interval it
creates with the tonic is called a Major 6th (M6) or
semitone 10. The frequency of note A is 264 x 5/3 = 440
Hertz.
38
notes. The frequency of the sound Do on an Alto
Saxophone differs from the frequency of the sound Do on
a standard trumpet.
The frequency of the sound Do of an Alto Saxophone
is 313.5 Hz. This is the same frequency as that of note Eb
on the piano. The Alto Saxophone is accordingly called
an Eb instrument. The frequency of the sound Do on a
standard trumpet is 231 Hz, same as the frequency of the
note Bb of the piano. The standard trumpet is accordingly
called a Bb instrument.
In producing the Do-Re-Mi- sound, the fingering
(which holes are close or open) is the same for all kinds
of saxophones (bass, tenor, alto, soprano), clarinets,
flutes and piccolos. This means that if one knows how to
play the do-re-mi sound on one of the mentioned music
instrument, he/she can play the do-re-mi sound with the
same fingering on all the other instruments. They will
however differ as to Key or pitch. The key/pitch is
determined by frequency of the Do- sound of the
instrument, its assigned tonic. If the frequency of the tonic
is the same as that of the C of the piano, the pitch/key of
that instrument is C. If it is equal to that of note D of the
piano its pitch/key is D.
39
The tonic determines the pitch or key of a Key or Scale. We have the 12
Keys or Scales, C, C# (Db), D, D# (Eb), E, F, F# (Gb), G, G# (Ab), A, A#
(Bb) and B depending on the tonic. The other Keys or Scales have the same
letter names but they belong to lower or higher octaves. They are signified by
the use of small letters or prime signs.
40
assign them equal frequencies and call them enharmonic
equivalents. Present day music scales are tempered.
Semitone intervals are not exactly 16/17 or 17/16 in the
same way that whole tone intervals are not exactly 16/18 or
18/16. They are however essentially and practically 16/17
and 16/18 intervals.
A natural note that is lowered or made “flat” by a
semitone is signified by the flat sign b after the letter symbol
of the natural note. A natural note made higher or made
“sharp” by a semitone is signified by the sharp sign # after
the letter symbol of the natural note.
The frequency of this accidental note is 264 x 7/4 =
462. Please read further on Accidentals.
Interestingly, note A# or Bb, even if its only an
accidental note has a higher ranking in the hierarchy of
harmony than a Major 7th (M7) semitone 12 or note B, a
natural note. Historically, it took many years of exposure to
the M7 before listeners came to appreciate the sound of this
interval. M7 is a characteristic interval/sound of Jazz music.
Supertonic
The next most pleasing interval is that with the 9th
harmonic overtone. This is produced by the 1/9 secondary
length of a vibrating string. The 1/8 partial of this frequency
41
corresponds to the natural note, one note superior (above)
the tonic; it is thus called the supertonic. The supertonic
of the C Scale is note D. It creates a Major 2nd interval, M2
(semitone 3) with the tonic. The frequency of note D is 264
x 9/8 = 297 Hertz.
Leading Note
Among the natural notes of a major diatonic scale, the
least pleasing harmony/interval is produced by the 15th
harmonic overtone. It is produced by the 1/15 secondary
length of a vibrating string. The 1/8 partial of this frequency
corresponds to the 7th natural note and creates a major 7th
interval (M7) with the tonic (semitone 12). This is note B. It
creates the greatest “tension” with the tonic, and being so,
must invariably resolve or lead to the tonic. This note is thus
called the leading note. The frequency of note B is 264 x
15/8 = 495 Hertz.
42
ACCIDENTALS
Augmented Intervals
Perfect and major intervals are augmented when they
are lengthened or increased by a semitone. Raising the
higher note a semitone does this. An augmented note is
signified by the sharp sign # after the letter note. A perfect
5th, semitone 8 (C to G,) is augmented by raising note G a
semitone, Thus a C to G# is an Augmented 5th, A5, +5 or
semitone 9. Another example is, a Major 6th, semitone 10
(C to A) is augmented by raising the higher note A, a
semitone. Thus a C to A# is an Augmented 6th, A6 or
semitone 11.
Diminished Intervals
43
Lowering the higher note of a perfect interval by a
semitone diminishes the interval. A P5, semitone 8 (ex. C
to G) is diminished to C to Gb. A diminished note is signified
by the flat sign b. Thus C to Gb is a diminished 5th, d5, –5
or semitone 7.
Minor Intervals
Lowering the higher note of a major interval by a
semitone makes it minor. A Major 3rd (C to E), semitone 5,
becomes a minor 3rd, semitone 4, when E is lowered to
Eb. A Major 7th C to B, semitone 12, becomes a m7,
semitone 11, when B is lowered to Bb.
44
The intervals EF and BC’ have no semitones in between.
These intervals are called semitones (half tones, half steps,
16/17 or 17/16).
As will be mentioned repeatedly, the location of the
semitone interval determines the mood/atmosphere of a
scale.
An example is: In the Key of C, the semitone interval is
between the 3rd and 4th and between the 7th and 8th natural
notes as shown in the following illustration. (Alternatively,
this scale can be viewed as being composed of 2 similar and
smaller scales which are C, D, E, F and G, A, B, C’. Both
are composed of 4 notes, 1st three of which are whole tones
apart, the 3rd and 4th notes are only semitones apart.)
45
maintained.
46
CHAPTER 3
47
As non-musicians use visual symbols to convey ideas
with letters of the alphabet, punctuation marks, words,
sentences and paragraphs, musicians use another set of
visual symbols. Musical notation is the use of this set of
symbols.
We will start with symbols that show the pitch of a
note. Later we will learn the symbols that show the location
and duration of sounds and silences.
48
Most notes have 2 parts, a note head and a stem.
49
Musicians, artistic as they are, use a fancy version of
the letter G.
50
treble and the bass clef are connected with a brace. This is
called the grand staff.
ACCIDENTALS
The Key of C has 7 natural notes (8 including the
octave note). There are “unnatural notes” called
accidentals. To designate these accidentals, 2 symbols are
used. In the staff, to raise a note a semitone (or a half step),
the sharp sign # is written before a note symbol. When used
with a letter note, the sign is written after.
To lower a note by a semitone the flat sign b is used.
When these signs are written in the staff, just after the
G or F clef, they apply to all the notes on those spaces or
lines in all the measures.
When these signs are written within a measure or a
bar, they affect only the notes in that particular measure.
After the bar line, the notes revert back to their previous
pitch.
51
NATURAL SIGN
RHYTHM
We learned that the vertical location of notes on the
staff shows their pitch. We will now study the symbols that
show duration of notes and silences.
We indicate the pitch and duration of a musical sound
with a note symbol. The rest symbols indicate the location
and duration of silences.
DURATION OF NOTES
The whole note has the longest time value.
52
Shorter duration of notes is indicated by stems,
shading the oval and flags on the stem.
53
The most frequent combinations are those in which a
note is tied to another note ½ its value. A dot placed after a
note head, is a more precise and concise symbol than a tie.
A dot increases the duration by ½ its value.
THE FERMATA
54
The fermata sign over a note means that the note is
held longer that what the value signifies. How much longer is
left to the discretion of the conductor or of a solo performer.
55
BEATS AND NOTE VALUE
To determine how long to play each note, we have to
know what kind of note is equal to one beat. If for example,
we know that a quarter note equals one beat, then a half
note will have two beats and a whole note, four beats.
TIME SIGNATURE
The time signature indicates the meter of a music
piece. It consists of 2 numbers, written after the clef sign just
at the beginning of the first measure. The upper number tells
the number of beats per measure and the bottom number
tells what kind of notes receives one beat. A time signature
56
of ¾ means there are 3 quarter notes to a measure or its
equivalence in notes and/or rests. It means that the quarter
note receives a beat and there are 3 beats to a measure.
PULSES
One beat may be broken into pulses. Like for
example, the sound of a train may be heard as RACK-e-ty,
RACK-e-ty, RACK-e-ty. The RACK sound represents the
beat, and the RACK, the –e and the –ty sounds are the
pulses of the beat.
57
CHAPTER FOUR
Musical Scales
An Overview
(Complementary Viewpoint)
58
demonstrate: The frequency of note C is 264 Hz. The
frequency of the next/adjacent higher semitone, note C#, is
280.5 Hz. If we divide 264 by 280.5 we get the ratio/interval
16/17 or 0.94. The interval between C# (280.5 Hz) and the
next higher semitone, note D (297 Hz) is also 16/17. The
interval between D and D#, D# and E, E and F, F and F#
and so on, are all 16/17.
Assigning numbers to the semitones will make
understanding and definition of the concepts easier. The fact
that the intervals between adjacent semitones is constant
means that as long as we retain the semitone template,
pattern or sequence, the intervals between notes and the
reference note, the tonic (note C in our example), is
maintained. It also means that retaining the semitone
template, maintains its mood/atmosphere/melody. The
resulting combination of notes will however belong to
another key/pitch/octave.
Example: The semitone template of Do-Re-Mi-Fa-
Sol-La-Ti-Do sound in the Key of C is 1-3-5-6-8-10-12-13.
Semitone 1 is note C. Using the same template but with note
D as semitone 1 will create the same Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol-La-
Ti-Do sound/melody, but in the Key of D. The resulting
melody sounds “the same” but higher in pitch/key or octave
59
(another group of 8 natural notes).
The use of the semitone template is applicable to
music chords (major triads, 7th chords, extended chords, 11th,
13th), Modal Scales, diatonic scales (major and minor) and
many others.
Back to Basics
Many are familiar with a musical jewelry box. Each
time such a box is opened, it plays a melody. The
melody/music is produced mechanically by pegs or pins on
the surface of a rotating cylinder that beat/hit/strike the tuned
teeth of a comb like steel plate.
Imagine a comb like steel plate.
60
teeth representing the black keys are of the same size and
are aligned with those of the white keys. Let us assign letters
to the teeth of the steel plate: C, C#, D, D#, E, F, F#, G, G#,
A, A#, B, C’. These are the same letter names assigned to
the notes/keys of the Key of C on the piano. Letters with the
sharp sign (#) represent the black keys on the piano which
are the accidental notes of the Key of C. The white keys
are its natural notes.
61
semitone interval. Such progression is called chromatic.
A musical scale that progresses in semitone interval is called
a chromatic scale. Let us assign numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 to the pegs.
62
If we slide this major diatonic template one tooth to
the right, the pegs will strike notes C#, D#, F, F#, G#, A#, C’
and C’#.
63
Sliding the template another tooth to the right will align
the numbers of the template to the natural notes of the Key
of D.
64
Music sheets are easily available for the piano.
Transposing melodies for any music instrument from music
sheets for an instrument with a different pitch/key can then
be done by anyone with this knowledge.
65
the note 1, F# as the note 2(F# is the 5th semitone from D)
and A as note 3 (A is the 8th semitone from D).
66
CHAPTER 5
Diatonic Scales, Major and Minor
67
Let us include the semitone numbers:
68
The semitone template for a minor diatonic scale
is 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 13. By remembering these 2
semitone templates, 1, 3, 5, 6, 8,10,12,13 and 1, 3, 4, 6, 8,
10, 12, 13, we can now easily identify the notes of the major
and the minor diatonic scales in all the 12 Keys. We can now
build 24 diatonic scales by memory, remembering only 2
diatonic templates. We need not remember how many
sharps or flats there are nor memorize where they are, to be
able to identify the different diatonic scales. All we need is to
know the following letters of alphabet (A, B, C, D, E, F and
G), with a little modification to insert the 5 accidental notes
(C#, D#, F#, G# and A#,) and the semitone templates of the
major and minor keys (1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 13 or 1, 3, 4,
6, 8, 10, 12 and 13).
To demonstrate: To identify the notes of the Key of G,
write the chromatic alphabet starting with note G together
with its now assigned semitone numbers.
69
Following the semitone template for the major diatonic
scale (1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 13), let us underline them:
70
following illustrations depict how conveniently the semitone
template works. These illustrations are presented only to
clarify the concept, other methods convenient to the readers
may be devised:
71
72
73
The minor diatonic scales can likewise be easily
identified by using the semitone template for the minor
diatonic scale:
74
75
76
CHAPTER SIX
Modal Scales
77
scales work in these activities is beyond the scope of this
book. However, it is interesting to mention that a once
popular Beatles’ song “Eleanor Rigby” is a revival of the
Dorian mode, for whatever interest it may kindle. This
chapter will identify these modal scales; the derivative and
the parallel approach in building/constructing them.
This chapter intends to demonstrate how easily they
are derived and thereby minimize the clouds that some
people have about that the term modal scales. This chapter
intends to show how changing the location of semitone
intervals can change the atmosphere or mood of a set of
notes.
78
the C Major Diatonic Scale. This is also called the Ionian
Mode. This is the most popular mode during the Ionic era in
Greece until it gained the distinction of being called a scale.
This scale passed the test of time and influenced the
development of Western music. It is the progression of notes
many are familiar with. In most instances it is used as the
reference scale and has influenced nomenclature in music.
The Greeks established the principles. The Italians were
most productive in written music during the 17th century, so
much so that most music terms are Italian.
Until today the Ionian mode is the most popular sound,
the Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol-La-Ti-D sound. This sound is
considered most pleasing and most easily memorized.
79
Notice the location of the semitone interval between
the 2nd and 3rd and the 6th and 7th natural notes of this mode.
Compare to the 3rd and 4th and the 7th and 8th natural notes of
the Ionic Mode. The location of these semitone intervals
distinguishes the created/projected atmospheres of the
modal scales.
Take note also that this Dorian Mode is the 1st
inversion of the Ionic Mode, having started with the 2nd
note of the latter. Notice also subsequently that the other
modal scales are merely inversions of the Ionic mode.
80
The semitone template/pattern for the Phrygian Mode
is thus 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13.
81
The Aeolian Mode
This is the 5th inversion and the template is 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9,
11, 13.
82
These inversions are constructed by the derivative
approach. The other method of building a modal scale
is the parallel approach. This is where the ease in
using the semitone template as a guide becomes
apparent.
Let us build the Locrian Mode in the Key of F.
Write the chromatic alphabet starting with note F with
its corresponding semitone numbers.
83
The other way is to use the Locrian Mode semitone
template.
84
CHAPTER SEVEN
The Pentatonic and the Whole Tone Scale
85
we have C, D, E, G, A,
86
semitone template rather than identifying the natural notes of
a diatonic scale and removing the 4th and the 7th natural
notes in that key.
87
music is unique in the sense that it uses half semitone
interval or ¼ of a whole tone interval.
88
The Whole Tone Scales
As the name denotes, these scales have only whole
tone intervals between adjacent natural notes. There are
only 2 scales, the C whole tone scale and the C# whole tone
scale. The other 10 whole tone scales are but inversions of
the 2 mentioned whole tone scales. The semitone template
of both whole tone scales is 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13.
89
The absence of an identifiable tonic characterizes the
Whole Tone Scales. This absence supposedly creates an
atmosphere of uncertainty, of being suspended nowhere.
This scale is used for the background music of suspense
thriller movies
CHAPTER EIGHT
Music Chords
90
gather the notes together, giving them form, fluidity, body
and more “color”.
The notes of the chords are the notes that are played
by the left hand on the piano keyboard. The notes of the
melody are usually played by the right hand.
Composers may initially decide on what sequence of
chords to use and then tailor the notes of the melody to it.
The usual practice is to compose the melody and adapt the
chords later.
This chapter will deal mainly with the construction of
chords in the Key of C. The piano keyboard will be our
reference music instrument. If we can build the chords in
the Key of C, we will be able to build them in all the other 11
Keys with the use of the semitone template created in
harmonizing/building the chord in the Key of C. Letters of
the alphabet A, B, C, D, E, F and G are assigned to the 7
natural notes of a major diatonic scale. Accidental notes,
are those whose frequencies are between the frequencies of
adjacent natural notes. They are signified by the sharp sign
(#) or a flat sign (b) after the letter note, depending on
whether one is going up or going down a scale. A sharp sign
after the letter note is used if the frequency of that natural
note is increased by a semitone interval or a flat sign if the
91
natural note is lowered by a semitone interval. Letter C is
assigned to the 1st natural note of the Key of C. There are 12
Keys namely, C, C#, D, D#, E, F, F#, G, G#, A, A# and B.
The others are octaves of these original 12.
We have learned the principle of transposition. What
we learn in the Key of C applies to all the other 11 Keys. The
things we learned in an earlier chapter about construction of
semitone templates and their uses will be useful.
As a rule, the notes of the chords should be natural
notes of the Key (Key of C in our example). There are black
and white keys/levers on the piano keyboard. The black keys
are shorter. They are grouped in 2s and 3s and are
interspersed between the farther half of the white keys. In
the middle of the keyboard, the white key immediately to the
left of the 2 black keys is the lever that strikes the note C.
Striking the white keys one by one going to the right will
produce the following notes: C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C' and on to
the next octave.
92
The white keys are the natural notes of the Key of C.
Striking every other white key beginning with note C
will produce the notes C, E, G, B, D' and so on. These
notes are described to be 3 natural notes from each
other.
93
other, like the notes C and E are 3 natural notes from each
other (C D E). The notes E and G are also 3 natural notes
from each other (E F G). The notes G and B are also 3
natural notes from each other (G A B). See illustration
above.
A quartel chord is one whose notes are 4 natural
notes from each other. The notes C and F are 4 natural
notes from each other (C D E F). The note combination F
and B is also a quartel (F G A B).
94
movies of trips to outer space and of futuristic adventures.
Tertiaries
The commonly used chords are tertiaries. They are
built on 3rds. Chords are built on thirds when its notes are 3
natural notes from each other.
Let us take for example the 3-note chord C E G.
95
note 2 and G is note 3 of the chord. The semitone
template is 1, 5, and 8. Semitone 1 identifies the root of the
chord. In this instance that we are harmonizing the Key of
C, the root note C is also the tonic. Subsequently though,
as we harmonize the Key of C and use its other natural
notes as roots in building the other diatonic chord triads, we
have to remember that the resulting note 2 of that chord
triad is 3 natural notes from the root and not the 3rd
natural note of that root.
The interval that note 2 creates with the root note
determines whether the chord is a minor or a major. A 5
semitone interval produces a major chord while a 4
semitone interval produces a minor chord. Thus a CEG
chord is a major chord because the interval between C (the
root note) and E (note 2) is 5 semitones (C, C#, D, D# and
E). The DFA chord on the other hand is a minor chord
because the interval between D (the root note) and F (note
2) is 4 semitones (D,D#, E and F).
96
Diatonic 7th Chord
Another 3rd natural note from note 3 of a diatonic
chord triad can be added to produce a 4-note chord called a
diatonic 7th chord. (We can not overemphasize the fact that
the notes we will be using in these diatonic 7th chords are
natural notes of the tonic and not those of the root note.)
97
Extended Chords
Another 3rd natural from note 4 of a diatonic 7th
chord can be added to create extended chords.
98
If we add natural notes which are 3 notes from each
of the natural notes of the Key of C we initially create two-
note chords. Depending on the interval created by note 2
with the root, these 2-note chords are classified major (M)
or minor (m).
99
semitones (D, D#, E and F). This 4-semitone interval makes
it a minor 2-note chord.
100
Diatonic 7th Chords
Adding a 3rd note from notes 3 of diatonic chord
triads will produce diatonic 7th chords.
Extended Chords
Adding another 3rd natural note from note 4 of a
diatonic 7th chord will produce extended chords called 9th
chord because the added note is the 9th natural note of the
Key of C from the root note.
101
Adding to the diatonic 7th chords 3rd natural notes
from the last note of the 9th chords will produce the 11th
chords.
The 3rd natural note from the last note of the C13th
chord is an octave of note C. There is no 15th chord. There
are likewise no 10th, 12th and 14th chords.
102
natural notes of the Key of C are considered in harmony with
its tonic note C. To maintain harmony and tonality, notes of
its chord are preferably natural notes of the Key of C. These
natural notes are notes C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C', D', E' and so
on.
The process of identifying the notes of the chords that
will sound pleasing together with the tonic and its natural
notes is called harmonizing that Scale/Key or tonic.
103
Notice that all the notes are natural notes of tonic C,
not one is an accidental note. Let us analyze the first
diatonic chord triad CEG in the music notation above with
the help of a diagram of a piano keyboard below:
104
semitones (C, Db, D, and Eb). The semitone template for a
minor diatonic chord triad is 1, 4 and 8.
105
106
107
A major chord triad is called by its root note like the
chords C, F and G.
Minor chord triads are denoted by a lower case m after
the root note, like Dm, Em, Am and Bm-5.
Notice in the summary above that in all the diatonic
chord triads where the intervals between the root and note
3 are all Perfect 5th (8 semitones), it is only in the Bm-5
chord, where note 3 (the 5th natural note from the root note
B) is lowered by a semitone (diminished) to semitone 7.
This chord is more accurately known then as Bm dim5 or Bm
d5 or Bm -5 ; Bm because the interval of the root with note
2 is 4 semitones (a minor 3rd interval or m3) and dim5, d5
or -5 because the 5th natural note (note 3) is diminished to
semitone 7.
108
Let us illustrate the first diatonic 7th chord above on a
piano keyboard diagram:
109
The diatonic 7th chords are built by adding another note to
a diatonic chord triad. We add a 3rd natural note from note 3
of the chord triad. This becomes note 4 of the diatonic 7th
chord.
110
well as the root note, because we are harmonizing the Key
of C.
111
In summary (take note also of the semitone
templates):
112
G7 is a particularly interesting chord. Among the
diatonic 7th chords (CM7, FM7 and G7) whose notes 2 and
notes 3 are M3 and P5 respectively only in G7 does the root
note create a minor 7th interval with its note 4. The other two,
CM7 and FM7 have their 7th note a major 7th. Furthermore,
G7 is also a 7th chord (not only a diatonic 7th chord) because
its semitone template is 1, 5, 8 and 11, like the rest of the 7th
chords.
The other diatonic 7th chords all have a minor 3rd note
2, a perfect 5th note 3 and a minor 7th note 4; except Bm7-5
whose note 3 is a diminished 5th
113
All these chord triads and diatonic 7th chords will
harmonize with melodies in the Key of C.
Extended Chords
114
The 3rd natural from note B (note 4) is note D’. Note
D’ is the 9th natural note of the Key of C. The resulting
extended chord is called C9.
or
115
The 3rd natural note from note F’ is note A’. Note A’
added to a CM7 diatonic 7th chord will give us the extended
chord C13.
7th CHORDS
The 7th chords are to be carefully distinguished from
116
the diatonic 7th chords. The 7th chords always have a
tonic (distinguish from root), a note 2 that is always a
major 3rd (5 semitones), a note 3 that is always a perfect
5th (8 semitones) and a note 4 that is a minor 7th (11
semitones). The diatonic 7th chords on the other hand
have a root (not a tonic); a note 2 which has either a major
or a minor 3rd interval with the root (5 or 4 semitones); a
note 3 which has either a perfect or a diminished 5th
interval with the root (8 or 7 semitones) and a note 4
whose interval with the root is either a major or a minor 7
(12 or 11 semitones). Furthermore, there are only twelve
7th chords while there are 84 diatonic 7th chords (seven
diatonic 7th chords in each of the 12 Keys).
The 7th chords are C7, C#7, D7, D#7, E7, F7,F#7,
G7(also a diatonic 7th chord), G#7, A7, A#7, B7. The
semitone template of these 7th chords is 1, 5, 8 and 11.
The 7th chord gained earlier acceptance because a
minor 7th interval (11 semitones) is more harmonious to
the tonic than a major 7th interval (12 semitones) is. It took
many years of exposure to the diatonic 7th chord before
listeners started to appreciate this chord.
Diatonic 7th chord is characteristic sound of Jazz
117
music.
118
The 7th chords will generally harmonize only with
melodies that are in the Key of its tonic, like C7 will
harmonize only with melodies in the Key of C and D7 will
sound well only with melodies in the Key of D.
119
CHAPTER 9
120
PITCH RANGE
Pitch range is the interval between the highest and
lowest notes. Most folk songs have a range of about an
octave. The smallest range is about a 6th interval. Children’s
songs are often limited to a 5th interval.
Melodies with a range greater than an octave have
more dynamic qualities. The most common range of Beatles’
song is greater than an octave, being that of a 10th or an 11th.
121
rhythm. A melody whose notes are played in a different
rhythm is harder to identify than a melody whose notes
are modified but played in the original rhythm.
MELODIC UNITS
The smallest musical unit that expresses an idea is
called a motive. The next larger is a phrase. Phrases may
be organized into larger sections called parts or specialized
sections called periods. The parts or periods are often
organized into a larger section called a song form. Song
forms are organized into compound song forms.
THE MOTIVE
It takes only 2 notes to make a motive, if the notes
are sufficiently distinctive such that each note can be audibly
differentiated from the other. For example, one note is on the
up beat while the other note is on the down beat or if one
note is a 4th or a 5th interval of the other. The motive may be
modified by changing the order of the notes or by adding
connecting notes so that a disjunct is changed to a conjunct
movement. Modification may be done by contrary motion.
Contrary motion is making the notes go in the opposite
direction. When the original notes go up, the notes in the
122
variation go down or vice versa.
THE PHRASE
A phrase is a segment of a melody similar to a
sentence in a speech. It is a melodic unit a singer sings in
one breath.
THE PART
The next larger melodic unit is a part. A part is made
up of a series phrases. The last phrase of a part is marked
by a pause, a cadence. The cadence is not very definite and
tends to signal that another part is to follow.
123
tonic.
124
trio in the literal sense. (The practice of still doing things the
same way even when the reasons for doing them are no
longer valid is not the monopoly of music artists).
After the trio, the principal song returns, usually with
some variations.
CHAPTER TEN
125
CADENCE
126
We may place the red marbles in the periphery. It will
seem that we have more reds. We may choose to put
oranges on one side, yellow on another, green and blue on
others. Our box will seem to contain more of certain colors
depending on which side is viewed.
We may decide to see only the indigos and convince
ourselves that we have more of indigos. Lies continuously
repeated become apparent truths. Others may want to see
only the violets.
We may be too busy finding out (maybe even criticize)
how others are arranging theirs that we never had time to
realize how we like ours to be. We may succeed or fail, be
satisfied or be disappointed with the results. Varied and
different shades of consequences are possible.
Some situations are beyond control, but options and
choices are plenty. The choice is ours.
Beethoven continued to compose even when he was
already deaf. We know musicians who are blind since birth.
We see piano/accordion players missing some fingers.
Some may have given up learning and studying
music, probably because of real or imagined stumbling
blocks. This book hopes to have helped remove some of
those blocks by offering simple, easy to remember mental
127
pegs and handles with which to again explore the world of
music with better results.
Knowing the musical chromatic alphabet (literally as
simple as ABC) and few variations of numbers 1 to 13, is all
that is needed to easily understand what a diatonic scale is.
It is what we need to know to understand and be able to
build from memory all kinds of musical scales. With this
knowledge we understand how whole tone scales can create
certain atmospheres, or why quartel chords sound strange to
many.
Knowing these two simple things helped us
understand how music chords in all scales and keys are
built. Why are some combinations of notes more pleasing?
Having this knowledge will help us find answers to many
questions.
The path we will take and the progress we will
accomplish depend on how we put to use the potentials of
this knowledge. May this book help us in the study,
appreciation and analysis of music.
Let us not however be like the centipede, who one
day, while gracefully and nimbly negotiating a rough terrain,
was asked by a curious (envious? malicious?) frog: ”Hey
128
friend, which among your legs do you lift first and which legs
follow?”
The centipede stopped and analyzed. He was not able
to walk as deftly again.
129
130