Following is the introduction to the millennial issue of the American Psychologist.

This issue contains 16 articles on the topic of Positive Psychology. Positive Psychology: An Introduction Martin E.P. Seligman and Mihaly si!s"entmihalyi Abstract The new century challenges psychology to shift more of its intellectual energy to the study of the positive aspects of human e#perience. A science of positive su$%ective e#perience& of positive individual traits& and of positive institutions promises to improve the 'uality of life and also to prevent the various pathologies that arise when life is $arren and meaningless. The e#clusive focus on pathology that has dominated so much of our discipline results in a model of the human $eing lac!ing the positive features& which ma!e life worth living. (ope& wisdom& creativity& future mindedness& courage& spirituality& responsi$ility& and perseverance are either ignored or e#plained as transformations of more authentic negative impulses. The 16 articles that ma!e up this millennial issue of the American Psychologist ta!e up this challenge. They descri$e our present state of !nowledge a$out such issues as what ena$les happiness& the effects of autonomy and self)regulation& how optimism and hope affect health& what constitutes wisdom& and how talent and creativity come to fruition. *e outline a framewor! for a science of positive psychology& point to gaps in our !nowledge& and predict that the ne#t century will see a science and profession that will come to understand and $uild those factors that allow individuals& communities& and societies to flourish. Positive Psychology: An Introduction Entering a new millennium& we face an historical choice. +eft alone on the pinnacle of economic and political leadership& the ,nited States can continue to increase its material wealth while ignoring the human needs of its people and that of the rest of the planet. Such a course is li!ely to lead to increasing selfishness& alienation $etween the more and the less fortunate& and eventually to chaos and despair. At this %uncture the social and $ehavioral sciences can play an enormously important role. They can articulate a vision of the good life that is empirically sound while $eing understanda$le and attractive. They can show what actions lead to well $eing& to positive individuals& and to thriving communities. Psychology should $e a$le to help document what !ind of families result in children who flourish& what wor! settings support the greatest satisfaction among wor!ers& what policies result in the strongest civic engagement& and how our lives can $e most worth living.

-et we have scant !nowledge of what ma!es life worth living. Psychology has come to understand 'uite a $it a$out how people survive and endure under conditions of adversity ..For recent surveys of the history of psychology see& e.g. /och 0 +eary& 11234 5en%amin& 11234 and Smith& 11167. 5ut we !now very little a$out how normal people flourish under more $enign conditions. Psychology has& since *orld *ar 8& $ecome a science largely a$out healing. 9t concentrates on repairing damage within a disease model of human functioning. This almost e#clusive attention to pathology neglects the fulfilled individual and the thriving community. The aim of Positive psychology is to $egin to cataly"e a change in the focus of psychology from preoccupation only with repairing the worst things in life to also $uilding positive 'ualities. The field of positive psychology at the su$%ective level is a$out valued su$%ective e#perience: well)$eing& contentment& and satisfaction .past7& hope and optimism .future7& and flow and happiness .present7. At the individual level it is a$out positive individual traits )) the capacity for love and vocation& courage& interpersonal s!ill& aesthetic sensi$ility& perseverance& forgiveness& originality& future)mindedness& spirituality& high talent& and wisdom. At the group level it is a$out the civic virtues and the institutions that move individuals toward $etter citi"enship: responsi$ility& nurturance& altruism& civility& moderation& tolerance& and wor! ethic. Two personal stories& one told $y each author& e#plain how we arrived at the conviction that a movement toward positive psychology was needed and how this special issue came a$out. For the first author .MEPS7& it $egan at a moment in time a few months after he had $een elected President of the American Psychological Association. The moment too! place in my garden while 9 was weeding with my five) year old daughter& ;i!!i. 9 have to confess that even though 9 write $oo!s a$out children& 9<m really not all that good with children. 9 am goal)oriented and time) urgent and when 9<m weeding in the garden& 9<m actually trying to get the weeding done. ;i!!i& however& was throwing weeds into the air& singing& and dancing around. 9 yelled at her. She wal!ed away came $ac! and said& =>addy& 9 want to tal! to you.= =-es& ;i!!i?= =>addy& do you remem$er $efore my fifth $irthday? From the time 9 was three to the time 9 was five& 9 was a whiner. 9 whined every day. *hen 9 turned five& 9 decided not to whine anymore. That was the hardest thing 9<ve ever done. And if 9 can stop whining& you can stop $eing such a grouch.= This was for me an epiphany& nothing less. 9 learned something a$out ;i!!i& a$out raising !ids& a$out myself& and a great deal a$out my profession. First& 9 reali"ed that raising ;i!!i was not a$out correcting whining. ;i!!i did that herself. @ather& 9 reali"ed that raising ;i!!i is a$out ta!ing this marvelous

strength )) 9 call it =seeing into the soul&= )) amplifying it& nurturing it& helping her to lead her life around it to $uffer against her wea!nesses and the storms of life. @aising children& 9 reali"ed& is vastly more than fi#ing what is wrong with them. 9t is a$out identifying and nurturing their strongest 'ualities& what they own and are $est at& and helping them find niches in which they can $est live out these strengths. As for my own life& ;i!!i hit the nail right on the head. 9 was a grouch. 9 had spent fifty years mostly enduring wet weather in my soul& and the last ten years $eing a nim$us cloud in a household full of sunshine. Any good fortune 9 had was pro$a$ly not due to my grumpiness& $ut in spite of it. 9n that moment& 9 resolved to change. 5ut the $roadest implication of ;i!!i<s teaching was a$out the science and profession of psychology: 5efore *orld *ar 8& psychology had three distinct missions: curing mental illness& ma!ing the lives of all people more productive and fulfilling& and identifying and nurturing high talent. The early focus on positive psychology is e#emplified $y such wor! as Terman<s studies of giftedness .Terman& 11A17 and marital happiness .Terman& 5uttenwieser& Ferguson& Bohnson 0 *ilson& 11A27& *atson<s writings on effective parenting .*atson& 11827& and Bung<s wor! concerning the search and discovery of meaning in life .Bung& 11AA7. @ight after the war& two events )) $oth economic )) changed the face of psychology: in 11C6 the Deteran<s Administration was founded& and thousands of psychologists found out that they could ma!e a living treating mental illness. 9n 11C6& the ;ational 9nstitute of Mental (ealth .which& in spite of its charter& has always $een $ased on the disease model& and should now more appropriately $e renamed the ;ational 9nstitute of Mental 9llness7 was founded& and academics found out that they could get grants if their research was a$out pathology. This arrangement $rought many $enefits. There have $een huge strides in the understanding and therapy for mental illness: at least fourteen disorders& previously intracta$le& have yielded their secrets to science and can now $e either cured or considera$ly relieved .Seligman& 111C7. 5ut the downside was that the other two fundamental missions of psychology )) ma!ing the lives of all people $etter and nurturing genius )) were all $ut forgotten. 9t wasn<t only the su$%ect matter that was altered $y funding& $ut the currency of the theories underpinning how we viewed ourselves. *e came to see ourselves as a mere su$)field of the health professions& and we $ecame a victimology. *e saw human $eings as passive foci: EstimuliF came on and elicited EresponsesF .what an e#traordinarily passive wordG7. E#ternal reinforcements wea!ened or strengthened responses. >rives& tissue needs& instincts& and conflicts from childhood pushed each of us around. Psychology<s empirical focus shifted to assessing and curing individual suffering. There has $een an e#plosion in research on psychological disorders and the negative effects of environmental stressors such as parental divorce& death& and physical and se#ual a$use. Practitioners went a$out treating the

mental illness of patients within a disease framewor! $y repairing damage: damaged ha$its& damaged drives& damaged childhoods& and damaged $rains. The second author of this introduction reali"ed the need for a positive psychology in Europe during *orld *ar 8. As a child .M 7 9 witnessed the dissolution of the smug world in which 9 had $een comforta$ly ensconced: 9 noticed with surprise how many of the adults 9 had !nown as successful and self)confident $ecame helpless and dispirited once the war removed their social supports. *ithout %o$s& money or status they were reduced to empty shells. -et there were a few who !ept their integrity and purpose despite the surrounding chaos. Their serenity was a $eacon that !ept others from losing hope. And these were not the men and women one would have e#pected to emerge unscathed: they were not necessarily the most respected& $etter educated& or more s!illed individuals. This e#perience set me thin!ing: *hat sources of strength were these people drawing on? @eading philosophy& da$$ling in history and religion did not provide satisfying answers to that 'uestion. 9 found the ideas in these te#ts to $e too su$%ective& dependent on faith& or du$ious assumptions4 they lac!ed the clear) eyed s!epticism& the slow cumulative growth that 9 associated with science. Then for the first time 9 came across psychology: first the writings of arl Bung& then Freud& then a few of the psychologists who were writing in Europe in the 113Hs. (ere& 9 thought& was a possi$le solution to my 'uest )) a discipline that dealt with the fundamental issues of life& and attempted to do so with the patient simplicity of the natural sciences. 5ut at that time psychology was not yet a recogni"ed discipline. 9n 9taly& where 9 lived& one could ta!e courses in it only as a minor while pursuing a degree in medicine or in philosophy. So 9 decided to come to the ,nited States& where psychology had gained wider acceptance. The first courses 9 too! were somewhat of a shoc!. 9t turned out that in the ,nited States psychology had indeed $ecame a science& if $y it one meant only a s!eptical attitude and a concern for measurement. *hat seemed to $e lac!ing& however& was a vision that %ustified the attitude and the methodology. 9 was loo!ing for a scientific approach to human $ehavior& $ut 9 never dreamed that this could yield a value) free understanding. 9n human $ehavior& what is most intriguing is not the average& $ut the impro$a$le. Dery few people !ept their decency during the onslaught of war4 yet it was these few who held the !ey to what humans could $e li!e at their $est. (owever& at the height of its $ehaviorist phase& psychology was $eing taught as if it were a $ranch of statistical mechanics. Ever since& 9 have struggled to reconcile the twin imperatives that a science of human $eings should include: to understand what is& and what could be. A decade later& the =third way= heralded $y A$raham Maslow& arl @ogers& and other =humanistic= psychologists promised to open a new perspective in addition to the entrenched clinical and $ehaviorist approaches. Their generous vision had a strong effect on the culture at large and held enormous promise. ,nfortunately humanistic psychology did not attract much of

a cumulative empirical $ase and it spawned myriad therapeutic self)help movements. 9n some of its incarnations it emphasi"ed the self and encouraged a self)centeredness that played down concerns for collective well)$eing. *e leave it to future de$ate to determine whether this came a$out $ecause Maslow and @ogers were ahead of their times& or $ecause these flaws were inherent in their original vision& or $ecause of overly enthusiastic Efollowers.F 5ut one legacy of the 116Hs is prominently displayed in any large $oo!store: the =psychology= section will contain at least ten shelves on crystal healing& aromatherapy& and reaching the inner child for every shelf of $oo!s that tries to uphold some scholarly standard. *hatever the personal origins of our conviction that the time has arrived for a positive psychology& our message is to remind our field that psychology is not %ust the study of pathology& wea!ness& and damage4 it is also the study of strength and virtue. Treatment is not %ust fi#ing what is $ro!en4 it is nurturing what is $est. Psychology is not %ust a $ranch of medicine concerned with illness or health4 it is much larger. 9t is a$out wor!& education& insight& love& growth& and play. And in this 'uest for what is $est& positive psychology does not rely on wishful thin!ing& faith& self)deception& fads& or hand)waving4 it tries to adapt what is $est in the scientific method to the uni'ue pro$lems that human $ehavior presents to those who wish to understand it in all its comple#ity. *hat foregrounds this approach is the issue of prevention. 9n the last decade psychologists have $ecome concerned with prevention& and this was the presidential theme of the 1112 American Psychological Association meeting in San Francisco. (ow can we prevent pro$lems li!e depression or su$stance a$use or schi"ophrenia in young people who are genetically vulnera$le or who live in worlds that nurture these pro$lems? (ow can we prevent murderous schoolyard violence in children who have access to weapons& poor parental supervision& and a mean strea!? *hat we have learned over fifty years is that the disease model does not move us closer to the prevention of these serious pro$lems. 9ndeed the ma%or strides in prevention have largely come from a perspective focused on systematically $uilding competency& not correcting wea!ness. Prevention researchers have discovered that there are human strengths that act as $uffers against mental illness: courage& future)mindedness& optimism& interpersonal s!ill& faith& wor! ethic& hope& honesty& perseverance& the capacity for flow and insight& to name several. Much of the tas! of prevention in this new century will $e to create a science of human strength whose mission will $e to understand and learn how to foster these virtues in young people. *or!ing e#clusively on personal wea!ness and on the damaged $rains& however& has rendered science poorly e'uipped to do effective prevention. *e need now to call for massive research on human strength and virtue. *e need to as! practitioners to recogni"e that much of the $est wor! they already do in the consulting room is to amplify strengths rather than repair the wea!nesses of their clients. *e need to emphasi"e that psychologists wor!ing with families&

schools& religious communities& and corporations& develop climates that foster these strengths. The ma%or psychological theories have changed to under gird a new science of strength and resilience. ;o longer do the dominant theories view the individual as a passive vessel =responding= to =stimuli4= rather individuals are now seen as decision ma!ers& with choices& preferences& and the possi$ility of $ecoming masterful& efficacious& or& in malignant circumstances& helpless and hopeless .5andura& 11264 Seligman& 11187. Science and practice that rely on this worldview may have the direct effect of preventing much of the ma%or emotional disorders. 9t may also have two side effects: ma!ing the lives of our clients physically healthier& given all we are learning a$out the effects of mental well)$eing on the $ody. 9t will also re)orient psychology $ac! to its two neglected missions& ma!ing normal people stronger and more productive as well as ma!ing high human potential actual. About This Issue The 16 articles that follow this introduction present a remar!a$ly varied and comple# picture of the orientation in psychology )) and the social sciences more generally )) that might $e included under the ru$ric of positive psychology. If course& li!e all selections& this one is to some e#tent ar$itrary and incomplete. Many times the space allotted to a single issue of the American Psychologist would $e needed to print all the contri$utions worthy of inclusion. *e only hope that these enticing hors d<ouvres will stimulate the readers< appetite to sample more widely from the offerings of the field. As editors of this special 9ssue& we tried to $e comprehensive without $eing redundant. The authors were as!ed to write at a level of generality appealing to the greatly varied and diverse specialties of the %ournalJs readership& without sacrificing the intellectual rigor of their arguments. The articles were not intended to $e speciali"ed reviews of the literature& $ut $road overviews with an eye turned toward cross)disciplinary lin!s and practical applications. Finally& we invited mostly seasoned scholars to contri$ute& there$y e#cluding some of the most promising young researchers )) $ut they are already preparing to edit a section of this %ournal devoted to the latest wor! on positive psychology. There are three main topics that run through these contri$utions. The first concerns the positive e#perience. *hat ma!es one moment =$etter= than the ne#t? 9f >aniel /ahneman is right& the hedonic 'uality of current e#perience is the $asic $uilding $loc! of a positive psychology ./ahneman 1111& p. 67. 9n this issue& >iener .8HHH7 focuses on su$%ective well)$eing& Massimini 0 >elle Fave .8HHH7 on optimal e#perience& Peterson .8HHH7 on optimism& Myers .8HHH7 on happiness& @yan 0 >eci .8HHH7 on self)determination. Taylor et al. .8HHH7& and Salovey et al. .8HHH7 report on the relationship $etween positive emotions and physical health. These topics can of course $e seen as state)li!e& or trait)li!e: one can investigate either what accounts for moments of happiness& or what

distinguishes happy individuals. Thus the second thread in these articles is the theme of the positive personality. The common denominator underlying all the approaches represented here is a perspective on human $eings as self) organi"ing& self)directed& adaptive entities. @yan 0 >eci .8HHH7 focus on self) determination& 5altes 0 Staudinger .8HHH7 on wisdom& Daillant .8HHH7 on mature defenses. +u$ins!i 0 5en$ow .8HHH7& Simonton .8HHH7& *inner .8HHH7& +arson .8HHH7& and Kardner& Michelson& 0 Solomon .8HHH7 focus on e#ceptional performance )) creativity and talent. Some of these approaches adopt an e#plicit developmental perspective& ta!ing into account the fact that individual strengths unfold over an entire life span. The third thread that runs through these contri$utions is the recognition that people and e#periences are em$edded in a social conte#t. Thus a positive psychology needs to ta!e the positive community and positive institutions into account. At the $roadest level& 5uss .8HHH7& and Massimini 0 >elle Fave .8HHH7 descri$e the evolutionary milieu that shapes positive human e#perience. Myers .8HHH7 descri$es the contri$utions of social relationships to happiness& and Schwart" .8HHH7 reflects on the necessity for cultural norms to relieve individuals of the $urden of choice. +arson .8HHH7 emphasi"es the importance of voluntary activities for the development of resourceful young people& and *inner .8HHH7 the effect of families on the development of talent. 9n fact& to a degree that is e#ceedingly rare in psychological literature& every one of these contri$utions loo!s at $ehavior in its ecologically valid social setting. A more detailed introduction to the articles in this issue follows. 1. Evolutionary perspectives The first section comprises two essays that place positive psychology in the $roadest conte#t within which it can $e understood& namely that of evolution. To some people evolutionary approaches are distasteful $ecause they deny the importance of learning and self)determination. 5ut this need not $e necessarily so. These two essays are e#ceptional in that they not only provide am$itious theoretical perspectives& $ut )) mira$ile dictu )) they also provide uplifting practical e#amples of how a psychology $ased on evolutionary principles can $e applied to the improvement of the human condition. 9n the first article >avid 5uss .8HHH7 reminds us that the dead hand of the past weighs heavily upon the present. (e focuses primarily on three reasons why positive states of mind are so elusive. First of all& $ecause our current environment is so different from the ancestral environment to which our $ody and mind has $een adapted& we are often misfit in modern surroundings. Second& evolved distress mechanisms are often functional )) for instance %ealousy alerts us to ma!e sure of the fidelity of our spouse. Finally selection tends to $e competitive and to involve "ero)sum outcomes. *hat ma!es 5uss< essay unusually interesting is that after identifying these ma%or o$stacles to well $eing& he then outlines some concrete strategies for overcoming them. For instance& one of the ma%or differences $etween ancestral and current environments is the parado#ical change in our relationship to others: In the one

hand we live surrounded $y many more people than our ancestors did& yet we are intimate with fewer individuals& thus e#periencing greater loneliness and alienation. The solution to this and other impasses are not only conceptually %ustified within the theoretical framewor!& $ut also eminently practical. So what are they? At the ris! of creating un$eara$le suspense& we thin! it is $etter for the readers to find out for themselves. *hile 5uss $ases his arguments on the solid foundations of $iological evolution& Fausto Massimini and Antonella >elle Fave .8HHH7 venture into the less e#plored realm of psychological and cultural evolution. 9n a sense& they start where 5uss leaves off: $y loo!ing analytically at the effects of changes in the ancestral environment& and specifically at how the production of =memes= e.g.& artifacts and values& affect and are affected $y human consciousness. They start with the assumption that living systems are self)organi"ing and oriented towards increasing comple#ity. Thus individuals are the authors of their own evolution. They are continuously involved in the selection of the memes that will define their own individuality& and when added to the memes selected $y others& they shape the future of the culture. Massimini and >elle Fave ma!e the point )) so essential for the argument of this issue )) that psychological selection is not motivated solely $y the pressures of adaptation and survival& $ut also $y the need to reproduce optimal e#periences. *henever possi$le& we choose $ehaviors that ma!e us feel fully alive& competent& and creative. The authors conclude their visionary call for individual development in harmony with glo$al evolution $y providing instances drawn from their own e#perience of cross)cultural interventions& where psychology has $een applied to remedy traumatic social conditions created $y runaway moderni"ation. 8. Positive personal traits. The second section includes five articles dealing with four different personal traits that contri$ute to positive psychology: su$%ective well)$eing& optimism& happiness& and self)determination. These are topics that in the last three decades have $een e#tensively studied& and have produced an impressive array of findings )) many of them une#pected and counter)intuitive. The first essay in this set is a review of what is !nown a$out su$%ective well)$eing& $y Edward >iener .8HHH7& whose research in this field now spans three decades. su$%ective well $eing refers to what we thin! and how we feel a$out our lives )) to the cognitive and affective conclusions we reach when we evaluate our e#istence. 9n practice su$%ective well $eing is a more scientific) sounding term for what we usually mean $y happiness. Even though su$%ective well $eing research relies primarily on rather glo$al self)ratings which could $e critici"ed on various grounds& its findings are plausi$le and coherent. >iener<s account $egins with a review of the temperamental and personality correlates of su$%ective well $eing& and the demographic characteristics of groups high on su$%ective well $eing. The e#tensive cross)cultural research on the topic is then reviewed& suggesting interesting lin!s $etween macro)social conditions and happiness. A central issue is how a person<s values and goals mediate $etween

e#ternal events and the 'uality of e#perience. These investigations promise to $ring us closer to understanding the insights of such philosophers of anti'uity as >emocritus or Epictetus& who argued that it is not what happens to us that determines how happy we are& $ut how we interpret what happens. Ine dispositional trait that appears to mediate $etween e#ternal events and a person<s interpretation of them is optimism. 9t refers $oth to =little optimism= .e.g.: =9 will find a convenient par!ing space this evening=7 and to =$ig optimism= .e.g.: =Iur nation is on the verge of something great=7. hristopher Peterson .8HHH7 descri$es the research on this $eneficial psychological characteristic in the second article of this set. (e considers optimism as involving cognitive& emotional& and motivational components. People high on optimism tend to have $etter moods& to $e more persevering and successful& and to e#perience $etter physical health. (ow does optimism wor!? (ow can it $e increased? *hen does it $egin to distort reality? These are some of the 'uestions Peterson addresses. As is also true of the other articles in this issue& the author is aware that comple# psychological issues cannot $e understood in isolation from the social and cultural conte#t in which they are em$edded. (ence such 'uestions as: (ow does an overly pessimistic culture affect the well $eing of its mem$ers? And conversely& does an overly optimistic culture lead to shallow materialism? >avid Myers .8HHH7 presents his synthesis of research on happiness in the third article of this section. (is perspective& while strictly $ased on empirical evidence& is informed $y a $elief that traditional values must contain important elements of truth if they are to survive across generations. (ence he is more attuned than most to issues that are not very fashiona$le in the field& such as the often)found association $etween religious faith and happiness. The other two candidates for promoting happiness Myers considers are economic growth and income .not much there& after a minimum threshold of affluence is passed7 and close personal relationships .a strong association7. Although $ased on correlational survey studies of self)reported happiness& the ro$ustness of the findings& replicated across time and different cultures& suggests that these findings ought to $e ta!en seriously $y anyone interested in understanding the elements that contri$ute to a positive 'uality of life. 9n the first of two articles that focus on self)determination& @ichard @yan and Edward >eci .8HHH7 discuss another trait that is central to positive psychology and has $een e#tensively researched. Self)determination theory investigates three related human needs: for competence& for $elongingness& and for autonomy. *hen these needs are satisfied& the authors claim personal well)$eing and social development are optimi"ed. Persons in this condition are intrinsically motivated& a$le to fulfill their potentialities and see! out progressively greater challenges. The authors consider the !inds of social conte#ts that support autonomy& competence& and relatedness& and those that stand in the way of personal growth. Especially important is their discussion of how a person can maintain autonomy even under e#ternal pressures that seem to deny it.

@yan and >eci<s contri$ution shows that the promises of the =humanistic psychology= of the 116H<s can generate a vital program of empirical research. 9s an emphasis on autonomy an unmitigated good? 5arry Schwart" .8HHH7 ta!es on the su$%ect of self)determination from a more philosophical and historical angle. (e is concerned that the emphasis on autonomy in our culture results in a !ind of psychological tyranny )) an =e#cess of freedom= that may lead to dissatisfaction and depression. (e finds particularly pro$lematic the influence of rational choice theory on our conception of human motivation. The $urden of responsi$ility for autonomous choices often $ecomes too heavy& leading to insecurity and regrets. For most people in the world& he argues& individual choice is neither e#pected nor desired. ultural constraints are necessary for leading a meaningful and satisfying life. Although @yan and >eci<s self)determination theory ta!es relatedness into account as one of the three components of personal fulfillment& Schwart"<s argument highlights even further the $enefits of relying on cultural norms and values. A. 9mplications for mental and physical health. Ine of the arguments for positive psychology is that during the past half century our field has $een increasingly focused on mental illness& and as a result has developed a distorted view of what normal )) and e#ceptional )) human e#perience is li!e. (ow does mental health loo! li!e when seen from the perspective of positive psychology? The ne#t three articles deal with this topic. 5eethoven was suicidal and despairing at age A1& yet two do"en years later composed the Ide to Boy& translating into su$lime music Schiller<s lines: =5e em$raced& all ye millions . . .=. *hat made it possi$le for him to overcome despair despite poverty and deafness? 9n the first article of this section& the psychiatrist Keorge Daillant .8HHH7 reminds us that it is impossi$le to descri$e positive psychological processes without ta!ing a life span& or at least a longitudinal approach. = all no man happy till he dies= Solon said )) for a truly positive psychological adaptation should unfold over a lifetime. @elying on the results o$tained from three large samples of adults studied over several decades& Daillant summari"es the contri$utions of mature defenses )) altruism& su$limation& suppression& humor& anticipation )) to a successful and %oyful life. Even though Daillant still uses the pathocentric terminology of Edefenses&F his view of mature functioning& which ta!es into full account the importance of creative& proactive solutions& $rea!s the mold of that =victimology= which has $een one legacy of psychoanalytic approaches. 9t is generally assumed that it is healthy to $e rigorously o$%ective a$out one<s situation. To paint a rosier picture than the facts warrant is often seen as a sign of pathology .cf. Peterson .8HHH7& Daillant .8HHH7& and Schwart" .8HHH7 in this issue7. 5ut in the second article of this section& Shelley Taylor and her colla$orators argue that unrealistically optimistic $eliefs a$out the future can protect us from illness .Taylor et al.& 8HHH7. The results of numerous studies with patients undergoing life)threatening diseases such as A9>S suggest that those

who remain optimistic show symptoms later and survive longer than patients who confront reality more o$%ectively. According to the authors& the positive effects of optimism are mediated mainly at a cognitive level. An optimistic patient is more li!ely to practice ha$its that enhance health and to enlist social support. 9t is also possi$le& $ut not proven& that positive affective states may have a direct physiological effect that retards the course of illness. As the authors note& this line of research has enormously important implications for ameliorating health through prevention and care. At the $eginning of their e#tensive review of the impacts of a $road range of emotions on physical health& Peter Salovey and his co)authors .Salovey et al.& 8HHH7 ruefully admit that $ecause of the pathological $ias of most research in the field& a great deal more is !nown a$out how negative emotions promote illness than is !nown a$out how positive emotions promote health. (owever& as positive and negative emotions are generally inversely correlated& they argue that su$stituting the former for the latter can have preventive and therapeutic effects. The research considered includes direct effects of affect on physiology and the immune system& and indirect effects through marshalling psychological and social resources& as well as motivating health)promoting $ehaviors. Ine of the most interesting set of studies they discuss is the one that shows that persons high in optimism and hope are actually more li!ely to provide themselves with unfavora$le information a$out their disease& there$y $eing $etter prepared to face up to realities even though their positive outcome estimates may $e inflated. C. Fostering E#cellence. 9f we wish to improve the human condition& it is not enough to help those who suffer. The ma%ority of =normal= people are also in need of e#ample and advice for reaching a richer and more fulfilling e#istence. This is why early investigators& such as *illiam Bames .11H87& arl Bung .11A6L617 Kordon Allport .11617& and A$raham Maslow .11617& were interested in e#ploring spiritual ecstasy& play& creativity& and pea! e#periences. *hen these interests were eclipsed $y medicali"ation and =physics)envy=& psychology neglected an essential segment of its agenda. As a gesture towards redressing such neglect& the last section of this issue presents si# articles dealing with phenomena at the opposite end of the pathological tail of the normal curve )) the end that includes the most positive human e#periences. *isdom is one of the most pri"ed traits in all cultures4 according to the Ild Testament& its price is a$ove ru$ies .Bo$& 82:127. 9t is a widespread $elief that wisdom comes with age. 5ut as the gerontologist 5ernice ;eugarten used to say& =-ou can<t e#pect a dum$ youngster to grow up to $e a wise senior=. Although the first president of the American Psychological Association& K. Stanley (all& tried to develop a model of wisdom in aging as far $ac! as 1188 .(all& 11887& the topic has not $een a popular one in the intervening years. @ecently& however& interest in wisdom has revived& and nowhere more vigorously than at the Ma# Planc! 9nstitute of 5erlin& under the heading of =the

5erlin wisdom paradigm=. Paul 5altes and ,rsula Staudinger .8HHH7 report on a series of studies that have resulted in a comple# model that views wisdom as a cognitive and motivational heuristic for organi"ing !nowledge in pursuit of individual and collective e#cellence. Seen as the em$odiment of the $est su$%ective $eliefs and laws of life that have $een sifted and selected through the e#perience of succeeding generations& wisdom is defined as an e#pert !nowledge system concerning the fundamental pragmatic issues of e#istence. The second article in this section& $y >avid +u$ins!i and amilla 5en$ow .8HHH7& deals with e#cellence of a different sort. 9n this article& they review the large literature concerning children with e#ceptional intellectual a$ilities. 9f one as!ed a layperson& =At what point in the distri$ution of intelligence does one find the largest gap in a$ility?F pro$a$ly the modal answer would $e that it is the =gifted= in the top one or two percent who differ most in a$ility from the rest of the population. 5ut as the authors point out& one third of the total a$ility range is found within the top 1M )) a child with an 9N of 8HH is 'uite different& and needs a different educational environment& from a =gifted= student with =only= an 9N of 1CH. +u$ins!i and 5en$ow consider issues of how to identify& nurture& counsel and teach children in these high a$ility ranges& arguing that neglecting the potentialities of such e#ceptional children would $e a grievous loss to society as a whole. Ine of the most poignant parado#es in psychology concerns the comple# relationships $etween pathology and creativity. Ever since esare +om$roso raised the issue over a century ago& the uneasy relationship $etween these two seemingly opposite traits has $een e#plored again and again .on this topic& cf. also Daillant<s article in this issue7. A related parado# is that some of the most creative adults were reared in unusually adverse childhood situations. This and many other pu""les concerning the nature and nurture of creativity are reviewed in >ean /. Simonton<s essay& which e#amines the cognitive& personality& and developmental dimensions of the process& as well as the environmental conditions that foster or hinder creativity .Simonton& 8HHH7. For instance& $ased on his e#haustive historiometric analyses that measure rates of creative contri$utions decade $y decade& Simonton concludes that nationalistic revolts against oppressive rules are followed a generation later $y greater fre'uencies of creative output. The topic of giftedness and e#ceptional performance dealt with in the previous two articles is also ta!en up $y Ellen *inner .8HHH7. (er definition of giftedness is more inclusive than the previous ones: it relates to children who are precocious& self)motivated& and approach pro$lems in their domain of talent in an original way. ontrary to some of the findings concerning creative individuals %ust mentioned& such children tend to $e well ad%usted and to have supportive families. *inner descri$es the current state of !nowledge $y focussing on the origins of giftedness& the motivation of gifted children& the social& emotional& and cognitive correlates of e#ceptional performance. As it is true of most other contri$utions to this issue& the author is sensitive throughout

to the practical implications of research findings& such as what can $e done to nurture and to !eep giftedness alive. >eveloping e#cellence in young people is also the theme of @eed +arson<s article& which $egins with the ominous and often replicated finding that the average student reports $eing $ored a$out one third of the time he or she is in school .+arson& 8HHH7. onsidering that we go to school for at least one fifth of our lives& this is not good news. +arson argues that youth in our society rarely have the opportunity to ta!e initiative& and that their education encourages passive adaptation to e#ternal rules instead. (e e#plores the contri$ution of voluntary activities such as sport& art& civic organi"ations as providing opportunities for concentrated& self)directed effort applied over time. *hile this article deals with issues central also to previous essays .e.g. Massimini and >elle Fave .8HHH7& @yan and >eci .8HHH7& *inner .8HHH77 it does so from the perspective of naturalistic studies of youth programs& there$y adding a welcome confirmatory triangulation to previous approaches. Are we seeing the last of e#cellence? (oward Kardner& Mimi Michaelson& and 5ecca Solomon .8HHH7 are concerned that as all rewards in our society are reduced to financial incentives& and as religious and other traditional values are wea!ened& this may undermine that resolve which is so necessary for the achievement of any e#ceptional performance& whether in science& the arts& or indeed in the practice of everyday life. The authors descri$e a line of ongoing research that tries to identify the antecedents of =good wor!= )) or the feeling of responsi$ility towards one<s goals& towards friends and relations& towards one<s profession& and towards the wider world. They go on to discuss the typical o$stacles at different stages of a wor!ing career& and the ethical choices that can $e made to overcome them. Thus =good wor!= $ecomes a synecdoche for a well)lived life. Challenges for the Future The 16 articles contained in this issue ma!e a powerful contri$ution to positive psychology. At the same time& the issues raised in these articles point to huge gaps in !nowledge that may $e the challenges at the forefront of positive psychology. *hat& can we guess& are the great pro$lems that will occupy this science for the ne#t decade or two? 1. The calculus of well)$eing Ine fundamental gap concerns the relationship $etween momentary e#periences of happiness and long)lasting well $eing. A simple hedonic calculus suggests that $y adding up a person<s positive events in consciousness& su$tracting the negatives& and aggregating over time& one will get a sum that represents that person<s over)all well)$eing. This ma!es sense& up to a point ./ahneman& 11117. 5ut as several articles in this issue suggest& what ma!es us happy in small doses will not necessarily add satisfaction in larger amounts4 a point of diminishing returns is 'uic!ly reached in many instances ranging from

the amount of income one earns to the pleasures of eating good food. *hat& e#actly& is the mechanism that governs the rewarding 'uality of stimuli? 8. The development of positivity 9t is also necessary to reali"e that a person at time ; is a different entity from the same person at time ;O14 thus we can<t assume that what ma!es a teenager happy will also contri$ute to his or her happiness as an adult. For e#ample& watching television or hanging out with friends tend to $e positive e#periences for most teenagers. (owever& to the e#tent that TD and friends $ecome the main source of happiness& and thus attract increasing amounts of attention& the teenager is li!ely to grow into an adult who is limited in the a$ility to o$tain positive e#periences from a wide range of opportunities. (ow much delayed gratification is necessary to increase the chances of long term well $eing? 9s the future mindedness necessary for serious delay of gratification antagonistic to momentary happiness& to living in the moment? *hat are the childhood $uilding $loc!s of later happiness or of long lasting well $eing? A. ;euroscience and (erita$ility A flourishing neuroscience of pathology has $egun in the last twenty years. *e have more than rudimentary ideas a$out what the neurochemistry and pharmacology of depression are. *e have reasona$le ideas a$out $rain loci and pathways for schi"ophrenia& su$stance a$use& an#iety& and o$sessive) compulsive disorder. Somehow& it has gone uno$served .and unfunded7 that all of these pathological states have their opposites .+e>ou# 0 Armony& 1111.7 *hat is the neurochemistry and anatomy of flow& good cheer& realism& future) mindedness& resistance to temptation& courage& and rational or fle#i$le thin!ing. Similarly we are learning a$out the herita$ility of negative states& li!e aggression& depression& and schi"ophrenia. 5ut we !now very little of the genetic contri$ution& of gene)environment interaction and covariance. an we develop a $iology of positive e#perience and positive traits? C. En%oyment versus Pleasure 9n a similar vein& it is useful to distinguish positive e#periences that are =pleasura$le= from those that are =en%oya$le=. Pleasure is the good feeling that comes from satisfying homeostatic needs such as hunger& se#& and $odily comfort. En%oyment& on the other hand& refers to the good feeling we e#perience when we $rea! through the limits of homeostasis )) when we do something that stretches us $eyond what we were )) in an athletic event& an artistic performance& a good deed& a stimulating conversation. En%oyment& rather than pleasure& is what leads to personal growth and long)term happiness. 5ut why is that& when given a chance& most people opt for pleasure over en%oyment? *hy do we so choose to watch television over reading a challenging $oo!& even when we !now that our usual hedonic state during television is mild dysphoria while the $oo! will produce flow?

3.

ollective well $eing

This 'uestion leads directly to the issue of the $alance $etween individual and collective well $eing. Some hedonic rewards tend to $e "ero)sum when viewed from a systemic perspective. 9f running a speed$oat for an hour provides the same amount of well)$eing to person A as reading from a $oo! of poems provides to person 5. $ut the speed$oat consumes 1H gallons of gasoline and irritates 8HH $athers& should we weigh the two e#periences e'ually? *ill a social science of positive community and positive institutions arise? 6. Authenticity 9t has $een a common& $ut unspo!en assumption in the social sciences that negative traits are authentic and positive traits are derivative& compensatory& or even inauthentic. 5ut there are two other possi$ilities: that negative traits are derivative from positive traits and that the positive and negative systems are separate systems. 5ut if the two systems are separate& how do they interact? 9s it necessary to $e resilient& to overcome hardship and suffering in order to e#perience positive emotion and to develop positive traits? >oes too much positive e#perience create a fragile and $rittle personality? 6. 5uffering As positive psychology finds its way into prevention and therapy& techni'ues that $uild the positive traits will $ecome commonplace. *e have good reason to $elieve that techni'ues which $uild positive traits and positive su$%ective e#periences wor!& $oth in therapy and perhaps more importantly in prevention. 5uilding optimism& for e#ample& prevents depression .Seligman& Schulman& >e@u$eis& 0 (ollon& 11117. The 'uestion is Ehow?F 5y what mechanisms does courage or interpersonal s!ill or hope or future mindedness $uffer against depression or schi"ophrenia or su$stance a$use? 2. >escriptive or Prescriptive 9s a science of positive psychology descriptive or prescriptive? The study of the relations among ena$ling conditions& individual strengths and institutions& and outcomes such as well $eing or income might merely result in an empirical matri#. Such a matri# would descri$e& for e#ample& what talents& under what ena$ling conditions& lead to what !inds of outcomes. This matri# would inform individualsJ choices along the course of their lives& $ut would ta!e no stand on the desira$ility of different life courses. Alternatively positive psychology might $ecome a prescriptive discipline li!e clinical psychology4 in which the paths out of depression& for e#ample& are not only descri$ed& $ut also held to $e desira$le. 1. @ealism *hat is the relationship $etween positive traits li!e optimism and positive e#perience li!e happiness on the one hand& and $eing realistic on the other? Many dou$t the possi$ility of $eing $oth. This suspicion is well illustrated in the reaction attri$uted to harles de Kaulle& then President of the French @epu$lic& to a %ournalist<s in'uiry:

EMr. President& are you a happy man?F E*hat sort of a fool do you ta!e me for?F 9s the world simply too full of tragedy to allow a wise person to $e happy? 5ut as the articles that follow suggest& a person can $e happy while confronting life realistically& and while wor!ing productively to improve the conditions of e#istence. *hether this view is accurate or not only time will tell4 in the meantime& we hope that you will find what follows en%oya$le and enlightening to read. Conclusions *e end this introduction $y ha"arding a prediction a$out psychology in the new century. *e $elieve that a psychology of positive human functioning will arise that achieves a scientific understanding and effective interventions to $uild thriving in individuals& families& and communities. -ou may thin! that this is pure fantasy. -ou may thin! that psychology will never loo! $eyond the victim& the underdog& and the remedial. 5ut we want to suggest that the time is finally right. *e well recogni"e that positive psychology is not a new idea. 9t has many distinguished ancestors and we ma!e no claim of originality. 5ut they somehow failed to attract a cumulative& empirical $ody of research to ground their ideas. *hy did they not? And why has psychology $een so focused on the negative? *hy has it adopted the premise )) without a shred of evidence )) that negative motivations are authentic and positive emotions are derivative? There are several possi$le e#planations. ;egative emotions and e#periences may $e more urgent and therefore override positive ones. This would ma!e evolutionary sense. Since negative emotions often reflect immediate pro$lems or o$%ective dangers& they should $e powerful enough to force us to stop& increase vigilance& reflect on our $ehavior& and change our actions if necessary. .If course& in some dangerous situations& it will $e most adaptive to respond without ta!ing a great deal of time to reflect7. 9n contrast& when we are adapting well to the world& no such alarm is needed. E#periences that promote happiness often seem to pass effortlessly. So& on one level psychology<s focus on the negative may reflect differences in the survival value of negative versus positive emotions. 5ut perhaps we are $linded to the survival value of positive emotions precisely $ecause they are so important. +i!e the fish who is unaware of the water in which it swims& we ta!e for granted a certain amount of hope& love& en%oyment& and trust $ecause these are the very conditions that allow us to go on living. They are the fundamental conditions of e#istence& and if they are present& any amount of o$%ective o$stacles can $e faced with e'uanimity& and even %oy. amus wrote that the foremost 'uestion of philosophy is why one should not commit suicide. Ine cannot answer that 'uestion %ust $y curing depression4 there must $e positive reasons for living as well.

There are also historical reasons for psychology<s negative focus. *hen cultures face military threat& shortages of goods& poverty& or insta$ility& they may most naturally $e concerned with defense and damage control. ultures may turn their attention to creativity& virtue& and the highest 'ualities in life only when they are sta$le& prosperous and at peace. Athens during the 3th century 5. .& Florence of the 13th century& and Dictorian England are e#amples of cultures that focused on positive 'ualities. Athenian philosophy focused on the human virtues: *hat is good action and good character? *hat ma!es life most worthwhile? >emocracy was $orn during this era. Dictorian England affirmed honor& discipline& valor& and duty as central human virtues. Florence chose not to $ecome the most important military power in Europe& $ut to invest its surplus in $eauty. *e are not suggesting that our culture should now erect an aesthetic monument. 5ut rather we $elieve that the nation )) wealthy& at peace& and sta$le )) provides a world historical opportunity. *e can choose to create a scientific monument )) a science that ta!es as its primary tas! the understanding of what ma!es life worth living. Such an endeavor will move the whole of the social science away from its negative $ias. The prevailing social sciences tend to view the authentic forces governing human $ehavior to $e self)interest& aggressiveness& territoriality& class conflict and the li!e. Such a science& even at its $est& is $y necessity incomplete. Even if utopianly successful& it would then have to proceed to as! how humanity can achieve what is $est in life. *e predict that positive psychology in this new century will come to understand and $uild those factors that allow individuals& communities& and societies to flourish. Such a science will not need to start afresh. 9t re'uires for the most part %ust a redirecting of scientific energy. 9n the fifty years since psychology and psychiatry $ecame healing disciplines& they developed a highly transfera$le science of mental illness. They developed a usa$le ta#onomy as well as relia$le and valid ways of measuring such fu""y concepts as schi"ophrenia& anger& and depression. They developed sophisticated methods) $oth e#perimental and longitudinal)for understanding the causal pathways that lead to such undesira$le outcomes. And most importantly they developed pharmacological and psychological interventions which have moved many of the mental disorders from =untreata$le= to =highly treata$le= and in a couple of cases& =cura$le.= These same methods& and in many cases the same la$oratories and the ne#t generation of scientists& with a slight shift of emphasis and funding& will $e used to measure& understand& and $uild those characteristics that ma!e life most worth living. As a side effect of studying positive human traits& science will learn how to $uffer against and $etter prevent mental& as well as some physical& illnesses. As a main effect& we will learn how to $uild the 'ualities that help individuals and communities not %ust endure and survive& $ut also flourish. References

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Appendix F: Tentative Table of Contents for The American Psychologist, anuary !""" Martin Seligman and Mihalyi si!s"entmihalyi Positive Psychology at the Millennium Ed >iener Su$%ective *ell)$eing: The Science of (appiness& and Some Policy 9mplications Ellen *inner The Irigins and Ends of Kiftedness hristopher Peterson The Future of Iptimism Massimini 0 Fave 9ndividual >evelopment in a 5io) ultural Perspective @ichard @yan 0 Edward >eci Self)>etermination Theory and the Facilitation of 9ntrinsic Motivation& Social >evelopment& and *ell)5eing @eed +arson Toward a Psychology of Positive -outh >evelopment 5arry Schwart" Self)>etermination: The Tyranny of Freedom Shelley Taylor Psychological @esources& Positive 9llusions& and (ealth >ean Simonton reativity: Status and Prospects (oward Kardner The Irigins of Kood *or! >avid K. Myers The Funds& Friends& and Faith of (appy People >avid 5uss Nuality of +ife: An Evolutionary Psychological Perspective Keorge Daillant The Mature >efenses: Antecedents of Boy Peter Salovey Emotional States and Physical (ealth

Paul 5altes 0 ,rsala Staudinger *isdom: A Meta)(euristic .Pragmatic7 to Irchestrate Mind and Dirtue Towards E#cellence Top of Page