From sedimentary environments to rock physics. Prediction of rock properties in sedimentary basins. Examples from Offshore Norway.

Rock properties are important both for petroleum exploration and production and include: Porosity, permeability, density, compressibility, resistivity and velocity.

Knut Bjrlykke Department of Geosciences.

University of Oslo, Norway

Different disciplines - same goal?

Sedimentology Structural geology Petrophysics Geophysics/ modeling Diagenesis

Prediction of rock properties

Soil mechanics Rock mechanics

Rock physics

These disciplines are often not well integrated.

Prediction of porosity is important for the determination of oil in place before drilling.

Oil/water Contact (OWC)

1 m3 Sandstone

Sandstone

1 m3 Sandstone Rock volume above OWC Net/gross Porosity

2.0-2.5 km depth (80-100 C) Porosity 25% Permeability -1Darcy Oil saturation 85 % Oil 212,5 dm3/m32.5 Recovery 60 % ?

4.0 km depth (120-140 C) Porosity 15% Permeability - 0.1Darcy Oil saturation 60% Oil 90 dm3/m3 Recovery 40.50% ?

Accumulation of organic matter

From Bjrlykke Petroleum Geoscience 2010, Springer

Burial and generartion of petroleum

Conventional reservoirs Unconventional reservoirs Source rocks /shales

Conventional and unconventional natural gas

Compaction of sedimentary layers with different initial composition.

Permeability ?

Ideal modelled Porosity/depth trend =0e-cz

Real porosity/dept curve Rock properties (i. e. velocity)

Fig 2 K.B

Burial diagenesis - Compaction of silicious sedimenets

Initial sediment composition ? Surface Mechanical Compaction Effective stress 70 100C Chemical Compaction Thermodynanamics D and kinetics E P T H

Density velocity (ampl.)

Strain Porosity
Prediction of rock properties can be based on observations, experiments and modelling

Measurements from logs or cores provides a good bases for prediction rock properties at deeper and shallower depth

Stress/Temperature

Fig 7 K.B

Early diagenesis is controlled by the depositional environment, provenance and ground water flow (climate).
Changes in the composition with dept are due to lateral facies changes.
illitic

Carbonate ?

.-

K.Bjorlykke

Meteoric water flow as a function of sea level, facies and climate

High meteoric water flow at low stand
Biogenic carbonates and silica Marine cement i.e. carbonates In dry climates there is less feldspar dissolution and precipitation of kaolinite

Slope deposits

Feldspar (K(Na)Al3Si3 O8) +2H+ + 9 H2O = Kaolinite (Al2Si2(OH)4) + 4H4SiO 4 + K + (Na +) This reaction requires supply of water and removal of the reaction products - Silica and potassium. The K + /H + ratio is critical
K.Brlykke

Authigenic kaolinite

Authigenic quartz
Clay coating on feldspar

Dissolved feldspar

Kaolinite was often interpreted to postdate quartz cementation!

Feldspar (K(Na)Al3Si3 O8)+2H+ + 9 H2O = Kaolinite (Al2Si2(OH)4) + 4H4SiO 4 + K +(Na+)

This reaction requires the removal of Silica and K +(Na+) by flowing pore water (meteoric water) 8.0

Quartz saturation
6.0

Weathering and Shallow diagenesis.

Dry climate and poor drainage smectite ! Humid climate and good drainage kaolinite !

Illite

Log aK+/aH
+

Feldspar (microcline) Amorphous silica saturation

4.0

2.0

Gibb - site

Mixed Kaolayer linite clay

Smectite
0.0 -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0

Log aSiO2(aq)

K.Bjrlykke

Compaction of Sand
Strain
Porosity

Loose sand and clay

Depth (km)

80-100 C
2.5

Cemented sand and claystones

5

25

50

Stress (MPa) Rock strength due to cementation Effective stress (e) at hydrostatic p.p. Effective stress at over pressure

Bjrlykke 2003

Experimental mechanical compaction

Stress

Compacation in Sedimentary basins

L Strain

L
CREEP ?
Sedimentary basinsmainly vertical compression except in tectonically active areas (i. e foldbelts)

Fluid pressure control

Odeometer

Triaxial compaction

Experimental mechanical compaction show that well sorted Coarse grained sand compact more than fine grained sand.
Small and few grain contact areas- high stress!
Porosity % About 3 Km burial dept.
Coarse graind sand (30 MPa)

More grain contacts less stress!

About 4 Km burial dept.

Coarse graind sand (40 MPa)

Stress

Fine graind sand (30 MPa)

Experimental compaction of quartz sand and carbonate ooids

Porosity (%)
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Mean Grain size
Microporous carbonate sand (0.75 mm) Mono-quartz rich sand (0.71 mm) Carbonate ooide sand (0.60 mm)

Vertical effective stress (MPa)

Chuhan et al 2002

Clays and shales

Many sedimentological descriptions of outcrops and cores treat clays and shales as one rock type. Clays and shales may have very different physical properties depending on their clay mineralogy and their content of silt/sand and carbonate content. This is not only important for studies of shale gas and shale oil, but also for interpretation of seismic date and basin modeling More mineralogy is needed in sedimentological descriptions!

Stress - strain (porosity change)

0

Vertical Effective Stress (MPa)

10

At 20 MPa (2 Km depth) Kaolinite: 20% Porosity Smectite: 42% Porosity

20

Kaolinite (100%) Smectite (20%), Kaolinite (80%) Smectite (40%), Kaolinite (60%) Smectite (60%), Kaolinite (40%) Smectite (80%), Kaolinite (20%) Smectite (100%)

30

40

50 0 20 40 60 80

Porosity (%)

Mondol et al., 2007 Marine and Petroleum Geology

Experimental compaction of clays Stress - permeability

0

Vertical Effective Stress (MPa)

10

Smectite: 0.00001 mD Kalonite: 0.004 mD

20

Smectite (100%) Smectite (80%), Kaolinite (20%) Smectite (60%), Kaolinite (40%) Smectite (40%), Kaolinite (60%) Smectite (20%), Kaolinite (80%) Kaolinite (100%)

30

40

50 1E-006 1E-005 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1

Permeability (mD)

Mondol et al., 2008 Petroleum Geoscience

Silty shale Brent Group Statfjord field Well defined Bedding.

2.5 km depth Brent Group,Statfjord Field. N.North Dea

0.2 mm

E50=4,49GPa 50=0,28 Vp=3019m/s Vs=1665m/s

Anisotropi of velocity mineral orientation

Km/s 7.0

Velocity as a function of angle relative to bedding (layering) Voltolini et al 2009 (geophysics).

6.0

5.0 0 20 40 50 80

High energy (synchrotron) X-rays was used to analyse the orientation of clay minerals

From mudstones to shales- Silica to Quartz diagenesis

Authigenic quartz plates produce anisotrophy and shistocity(cleavage)

Growth of micro quartz from dissolving smectite Thyberg et al 2010

Sheets of authigenic quartz in mudstone with high primary smectite content

From Thyberg and Jahren, 2011 Petroleum Geosciences.

Compaction trends

Plio-Pleistocene
Miocene Eocene Relationships betwe Cretaceous

Jurassic

Storvoll et al., AAPG Bull. (2005)

Chemical compaction of quartz sand

Control by temperature rather than stress
Effective stress F from overburden Dissolution of quartz often against clay or mica and transport on the contact to the pore water Stress not rate limiting
S2

Quartz grain
S1

Quartz cements
S3

Precipitation of quartz slow kinetics Temperature rate limiting

Silica concentrations driving transport by diffusion S1 > S2 > S3

Quartz cementation.
Primary clastic grain Quartz cement (overgrowth)

Quartz cementation is a continuous process at temperatures above 70 C It is not episodic!

Fig 16 K.B

Compaction rates due to quartz cementation in sandstones at constant temperature

Volume

100C

120C dV/dt 140C

Walderhaug et. al 2001

Diagenetic processes during burial.

10 C

Time Uplift Extension

45

Mechanical Compaction Chemical compaction (Quartz cementation)

Illitization of kaolinite +KF

Brittle

deformation

70
INTEGRATED TIME TEMPERATURE

105

140

Continued chemical compaction during uplift

Poro sity
Bjrlykke 2010

Fluid inclusions Oil and water record quartz overgrowth!

Oil saturation does not prevent quartz cementation when water wet.

Karlsen et al 1992

Quartz cementation is a continues process. Fluid inclusion temperatures in quartz cement Upper Jurassic sandstone, Fulmar Field North Sea
Number of measurements

15

Present Present temperature

10

reservoir temperature

Start oil filling

80

90

100

110

120

CFluid Fluid inclusion inclusion 130 temperatures C temperatures

Measurements from the water saturated zone. Measurements from the oil saturated zone.

. (Saigal et al. 1992).

HC SAT

Upper Jurssic Sandstone Reservoir at 4.2 Km depth

Water Satur..

Owc
Bitumen Coat.

Bitumen Coating

Maast et al 2011. AAPG Bull..

Clay Coatings
Porosity preservation due to chlorite and illite coatings

Illite coating

Chlorite coating
Garn Fm. 4.8 km Kristin Field. Haltenbanken Mid. Norway.

Illite

K. Bjrlykke, Department of Geosciences

Storvoll et al. 2002

Quartz cystals growing through chlorite coatings.

Natural fractures in reservoir sandstone (Tilje Fm, Smrbukk Field). The quartz grains are chlorite coated but quartz cement have grown from fractured quartz From Chuhan et al. 2002

Diagenetic reactions are driven towards more stable mineral assemblages as a function of increasing temperature and kinetic reaction rates.
Surface

Primary mineralogy
Diagenesis

Thermodynamically unstable minerals like Aragonite, Opal A, Opal CT, Feldspar

B Mineral A and B reacts to form C. i.e K-feldsp. + kaolinite = Illite +quartz + H2O

Cement Bural <2 km) Secondary pore

Neomorph replacement by calcite, quartz etc.

Mineral C Thermo-dynamically more stable than A + B at this temp.

Burial depth/ Temperature Metamorphism

Illite replacing kaolinite as pore filling cement

Jurassic sandstone , Haltenbanken 4.2 km burial depth

SEM Picture of pore filling illite, Haltenbanken, Offshore Mid-Norway. Reduced permeability.

Albite

Phase diagram for kaolinite and feldspar

Log Na+/ H+ Kaolinite K - feldspar

++ + Log Log K+/H K Log K+/H /H+

Log Na+/ H+

Albite K - feldspar Kaolinite

The stability field of kaolinite is reduced with increasing temperature At 140 C kaolinite and Kfeldspar are no longer stable together and will react to form illite. If there no source of K+ kaolinite will be stable.

Illite (muscovite)

Log K+/H+ Bjrlykke and Jahren in press 2012 AAPG. KAlSi3O8 + Al2Si205(OH) 4 = KAl3Si3O10(OH) 2 + 2SiO2 +2H2O K. Feldspar + kaolinite = Illite + quartz

Transport of solids in pore water

The amount of solids dissolved in the pore water is at any time very small. For silica it is only a few ppm compared to the solid phase.
Solids in solution in pore water V2 Volume of precipitated (Authigenic) minerals V3

Volume of clastic minerals V1

When the sandstone consist of 60% quartz, the porosity is 25% and the pore water have silica concentration of 65 ppm (at 100 C) V2/V1 is the 2.5 10-6.

Transport of solids in solution by diffusion or fluid flow ( advection) Requires concentration gradients in the pore water C (dC/dx) Transport (flux) by diffusion: Fd = D C . Here D is the diffusion const. and the C the concentration gradient Advective transport (FA) of solids is a function of the temperature gradient( T and the solubility gradient in the pore water ( S) FA= T S

Compaction driven fluid fluxes in the deeper parts of sedimentary basins. Pore water is on average moving downwards
10 20 30 40 50% Porosity

0 2 S E D I 4 6 M E N T 8 km S
Base ment 4 % at 8 km depth 10 % porosity at 4 km depth Porosity/depth

F = k P/ The compaction driven flux is relatively constant over time

Porosity loss/km subsidence 1.5% Integrated flux (from 4-8km depth) pr km subsidence at 4 km depth: Total flow 60m3/m2 over 33mill years. Fluid flux=60 m3/m2./33106yr= 210-5m3/m2yr.

Subsidence 3.10-5 m/yr

K. Bjrlykke, Department of Geosciences

Limitaions of advective transport of silica

3.5 km 120 C 80 ppm silica

Pore pressure 350 Bar Horizontal flow would have almost no effect. 100 thick sandstone Solubility gradient

3.6 km

123 C 84 ppm silica

In the case of vertical pore water flow through a sandstone, each volume of compaction driven water would precipitate 4 ppm of silica (1.5 10-6 ) volumes of quartz. An import of 1% quartz cement would require precipitation of 1m3 /m2 of quartz cement and a pore water flow of 660 000 m3 /m2.
Fig 7

Precipitation of quartz as a function of rate of cooling due to advective pore water flow. In the sandstone (F1 and F2) this is a function of the slope of bed (sin ). Much of the precipitation will occur when the flow is closer to vertical between the sandstones (F3).

F2

F3

Thermocline

F1
Fault Temperature (Depth)

Fluid flow along sand beds will cause little cooling and precipitation of quartz
Bjrlykke and Jahren AAPG Bull. In press

Silica cons. in pore water

Layer of sand Layer of shale or stylolites

Fluid flow

Compaction of carbonates principally different from clastic sediments

The presence of aragonite in sediments will cause early cementation, particularly when flushed by meteoric water.

Increased burial will then result in little mechanical compaction

Cementation and chemical compaction at shallow depth. Low temperature!

Bjrlykke 2010

Chalk may preserve high porosity (>30%) to 2-3 km depth. In the Ekofisk Field overpressure reduce mechanical compaction

Coccoliths are stable low-Mg calcite. l

Carbonate compaction

Effective stress F from overburden

What is rate limiting for carbonate compaction? The stress per area of grain contact? Clay minerals at grain contact? Transport along grain contacts ? Rate of precipitation (Grain surface?) Pore water composition (Mg. SO4 etc.)-

Carbonate grain Cements Area of grain contact

Over geologic time scales the kinetics or temperature should not be expected to be rate limiting.

Significant net secondary porosity can not form inside limestones

Mudstone with small amounts of calcite Flow perpendicular to bedding

Limestone

Flow parallel with bedding

Pore water in equilibrium with calcite

Concentrated dissolution Mudstone with high organic content and no carbonate Organic acids and CO2 Pore water Under saturated with respect to calcite Dissolved calcite

If the pore water is under saturated with respect to calcite by 100 ppm it will take 10000 volumes of water to dissolve 1 volume of calcite. All the dissolution will however occur at the first contact with calcite due to high reaction rate.

K,Bjrlykke

Conclusions
Diagenetic reactions are driven towards increased mechanical and chemical (thermodynamic) stability. The depositional environment and provenance determine the sediment composition at shallow depth. Mechanical compaction are functions of effective stress, grain size, sorting and mineralogy . Chemical reactions involving mineral dissolution and precipitation are driven towards lower Gibbs Free Energy. During burial diagenesis at greater depth diagenetic reactions are nearly isochemical due to limited advective and diffusive transport in the pore water. Prediction of rock properties as a function of burial history (Effective stress, temperature - time) must be an integrated part of basin analysis