Wiseman - Chinese Medical Characters - Vol I - Basic Vocabul

Chinese Medical Characters
Volume One: Basic Vocabulary

Zhdng Y i Ydng Z iD i Yi C6:Ji Bgn C iH u i Ji
Chinese Medicine Language Series Nigel Wiseman and Yiihuan ZhHng Copyright @ 2003 Paradigm Publications
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData Wiseman, Nigel. Chinese medical characters / Nigel Wiseman, YCuhiiuan Zhiang ; edited by Michael Helme = Zhong yi yong zi / Wei Naijie, Zhiang YCuhiiuan. p. ;cm. -- (Chinese medicine language series) Includes bibliographical references and index. Text in English and Chinese, including Pinyin. ISBN 0-9 12111-68-2 (pbk. : vol. 1 : alk. paper) 1. Medicine, Chinese--Terminology. [DNLM: 1. Medicine, Chinese Traditional--Terminology--Chinese Medicine, Chinese Traditional--Terminology--English. WB 15 W8 l4c 20031 I. Title: Zhong yi yong zi. 11. Zhiang, Ykuhiiuan, 1973- 111. Helme, Michael. IV. Title. I ? Series. R601 .W568 2003 6 10t.3--dc22 2003018925 Published by Paradigm Publications www.paradigm-pubs.com Brookline, Massachusetts and Taos, New Mexico Cover design by Herb Rich 111 www.digidao.com
Council of Oriental Medical Publishers (C.O.M.P.) Designation: Compiled from primary Chinese sources. English terminology from Wiseman N., A Practical Dictionary of Chinese Medicine, Paradigm Publications, Brookline, Mass and Taos, New Mexico
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in 2 retrieval syster transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mcciianical, photocopying, recording r otherwise, v~ittiout the prior written permission of the publisher.
I
i f '
I
i
I
Contents
Preface Introduction Basic Vocabulary [) tiiin, Heaven 1. 2. A [ A ) rkn, Human 3. t& [ t&) di, Earth 4. - (-3 yi, One 5. [I) &,Two 6. 1 [ 3) slin, Three 7. El [El) si,Four (5) wu',Five 8. [ 7";;. ) liii, Six 9. 10. t ; ' [ -ts' ) qi, Seven 1 1 1 [) b2. Eight 12. [h) jiG,Nine [-f-) shi,Ten 13. -f14. fi;: [A) da,Large 15. /I\ [ ) xia'o, Small 16. cfi [ cfi ) zhdng, Center 17. _Is. [ _Is.) shaizg, Up 18. [ T ) xia,Down 19. If;l [ If;l ) nGi, Internal 20. $'$ [$'$) wai, External 21. % [ 8 ) bia'o, Exterior 22. [$ 9 ) If, Interior [, g ) qing, Clear 23. 24. [ j@ ) zhzib, Turbid 25. [ @ ) xii, Vacuity 26. [g ) shi, Repletion [ B ) yin,Yin 27. 28. PEI [El ycing,Yang [ f? ) xing, Phase, Move 29. f? 30. [ * ) nzu, Wood ) hu6,Fire 31. 32. -& [ -& ) tu', Earth (soil) v 1 27 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 33. & 34. 7 J Y 35. & 36. 3 37. ? , 38. rfIl 39. @ 40. & ' 41. ff$ 42. it$ 43. @ 44. j$j 45. Jj? 46. l i \ 47. 5 48. 1 49. 'g 50. 5 1. 52. 53. 54. H 55. 56. 57. 2 58. B$ 59. 1 % 60. j % 61. 62. & 63. 64. @ 65. 66. 3 67. ?
(&) [7 J Y) [&) [ )
a$!
jin, Metal 92 shuf, Water 94 shzng, Engender 96 k2, Restrain 98 [ % ) qi,Qi 100 [rfIl) xuG,Blood 102 [ @ ) jin, Liquid 104 [ j@) yk, Humor 106 ( @ ) jing, Essence 108 [ it$ ) shkn, Spirit 110 zirng,Viscera 112 [ a$j) fii, Bowels 114 [ ) giin, Liver 116 [ &\ ) xin, Heart 118 [ ) pi, Spleen 120 [a$) fki,Lung 122 [ 1 shkn, Kidney 124 [ ) chdng, Intestine 126 [ ) d&n,Gallbladder 128 [ @ ) wGi, Stomach 130 [ I % ) pang,Bladder 132 ( % ) guang, Bladder 134 [ ) jiiio, Burn(er) 136 [ a ) biio, Envelop 138 [ 2 ) zhzi, Govern 140 [ fi5 ) jin, Sinew 142 [ ) inhi, Vessel, Pulse 144 [ @j ) r4u, Flesh 146 [$I,) ji,Flesh 148 [ E) pi, Skin 150 [ % ) nzcio, Body Hair 152 [ B ) gzi, Bone 154 [ ) qiao, Orifice 156 [ llii, Open 158 ( 7 )y ~At , 160
a@
a&
m)
nzu, Eye she', Tongue lo'z~, Mouth bi, Nose gr, Ear jing, Channel Zud, Network, Net nzian, Face sk, Color qing, Green-Blue chi, Red hz~ang, Yellow bbi, White hei, Black Zki, Tears han, Sweat xian, Drool ti, Snivel tz~d, Spittle
162 164 166 168 170 172 174 176 178 180 182 184 186 188 190 192 194 196 198
( B ) yin,Cause 200 87. 88. $fP [ $fb ) xie', Evil 202 89. $% [ $ 9 ) yin, Excess 204 [ R) fing, Wind 206 90. 91. ) han,Cold 208 92. @ [ ) shC, Summerheat 210 212 93. fa ?%) shi, Dampness $ [ $%) zao, Dryness 214 94. j 6 1%) rk,Heat 216 95. 2 96. ?E [ $&] wCn, Warm 218 97. @ [ @ ) tdn, Phlegm 220 98. @ ) yin, Drink, Rheum222 224 99. & [ & ) shi, Eat, Food 100.B [ @ ) yii, Stasis 226 Bibliography 229 Pinyin Index 23 1 English Index 232 Character Stroke Index 233
rn
Table of Contents
Over recent years we have witnessed a considerable growth in the nuinber of students and practitioners of Chinese medicine who are learning Chinese. Clearly this new trend is due to growing recognition that a command of the Chinese language provides the only means of access to greater and inore accurate lsnowledge of East Asian medicine. As the nuinber of students of Chinese medicine continues to grow so too does the percentage of those students who demand more such access than is afforded by the current body of English literature on the subject. This trend is reflected in a nascent body of material intended to help students who are learning Chinese with the specific goal of gaining access to Chinese medical texts. Students already have Learn to Read Chinese by Paul Unschuld. and Teach Yourself to Read Modern Medical Chinese by Bob Flaws. More recently, we have added our Chinese Medical Chinese: Grammar and Vocabulary. These books all focus on the vocabulary and expressions of Chinese inedicine. Nevertheless, no language-learning material so far published has emphasized introducing students to the corninonly used characters of Chinese inedicine in detail. This book aims to fill that gap. Chinese is not as difficult a language as is often thought. The grammar has its complexities but is far easier than that of inany Western languages. The pronunciation poses the difficulty of tonality, which is virtually absent from Western European languages. But the more daunting problem lies in mastering the script, and the inaterials created for learning Chinese medical Chinese so far have tended to leave the problems of character composition aside. It is true that students can find literature on this subject in the corpus of general Chinese learning aids. Nevertheless, students learning Chinese medical Chinese would benefit considerably, particularly in the initial stages of learning, if material were available that catered specifically to their needs.
The present book forms part of a series that we are creating to meet the needs of Chinese medical students. In addition to this volume on the basic vocabulary of Chinese medicine, Volume 2 will cover characters used in acupuncture point names, Volume 3 will cover the names of medicinals, Volume 4 will cover the four examinations, and Volume 5 will cover methods of treatment. Each boolt will introduce approximately 100 new characters, and each of Volumes 2 through 5 will presuppose a lcnowledge of only the characters in this volume. Once students have mastered the 100 characters in this book, they can decide which of the other character boolts is of most interest to them. Once all or most of these 500 characters are mastered, one can proceed to Chinese Medical Chinese: Grammar and Vocabulary, published by Paradigm Publications in 2002. The Chinese script is not easy to learn, and the matter is complicated by the fact that one now has to learn two forms of it. In the People's Republic of China, the composition of many characters has been simplified to facilitate learning and enable people to write faster. The traditional complex characters continue to be used in Taiwgn and Hong Kong. Although the People's Republic of China dominates the cultural life of the Chinese-speaking world and leads in the field of Chinese medicine, many Westerners start by learning the complex characters rather than the simplified characters. There are two reasons for this. One is that the historical dimension of Chinese medicine and the study of ancient texts maltes Chinese medicine an area in which, even in the PRC, complex characters cannot entirely be dispensed with, so anyone wishing to study Chinese medicine in any depth through the medium of Chinese eventually needs to have a command of the complex script. The other reason is that it is generally believed Westerners can learn the simplified script inore easily after having learned the complex, for reasons that will become clearer as one grasps the character explanations in this boolt. In view of these considerations, we have decided that in this volume we would include both simplified and complex characters, and leave students to decide whether to learn one, the other, or both. Thanks go to Fkng Y&for reviewing the manuscript.
Preface
Why Learn Chinese?

Learning Chinese is very probably the most rewarding single investment that a student of East Asian medicine can make. A lcnowledge of Chinese provides access to the lcnowledge and experience of East Asian physicians over a period of two thousand years. By learning Chinese, one gains entry into a library of information a thousand times larger than any that exists in English or any other Western language. One gains the ability to communicate with Chinese physicians in their own language and to share their lcnowledge and experience. Ultimately, one gains the ability to think in the language that has been used by generations of Chinese doctors and scholars to record their experiences and considerations about traditional Chinese medicine. The study of primary East Asian literature has untold benefits for clinical proficiency, and learning Chinese facilitates this study. Understandably, these benefits are still often underestimated. As East Asian medicine establishes itself as a recognized profession, there is a tendency to believe that the education schools provide is complete, and therefore equal to the education provided by schools in China, Korea, or Japan. The fact is that the basis for education largely lies in literature, and there is far less literature available in the English language than in Chinese, Korean, or Japanese. Some English literature has been translated and compiled from primary East Asian sources, but much of it is based on secondary English sources and Western experience and does not fully represent the East Asian traditions. As East Asian medicine has gained root in the West, it has undergone various adaptations that have the stamp of neither scientific approval nor Asian authenticity. Learning Chinese offers students access to primary sources and enables them to get information most directly from the source, without fear of anything having been lost in the translation and transmission processes. Students, teachers, and practitioners have another practical reason for learning Chinese. With the continual rise in standards of education that comes as the professional practice of East Asian medicine gains root in Western countries, there are already signs that Chinese-language study in the W r e will take on
increasing importance in advanced and even regular studies and that a lanowledge of Chinese will become an increasingly required qualification for teaching positions. Schools of East Asian medicine in English-speaking countries are already starting to realize the benefits of learning Chinese, so the study of Chinese language has a growing role in curricula. As this trend gains momentum, linguistic access to literature in East Asian languages, in particular Chinese, will increasingly be considered not just a luxury but a requirement for advanced studies and teaching posts, a guarantee of orthodox practice, and a hallmark of achievement. Whether your interest is in Chinese medicine or the medical traditions of Korea or Japan, learning Chinese is essential. The Korean and Japanese traditions are built on the Chinese, and their medical terminology is essentially Chinese. The investment required to learn Chinese may have been exaggerated in the past. Unlilte other European languages such as French or Italian, Chinese has its own script, which is known to be highly complex. It is less widely lanown that the grammar of Chinese is infinitely much simpler than most European languages, and it has a basic structure similar to that of English. Though the script is difficult to learn, the number of characters that one has to learn for the purposes of gaining access to East Asian medical literature is astoundiiigly low. To master basic Chinese medical terminology one must lulow about 1,500 characters, the vast majority of which commonly appear in modern non-medial literature (e.g., newspapers). Nevertheless, beginning students are encouraged to find that by learning the most commonly used few hundred characters first, they can soon understand large tracts of text. Although to read Chinese medical texts with fluency one must probably h o w about 3,000 characters, most of these have a much lower frequency of appearance. Learning Chinese characters is difficult at first, but once one has mastered a few hundred, one acquires the ability to memorize new characters much more quickly. Thus, the purpose of the present volume and the other volumes in the Chinese Medical Characters Series is to help students over the initial hurdle.
The Nature of Chinese Language

What we call Chinese is more correctly characterized as a large group of dialects than as a single language. At the present time, Mandarin is the native dialect of the entire northern part of China as weii as of the soutfhwest. The subdialect specific to BGijing is the lingua franca of the Chinese world and
2
Introduction
hence is the dialect most commonly learned by non-Chinese. South of a line that roughly corresponds with the Changjiang (Yangtze River) and east of Sichuan and Guizhbu are the dialects of the southeast, including the Wu dialect of Shanghiii and the Zh6jiiing region, the Gan dialects of Jiiingxi, the Xiiing dialects of Hunan, the Min dialects of Fujian and Taiwan, the Yu6 dialects of Guiingdbng and Guiingxi, and the K6jiii (Haldta) dialects of the region of the border between Fujian and Guiingdbng. These dialects together form the Chinese branch of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. Many other languages not belonging to the Sino-Tibetan family are spoken among the minority groups largely located in northwestern and southwestern China. These include Korean, Mongolian, Turlcic, Tibeto-Burman, Tai, Miao-Yao, Bai, Mon-finer, and Austronesian languages. They have influenced and have been influenced by Chinese, but they do not concern us here. The dialects of Chinese are not all mutually intelligible. They have been traditionally called %$ fing yrin (literally "place" + "speech") in China because of their close relationship, and this term has been equated with our English word "dialect." But when a native of BEijing travels to Shinghiii, Chhngshii, Nanchiing, Guiingzhbu, or Xiamen, he does not understand the local dialects at all. In reality, they are distinct but very similar languages, comparable in terms of both similarity and difference to many European languages such as Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish. Many of the words in each dialect are cognates, though they often differ so widely in pronunciation as to be almost unrecognizable in an unfamiliar dialect. The first person pronoun is wci in Mandarin, ngou in Wu, gua in Min, and ngci in Yu6. Our European languages also have many cognates. The word for I is je in French, io in Italian, yo in Spanish, ego in Latin, ich in German, and jeg in Danish. All these are cognate words, although in fact we might never recognize them before actually learning the languages in question. In the Chinese dialects, a large proportion of the words used are cognates. There are many unique words in each, but most are similar. There are great similarities in the grammar of all the dialects. For example, they all have a basic subject-verb-object word-order in simple sentences, just as our own language has. In this pattern, qualifiers generally precede what they quali&, i.e., adjectives precede nouns, and adverbs precede verbs.
Chinese M e d i c a l Characters: Basic V o c a b u l a r y
An essential feature of the Chinese dialects is that in fact words do not change their form according to grammatical function in the way words in English and other European languages do. As we shall see, this has considerable consequences. Our languages change the form of nouns to mark the plural (catlcats, footlfeet); they change the form of verbs to mark person and tense (show/shows/showedlshown). These changes are called inflexions, and hence European languages are described as being inflexional in nature. The Chinese dialects, by contrast, do not share this feature. They express all the features expressed in English by modi@ing words-as far as there are parallels-with separate words. Chinese nouns are not marlced for plurality, and whether a word is singular or plural is indicated by a numeral or otherwise left to be inferred froin context. Chinese verbs indicate only actions; the time of the action is indicated, if at all, by other words in the sentence. Chinese considers the basic meaning of words to be separate, or isolated, from concepts such as plurality and tense. It is therefore characterized as an isolating language.
A further feature of Chinese, which is observed in the historical dimension, is the gradual development from monosyllablism to polysyllablism. Even today, the smallest unit of sound and meaning in Chinese is the single syllable. As in the past, each syllable is represented by a single character (or graph, as it is sometimes lcnown). In ancient Chinese texts, each character roughly corresponds to a word in English. There are many compound nouns, but for the most part, the elements of compounds can stand as independent words. A language in which distinct words are monosyllabic must have a wide range of monosyllabic sounds if words are to be distinguished. This was the case of Old Chinese, the language spoken up till the Han dynasty (the early part of the first millennium in our own chronological terms). Toward the end of the Old Chinese period, Chinese was undergoing a considerable reduction in the number of its overall sounds, which meant that a single syllable was no longer sufficient to distinguish words. For example, ear in ancient Chinese was expressed as Zr, but in the modem spoken Mandarin, it is expressed in a compound as Zr duo "ear flower." Because the literature and terminology of Chinese medicine spans two thousand years of development, we see considerable variation in expression due to greater or lesser tendencies toward compounding at different stages in the language. A final feature of Chinese to be mentioned is its script. Before providing a ikle wI=iiingsysteiii, ---wc s -L l l-v -u Alu A cAalrr;rrb its essential derailed description nature in relation to the language as a whole.
--r-.-d-n
Introduction
English and other European languages familiar to readers are essentially phonetic. The letters of the alphabet are used to represent sounds. English is a poor example of phonetic writing, because many of our spellings have not been updated to represent the sounds of the modem language. Spanish and German are inarlcedly more phonetic, in the sense that once one laows what sounds are ascribed to individual letters of the alphabet and coinbinations of them, one can pronounce almost any word. English, by contrast, does not have anything like a one-to-one coirespondence between sound and written sign. For example, 'buy,' 'by,' and 'bi-' are hoinophones written differently. 'Read' on the other hand represents two distinct sounds depending on whether the present or the past tense is intended. Chinese differs from European languages in that it has graphs that represent words, rather than the sounds composing them. The Chinese script is therefore call logographic (logos is simply the Greek for word). Although many Chinese characters contain a phonetic element, the script is not fundamentally phonetic. All lcnown scripts were originally derived from picture writing. The earliest graphic representations created by humans were direct representations of things and ideas. We speak of "writing" when graphic representations came to be used to represent spolcen words in the nomal sequence of language. Pictures of objects became simplified, stylized, and to a certain degree standardized. In other words, they becaine pictographs. However, the need to represent the non-visual aspects of human language turned the attention increasingly toward the representation of the sounds of the language. The scripts of the Middle East, from which our Roman alphabet derives, gradually evolved so that all pictographic elements gave way to essentially phonetic representation. Chinese differs in that, although phonetic elements were incorporated, pictographic elements were never discarded. One reason why a fully phonetic script did not develop for Chinese lies in the nature of the isolating language. The script never had to talce account of inflexions, which are found in so many other languages. Differences such as between 'speak;,' 'speaks,' 'spoke,' and 'spoken' are most easily catered to by a writing system that is phonetic. The absence of such differences in Chinese allowed non-phonetic characters to perform their task quite adequately. The Chinese writing systein is a complex mixture of pictographic and phonetic elements. Because each character has to be memorized, it is much inore difficult to learn than a phonetic script. Nevertheless, by not being tied to sound, it has the one great advantage that it does not have to represent sound
C h i n e s e M e d i c a l C h a r a c t e r s : Basic V o c a b u l a r y
5
variations. Chinese characters are rather lilte Arabic numerals, which are now used universally even though they are read differently by spealters of different languages. The character 3, for example, is read variously as trois in French, tres in Spanish, drei in Gennan, and snn in Chinese. In Chinese, the character = represents the saine concept for spealters of all Chinese dialects, never inind what sound they associate with it. This feature of the Chinese script serves as a bridge that not only spans contemporary dialects, but also different stages in the development of the language. Despite the great changes in the language, the Chinese script provides access to the literature of the past in a way that no other language does. In English, we can barely read the 14th century Middle English of Chaucer without a translation, let alone the 8th century Old English of Beowug yet a knowledge of written Chinese gives us access to the literature of two thousand years ago or earlier. Ancient texts present problems because they may contain words that have become obsolete or that, though familiar to modem spealters, no longer have the same meaning. But the existence of large amounts of words that have merely changed in pronunciation maltes the reading of ancient texts possible. The great stability of the written language ineans that the modem student of Chinese medicine has relatively easy access to the literature of the past. And of course the English-speaking student embarking on the task of learning Chinese can similarly gain access to the literature of the past as well as the present. The continuing importance of the classical literature of antiquity requires students to be conversant with classical as well as modern Chinese. The continuity of the written language means merely having to learn different forms of the same language rather than distinct languages. But before proceeding with a inore detailed description of the Chinese script, let us first of all introduce the pronunciation of Chinese words.
Transcription and Pronunciation
There are a number of different ways to transcribe Chinese sounds. The one now most coininonly used internationally is HanyG Pinyin, which English speakers normally refer to as simply Pinyin. This was adopted by the goveminent of the People's Republic of China in the 1950s anci by the worid press in the 1970s. Pinyin is used to teach the sounds of Mandarin in school and
6
Introduction
to indicate pronunciation in dictionaries. It was once hoped that it could replace the complex Chinese script as a part of Corninunist government policy to reduce bourgeois hegemony of literacy. This hope has never materialized because of the huge implications it would have for the continuity and development of the written Chinese language. However, Hanyfi Pinyin is the only method used for indicating the pronunciation of characters in the PRC, and it is used to enable elementary school children to relate the sounds of speech to written characters. Prior to the advent of Hanfl Pinyin, the most commonly used variety of transcription in the English language was the Wade-Giles system. This continued to be used by Western sinologists until the advent of the computer, when library catalogs could be updated to include both transcription systems. Wade-Giles has been retained in Tkiwiin, where Pinyin has never been adopted for political reasons (anything Communist is rejected), although there are currently moves to change this. Taiwiin uses alphabetical transcription for international purposes, but it has a set of thirty seven phonetic symbols derived from Chinese characters that are used to indicate the sounds of characters (33 n E ...). The Mandarin Phonetic Syinbols are also used to help elementary school children relate the sounds of spoken language to written characters. A fourth Romanization system is Guoyeu Romatzyh devised by Yale University. This has never been widely used. We might point out that before the advent of Roman transcription systems, the Chinese for centuries indicated the pronunciation of words by the fdn qie tii method. According to this method, the sound of a character is indicated by splicing the initial and final sounds of two other characters. Thus, the pronunciation of 7 . shui is indicated as "@@fjh@", or the sh of @$sh(il) spliced with the ui of (g)ui This method is still used and found in certain larger dictionaries alongside modern transcriptions. It is not suitable for beginners of Chinese to use because it presumes lcnowledge of a large number of characters. Pinyin is the most complete and accurate description of Modem Mandarin pronunciation, and it was designed with rnarlts to indicate tones. Wade-Giles Romanization in its original form includes some distinctions that are no longer current in Modem Mandarin and traditionally included no indication of tonality, no doubt because Western scholars were traditionally uninterested in the spolcen language. All systems of transcription inherently have the disadvantage that the sound value of many letters and combinations of letters have to be learned. Without
Chinese Medical Characters: Basic Vocabulary
7
instruction, English spealters cannot produce the correct sounds. Pinyin has been criticized because, though geared to greater economy, certain letters represent sounds very distant from any sounds they ever represent in English (the c of cai, for example, is pronounced as ts).
Accurate pronunciation in any language can only be learned froin native spealters of that language. When learning Chinese, you should seek out a good native spealter of Mandarin. Standard Mandarin is spolten in Bsijing, and someone from Bsijing will provide you with the best model for pronunciation. If no courses in Mandarin are being offered in your locality or if you cannot find a good Mandarin spealter to help you with your pronunciation, you can purchase teach-yourself Chinese textboolts with tapes or CDs that teach the pronunciation. These are usually available in the larger booltstores and can be easily ordered anywhere. Most of the sounds of Mandarin are quite easy for English speakers to reproduce. Only a few are difficult. Never be afraid to ask Chinese people to help you learn how to pronounce words. They generally give encouragement to anyone learning their language and always tell you how good your pronunciation is! In what follows, the sounds of Mandarin are explained in rough English equivalents. Sounds in other European languages are given where they are closer to the Chinese sounds. In some cases, phonetic symbols have been added in brackets, e.g., [=I, [a], to clarify the value of certain sounds.
b
Lilte the English b, but unaspirated, so that it actually sounds more like the p in spay. The Chinese /i bii, meaning 'eight', resembles the ba in bi, 'impediment', sounds like the English bee. "Ba, ba, black sheep"; Lilte the English p, but well aspirated such as when uttering the word pig as an invective (as in "You pig!"). The Chinese pi, 'spleen', resembles the p in pea. Note that in English b and p are distinguished in normal speech by the presence and absence of voicing, while in Chinese they are distinguished by the absence and presence of aspiration. A similar difference exists between d and t and between g and k.'
' Wade-Giles transcription represented the unaspirated sounds as p, t, lc and the aspirated sounds
as p', t', k'. This difference in trailscription system explains why Dao and Daoism used to be i borrowed into English in the form tangluei. written as Tao and Taoism, and why dcing g z ~was
Introduction
As the English m. The Chinese the sound made by a cow.
m6, 'mother', is pronounced lilce moo,
Exactly as the English$ Thus $? fii, 'not', sounds lilce the name Fay. Roughly as the d of the English dog, but unaspirated, so that it actually sounds more lilce the t in stow. The Chinese 4 do'u, 'to shake', is pronounced like the English doe (a female deer). Roughly as the t of the English ten, but more strongly aspirated. (It is never pronounced as the t in the American English better.) Thus the Chinese % tdu, 'head', resembles the t in tow; f tG, 'earth' or 'soil', resembles the English two; I$ ti, 'body', resembles the English tea. Initial I-, as in % lhi, 'tired', which sounds lilce the English lay. As the English n. The Chinese nhi, 'inside', is pronounced lilce the archaic English nay; 4% nio, 'brain', sounds lilce the English now; ni, 'counterflow', sounds lilce the English knee. As the English g in get (not as the g of genial). Thus, the Chinese $W gzn, 'root7,resembles the English gun. The Chinese g sound is unaspirated and sounds more lilce the k in skin. As the English k, though more strongly aspirated. The Chinese % kc, 'to weep7,sounds similar to the English coo; ff- ktii sounds lilce the ki of kite.
! hzi, 'black', resembles hay. A Approximately as the English h, so that 9 characteristic of good Mandarin, however, is a tendency toward a slight rasping sound lilce the ch in the Scottish pronunciation of loch or the German Bach, or lilce the j in the Spanishjamdn.
Approximately as the j in judge or the g in gemini. Thus ji, 'palpitations', is pronounced lilce gee. If one listens carefully to native Mandarin speakers, one finds that the sound is not voiced like the English sound. The j in Pinyin is always followed by an i or by a u pronounced as [u]. Examples include: & ! jiang, 'downbear', % jik, 'bind', % jin, 'tight', & jig, 'moxibustion', % jii, 'flat-abscess', 8 juin, 'curled', ! jiin, 'sovereign'. and Z As the ch in cheese. The Chinese 5 qi, meaning 'qi' or 'air', is pronounced lilce the chee in cheek. Like j, q is followed by i or by u pronounced as [u]. Examples include f& qiti, 'fingernail pressing', qian, 'lack', % qiii, 'autumn', $8 qing, 'clear', @ qii, 'fermented leaven', & qu, 'remove', and & qucin, 'complete'.
9
Similar to the English sh, so that gffl xi, 'thin' or 'fine', resembles the English she. However, if you listen to Chinese speakers, you will discover that the sound is wispier than the English sh, so that xi sounds nearly as much lilce the English see as the English she. The x in Pinyin is always followed by an i or a u pronounced as [ii]. Examples: 7; xia, 'down', $B xi& 'discharge', ?% xian, 'drool', @ ! xiGng, 'chest', Z!i$ xiii, 'be shy of', 'aversion to', JL\ xin, 'heart', )$Z xxti, 'vacuity', j g xzin, 'feel (one's way)', % man, 'diffuse'. and i As the j in the English jowl, but curling the tongue backward to make an r sound. Unlilte the English j sound, the Chinese zh is not voiced. One example is %fzhhn, 'needle', pronounced something like the last syllable of the English dungeon. As the ch in cheese, but curling the tongue backward to malte an r sound. Unlilte the English ch sound, the Chinese ch is not voiced. This sound occurs in J ? . chi, 'cubit', @ chang, 'intestine', $1 chao, 'tidal', $$ thong, 'thoroughfare', and 0% chucin, 'panting'. Produced lilce the sh in ship, but curling the tongue backward to malte an r sound. This sound occurs in shun, 'mounting', (5 shang, 'damage', shdu, shao, 'lesser', 'B s h h , 'kidney', ? ! sht. 'dampness', 'hand', and 7 k shui, 'water'. As the r in road, but in some circumstances tending toward the sound of g in beige. The Chinese l?l rdu, 'flesh', sounds like the English roe; $1 rii, 'breast', sounds like the English rue. Other examples include rucin, 'soft', @ rud, 'weak9,and rdn, 'human'. As the ds in heads. The Chinese &? za, 'miscellaneous', sounds like the za in mozzarella when pronounced by an Italian. This sound also zzi, 'foot', and ?% zi, 'enrich'. occurs in As the ts in Whitsun. This is also lilce the German z, as in Zeitgeist. This sound occurs in $[Jci, 'to needle9. As the s in see, never as the s in easy. Occurs in sGn, 'three', si, 'four', and -$ s2, 'color'. The final -i is pronounced in two different ways. 1) After z-, c-, and s- and after the retroflex sounds zh-, ch-, sh-, and r-, it is barely pronounced at all. For instance, zi is pronounced as 'dzzz' with virtually no vowei except for a brief continuation of the voice as the teeth part after producing the '2' sound.
10
Introduction
Examples include f zi, 'child', 'son', gfl ci, 'to needle', and ,g, st, 'thought'. Examples of the post-retroflex i include zhi, 'limb', 35 chi, 'slow', @ shi, 'food', and ri, 'sun'. 2) After other consonants, it sounds like the ee in the English see. Thus, $& lin, 'strangury', sounds like the English lean, though shorter. Other examples include 3% bing, jin, 'liquid', qing, 'affect'. The sound yi, which occurs in 'disease', $$ the initial position only, is pronounced as the archaic English pronoun ye. Before ao, an, ang, u, and e, it is pronounced as the English y, e.g., bicio, 'exterior', /f$ qicio, 'springing (vessel)', $ 3qicin, 'money', 'qian (weight)', ,6 dicin, 'speckle', $@ jihng, 'crimson', jizi, 'for a long 8 y2, 'humor'. time' or 'enduring', 9% did, 'fall', and $
'rf$
-u, w The final u is pronounced as the oo infood or as the o in do. More precisely it is like the u in the German nu or Spanish su, since the rounding of the lips is kept the same throughout the syllable. Examples include @ mzi, 'mother', @ dii, 'poison', # bzi, 'supplement', ??fii, 'floating', jfiful, 'bowel', 8 Z t ! fir, 'abdomen', pR lu, 'slsull', g6, 'bone', Ggzi, 'grain', [41 gd, 'secure', & zhzi, 'govern', $& chu, 'convulsions', shzi, 'summerheat', and {E cu, 'skipping'. When -u is not the last sound in the syllable, it is pronounced as the English w, e.g., @ sucin, 'sour', @ cuan, 'scurry', i%luan, 'chaotic', $ Q ducin, 'short', % piing, 'light', ?# hua, 'slippery', huh, 'transform', and % hucing, 'yellow'. When this sound occurs as an initial, it is written as w, e.g., fi wzi, 'five', 8% wcin, 'stomach duct'. Finally, the combination ui is pronounced as the English way (not as the English we).2 Examples include @ hui, 'return', 9 3 guE 'return', 7 k shut 'water', and @ shui, 'sleep'.
-a9-a9yu The final -u, as
& qu, 'to go', or g$l&, 'green', pronounced like a
French u or a German u, that is often represented as [u] in phonetic scripts. No equivalent of this sound exists in English except in the Scottish pronunciation of the vowel sound appearing in choose or lute. This sound is spelled as ii (with an umlaut on the u) after 1 or n, e.g., & nii, 'female', or $3lG, 'green', to distinguish the sound from the u representing the English oo [u]. The umlaut is not used when the sound of the initial is j, q, x, or y; in this position it is always pronounced as [u], never as [u].
The convention of using ui to represent a sound similar to the English way is apparently explicable in terms of economy of letters. Older transcriptions represented the sound, somewhat inore clearly, as uei,as in the English loanword tangkuei.
11
Examples include: % ju, 'chrysanthemum7, @ qii, 'fermented leaven7, 6% juan, 'fatigued7, !% quhn, 'curled-up', h xu2, 'blood', Z yurin, 'origin7, @ yiin, 'dizziness', and yun, 'move'.
As the a in French, Spanish, or Italian (or in the Northern English pronunciation of grass). It is often represented in phonetic notation as [a]. It is lilce the a in father, but shorter and more open. It is not pronounced like the a in bad. Examples include /( bii, 'eight', 2 fi, 'e'effuse', $& f6, 'method7, and da, 'great7. w0 The final -0 sounds lilce awe in the British rather than the American pronunciation. This sound can directly follow b, p, m, and f; e.g., bb, $ $ pd, 'break', ,@ m6, 'grind9, 'peeling' (tongue fur), $> bb, 'thin', 6 and f6, 'Buddha7.After all other initials (d, t, n, 1, h, zh, ch, sh, I: z, c, and s) o does not occur alone, but it is preceded by u and sounds lilce the wa of war in the British pronunciation. Examples include dub, ! tub, 'shed', 'desertion', t$$lud, 'network vessel', A hud, 'much7, % zud, 'fire', $& zhu6, 'turbid7, i# shub, 'dictum7, $$ rud, 'weak', 'left', $g cu6, 'cross', and f i sud, 'place7. The same sound occurring in the initial position is written as wo, as in % wd, 'I7, 'me7.
-0, -UO,
The Pinyin e is used to represent two distinct sounds. Final -e, after i or u, lilce the e in bed [E]. In all other positions, it is like the vowel in bird without any r sound, or lilce LE in the French hors d'ceuvre, a sound which is often represented in phonetic notation as [oe]. Examples: P g e of PgR 2 jiiio, 'ass-hide glue7, !h% i , 'moth', 2 % 2, 'malign', $9 d&, 'obtain', 1%g&, 'diaphragm', $U hi, 'harmonize', l&, 'restrain'. As the English eye (actually more closely to the German ei of Heim). It occurs in ft ai, 'moxa7, 'mugwort', b $ mai, 'vessel', 'pulse', & tiii, 'tongue fur', and fF kiii, 'open'.
-+f-
ai
ei
As the ei in the English feint. The Chinese w2i, 'stomach', is pronounced as the English weigh or way, while % l&, 'tired', sounds lilce the English lay. Other examples include % hei, 'black', BE!, fii, 'obese', and a$ p i , 'lung'. As the ow of how. Thus, j$j nrio, 'brain7, is pronounced more or less lilce the English now. In actual fact, the sound is closer to the au of the German Haus or the Spanish jaula. Another example is B giio, 'unctuous7(as in $ !$ ?& giio lin, 'unctuous strangury ').
Introduction
ao
ou
As the English oh!, especially in the American pronunciation rather than the standard British pronunciation. This sound can occur in the initial position, as in du, 'retching', which sounds lilce oh! It more often occurs as a final, as in $$ ch6u, 'tug', chdu, 'thick', 'viscous', @ cdu, f ? ddu, 'pox', flf% hdu, 'larynx', 'interstice', ?j%i ldzc, 'to leak', 'spotting', j hdu, 'thick', hdu, 'after', and % gdu, 'grimy'. As the an in the Spanish word pan meaning bread. The n sound tends to be rather nasal and indistinct. It occurs in 3 i-n, 'to quiet', ?@ han, 'cold', $3 fan, 'vexation', )? fbn, 're(flux)' (as in fbn wgi, 'stomach reflux'), j'F gi-n, 'liver', gi-n, 'sweet', ?& mbn, 'fullness', and @ hubn, 'moderate'. After xi, xu, y, or i, it is pronounced, depending on the speaker, either like the as the vowel sound) or as en in the English pronunciation of Anne (with [z] English yen. Examples include qian, 'before', % xii-n, 'advanced', 'earlier', $2xian, 'stringlike', xuan, 'di&se7, and ! k gquan, 'curled-up'. As the un of the English undo, with the mouth less widely opened. Thus $ bzn, 'root', resembles the English bun (never as the English name Ben). Similarly, % fin, 'En' (a weight), is pronounced lilce the English fun. The n sound tends to be rather nasal and indistinct. This sound also occurs in bbn, 'running' (as in running piglet), and 9 shbn, 'body'.
an
en
ang As the ang in sang, but with the a pronounced lilce the a in father (though zdng, 'viscus', BE zhang, not so long). This sound occurs in 'distention', 8* pang, 'obese', 8 yLing, 'nourish', and ~Z!J chring, 'intestine'. eng The final -eng is similar to the ung in the English sung. (Beware, it is not pronounced lilce the eng in the English length). Thus, @ bbng, 'flooding' (metrorrhagia), is pronounced lilce the English bung, though with the mouth less widely opened. This sound also occurs in 8 zhbng, 'steam', J%, fing, 'wind', @ zhbng, 'concretion', and iiE zhgng, 'pattern'. er
The final -er is pronounced as the er in the American English her. Examples include ) ir:'child', and Gr: 'ear'. The final -r is a characteristic of Bgijing speech that in most cases is considered optional in Mandarin. In Chinese characters, it is represented kr: which is a noun suffix. In speech, however, it is by the character )I not pronounced as a distinct syllable, but as a rhotacization of the syllable it follows. Examples include /]\?2)L xibo hair: 'child', S%)L ki-i fingr: 'write a prescription'. Noun forms with this ending are regularly
13
-r
heard in conversation, but seen in literature only in novels in which the author wishes to highlight speech idiosyncrasies. In Chinese medical literature, such forms are rarely seen, and other forms are used instead (e.g., /]\1L xi60 Pr, 'child'; kr7i chzifrfrzg, 'write a prescription').
Tones
The notion of tonality is by no means an alien concept in English. We pronounce words with different intonation to express slight nuances in meaning such as inquiry, doubt, and affirmation. English question sentences, for example, are often characterized by a rising intonation at the end. (In "Is he coming?" the word 'coming' is usually pronounced with a rising intonation.) Chinese tones differ in that each syllable has a fixed tone that is an integral part of the pronunciation rather than an expression of nuance. Westerners usually find the tones are relatively easy to reproduce. The difficulty lies only in abandoning our native habit of varying intonation in running speech and in giving each word the correct tone.
1st Tone
(%-F di y i shEng) A syllable in the first tone, marked as has a high level sound.
"
- ",
2nd Tone ( % I F di t.r shEng) A syllable in the second tone, marked as " ' ", has a high rising tone. As in the Eiiglisli "Yes?" or ''Oh?"
3rd Tone
( % Z F di sZn shEng) A syllable in the third tone, marked as " ' ", has a low dipping tone.
4th Tone
(%
di si shEng) A syllable in the fourth tone, marked as " ' " , falls from a high level to a low level. As in the English "No!"
These tones are fixed in all cases except the third tone, which changes to a second tone when it precedes a syllable in third tone. Thus, fi6S jig bia'o is read as jie' bia'o (even though the Pinyin is not normally written lilce that). In Modern Mandarin there is also what is called a neutral tone, which occurs in compounds that are largely confined to colloquial expression. The neutral tone, which is marked in Pinyin by the absence of any tone mark, is in fact not one, but two distinct tones. After a syllable in first, second, and fourth tones, a neutral tone is a low falling tone, like the first half of a full third tone, e.g., $j@ f shi zi, 'lion'; ' f h i i , 'child'; gf xing zi, 'apricot'. After a third tone, it is !ike a first tone hut s!ight!y iower, e.g., @ f ji60 i . The Gonn wffix ? zi accounts for most occurrences of the neutral tone. But the final element in
14
Introduction
certain compounds is also conventionally pronounced (especially in Bgijing) in the neutral tone. Examples include kk tai tai, 'Mrs.'; %& xiiin sheng, 'Mr.'; 28% 160 gua, 'crow'; and 2%2m lrio wan gu, 'old stick-in-the-mud'.
A feature of Chinese is that many of its monosyllabic words are homophonic, i.e., share the same sound. This feature stemmed from a reduction of the number of sounds in the ancient language and has resulted in two words often having to be used instead of one. (This is why, for example, 4 & has been replaced by g$&Gr duo in the modern spolten language.) Vast numbers of words are distinguished by tone alone, but many words have exactly the same sound and tone. The homophony of Chinese poses considerable difficulties to the foreign student learning Chinese language.
Non-Standard Pronunciation
Although China is a land of many different dialects, many of which are not mutually intelligible, Mandarin is not only taught in all elementary schools, it also provides the medium of all education throughout China and Taiwan. Whatever dialect Chinese people may learn from their parents or from their local community, most people now have a command of Mandarin that facilitates communication with anyone in the Chinese world. Nevertheless, the speech of many Chinese does not conforrn to standard Mandarin pronunciation and contains elements from local dialects. In particular, the retroflex sounds zh, ch, and sh, which are unique to Mandarin, are difficult for native spealters of other dialects to produce and tend to be replaced with the non-retroflex equivalents z, c, and s. This tendency is common to people as far apart as Sichuan, Shanghiii, Guiingzhiiu, and Taiwan. Some southern Chinese (notably Fujianese and Taiwanese) who are not native spealters of Mandarin have difficulty malting the s o u n d j and tend to pronounce it is hw. In addition, they often fail to distinguish 1from n, pronouncing both as n.
Evolution of the Script

The Chinese script appears as a fully developed writing system in the late Shiing dynasty (14th to 11th centuries B.C.E.). Inscriptions on oracle bones and shells and on bronzes show a mature writing system capable of recording the contemporary Chinese language in a complete and unambiguous manner. In view of this, a long period of initial development has been suggested.
15
These so-called oracle-bone inscriptions were carved on the ventral shells of tortoises or on the scapulae of larger animals, such as oxen. They were the interpretation of the craclcs in the shell or bone understood to answer questions about the outcomes of fbture events. Oracle-bone divining was a mysterious and sacred procedure performed by shamans. The shaman bored holes in the shells, then inserted a burning stick while posing the question to which an answer was sought. The heat caused craclcs to appear, and these craclcs were believed to be the encrypted answer to the question posed. The information obtained from the craclcs in the bones aiid tortoise sliells was written down in a way that both recorded the patterns of the cracks and arranged them into ineaninghl arrays that included the shaman's interpretations. It is believed that the script found on oracle shells and bones was first developed specifically for noting oracle interpretations and was later extended to other uses. Graphs and Etymology Chinese etymology is far froin a science. Sinologists could debate for decades over the origins of certain characters and never come to a final resolution. Students learning Chinese for the purpose of understanding Chinese medicine could mistakenly think of etyinology as a specialty field of little professional interest to themselves. But investing soine time in the study of the roots of characters not only facilitates memorization of those characters, it also helps the student develop a deeper understanding of the patterns of thought and expression that are implicit in the language and therefore the literature of Chinese medicine. As has already been pointed out, the Chinese writing system was originally pictographic. In their original forms, graphs representing animals and objects were selfexplanatory. For ease of writing, however, the pictographs were simplified and stylized, so that the referents are soinetimes not easily recognized. Water is a good example; the original character looks like water (see k and ? do not. illustration), whereas the stylized versions 7 Not all elements of the language could be represented in pictorial fonn. Other devices had to be used. Some notions could be represented in an abstract ;xia, meaning up and fashion, as for example the graphs k shang and 1 down; these characters are said to be ideographic. Pictographs could also be sun, 2l1i ,g Y "*", mnnn whish callbin&, such 2s the sGmbic&i~r,~f
1971"
ArAvvr*~
Introduction
forms % m h g and represents bright or brightness; characters like this are said to be "associative compounds." What could be achieved in these ways was also limited, and ultimately the easiest way of representing many elements of the language was to evolce the sounds of the words in speech. One way of doing this was simply to borrow a word of similar sound. Because this method led to the existence of confirsing homographs, confusion was avoided by combining the phonetic loan with another element, lurown as a signific or radical, that roughly represented the sphere of meaning. Thus, I : (now pronounced g6ng) was borrowed to represent the similar-sounding word for 1 (now pronounced jiiing). 'river', but combined with the water signific to form $ In similar fashion, t (now pronounced gcin), shield, was combined with the flesh signific (simplified to to form which represents the liver (now pronounced gcin); ? was also combined with the water signific 7 k (simplified which is used to represent sweat (now pronounced han). This to ? ) to form 5, method of combining significs and phonetics came to be the most productive method of creating characters; characters thus created are called "signific-phonetic compounds."
a)
a?,
The four types of characters mentioned in the preceding paragraphs (i.e., pictographs, ideographs, associative compounds, and signific-phonetic compounds) explain characters in terms of their formation. But Chinese etymologists speak of two other categories that are based on how the characters zhudn zhu, mutually interpretive, has been are used. One category, explained in several ways. The most common explanation is that it refers to words sharing the same signific that are synonymous with and can explain each 160 (meaning 'old age') and 8$ krio (which originally meant other, such as 'long life7or 'aged7, but which has come to mean 'to test7).The other category is called @?{f!$jid jiG, loan characters, which are words that are taken from one context and used, mostly for their pronunciation, in an entirely different context. For example, $5 lai was originally a pictograph of 'wheat' or 'corn7 and was later borrowed to represent 'come.' Below is a table that reviews the different categories of Chinese graphs and the descriptions of character composition by which each of the characters in this book is classified. For some categories, once the image or concept represented in the characters is pointed out, they will naturally be retained in one's memory. This most often happens with the pictographs and ideographs, as well as with certain associative compounds. In other cases it may be more time efficient to
17
remember the character by rote (or by associating their significs andlor phonetics with other characters) rather than by trying to rely on obscure mnemonic clues.
Categories of Chinese Graphs

Category Name
Simplified Complex
Tramslation
Examples
$$.%
[@ 5 3 ) xiangxing,
pictographs
El ri, sun;
yui., moon; mu, tree;
LLI shiin, mountain;
[ 8 % 1 .n%'shi,
ideographs1 indicators
-yg one; - i.r, two

d
T zl", child; -k n&, girl, woman 1shang, up;

7;^ xia, down
[5 3 % ) xing shzng,
signific-phonetic compounds
$ 1 jizng, river; 3'f: han, sweat
&&
$$&
[ @% ] hui yi, associative

compounds
T+k
fi
hao, like, love
El + j?j = sB ming, brightness

$ $ kio, originally long life, now test % lhi, come
[?
) zhuin zhir, mutu-
% lio, old age
Rig
ally interpretive '[ @$f$) j i i ji&, loan characters
Graphs and Dictionary Usage

As explained above, Chinese characters are not all arbitrary symbols. Most of them are composed of elements that are found over and over again in different characters. One element of the character is designated as the ltey element, or signific, which represents the basic category of meaning. Examples of this include: most characters denoting herbs have the grass signific +I(which at an earlier stage was written as Prfi, depicting small plants); most trees and objects made of wood have the treelwood signific & among their parts; liquids and things to do with liquids mostly have the water signific 7 ; most characters denoting disease names have the sickbed signific F. Examples of characters in which these and other significs appear are given below.
2/ shui, water signific: :K han, sweat; ?% qing, clear; $& zhud, turbid; ? /
wen, warn;
A
18
( , , , , )
?E shi, dampness hu4 fire signific: % r2, heat; $ % zao, dryness

Introduction
8? giin, liver; a$ pi, sp1een;'R s h h , kidney Cr, ear signifie: @ Zdng, deaf; liF7 wPn, listening and smelling; qzi, select; % ju, gather n& sickbed signific: @ tan, phlegm; @ J bing, disease; % ydu, wart; $@ Zi, dysentery; % ddu, pox; 5 % tdng, pain k6u9 mouth signific: @@ tud, spittle; & gzi, ancient; u ! w2i, flavor
rhrr or ric, flesh signific:
ccio, grass signific: 3 shao, peony; ff hi, mugwort, moxa; mustard plant; huii, flower
3 ji2,
% mri, tree signific: 4% xihng, oak;
zhi, bitter orange; @ gui, cinnamon tree; $$ lin, forest; $3 zhc branch, twig; #W gEn, root
$R
% mi, rice signifie: % jing, essence; $ 9fgn, powder; %$ zh6u, congee

The significs provide a way of ordering characters in dictionaries so that they can be easily accessed. They are arranged in order of the number of their component strokes, and characters with like significs are arranged together, again, according to the number of their strokes. This method of arranging characters is still used to this day.
Changes in Chinese Script
FBT ji6 gLi wPn

Oracle-Bone Inscriptions
&T jin wPn Bronze Script
xi&ozhuhn Lesser Seal Script
@$$lc6i shfi Regular Style
The Chinese script has changed greatly from its beginnings in oracle-bone inscriptions, E Q R z ji6 gzi wdn, through the regular style, $E* k6i shfi, of today. Some of the changes have been due to stylization of graphic elements, while others, perhaps the most important ones, have been due to changes in writing instruments and materials. During the Yin-ShHng and Zh6u periods [c. 1600 B.C.E.-c. 771 B.C.E.], bronze casting technology advanced dramatically, and bronze script (&T jin wPn) emerged. Wealthy and noble families possessed large numbers of large bronze vessels, which were the principal symbols of social and economic status.
19
Every vessel bore inscriptions of characters that had evolved from ancient times. The ancient way of writing these words proved incompatible with the techniques of casting bronze, and so a script was needed that could be cast in bronze artifacts. Thus, as a result of the material properties of working in bronze, certain changes in the form of written characters emerged. Oracle-bone inscriptions were carved on the uneven surfaces of shells and bones. The size and irregular shapes of these bones presented distinct limitations to the writing of characters. Thus as the space available was often small and irregular, the style of writing tended to be small, uneven, and angular. The characters adopted for bronze vessels tended to be much larger and .fuller in style than those of the oracle-bone inscriptions. Their component strokes were more smoothly rounded. Like the elegant bronze artifacts themselves, which exhibited a feeling of weight and stability, the inscriptions cast on them were executed in a heavy and stable style. The era of bronze inscriptions was followed by the Spring and Autumn period C770-475 B.C.E.]. This was a time of decline following the house of ZhiSu [c. 1100 B.C.E.-c.77 1 B.C.E.], which had ruled large portions of ancient China for centuries through a far flung network of feudal fiefdoms. In the Spring and Autumn period, China was divided into many small states and the hundred schools of thought flourished. This led to the period known as the Warring States Period [475-221 B.C.E.]. Kings fought bitterly throughout this period until the leader of one state, Qin, conquered the others and unified China for the first time in its history. Nevertheless, the unity of the political regime did not bring cultural unity. Each country had its own currency and economic system, as well as its own language, both spoken and written. These various languages are collectively referred to as &ft gii wkn, or the "ancient language." This is the term used by Xii Shbn (iTiB c.58-c.147) who compiled the first known dictionary of Chinese characters, Shu6 Wkn Jig Z i (i.g*fiq% "Explanation of Simple Graphs and Compound Characters9'), when the first Qin emperor issued the decree to unify the written language, currency, and roads. As a result of this process, a new style of script developed. This was the xi60 zhuan, or lesser seal script, which became the official script of the Qin period. It was a % da zhuan, the larger seal inscription, which had simplified derivation of h been the official script of the Qin state before its ascendancy as the first imperial dynasty. The strokes of lesser seal inscription are smooth and gracefbl. Each character is set in a rectangular fonn so that iesser seal script appears more
20
Introduction
orderly than larger seal script. In Xti Sh6n's Shzi6 Wkn Jig Zi,all 9,353 entry characters are written in lesser seal script. At the same time, another step was talcen in the development of the written Chinese character. This was the emergence of &# li shii, the clerical script. This style came into existence from the practical consideration that the smooth, curved, and elegantly wavy characters of lesser seal script were impractical for dealing with the heavy daily flow of official documentation. Under pressure to produce extensive daily documentation, lower clerlcs changed the physical appearance of the official written language in order to malce it possible to lceep up with the volume of writing to be done. Wherever changes to the character could be made to speed up the writing, whether angling off a round comer or rounding off some more angular places, these changes were implemented. Despite the acceptance and widespread use of clerical script, the two lcinds of official style of written Chinese characters coexisted at this time. The lesser seal script was more suited for the elite, and the clerical script, as its name suggests, was for the use of the lower classes. The emergence of clerical script marlced a milestone in the reform of the Chinese character. This change in the history of Chinese written language is referred to as 33 li bihn, the clerical style transformation. Scholars normally divide the whole history of the evolution of Chinese characters into two stages: the first stage, lcnown as the ancient stage, is from EQ@* jici gG wbn, the oracle-bone script, to the I]\$% xi60 zhudn, the lesser seal script. This stage spanned more than 1,160 years. The second stage, which started with the emergence of the clerical script and was continued by @$ kcii shii, the regular style, and which is lcnown as the latter-day stage, has spanned more than 2,200 years. We can compare the clerical style and modem regular style to find extensive similarities both in structure and style of strolces. The character of clerical script became the core identity of the modem Chinese character. It simplified writing. It laid the basic rules and principles in writing Chinese characters and codified the basic strolces: Dot strolce ,6 dicin ' ; horizontal strolce $$$ hkng -; vertical stroke @ shir I ; left-falling strolce ?$j pig ) ; right-falling strolce $$$ nu 2; and so forth. The clerical style transformation was a turning point in the development of written Chinese. The standard style for written Chinese, k&i shii or regular style, evolved from the clerical script. There remains some controversy over who invented this style and when it appeared. The general consensus holds that it emerged froin the Three Icingdoms period [220 C.E.-265 C.E.]. Some scholars
21
believe this style of writing can be traced back even earlier. Nevertheless, the straight strokes and upright structural characteristics of the regular style secured its position as the standard of written Chinese. It not only pleases visually, but also manifests the central themes of Chinese philosophy such as the importance of uprightness and conformity to cultural norms, which pervade the Chinese worldview. The regular style is both easy to learn and to read; hence it proved to be efficient in communication. It was well developed in the Jin period [265-420] and came to its height of public acceptance in the Tang [618-9161. To this day it remains a standard style of written Chinese. Clerical script also gave rise to @# ca'o shii, grass characters. This way of writing emerged in the Western Han dynasty [206 B.C.E.-25 C.E.]. In this style, all the rules of Chinese handwriting were broken. There is no requirement for regular symmetry, and each character can be proportioned according to one's individual whims. Adjacent characters can be connected or remain distinct. Each strolce can be elongated or shortened, and characters can be either round or square. There are no rules to restrain expression. As a result, this style possesses more artistic value than practical value. It is impractical for ordinary use because it is hard to read; hence, it is confined to calligraphy, which is a major art form in China. Another style of Chinese writing is lcnown a running style. It is believed to have originated from the same time period as $k # ka'i shii, the regular style. It is more fluid and wavy than regular style, but not as unrestrained as the grass characters. It retains the dignity of the regular style, along with far more of its legibility. Thus it proved efficient in daily life and remains prevalent in common use today.
Types of Script
Throughout the course of its evolution, the Chinese script has undergone changes and simplifications. In the modern era, this tendency was expressed by the development of yet another simplification in the written forms of Chinese characters. With the impact of Western culture in the 19th and 20th century, many radical language reformers came to believe that the complexity of the Chinese script was responsible for the low literacy rate in China. Some called for the adoption of phonetic writing and specifically the adoption of the Roman alphabet. With the Communist victory in 1949, prospects of Latinization rose. By the en:! of the !%Os, however, althc~gh a new f c m of Rsmanization had been developed (Pinyin), simplification of the traditional script had been
22
Introduction
adopted as a more feasible reform. Though this reform was looked on with scorn in nationalist Taiwtin as the destruction of the Chinese heritage, it actually represented a victory for more conservative forces in the mainland who opposed the much more radical proposal to abolish the traditional script and replace it with the alphabet.
In the 1950s, the Chinese government organized the first worlting group to begin a reformation of the written language. This resulted in the appearance of a jicin ttizi or simplified script. new form of Chinese characters known as fi${7fig Of all the various changes and siinplifications that the written language has undergone throughout its history, none can equal the scope of this modem development. The simplified characters come from a variety of new sources, but few are actually new creations. Some are commonly used short-hand forms that had t6u; to 3 diing; to ? g2; @ been used for centuries (e.g., $$j to to jiu; to 7? wan; $gto $L 19, or short-hand forms found somewhere in literature (e.g., to PEI y h g ) . Others were a reshaping of to jia yin; cursive script (e.g., to % wki; to # shti; $t to % chi?; ,& to 3 to % jian; py to l ' l men). Still others were archaic forms (e.g., ma'; w6ng; q$ to i .h c6ng). to f i zhdng; $2 to $& shii; f@ to New formations were made by leaving out parts of the character (e.g., to to x f i i ; Jf$$ to chcing), or by simplifying parts after the fashion 2 xi; of cursive script calligraphy (e.g., @ to Tfj bi; 8 1 3 to XP d2ng; @j to @! shu). The most common simplification technique, though, was to replace a
23
complex part of the character with a simple one suggesting the sound (e.g., @ 44to z yi; $g to fi run; @ to & ttir). Simplification has in some cases entailed elimination of graphic distinction of homophones. jiring now becomes 3; $$ gzi becomes $$; $2 gfin (in and xi become 3$i. some senses) becomes f; While the simplifications have reduced the number of strokes considerably, there is actually no evidence to suggest that the cause of literacy has been served. Literacy is higher in TBiwSn, where complex characters are used. Although characters may now be quicker to write, some of them may in fact be harder to learn and recognize than the complex fonns. Even in the People's Republic of China, the complex forms have not completely gone out of use. Historical documents are still often printed in the complex characters. In Chinese medicine, deluxe versions of classics are often produced in complex characters. Given the historical dimension of Chinese medicine, the Chinese student and scholar of Chinese medicine has to be conversant with the complex forms. Since it is quite easy to learn the simplified forms after the complex forms, many Westerners learning Chinese for the purpose of reading medical literature learn the complex form first. In this book we have presented many ancient forms of the characters discussed, along with both the modern simplified characters and the older complex characters, which are distinguishable from the simplified forms by surrounding brackets. (That is, when you see l# [ @ ) you will lmow that the latter character is in the complex form.) These should serve as a comprehensive introduction to the form and meaning of Chinese characters and provide a firm foundation for continued study.
Looking Up Words
Accessing characters in a dictionary takes a little knowledge and practice. In view of the special needs of Chinese medicine, students ideally have to master the differences between accessing simplified and complex characters. While in English dictionaries alphabetical order is the standard method of arranging entries, indeed in most cases the only way of accessing entries, Chinese dictionaries usually provide more than one means of access. The traditional arrangement of characters in a dictionary was by order of significs. This is the standard arrangement in most modern dictionaries, too. Some bilingual dictionaries published in the PRC (notably The Pinyin Chinese24
Introduction
English Dictionary published by Commercial Press) are arranged in Pinyin order. Virtually every Chinese dictionary offers one or more indexes offering another means of access. Some dictionaries will offer an index in which characters are arranged according to the number of strokes coinposing them. Most dictionaries provide a phonetic index (Pinyin in the PRC and Mandarin Phonetic Symbols in Taiwan). And many dictionaries provide a short list of characters whose significs are not obvious.
Accessing by Transcription
Most modern dictionaries have a transcription index. PRC dictionaries regularly contain a Pinyin index; some Chinese-English dictionaries have their contents arranged in Pinyin order. Taiwan dictionaries often have multiple phonetic indexes, including the Mandarin Phonetic Symbols by which children in Taiwan learn the sounds of Mandarin, but often also the Yale system, and more recently the Pinyin system used in the PRC and the West. For people familiar with Chinese characters and how they are pronounced, consulting a phonetic index is often the simplest way of accessing words in a dictionary. However, accessing by transcription is not so useful a method for the learner who encounters a character he or she has never seen before and has no idea how to read. Most Chinese characters contain a phonetic element, but most phonetic elements denote several related sounds rather than just one. Sometimes guessing the pronunciation of a character can allow the student to find it quicltly, but often it takes several tries, and sometimes it fails to provide access to the character.
Accessing by Signifies
It is important to learn this method of accessing characters. Beginning students of Chinese who encounter unfamiliar characters usually have difficulty in guessing their pronunciation and need to access characters by significs. Once students have learned to identify the significs of characters, looking words up by this method is usually quite easy. The significs are arranged in order of the hud, fire, comes number of their component strokes. Thus, the signific before the signific % hPi, black. Characters with like significs are ordered according to the number of additional component stroltes. Thus, $2 zao, dryness, with 13 stroltes in addition to the fire signific, comes after $ 9 zhud, scorch, which only has 3 additional stroltes.
25
For those wishing to master both complex and simplified characters, the difficulty that accessing characters by signific poses is that one character may have a different signific in its complex and simplified forms. For example, the character 7; xia, down, which is the same in simplified script as in complex script, has - as it signific in complex script and b in simplified script. Furthermore, the set of significs differs from complex to simplified characters. In particular, variant forms of significs in complex characters, such as for are considered distinct significs in the simplified system.
m,
Of the two systems, the simplified system is probably the easiest to use. One problem with complex characters is that it is not always easy to tell which element of the character is its signific. In the simplification process, character significs in many cases were reassigned to the element of the character that is written first, so that if one is not sure which is the signific, there is a good chance of it being the first element. Ideally, students should familiarize themselves with all the significs in the Chinese language. However, while some significs, like those of water, wood, grass, and fire, indicate a fundamental element of meaning in a character, other significs are obscure. Many students find that to begin with it is more exciting to get on with the business of learning characters straight away, and learn the significs gradually, starting with the more meaningful ones.
Introduction
tian Heaven
Equivalents heaven, celestial

Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 3 + 1; complex
3+1
Character Camposition
Pictograph. From - combined with A. This character contains d&, large or great, which represents a human body with outstretched limbs. It differs by the addition of a mark that emphasizes the head, indicating something large above the human head. Note that - is an optional signific for the simplified character.
Explanation
K tian means sky, heaven; nature; weather. In physical terns, it is the space above the earth's surface, or more loosely what is above human beings. In an abstract sense, it is the highest cosmological principle, that which controls the cosmos.
This character was originally a depiction of a human skull viewed from the front. As time progressed the head was gradually simplified to a short horizontal line indicating the position of the head, i.e., the highest position of the body. Hence, from its original meaning "head" it extended to mean "heaven," "the slcy," which occupies the highest position. This meaning was further extended to include "nature," as well as "natural phenomena."
Combinations
( %A$& )
tian rkn di tian tian
heaven, humankind, and earth every day (colloquial)
3%
[%%I
Stroke Squuenee
A ( EI
ti&
Heaven
Character Composition
Pictograph of human being in profile.
Explanation
There are many pictographic scripts of rkn in Chinese, some of them consisting of a picture of a person standing seen from either the front or side view. In others the person is either lying or kneeling down. In some of these versions of the character the figures drawn are of women, children, old people, and so forth. Over time, the side view of a standing man came to be the general rkn. Many character to symbolize the whole human race, mankind, characters con man signific, often in the fonn 4 . Such characters denote concepts related to human beings, human action, or some similar sense.
Combinations
A h AA @A k+'
( %A$&
CAA3 IEA3 (Atfr)
tiiin rkn d i da rkn xu rkn rkn zh5ng
heaven, humankind, and earth adult(s) vacuous patients philtrurn; Human Center GV-26
Stroke Sequence
A ( A ) rt;n Human
i
i
....t...
I
........
1
j
I
1
..I.i..
.. " .,
!
i . ..&.. i
!
.....
:
j
......
....
1
!
-- I.-
--
I
j
i .....
!
...+.
I ....*..
i
...
I
.... +...
.-
...
i
I
I
....
......
i
''
i '1
I
i
1
...
8
........
1
........
3.
(a
d i Earth
Equivalents earth
Signiftcs and Stroke Counts simplified k 3 + 3; complex & 3 + 3
Signific-phonetic; earth signific
k tzi with phonetic & yg.
Explanation
On the left is the signific component zk tzi, meaning the earth and, in earlier times, the god of the land. In ancient writing it came to stand for sacrifices to the earth god or altars for such sacrifices. On the right is the phonetic component & yE. Its ancient pictographic forrn is a depiction of the female genital organs. Hence, the conjunction of the two components implies the meaning of the "earth," the "receptive power."
Combinations
&
, ! ! i f %
( XAf&]
C 7?f&3
$
[ %f&s]
$
1 i &
! k f &
C Lkf&3
I -f&]
tiGn rkn d i tian d i shzng d i huang sh&g d i 2r d i
heaven, humankind, and earth heaven and earth driedlfresh rehmannia [root] abbreviation of *i$!,$$ the two rehmannias (i.e., driedlfresh and coolted)
Stroke Sequence
ih ( ibl di Earth
4. - [ - )
Equivalents one, first
yr
One
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified - 1; complex
-1
Ideograph. A single line representing the concept one.
Explanation
In oracle-bone inscriptions, this character was a horizontal line. It may be a figurative denotation of a yarrow stalk, which was used in divination and which conveyed the meaning of oneness and denoted PB yang. This drawing of a single horizontal line is a symbol for the abstract mathematical concept of one. Note that the Arabic numeral 1 applies the same representative method, but with a vertical rather than a horizontal line.
Combinations
--El
A
--
Pa
(-I!%) C-kZiI (--I
-0 1 Stroke Sequence
y i yin y i yang yi y i ( -Q 18] y i bui 2r bai
first yin [channel] first yang [channel] each; every one saururus; Saururi Herba
35
5.-
6r
TWO
Equivalents two, second

Signifleg and Stroke Counts simplified Z 2; complex - 2
d
Ideograph. Two lines representing the concept of two.
Explanation
An accumulation of yarrow stalks that symbolizes the number two, the number of the earth, which forms a pair with heaven. The number two is also the symbol for yin and yang. Note that the Arabic 2 appears to be similarly formed, but with the lines joined up.
Combinations
3 3 1 I @ -3%
17B3 13!33 (323
2r bai 2r yang 2r yin
Two Whites (point name) second yang channel second yin channel; two yin
Stroke Sequence
- (I 1 kr Two
6. I I [Z) s @ ~ Three
Equivalents three, third, triple
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified - 1 + 2; complex
-1+2
Character Connposition
Ideograph. Three lines representing the concept of three.
Explanation
An accumulation of yarrow stalks that symbolizes the number three, the number of heaven, mankind, and earth. Note that the Arabic numeral 3 is similarly formed, but with the lines joined up.
Combinations
ZFI
2FB Stroke Sequence
[=&I C3BI
siin yin siin ybng
three yin [channels] three yang [channels]
= I51 S&Z Three
39
7.
si
Four
Equivalents four, fourth

Signifies and Stroke Counts
simplified
a 3 + 2; complex
3 +2
Ideograph.
Explanation
None.
Combinations NQ ) $ P I[
!Rk N3
~WC]
ID%)
si bai si da si qi
ST-2, Four Whiteness four greatness four qi
S t s o h Sequence
e4 1 El 1
si F o u r
41
8.
Five
Equivalents five, fifth Signitics and Stroke Counts simplified -- 1 + 3; complex 1 2 +2
Ideograph. The signific is 1G r in the complex character and - yi in the simplified.
Explanation
The ancient foms of this character depicted the intersection of heaven and earth, reflecting the special mathematical and metaphorical meanings and the function of the number five in traditional Chinese language and thought. In ancient texts the character was often interchangeable with 9wu",probably because of their close resemblance and homophonic relationship.
Combinations
513
5iL\
3 3 7
5&
I5131 [ ml\ 1 ( m? 1 CZSI
W G ss
wu"xin wu"xing wu"zhu"
five colors five hearts five phases five governings
Strake Sequence
j i]
w w i
Five
[A]
ki&
Six
Equivalents six, sixth Signifies and Stroke @aunts simplified ' 2 + 2; complex /[ 2 + 2
Ideograph.
Explanation
The signific of the complex character is /[ brf, eight. The two additional strokes may indicate the number 2, which when deducted from eight leaves six.
Combinations
? d f i fi$2
5% A qg<
Cf i m ? f1 l i ufii C fi$$) l i uj i n g C f i % I l i u qi ( fig?1 l i uyin
six bowels six channels six qi six excesses
Stroke Sequence
?i
?i 1 liil Six
Seven
Equivalents seven, seventh Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified - 1 + 1; complex - 1 + 1
Ideograph.
Explanation
The original meaning of k qi is cutting, to cut. The - yi stroke in the middle of L yin indicates the action of cutting. The character was borrowed to stand for the mathematical concept of seven.
Combinations 345 [Zk) -k?$ (-kSI
k $ ? %
siin qi qi qiao ( -L$$,$& ) qi qi tiing
notoginseng, Notoginseng Radix seven orifices seven qi decoction
Stroke Sequence
-t; ( t ; ] q i Seven
b@ Eight
Equivalents
eight, eighth S i g n i f i e s and Stroke Counts siinplified /\ 2; complex /( 2
Ideograph.
Explanation
The pictographic form of the character depicts an object split in two halves. The pronunciation also imitates the sound of splitting, and thus many other r 7 relate to the meaning of ancient characters that include the component /( b splitting or division. It is borrowed to symbolize the number eight.
Combinations
[ /v!%3 bL?Jt;'ng / [ % P (/ V b 3 bL?xi& ~ t / i b $ ( 1-fAflE ) i.r shi bL?mai
i\n
Eight Winds (point name) Eight Evils (point name) twenty-eight pulses
Stroke Sequence
/\ (
1 bZ Eight
49
1 2 .
(h) jiG
Nine
Equivalents nine, ninth Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified Z 1 + 1; complex
Z 1+ 1
BClharacter Composition
Ideograph.
Explanation
This character is a depiction of a bent elbow. It was used to indicate the number nine. It also came to symbolize things in great amount.
Combinations
A , % A , %
C h % l C h % l
jiu" qiao jiu" k2
nine orifices nine grams
Stroke Sequence
3 jia N i n e
51
Character ComposHion
Ideographic. This character was originally written as a vertical line.
Explanation
In ancient forms, the character depicts a knot on a rope, i.e., one unit of counting. In ancient China, there developed a systematic method of denoting numbers. For numbers less than ten, the wooden or yarrow sticks were preferred. Decadal numbers such as twenty and thirty were denoted by tying lcnots in rope, each h o t representing one decadal unit. The symbols in oracle-bone inscriptions were not as obvious. They were vertical lines like hanging rope. Nevertheless, the lcnots were indicated more clearly in bronze inscriptions, and in some variations the lcnots were quite visually prominent. The character changed again in the lesser seal script where the dot was elongated to a short horizontal line. The modem character shows the crossing of the horizontal and vertical lines,
+. Combinations In Chinese +-- shi y$ literally "ten [and] one," expresses the idea of
+h
7f 1
=fz
eleven; + 7 shi 21; "ten [and] two," expresses the idea of twelve. literally "two tens," is twenty; 3f siin shi, "three tens," is thirty. shijid (HL3 &rshi2r ( I 7 )f siin shi sZn (5 j (.El-3 wd shi nineteen twenty-two thirty-three
L+ 2r shi,
5-+
fifty
Stroke Sequence
-b
-t ) shi Ten
14,A [ A ] di Large
Equivalents large, great(er), major, adult; also ddi in dirifu, doctor, physician Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 3; complex 3
2 arc
indicate big.
Character Gompositic~n Pictograph. A picture of a man with his arms and legs stretched out to
Explanation
This character is a depiction of a standing man with both a m s and legs spread apart. The original meaning of da is "adult" or "man of power." This meaning was later extended to mean anything that is larger than other related things, hence, the eventual meaning of "large." When used as a signific in other characters it frequently retains its pictographic meaning.
Combinations
Ikf%
7/t;B%
(7?@4)
( Al% 3
da biio da chang dafing da han da huang da qi
Am A ?? A% A5
C%mJ3
C A??3 (A%) (A%)
SP-21, Great Embracement large intestine great wind, leprosy great sweating rhubarb, Rhei Rhizoma great qi
Stroke Sequence
k ( A3
da Large
Pictograph. This character was originally written as three dots, indicating sillall things.
Explanation
The ancient pictograph of I ] \ xicio comprises three small dots that symbolize dust, hence, the idea of small. This idea is represented in the modern character by association of /i bri, which in this instance stands for the partition of an object, ] juk, that is already small by nature. As is often the case in written Chinese, the meaning develops from the reduplication of elements that indicate the overall sense of the word, here, making something that is already small even smaller by dividing it. In the lesser seal script the middle dot of the ancient character was elongated as if to bisect the whole character into two parts to make it smaller. The meaning of this character extends to include anything smaller or minor.
Combinations
/ J \jfi
( f..~~~ 3
( L~BE 1 ( fh7k 3
/J\ bk
fJ\7 K
xitio chang xi60 mai xitio shui
small intestine small pulse urine
Stroke Sequence
/I\
) xi60 Small
57
8 6 .
zhang Center
Equivalents center, middle; medium; also zhdng, strike Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified I 1 + 3; complex 1 1 + 3
Pictographic representation of a staff with pennants flying in the wind.
Explanation
In ancient China, banners were arrayed on flagpoles and used in identifying states, armies, and groups of people. The number of banners on a single flagpole was never arbitrary or without meaning, but was directly proportional to the owner's power and position. For those standards that contained many banners there was a wooden block positioned at the middle of the flagpole to strengthen the pole. This extra wooden piece was called CP zhong, and from this sense it came to represent the center because its position was exactly in the middle of the pole. Its meaning also extended to include "medium," "uprightness," and a range of concepts from "central" to "correct." The figurative etymological roots of the word are further reflected in another meaning of 9 zhong, namely to strike or to hit the center, in which case it is read as zhdng.
Combinations
kiP
+?
+J%
+A
$a
(A+) Pf%%) I+R3 (+A1 I+a%& 3
rkn zhong zhong qi zhdngfing zhdng rdn zhdng zang
philtrum; CV-26, Human Center center qi wind strike, wind stroke strike-on-person visceral stroke
Stroke Sequence
(+
I zhdng Center
6 7 .k
[k] shhng
Up
Equivalents up, upper, superior, ascend, rise Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 2 +l; complex - 1 + 2
Ideographic. The horizontal line is a base line, the two strokes above indicate above the base line.
Explanation
The character k shang is constructed by the addition of a short horizontal line on a vertical line pointing upward, which indicates that which is above. Hence, the original meaning of k shang is that which is up, above. This extends beyond the physical sense to include meanings such as the higher grade, former position in a sequential order, upward motion or action, superior, and ascent. Compare this to the next character, 7; xia, in which the same components are rearranged to indicate below or down.
Combinations
k? 1 %
Ik%3
(k%l
shang qi shung qiao
qi ascent upper orifices
Stroke Sequence
61
down, lower, precipitate Signifies and Stroke Counts
Ideographic.
Explanation
The character 7; xia is constructed by the addition of a short horizontal line on the vertical line pointing to the bottom to indicate what is down or below. Hence, the original meaning of 7; xia is what is down, below, or beneath. Like k shang, its meanings extend beyond the physical sense, to include concepts such as the lower grade, the latter position in a sequential order, downward motion or action, inferior, and descent. Used as an intransitive verb, 7;; xia means descend; as a transitive verb it means to cause to descend, to precipitate. Note that some dictionaries use
b bzi as the signific for this character.

precipitating lower orifices lower yin precipitation of blood above and below; thereabouts
Combinations 7 3 C-F%)
TB
7;W
Tlfa
17;
C-F!@) C-FEl C F I I X ~ Ck-F)
xia q q i xia qiao xia yin xia xu& shang xia
Stroke Sequence
7; ( 7; ) xi&
Down
19, @ [
a]
n
n2i Internal
Equivalents internal, inward; also pronounced nd, insert Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 2 + 2; complex 7 ,( 2 + 2
Associative compound.
Explanation
The pictographic forrn of the character shows a house the character is inside, internal, inward.
A ri~ (a variant form of the character , k rbn, person). Hence, the meaning of
Combinations
n jiang
and entry
IAIfl
F?J%
IAIA h?%
l&l
?a
(FJEI Im%) W5J5k) (F51%3 [ I?H%)
n2ifing n2i han n2i hu6 n2i r2 n2i shi
internal wind internal cold internal fire internal heat internal dampness
Stroke Sequence
+j [Tf,J)
~ z k iI n t e r n a l
65
External
Equivalents external, outward Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 4 3 + 2; complex
93 + 2
Associative compound.
Explanation
The character is composed of 4 xi, a signific that means moon, and bzi, a signific that means divination. In ancient China, the divination process consisted of burning both sides of a tortoise shell or other animal bone. The traces on the inner side of the bone after it had been heated were called fi n2i and signified the realm of the self or the host side. The traces on the opposite side were called wai and signified the idea of the opponent or the other. Hence, the character 9/. wai means external, outward.
Combimations
9b% 9b '& 9b2P 9b H
( 9f-7%3 (34-7s ( 5'f-fFTs 3 C 9f-El 3
wai han wai sh2n wai xi6 wai yin
external cold external kidney external evil external cause
Stroke Sequence
Bi. (91-1wrii External
21. $ Z
bi60 Exterior
Equivalents exterior SigniEcs and Stroke Counts simplified -- 1 + 7; complex
6 (4) + 4
This character is an associative compound that originally depicted a fur coat with the fur on the outside and meant an overcoat. The character was later restyled to incorporate the clothing signific yi.
Explanation
In ancient times, people dressed in animal sltins with the fur facing outward. The lesser seal script version of this character consists of 8yi, clothing, and % mao, fur. Thus, the original meaning of the character is "the surface," "the outside," or "the exterior." The meanings of this character also include "signs," "notation," and "norm"; it is used to mean manifestations, i.e., things that manifest outwardly.
Note that the clothing signific of the complex character is split in two, the dot being at the very top of the character-although it is drawn as just part of a longer stroke. (Another character encountered in the terminology of Chinese - gu6, to swathe, also has its clothing signific split.) Please further medicine, note that in certain complex character dictionaries biLio is looked up under yi, yet only 4 strokes from this signific contribute to the 6-stroke signific the overall stroke count.
Combinations
%@
I%%-) bia'o hhn
exterior cold exterior qi exterior heat
3 %
%%I
(%%I
(%%)
biLio qi bia'o r2
Stroke Sequence
5 5 [ S )bi60 Exterior
22
' l
Inatemriss
Equivalents interior
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 5 7; complex
I
8 i: 3 )
6 (5) + 7
Signific-phonetic compound. The complex character is composed of the clothing signific E y i on the left of the phonetic, g li. The simplified character is simply %, which is its own signific.
Explanation
In addition to the fonn of the complex character presented above, $g li, an and both originally meant the lining of alternate form of this character is g, clothing. They both have the clothing signific E yi, and the phonetic is g l i Note that in the clothing signific y i is split above and below the phonetic. The character % l i is coinposed of H ticin, the paddy field, and k . tLi, the dry land. China has been predominantly an agricultural society since ancient times, and the original meaning of % l i reflects this fact. 35 li is the place where people live, i.e., the village. In time this meaning was extended to denote a unit of counting population as well as the basic unit measurement for distance. In ancient China, one % liwas considered to be approximately 500 meters. % in these senses is written the same in complex and simplified scripts. In the simplified script, it has replaced $5 l i meaning interior. In writings with complex characters, % has the meanings explained in this paragraph, but not the meaning "interior."
Combinations
%%i
35% C ?g% %& I? ! 3 % Stroke Sequence
( 3??9! 3
3 3
bicio l i l i han l i rrS,
exterior and interior interior cold interior heat
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component, ? shui, water. On the right is the phonetic component, 3 qing.
Explanation
As the phonetic means youth or green-blue, it perhaps gives rise to the meaning of purity through the metaphor of clear blue water.
$8qing is primarily an adjective describing the clear quality of water. In

Chinese medicine it is also used as a noun, "the clear," to denote the clean elements of the food and air the body talces in that can be assimilated. It stands in opposition to $k zhud, which means foul or waste matter, such as the parts of food that are not absorbed into the body and are passed through the intestines to be eliminated. $8qing is also a verb, "to clear," in therapeutic terminology. ?8 J;h qing r2 means to clear heat, i.e., remove it. As with many characters that have the three-drop water signific 7 , in certain complex-character dictionaries $8 is to be found grouped under the Cstrolce water signific, 7rk. Note that in certain printed fonts, the bottom part of the phonetic has a vertical line instead of a horizontal one, i.e., .jE. We have used this variant character in the combinations below, but students do not need to learn to write the character in this way.
Combinations
$%8f
( \@jjlfA )
98%
IE%3 [ ?E!% 3
sing gGn hzid qing qi qing qiao
clearing liver fire clearing qi clearing orifices (therapy) clear orifice (anatomy)
72
$ j~ $ 3 1 qi'g
Clear
73
SigniEcs and Stroke Counts
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the water signific 7 shut on the chdng, right is E shzi, serving as a phonetic, which has been changed to bug or insect, in the simplified script.
Explanation
The character is constructed with the component chdng, insect or shzi, which contains & chdng, is the ancient name of Sichutin silkworm. province in southwest China, the main production area for silk. Hence, the image of w o m s in the water gives rise to the idea of turbid.
$2 zhud stands in coinplemeiita~yopposition to ?% qkg, the preceding character.

Combinations $8 ?' [ ?$?El3
qing zhz~d zhud qi zhud qiao the clear and the turbid turbid qi turbid orifices
?&3 ?A%
1? 8 % % 3
(
? a ! %1
Stroke Sequence
$ ! k ( $8) zhz16 TUrbid
25. @
(E) xa Vacuity
Equivalents vacuity, vacuous

6+6
Associative compound. The signific for both simplified and complex hii, meaning a tiger. The lower part of both the simplified and characters is coinplex is an altered form of the pictograph h qiii, a hill.
Explanation
The original meaning of the character was hill or mountain inhabited by tigers or other wild animals. Because a mountain inhabited by wild animals is not inhabited by humans, the meaning was extended to include desertedness or ! xii by the emptiness. The character in its original meaning was changed to % addition of f tG, earth, while the original form came to be used exclusively in the ineaning of emptiness. In medicine, laclc of bodily substances, such as qi, blood, yin, and yang, are described as & xii, vacuities. @ xii stands in complementary opposition to shi, repletion, which is the next character.
Combinatiom
ti? k%
IE%3
&g
@
m E B I
(
xii rci, xii shi ) shang shi xi&xii
vacuity heat vacuity and repletion upper-body repletion and lower-body vacuity
Stroke Sequence
76
& ( @ ) xxii
Vacuity
77
2 6 .
] shiRepletion
EquivaIents repletion, replete

Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified A 3 + 5; coinplex 3 + 11
Associative compound. The signific of both the simplified and complex characters is the * micin, the roof of a house; on the bottom of the complex character is the component guan, which means strings of money.
Explanation
The top component is * mian, the roof of a house. The upper part of guan, the lower component of the character, is f@ wu, which depicts a pierced object. The bsi, money, on the bottom symbolizes wealth. Hence, the original meaning of % shi is wealth, richness. The character extends to mean real, fulfillment, truth, repletion, and replete.
% shi is the opposite of @xi?, and in the medical context often describes the
presence of a disease evil (@XP bing xi&)that is being vigorously fought by the body.
Combinations
%2 4 &% 1 % 1 ; @[
(mxl C E ? m )
shi r2 xii shi ) shang shi xia xii
repletion heat vacuity and repletion upper-body repletion and lower-body vacuity
Stroke Sequence
shi Repletion
79
27
EquivaPents
[ k ) y T n YIn
yin, genital, pudenda, vagina
Signiltics and Stroke Counts simplified l i 2 + 4; complex $. (
8 (3) + 8
Associative compound. Both simplified and complex characters have l i $1, meaning a mound, as their signific. The right-hand portion of the complex character, $$ yin, which means shade or shady and is also the phonetic, is more yu2, fully described below. In the simplified script, this has been changed to the moon.
Explanation
On the left is the signific component l i fu, whose earlier pictographic form depicts three steps on a slope. Thus, it came to mean a hill. On the right side of the complex character is $ yin, cloudy. It is also composed of two parts: the upper part jin, a phonetic symbol; and the lower part yun, cloud. The combination of these two parts results in the meaning of shade or shady. Hence, the character specifically indicates the northern side of the mountain, i.e., the side that is dark and shaded from the sun. This meaning extended figuratively to include a range of objects and phenomena including the female genitals, pudenda, and vagina. Note that in certain complex character dictionaries this character and the following one are to be found under the 8-stroke signific @fu.
Combinations
x ! d
?b E l
3B
Cli23 C 9+BI [ZE)
2r yin wai yin siin yin
the two yin external yin, the pudenda the three yin [channels]
Stroke Sequence
80
F J ( E l yin Y i n
Signific-phonetic compound. Both simplified and complex characters have
l i @, meaning a mound, as their signific. The right-hand portion of the complex character is & yang, the phonetic component, which also has the meaning of "brightness." In the simplified form, this has been changed to Ei ri, the sun.
Explanation
On the left is the signific component l i @, which, just as in the character for yin, depicts three steps on a steep slope. On the right is & yang, the sun with its rays shining down. The joining of these two characters gives rise to the meaning of yang: the south, sunny side of a mountain. This meaning extends to include the sun, sunshine, convex, surface, to be exposed outwardly, and inale. Note that the modern expression for sun is no longer ri, but k P E l thi yhng, which literally means "the greater yhg" and whch is also the name of the acupulicture channels that are associated with the bladder and with the small intestine.
Combinations El P a Ck 2 $ &3 yin yang 2PB C 3 B 3 san yang $ ! , 'g PEI & [ i$gF$$$@ ] pi shin yang x i ? ?iSiPB C qing yang 3 I1 % C B % 3 yang huang
yin and yang; yin-yang the three yang [channels] spleen-kidney yang vacuity clear yang yang jaundice; yang yellowing
83
29
$ 7[
] xing Phase, Move
Equivalents phase, move Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 3 + 3; complex
<3
-t-
Pictograph. The original character depicted a crossroads to indicate the meaning of to travel or move. The left-hand portion is the signific $ chi, which originally depicted a T-junction.
Explanation
In both the oracle-bone and bronze inscriptions, the character depicts an intersection of two streets. As the character slowly developed in time, the left side evolved into the shape of a man to indicate people wallcing on these streets. Hence, the original meaning of j 7x h g is street, boulevard, as well as wallcing, strolling, or movement in general. This meaning extends to column, profession; spreading, transmission, action; phase. Untrue to etymology, the signific is often called the "double-person signific" since it loolcs like 4 rkn, a person, with the first stroke duplicated.
Combinations
537
? ! FA fT%
[ 577 1
f T7 K f l i t j l f 7 7 K
wu"xing xing qi C 77%I [ 7 % ] xing qi kiii w2.i [ $BB77@i, ) wen yang xing qi C 777k 1 xing shui [ lifi2777k ] fei zhzi xing shui
five phases move qi move qi and open the stomach warm yang and move qi move water lung governs the movement of water
Stroke Sequence
/7
[ f ? ) xing Phase, move
85
Pictograph of a tree, with its branches and roots.
Explanation
The character m i l was originally the ordinary word for tree or timber. In modem Chinese, $Xf sshu (which originally meant to plant) has talcen over the sense of tree, and nzir is reserved for the meaning of timber or wood. In the theory of the five phases, mu means both tree and wood; it is only by convention that we refer to it as wood in English. This character is also the signific of characters denoting or relating to wood.
* *
In the oracle-bone inscript haracte with its root and branches attached to the stem. Hence, its original meaning is tree. It is a general term for woody plants. It is often used to mean wood, timber, or anything related to or made from wood. Chinese characters constructed with the If mu component are generally related to wood.
Combinations
$!%A
7 & ! % *
[ $$A ) (7 k $ $ )
mu shgng hu6 wood engenders fire shuishgng mu water engenders wood
Stroke Sequence
% ($1
mil
Wood
Pictographic representation of flames.
Explanation
In oracle-bone inscriptions, the character depicts a flaming fire. Hence, its original meaning is fire, flame. Chinese characters constructed with the A hu6 component relate to the idea of fire or flame. This character is also a signific that figures in numerous characters used in Chinese medical terminology. One example is & yan, to flame, as in J L ~ A xin ~& hud shang yan, heart fire flaming upward.
Combinations
A??$ A'+J
AxYk
w3%3
(ACfi3
[
)
hu6 r2 fire heat hu6 zhdng fire stroke mir shzng hu6 wood engenders fire
Stroke Squuence
(k
[ A ) Izzro' Fire
Chinese M e d i c a l Characters: Basic V o c a b u l a r y
89
A pictograph of a clod of earth, now represented by the cross, on the ground, represented by the bottom horizontal.
Explanation
In the oracle-bone inscriptions, the character depicts a small mound of earth. Hence, its original meaning is earth, soil, dirt. This meaning later extended to include the land and fields. It was further extended to mean the country or region. Chinese characters constructed with the f tli component relate to the concept of earth or soil.
Combinations
fg7k
iLk&
[ 33.d7k ) [ )
+.
t6 kc2 shui tG shgng jin
earth restrains water earth engenders metal
Stroke Sequence
k (f)tti E a r t h
(soil)
91
33
[&]
jTn
Metal
Equivalents metal Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified $2 8; complex
&8
An ideographic representation of a nuggetlnuggets of metal dug out of the ground. This character is composed of jin as the phonetic component on top, and fwang, a kind of military weapon similar to an ax. The two dots on either side of the bottom of the character represent pieces of ore, which were taken from the earth and refined for making such weapons. Hence, the original meaning of &jin is bronze. In general, the character is used to mean metal; later on, it was used almost exclusively for gold. As one kind of currency, the metal gold implies wealth, money, and importance. This character is also a signific that occurs in characters denoting metals and metal objects. In simplified compound characters, the signific & is written as .
Combinations
&&7k &l ' l
[ 4%+.7k 1 [ 437 1
jin shzng shui metal engenders water jin mkn BL-63, Metal Gate
Stroke Sequence
2 ($21 j 7 ~Metal
A pictographic representation of flowing water.
Explanation
The ancient form of the character depicts a current. The center line indicates the main current, and the dots on each side indicate splashes of water. Hence, its original meaning is water. Its extended meaning includes anything in the form of liquid. This character is also a signific that occurs in characters denoting or relating i , three drops of water. to fluids. In most of these, it takes on the form of : Eleven of the one hundred characters presented in this book have the water 12i, signific: $8qing, clear; ? ' zhud, turbid; ?%jin, liquid; ?@ y2, humor; tears; 'l-f hhn, sweat; ?j)3 ti, snivel (nasal mucus); @ xian, drool; ?g yin, excess; 7 ? $ ! shi, dampness; ? ! wen, wann.
Combinations
7k&* 7kT
[ 7kY$ )
( 7 k %3
shuishf?ng mu water engenders wood shz~iqi water qi
Stroke Sequence
[7k) slzzri W a t e r
engender, arise, vital, reproduce, fresh, raw
A pictograph of a seed sprouting out of the earth.
Explanation
The oracle-bone form of the character depicts a sprout emerging above the surface of the earth. In the bronze inscription form, a dot is added in the middle of the stem, to indicate the growth or the vitality of the sprout. Hence its original meaning is the growth of plants. Later, the word was extended to meanings such as birth, engender, creation, growth. It is also used to mean aliveness, life, and life span, as well as fresh or raw when used in association with medicinals.
Combinations
*+A d-
f +k
*'% 7 k
7 & & *
[ $&A ) ( A+. ) ( ) [ eq7k ) [ 7&Y&1
[ &t&R )
mil shzng hud hz~d shzng tzi tzi shzng jin jin shzng shui shui'sh2ng mu shgng d i hzrcing
wood engenders fire fire engenders earth earth engenders metal metal engenders water water engenders wood raw rehmannia (Rehmanniae Radix Cruda)
Stroke Sequence
[&I
shfizg E n g e n d e r
97
Pictograph. The modern simplified character is a stylized version of a picture of a hoolced instrument used to remove the slcins from animals. The complex character is often the same as the simplified, but usually a variant form is used diio, a knife. that includes the addition of I] ,representing
Explanation
The upper part of the character depicts a stone lsnife and the lower part depicts a slcinned animal. The skinning action of the iinage implies the idea of restraint, i.e., to subdue resistance. Hence the meaning of overcome or restrain. In modern times this character was borrowed to mean grams, and in this is the sense it is often seen in recipes for forinulas. In coinplex characters, fonn used for this meaning.
Combinations %% 1&%)
$ % k
A%&
k37k
& $
s hzng kc& [$$!J-J-) muk&tii [ k$!J&) hud ksjin [j ? ! J 7 & ) tii k&shui [ ) jin J c 2 mir [7 & $ ? J % ) shui k2 hud
engendering and restraining wood restrains earth fire restrains metal earth restrains water metal restrains wood water restrains fire
Sltrcoke Sequence
98
(B] Ic6
Restrain
The simplified character is a stylized version of its earliest form, which was a pictographic representation of mist or clouds. The first stroke of the character was a later addition to distinguish it from sGn, three. A fbrther addition was % mi; grain, symbolizing coolcing rice from which fragrant vapor arose. The ancient form of the character depicts a waving cloud. Its extended meaning includes all type of gases as well as inany other natural phenomena. $ qi was borrowed by ancient Chinese philosophy to embody certain abstract concepts. From there, the concept of $ qi was also borrowed by all the other disciplines in both ancient scieiices and humanities. It is used to describe the condition of the huinan body both physically and spiritually.
Combinations
I!kE PB5
LEI$
CB%I II%%]
bY%3 (73&3
A5
? P C
T5
rF%I
yin qi yang qi si qi liu qi tian qi xia qi
yin qi yang qi the four qi the six qi weather lower body qi; precipitate qi
Stroke Sequence
Chinese'Medical Characters: Basic Vocabulary
101
Pictograph. This character depicts a drop of blood dripping into a vessel, Dl min, hence, its original and enduring meaning: blood.
Combinations
m a
5 l f a
a@
I'f-lfa
~JIII.
%a
T r h L
yin xu2 Cli3rhr.1 qi xu2 C%rtnl xu2 xii Crhr.B1 1 87-rn 1 IiDi1.1 yzl xu2 C%rta1 xia xu2 ITifcl1 CRl@rta@l giin pi xu2 yi2
yin blood qi and blood blood vacuity liver blood engender blood blood stasis precipitation of blood liver-spleen blood stasis
Stroke Sequence
103
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component 7 shui, the water. The original phonetic component on the right was pronouncedjin, but it was contracted to $ yir (a writing brush). This character originally meant, and continues to mean, a place where one call cross a river, a ford. Another meaning is liquid, the sense in which it is used in Chinese medicine.
Combinations
f = = ( ,, j$ -
(%@j
@d i l .
?$3
43%
qijin (@a3 jin xu& (@%I jin qi (%@3 sh&g jin
qi and liquid liquid and blood liquid and qi engender liquid
Stroke Sequence
$+[ @ ) jin
Liquid
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component : i shui, water. On the right is the phonetic component & y2.
Explanation
The phonetic component consists of a person under a roof next to xt, the moon. The synthesis of the two components in this character can give rise to the idea of water retained during the night, hence, humor. While this might be of inneinonic value for learning the character, it is not of clinical relevance.
Combinations
$%$@
[ @/&1
'Rk7k$&
$@
qg~,,
&
jin y G [ %Z7k]& ) sh2n zhz? shuiy2 C %?&3 jing y2 C E%? 1 chang y2 I ?@if% 1 y2 zao [ ?@f%%R 1 y2 zao shzngfing
liquid and humor; fluids kidney governs water semen intestinal huinor dryness of humor dryness of humor engendering wind
Stroke Sequence
essence, semen
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component % mi,rice or kernel of grain. On the right is the phonetic component qing, the color of lush growth, youth.
Explanation
The phonetic could be understood to contribute to the meaning of this character. As with Character #23 above, certain font faces present the complex character with a variation in the lower part of the phonetic (i.e., in R, the Students should be able to recognize this variant phonetic is -@ instead of 3). in reading but do not need to emulate it in writing.
Combinations
8% 5
$f$h
~s
4%
IlXl&
%$$
CR%3 CRrfa3 [ I?$$$ 3 (%%I (*@I

~~@~
jing qi jing xu2 jing shkn jing han shzng jing sh2n jing
essential qi essence-blood essence-spirit; mind; mental seminal cold engender essence kidney essence
H &a
#$j
(re)jing
Essence
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component f? shi, which depicts a totem pole or sacrificial alter; the dots on both sides of the totem pole signify the wine used during sacrificial ceremonies. On the right is the phonetic component @ shen, which depicts a lightning bolt.
Explanation
There are other characters relating to sacrificial activities that are composed with f? shi as the signific. $ shgn is the prototype of the character $ dian, lightning, and its meaning was extended to supernatural beings. The combination of these components gives rise to the meaning of spirit, mysteriousness, the supernatural. In certain complex character dictionaries this character is to be found under j ? ,even though it is drawn with but 4 stroltes. the 5-strolte signific 7
Combinations
%+El' +El' 5 +El' l ' l
[ @3@J 3 ( 3@J%3 [ ?@p7I
jing she'n she'n qi she'n me'n
essence-spirit spirit qi WT-7, Spirit Gate
Stroke Sequence
$41
I t $ ) sh&l?Spirit
43. @ [
I] z6ng Viscera
a
4 + 6; complex
(
Equivalents viscus, organ

siinplified
a ) 6 (4) + 18
The complex character is a signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component roil, flesh, a variant of (See the 60th character, @J, for reference.) On the right is the phonetic component $&cccig.
m.
Explanation
This phonetic component means conceal, store, or hiding and is composed of grass, clio, that covers treasure taken as spoils of war, %7 zang, on the bottom. Thus, while the character is said to be a signific-phonetic compound according to the traditional classification of characters, it can be thought of as an associative compound. The coinponents of this character develop the idea of the internal organs that store the essential substances of the body, the viscera. Compare jfi fi2, the following character. Note that the simplified character obscures the notion of "to store."
Combinations Z@ C El%I
E5
7
[ !%% I
[7 )
wzi zang five viscera zang qi visceral qi wEn shuizang warn the water viscus (the kidney)
Stroke Sequence
112
)a ( j @ ]
zalzg
Viscera
SigniGcs and Stroke Counts
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component, flesh. On the right is the phonetic component, @f fii.
4 roil,
Explanation
In this character the phonetic also contributes to the meaning of the character. @f@is an official compound, official archives, official residence, in particular a building where government business was transacted. Thus, the two components give rise to the idea of the organs through which various substances of the body are transmitted, the bowels. Compare zang.
Combinations
M u m
I \ Bl?
l i u @ zang fii Ti@A-iBfi [ Ea$&7tafi ) wzi zang l i ufii
Ifi!R 1 1,%%afi 3
six bowels viscera and bowels five viscera and six bowels
Stroke Sequence
jgj
(rlR]f;i Bowels
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component YOU, flesh. On the right is the phonetic component f giin, which represents the stem or branch of a tree and also a pestle and has the extended meaning of to grind or to destroy.
Explanation
In the past it has been suggested that the element f giin was chosen beca~lse the liver is shaped like stems or branches. While not necessarily historically accurate, this association may be of mnemonic value in memorizing the stnlcture of the cliaracter.
Combinations
BT3 IT& A T [SB BT PR BT7% 8fl);t
B F [ S B E Rf&@
I IT% 3 I ITID 3 I ITR3 I lTPB 3 1IT$3 (EFk) (BTR@] ( (?a@ )
giin qi giin xu2 gLin yin giin yang giin mu giin hu6 giin yin x~ giin xu2 xii
liver qi liver blood liver yin liver yang liver-wood liver fire liver yin vacuity liver blood vacuity
Strolte Sequence
BF ( R ) gzr? L i v e r
Equivalents heart Signifies and Strake Counts simplified ib 4; complex
) ( ' J
heart spirit heart-fire heart qi heart blood heart yang heart yin heart qi vacuity heart blood vacuity heart yin vacuity
Pictograph. Even in its inoderli form, this character still recognizably depicts a human or animal heart.
Explanation
In both bronze inscription and lesser seal script, the character follows the shape of the heart. Hence, its original meaning is heart. As the chief internal organ that governs over all others in Chinese medical theory, the heart was considered the source of consciousness. Thus the meaning extends to thoughts, mind, and affection. Since it is located at the center portion of the body, it also ~ have comes to mean the center, central. Chinese characters including J Lxin meanings that relate to thinking, thoughts, ideas, and affection, and often occur in the altered form '1 xin, as in 'lg qing, emotion or affect.
Combinations JL\$$J (
j b 3 @
C
J L \ ~ JL\& J LPEl ~ J LTsa ~
J
jL\A
JL\%
J~\I~LL
3 3 3 3
C
[ [ [ )
JL\B
3 3
j L @ i , @
ji\m@
L
J
) )
xin she'n xin huo" xin qi xin xu6 xin yang xin yin xin qi xu xin xu6 xii xinyinxii
Stroke Sequence
J L (,i\) ~ xi11 H e a r t
119
Signifies and Stroke Caunts
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component ,EJ you, flesh. On the right is the phonetic component @ bgi.
Explanation
The phonetic @ bgi is a pictograph of a wine cup with the handle on the left; its extended meaning is common, vulgar, low. Perhaps this element originally was not merely a phonetic, but also a meaning component, reflecting the fact that the spleen is located below the stomach.
Combinations
84% I$*
JL$I@ 8@BEi dZ
C i@R 3 ( L @ 1k
B@F?ldZ !$%& Stroke Sequence
pi qi pi tu' ( &\i@ 3 xin pi (@ !3 pi yang xu [B E 3 piyin xii ( 3 piqixii
spleen qi spleen-earth heart and spleen spleen yang vacuity spleen yin vacuity spleen qi vacuity
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component rou, flesh. On the right is the phonetic component *Pi, meaning branching plants that do not stand erect but creep with manifold branches. In the complex character, the phonetic element is sometimes written as $ shi, market. The etymologically correct forrn, ?fj, was reinstated when the character was simplified in the PRC.
Explanation
The coinponent Tf7 has contributed to the meaning of the character, since the lung can be seen as being similar to a plant with manifold branches. fei jin fei jin f2i qi xii fei ytn xii fei shuf lung-metal lung liquid lung qi vacuity lung yin vacuity lung water (lung disease-related water swelling)
IliB
[lifilfei Lung
Signifies rand Stroke Counts
Signific-phonetic compound. The top of the complex character is the phonetic component qiGn. Below is the signific component roil, flesh.
Explanation
Although EJ qiGn is considered the phonetic component, it can be chkn, understood to influence the meaning of this character. It is composed of ydu, a right hand. Together they mean a servant or an official, controlled by firrn or strong. When this is combined with the flesh signific, the character means strength within the body, the kidney.
Combinations 'Ef 7 K C% 7 k3
IBpa 'BrJB 'BE ,L, 'B

I I X , -
a at@
I'X
IBpaB 'BrJBE
CF~K~ C%El I%%) C 3 184%) CRSEl CRFSEI (%RE3
sh2n shui sh2n yang sh2n yin sh2n jing xin sh2n gGn sh2n sh2n qi xii sh2n yang xii sh2n yin xii
kidney-water ltidney yang kidney yin kidney essence heart and ltidney liver and ltidney kidney qi vacuity ltidney yang vacuity ltidney yin vacuity
Stroke Sequence
124
[ g ) s11kn
Kidney
12 5
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component flesh. On the right is the phonetic component yang.
a rou,
Explanation
While in many signific-phonetic characters the phonetic can be understood to influence the overall meaning of the character, in this character we must content ourselves to know that the phonetic only contributes to the pronunciation.
Combinations 48% 1/hag 3 %8% IN 2 3
$ 2 8%&$&
xido chang da chang ( ) chang wki shi r2 [ /J\&j$@ ) xido chang zhii y2
small intestine large intestine gastrointestinal damp-heat small intestine governs humor heat
$ ~ ~ 8 $ [3 @$kjg5j3B P ~ ~ ) ging da chang xik r2 clear large intestinal evil

Stroke Sequence
n% (as]chang Intestine
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component roir, flesh. On the right of the complex character is the phonetic component @ zhiin.
Explanation
If we examine the phonetic we can conceive how it perhaps affects the meaning of this character. The upper part of the phonetic in the complex character, j @ - wei, depicts a person on a cliff and means danger; the lower part is a y6n words, and /I bLi, to divide or split. If @ zhiin is taken to mean defiant language, this part of the character may possibly reflect the notion of courage, which is an attribute of the gallbladder.
Combinations AT~B Cf l ? B @ )
as& as",&
C b%3@3
[BB$$,B )
giin da'n da'n xu da'n qixu
liver and gallbladder gallbladder vacuity gallbladder qi vacuity
Stroke Sequence
flE!
( j @ ) dhz
Gallbladder
129
5 % . f$?' )
Equivalents stomach
w2i Stomach
a ) 6 (4) + 5
Associative compound. The upper part of the ancient character (see the illustration above) depicts a stomach; the four dots within it represent food in the stomach. The lower part is rou, the flesh signific, which imparts the sense of being related to the body and anatomy.
Explanation
The upper part of the modern character is drawn like El tian, a field; this is a later development from the original ideogram. One might think that the meaning of this character derives from a field related to the body, or the patch of earth within the body, i.e., the stomach. However, historical data indicates this is not the original meaning of the character.
Combinations
E m
wh==
a>
83,-
R j$
E%I
WP-
C Rk3 CRRI CR@3 [RBI

[
) a ?J& -42
'8 W %
w2i hu6 w2i qi w2i jin w2i yin w2iqixii w2i yin xii
stomach fire stomach qi stomach liquid stomach yin stomach qi vacuity stomach yin vacuity
Stroke Sequence
E [ 3 ) ndi S t o m a c h
Character Composi(ion
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component 4 rou, flesh. On the right is the phonetic component % pang.
Explanation
Here is a character where the phonetic appears to act only as a phonetic guide; it seems to malce no contribution to or influence on the meaning of the character.
Combinations
1%j%
j $ j j % $ j ! G
( ~%l% 1
pang guiing bladder [j j % j j j Q R ) apang guiing shi rk bladder damp-heat ( ] pang guiing qi bladder qi
Strake Sequence
1% (ng] pcirzg Bladder
Signific-phonetic compound. right is the phonetic % guiing.
011 the
left is the flesh signific
1you; on the
Explanation
hud, meaning light. The phonetic is a person )L dr carrying fire However, like the preceding character, the phonetic of this character appears to act only as a phonetic guide and does not influence the meaning of the character.
Combinations J%B'i [ Jf%%

j%B%@
pcing guiing bladder (j ) pang guiing jing bladder channel; BL ( #5$9$5@% ] pang guiing xii han bladder vacuity cold
Stroke Sequence
[El gzEng B l a d d e r
Associative compound. Above is @ zhut, a short-tailed bird, and below is , , , , huo",fire; the whole character thus depicts a bird being roasted. The lower part is the signific of the complex character, and the upper part is the signific of the simplified character.
Explanation
The ancient script of the character depicts bird(s) being grilled over a fire. Hence, its original meaning is "to roast birds." The extended meaning conveys the state of dryness after scorching and also agitation and anxiety. In Chinese medical nomenclature, the figurative sense of "roasting" was adopted to express the notion of the three divisions of the torso understood to be distinct aspects of the body's metabolic processing (or heating and changing) of food and water.
Combinations
Y&
L
Jbx>
(5%)
k%
+%
(k%)
(9%)
siin jiiio shang jiiio zhong jiiEo
triple burner upper burner center burner
Stroke Squence
137
56*@ (
Equivalents envelop
a) baa
Envelop
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 9 2 + 3; complex 9 2 + 3
Pictograph. The upper two strokes, 9bba, represent the abdomen of a pregnant woman, and the lower part, E si, represents the infant. 9biio is the signific, and in itself represents the notion of wrapping. 9bcio also is the phonetic for this character.
Explanation
The idea of "envelop" is essential to understanding this character. It is the original character for @ biio, the placenta. The new character, Ba biio, composed with the flesh signific, A roil, was invented in order to isolate this specific meaning from its extended meanings such as to contain, harbor, or wrap.
Combination JL\Q (J ~ ~1 !J
J
xin biio xin biio jing

da biio yin biio xinbiiolud.
pericardium pericardiuin channel; PC SP-21; Great Embracement LV-09; Yin Bladder pericardiuin; pericardiac network
A@
r!&!,
(7s;@)
IBB3
JL~@!?$$ ( J , )
Stroke Sequence
4 2 ,
[a) b2io Envelop
57
zh6 Govern
Equivalents govern(or)
\
1+4
Pictograph. In the bronze inscriptions, the character depicts a burning oil lamp, with the flame \ zhu' on the top. In the lesser seal script, the original meaning of izhu' is the wick. In the complex characters, \ zhu' came to be the signific; in the simplified characters, wring is the signific--yet certain sources still use \ zhu' as the signific.
Explanation
The extended meaning of this character includes host, parent, primary, chief, commander, and govern(or). Later, the character M zhzi was invented to specifically mean the wick of an oil lamp.
Combinations
1
Ail~f
5,
( ,L\%$@ ) [ )
&&
(Z&)
xin zhc shbn fei zhu' qi zhii s6
heart governs the spirit lung governs qi governing complexion
Stroke Sequence
i k
(23zlzii G o v e r n
5 8 .
[ @)
jn Sinew
Equivalents sinew
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified fT 6 + 6; complex
fT
6+6
Associative compound. fi ( hh ) zhzi bamboo signific on top; )El rou, flesh, on the left and fll 22, strength, on the right.
Explanation
The strength of the flesh is achieved by the sinews which have the pliable and durable nature of bamboo. The idea of suppleness and flexibility combine to form the idea of sinew, tendon.
Combinations
Bfkf$j
[ jjT'$fi$j ) ( fi%I@ 1 ( fi%@ 1 ( %%I% 3
giin zh6 jin

jin m m h i jin gti jin lzid jin rdu jin han
the liver governs the sinews sinew vessel sinew and bone sinew network vessels sinew and flesh cold sinews
fifibk
ah EI
2%$% $ 5El
k h -r")
HJ %
(fi3m 3 ( %%% 3
Stroke Sequence
(8%) jin Sinew
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component flesh, on the right is the phonetic.
fi rou,
Explanation
The phonetic component clearly contributes to the meaning of this character, for it is a pictograph that represents a tributary joining the main stream. It is also % ydng, which means the tributaries of a river. An the reverse of the character 7 alternative interpretation of this pictographic could be a person swimming in the current. In sum, the interpretation of the phonetic has stabilized around the idea of the tributaries of a main river. Talten as a metaphor, the idea of the character is ccvessel"and "pulse" when it is projected onto the physical body, here by the presence of the flesh signific.
Combinations
h i hi% h S (A
[ ]('&fi@
Il@%3
[!ji?a 3
xin zhzi mai mai qi mai kdu
the heart governs the vessels vessel qi vessel opening
Stroke Sequence
jbfc
(ALE) mdi Vessel,
Pulse
6 0 .
rhec Flesh
Equivalents flesh
SigniGcs and Stroke Counts simplified 6; complex h 6
A pictograph portraying a lump of meat.
Explanation
The oracle-bone inscription and the lesser seal script depict a piece of rib meat; hence its original meaning is meat or flesh. Chinese characters constructed with the rdu component relate to the flesh, i.e., the body. When used as a component of other characters it usually takes the foim of which is pronounced rdu (or rir in complex characters), and should not be confused with the signific meaning "moon," which has the same form but is a different word entirely. This meaning of flesh also applies to plants and vegetables.
rn
a,
This graph is a signific that appears in characters denoting things related to meat or flesh. Accordingly, it occurs in many words for body organs and body wGi, stomach; fl? gzn, liver; flE drin, gallbladder; parts, e.g., 8@pi,spleen; b? mai, vessel. Note that in certain complex character dictionaries, these characters are listed under the 6-stroke signific and are not to be found under the 4-stroke signific
a.
rn
Combinations
d@& rn fi%I3
,l@z%~ ) pi zhG rdu

jin rdzl
(BWY I
the spleen governs the flesh sinew and flesh
Stroke Sequence
Vj
(I%]rdzl Flesh
147
Flesh
Equivalents flesh, fleshy
(a) 6 (4) + 2
roir, Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific component the flesh. On the right is the phonetic component ji, which means a low table or stool.
Explanation
In this character the phonetic component simply contributes to the sound of the character and does not color the meaning.
Combinations JiJ@&flJ, [ J@rjLm ) pi zhG ji rdu
the spleen governs the flesh fleshy exterior engender flesh clear the fleshy exterior flesh; muscle
D'E!?
1 8 n S 3
*MA
$$flA$?
(%DL3
[j
)
fin El
Cmm)
ji bido shgng ji qing ji biiio ji rdu
Stroke Sequence
( j h ] ji Flesh
62. &
[g)pi
Skiin
Equivalents sltin, cutaneous, hide, bark Signifies and Stroke Counts siinplified iff 5; complex
5
Pictograph portraying
a,a hand, flaying off pieces of hide.
Explanation
The ancient script of the character depicts a hand clutching the fur of an animal. Hence, its original meaning is animal fur or sltin. More generally, it can be used to mean the surface of anything. Thus, it can mean sltin, peel, barlt, husk, hide or can connote shallowness or superficiality.
Combinations
&&
i&%&
--k&'t$Y
I$&&%
%&
pi s6 digLipi [k@@R) qipiyin [j $ i & E & ] fei shzng pi mao
I E & ) [ f & @ E )
skin color lycium root bark, Lycii Cortex Seven-Peel Beverage lung engenders sltin and [body] hair unripe tangerine peel; Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium Viride
1~E3
qing pi
Stroke Sequence
rff iEfipiS k i n
63. % [ % ] 160 Body Hair

Equivalents [body] hair, lash, down
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified % 4; complex
%4
Pictograph portraying an animal's pelt. In the bronze inscriptions, the character % mao depicts the shape of the hair or fur, and its original meaning is body hair (as distinct from head hair).
Explanation
In general, it indicates anything possessing the shape of hair or fur. Its meaning extends to things that are coarse, unprocessed, or unrefined. Chinese characters constructed with the % mao component are related to hair or fur. This character refers generally to any hair on the body, in contradistinction to 2 [ g] fa (or f q , which denotes specifically the hair of the head. The combination $%pi mao, skin and [body] hair, is common in Chinese; in Chinese medicine, skin and [body] hair are considered as one entity that is related to the lung.
Combinations $% cb?%]
%f&
!$&bi%
pi ma0 skin and [body] hair Fl%] mao jiiio parched body hair [ i$zE% ] f2i zhli pi mao the lung governs the skin and [body] hair
Stroke Sequence
B ( % ) ~ z b oBody Hair
153
64
[)
g6 Bane
Equivalents bone
Signifia sand Stroke Counts simplified f!f 9; complex 10
Character Camposition
Pictograph. The upper part fi gu6 is supposed to represent the end of a bone shaft with a ball-like tip (e.g., the head of the femur). The lower part, fi roil, flesh, was added later on to associate the character to the body.
Explanation
The ancient form of the character depicted a pile of bones, but over time the ideograph came to represent the end of a single bone. In lesser seal script, the addition of the rou component transformed the nature of the character into an associative compound. Th the character is bone.
Combinations
f 3 #?if3
f&@&
[@
sh2n zhzi gti
the kidney governs the bone sinew and bones lycium root bark; Lycii Radicis Cortex
jin gii ( i&+?fB] d i gtipi
C fi%@1
Stroke Sequence
,R. ( g ]gii Bone
155
65. @
[a) qiGo
Orifice
Equivalents orifice
f l 5 + 13
Signific-phonetic compound. On top is the signific component xuk, cave or hole. Below, in the complex character, is the phonetic component aJjicio, which in the simplified character has been replaced with s5 qicio, which means deft.
Explanation
Perhaps the phonetic jicio contributes to the meaning of the character. It is composed of the coinponents sunlight, Q bhi, and emitting, fi2fang, i.e., to shine through. Thus the whole character can be understood to mean a hole that allows light to shine through.
Combinations
-Fe he Jr;e &)e 'I3e a$% %e
1 %
IL@3 (T%l I h % 3
shang qiao xia qiuo jiii qiao (-k@I q i qiao ( lb%1 xin qiao (53%) shBn qiao I&t@ 1 fei qiao (&!?G%) b i qiao
upper orifices lower orifices nine orifices seven orifices orifice of the heart orifices of the kidney orifice of the lung nasal orifices
Stroke Sequence
( @ ) qiiro Orifice
66
Open
Equivalents open
Signifies and. Stroke Counts simplified - 1 + 3; complex py 7 + 4
Associative compound. The coinplex character is composed of the signific mkn, door, gate, and ft gdng below means both hands reaching to and raising the door bar - yi.
p'j
Explanation
One coinponent of the coinplex character is p q shuiin, which is pq mkn, door, plus - yc here a bar, not the numeral one. The other component is fF g h g , which depicts a pair of hands. The hands are placed on the door bolt, indicating the action of opening. Hence, its original meaning is "to open the door." From this sense, the extended meanings include opening in general, develop, splitting, foundation, begin, arouse, and inspire. Note that the simplified character is just the hands and the door bolt.
fF kiii means to open, in which sense it is used in the combination 5% kiii qiao. In some contexts, it conveys the notion of freeing, e.g., R $ P kc& yir. to "open depression," meaning allowing depression to dissipate.
Combinations f i7 k ItY7k 1
kGi shui kciii wPi kiii qiao boiled water open the stomach; increase the appetite open the orifices (method of treatment); open (physiology)
RE! Re
(/383'1 (i%%1
Stroke Sqquewce
158
3 (MIlcGi O p e n
67.
(F)
At
Equivalents at Signilfics and Stroke Counts simplified -- 1 + 2; complex
- 1+2
4
Loan character.
Explanation
This character originally depicted a musical instrument, the almost vertical line of the character figuratively signifying to blow through a single mouthpiece. In Shuo Wkn Jig Z i ,this character was explained as the way the breath is exhaled evenly. Before the modern era, another character, fi$ yzi, was a synonym of f yzi, and was in fact more commonly used. When Chinese characters underwent simplification in mainland China after World War 11, f replaced f$. Hence, in complex-character texts, one usually finds fi$ and in modem simplified texts one always finds f. Thus, f is often thought of as the simplified form of the character fi$.
3 $ + 7 @ 3 ( f i $ a)) gkn kiii qiao yu mit 8fffBf ( ! ~CiffB'f3 ( ~L\m@--f(fi$)&) xin kiii qiao yu shk fl$ff!@f$$ (l ? j m @ f (fi$)$?+ ) fei kr7i qiao yzi bi ' 3 [ gm@f (fi$)s ) sh2n kki qiao yu kr
Stroke Sequence
Combinations
liver opens at the eyes heart opens at the tongue lung opens at the nose kidney opens at the ears
6 8 .
m& Eye
Equivalents eye, vision Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified @ 5; complex
05
A pictographic representation of the eye, with the two middle bars delineating the iris.
Explanation
The oracle-bone form of this character depicts an eye, and its original meaning is the eye. It is also used as a verb: to look, looking, watching. The mir also extend to mean the mesh of a fishing net as well as an meanings of array of other extended meanings such as entry, clause, and sub clauses. Most Chinese characters constructed with the component mu are related to the eye, or the fbnction of the eye, such as sight and vision.
B mu means the physical eye. !# implying an improvement in vision.

Combinations
ming mu means "brighten the eyes,"
BT& El
C 8TZH 1
E M %
BSfFef
HSI ua,%H%)
[ [ Bfm@3(jj$)
g6n zhzi mu mu huang jZng r2 mil chi ) g6n k6i qiao yzi mu
liver governs the eyes yellowing of the eyes wind-heat red eye the liver opens at the eyes
Stroke Sequence
El
a ) tmit Eye
163
69.
[ s)
she' Tongue
Equivalents tongue
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 6; complex
&- 6
A pictograph representing the tongue sticking out of the mouth.
Explanation
In the oracle-bone inscriptions, the character 8shk is a depiction of a tongue. The meaning of the character extends to many aspects of speech. Any Chinese character constructed with the component of 8shk is related to the functions of the tongue: taste and speech.
Combinations
*%
(7K33
(7%!?3 ( ?%J$
? T i 3
*R%
rh@%F (@%&F)
~ L \ f f % ' f g ( ,L$#@;f(fi$)73
wooden tongue green-blue tongue wood wind tongue blood stasis under the tongue ) xin klii qiao yu shk the heart opens into the tongue mu shk qing shb mujZng shk xu2 yu shk xia
Stroke Sequence
i?? fiI-6- shd Tongue
165
70. D [ /J )
Equivalents mouth, opening
k6u Mouth
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified U 3; complex U 3
A pictograph depicting the mouth.
Explanation
U k6u means mouth, and by extension an opening. In Chinese medicine it is used in both these senses. Chinese characters constructed with the component U k6u tend to be related to the mouth, eating, or speech. In modern Chinese, mouth is usually referred to as 1 % zui or I 2 zui b,.
Combinations
vessel opening saliva ( r z 7 7 k 3 rz] 7 k smell of the breath (a%) UT hot breath from the nose [U@%%) U%?% and mouth @ ! fF %f U ( U ) pi kiii qiao yu ko'u the spleen opens into the mouth
mai ko'u k6u shui ?c6uqi ?c6u bi qi r2
R
k u m i . 3
8@m%?(fi$)
Stroke Sequence
7
Equivalents nose, nasal
bi Nose
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified @ 14; complex & 14
Signific-phonetic compound composed of the signific component $ z i on top and the phonetic 3 bi below.
Explanation
The oracle-bone forrn of the character $ z i was a pictograph of a nose, and it i was widely was the original character for nose. However, the character $ z used for its extended meaning, the self. Therefore, the character A bi was invented to isolate the original meaning from the extended meaning; hence, $$ bi, the nose. In Chinese medicine, the nose is usually referred to as $$ bi. In the modem spolten language, it is usually referred to as bizi.
Combinations
&& &%
8;itj&$$
C B % l C B S l
C RCl!Z@ 3
bi chi bi qiao
red nose (drinker's nose) nose orifices
fei zhii bi lung governs the nose 8$%%+% ( l$m@f ($$)& ) fei kzi qiao yu bi the lung opens at the nose EIFm 1 a ~ 5 %[ UP%,,,, k6u bi qi r2 hot breath from the nose and mouth
Stroke Sequence
168
& 1%) bi Nose
169
SigniIics and Stroke Counts
Pictograph. The oracle-bone form of the character depicts an ear, and its original meaning is the ear.
Explanation
Chinese characters constructed with the component of related to the ear, or the sense or function of hearing.
q 6r
are typically
In Chinese medicine, the ear is usually referred to as 6r. In the modern spolcen language, it is usually referred to as q & k Zr duo, % usually otherwise being a measure word for flowers, in which case it is pronounced dud.
Combinations
wind ear EPbQ ( $$'ET) tremella; Tremella lfIL%qW (o h J g E 'T % 1 blood stasis in the ear orifice J$ ( % / $ f j % S j i ) f sh2n ( f lifii $ ) qiao syu Zr the kidney opens at the ears
RJ$
(EL@)
fing &r bai mu 6r xu2 yii &rqiao
'/$%ef
Stroke Sequence
&LJ$
(I$] zr Ear
73 @ [
jrng Channel
Equivalents channel, river, canon, menses

Signifies and Stroke Counts 3 + 5; complex simplified
& ( & ) 6+7
Associative compound. The signific on the left is sillc & si. On the right, the phonetic jing also serves as a signific. As well as meaning the warp of a jing is the character used by geomancers to denote the flow of water fabric, underground. In other characters with 9jing as the phonetic it has the meaning of straight.
Explanation
This character is frequently used in Chinese medical texts and has many meanings, including channel, river (as a body of water and also the river points in acupuncture), canon, and menses. While most reference worlcs explain this character depicts silk on tlie left with a loom on the right and originally meant the warp of a fabric, the combination of significs can be understood to speak volumes about the nature of channels. That is, the channels can be thought of as carrying qi and blood through the body lilte groundwater passes under tlie earth. Moreover, the sillc signific reminds us that if we dissect a body and look for the channels, they are not to be found; that is, they have the subtle nature of a single strand of silk.
Combinations h@2 (F 9 4 31
AJ$$@ %
($ 3) (h $ s ? 1
n2i jing da chung jing liu jing
Inner Canon large intestine channel; LI six channels
Stroke Sqquence
172
g 2
ji,rg C h a n n e l
74.
[@) lab Network, Net
Equivalents network, net

Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified $ 3 + 6 complex
(
& ) 6+6
Signific-phonetic complex.
Explanation
This character talces its meaning froin the sillc signific on the left and its pronunciation from & ge on the right. It originally meant unreeled sillc, hemp, or cotton fiber, and from its associations with stringy fibers came to be used in Chinese medicine as a noun that means networlc and as a verb that means to net.
Combinations
! 2 3 $8( $El@) A $8[ A$% 1 ~ L ~ 8 3 t & ; f / J (\ I iB .% fiw/J\jB)
?!?-Ft8bj
$8 %$ tk
[, ) [ ?%I@@ 1
jing Zz/d channels and network vessels da lz~d great network vessel xin jing Zud yu xi60 chring the heart channel nets the small intestine shk xia Zud mai sublingual network vessels qing lud yl'n Network-Clearing Beverage
Stroke Sequence
%($fi]lzrd N e t w o r k , Net
75.
( @ ] m i ~ nFace
Equivalents face, facial

Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified @ j 9; complex @ 9
Pictograph. The oracle-bone form of this character depicts an eye in the center of the outlines of a face. Thus its original meaning is the face. Since the depiction of @ mian indicates the whole front of the head, the meaning of the character extends to include frontal, external, exterior.
@ mian is the word usually used in Chinese medical terminology to represent the idea of face. In the modem spoken language, it is @ Zicin.
Combinations
T @ e
E l 8
% @ ) %
I@&3
mian s.2 mian s2 huang [ @&% ) mian chi l@%) chi mianfing [ &@JgL )
facial complexion yellow facial complexion red face red face wind
Stroke Sequence
Ei
(m)n7idrz Face
'96.& [ & ]
Equivalents color, complexion
sd
Color
Signifies and Strake Counts
simplified & 6; complex .$ 6
Associative compound. On top is the variant form of the character , k rbn, di70, a man. On the bottom is P jib, a seal. However, certain sources use lsnife, as the signific of the simplified character.
Explanation
The color of the face corresponds with the feeling of the heart, as the stamp reproduces the seal. By extension and in compounds with other words this character often refers to emotions that result in changes in the color of the face (the flush arising from passion or sexual pleasure) or to color in general. In modern spoken Chinese, color as an independent concept is usually yan s2.
Bfi-$
Combinations
Dm3
-
m-$a m-$S
$
IE&I ( @& 8 )
(& (&
) )
mian s2 mian s2 bai mian s2 htlang mian s2 hzi
facial complexion white facial complexion yellow facial complexion black facial complexion
Stroke Sequence
@,
(131 s6 Color
77
) qTng Green-Blue
Eqoivalents green-blue, black

Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified % 8; complex 8
Associative compound. The character is composed of growth, on top, and ff diin on the bottom.
Lk shzng,
life and
Explanation
The oracle-bone form of f f diin is the depiction of a tool used for grinding and mixing colors. The character came to mean the color of one frequently used ingredient, both in painting and alchemy, cinnabar. Thus, in time the extended meaning of ff diin included the elixir of longevity, which often involved cinnabar ground with such a tool. The combination of these two components gives rise to the meaning of youth, which suggests that life is rooted in ff diin, the elixir. The change from ff diin to
fi yu2 was only in the form, not in meaning.
is related to "grow" for the same reason). It also came to denote blue as well as black. In modem Chinese, the standard word for green is $3 lu.
* a qing is the color of growing plants (note that our word "green"
Combinations
(
m&B
Z??? A73
* a B13
(A@)
(Biz%)
k h -
mian sZ. qing she! qing daqing qingjin
green-blue facial complexion green-blue tongue isatis, Isatidis Folium; lit., "big green" veins (showing on the surface of the body)
Stroke Sequence
180
5 ( R ) qing Green-Blue
h i Red
Equivalents red
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified & 7; complex & 7
Associative coinpound. The original character was huinan being, with fire A hud below it. day representing a
Explanation
The notion of red derives from the fact that fire causes the skin to turn red. The ancient fonn of the character depicts a person standing on top of fire; hence its original meaning is fire. Since the flame of the fire is red, the character % chi came to mean the color red. /?f; chi also means nakedness. In the modern language, chi has now been replaced by $ 1hdng. In 1hdng is Chinese medicine, % chi continues to be the standard, although $ also found.
Combinations
El&
++&
%El
m$%
iiiG/ffri
C Mi1 03%)
[
)
? k t
(&83 C~ERJI I%*)
mil chi mian chi mian s2 chi bi chi
red eyes red face red facial complexion red nose red flesh alternate Chinese name for hematite (4f,l@;ti dai zh&shz?
chi rdu chi tzi
Stroke Sequence
[ s )chi Red
79,j 5 $ (
pg 1 hlakng Yellow
12
Equivalents yellow, jaundice

SigniBics and Stroke Counts simplified 11; complex
Associative compound/loan character. In the complex characters, this character is a single signific unto itself.
Explanation
The oracle-bone inscription depicts an ornamental jade that was worn hanging around a person's waist. Hence its original meaning is "waist jade." However, the character was borrowed to mean the color yellow, and its original meaning slowly faded away. There is another character invented to mean this specific original meaning of jade, @$ huang. An alternative reading of the etymology is based on the fact that in the old forns the character clearly indicates the middle section of the human body and thus associates the concept of the center, long symbolized in China by the color yellow. Yellow is the color of the ploughed earth, and in Shud Win Jie' 22,it states that the character follows from the signific BI tian, field and iY;guiing, brightness of the sun, which lends to the earth its yellow hue.
Combinations
f&s?
EiB & %I %Sf
C T E E i3 (& ) (k3E) (AEI (f 8 2 E1
mian huang yellow face mian sZ. huhng yellow facial complexion mil huang da hzlang d i huang yellowing of the eyes rhubarb, Rhei Radix et Wbizoma rehrnannia, Rehrnanniae Radix
Stroke Sequence
184
(%I
/ z z I C ~ IYellow ~~
8 0 . El [ @ 1 b
Equivalents white
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 0 5; complex
White
Ideograph. The character is composed of El ri, sun, with an extra mark to distinguish it.
Explanation
The interpretation of this character based on the lesser seal inscription suggests that the meaning develops froin the appearance of the sun at dawn. This meaning is represented by a small dot on the top of the sun, i.e., the dawn, when the eastern sky becomes white. However, both oracle-bone inscription and bronze inscription of bai depict an allnost oval-shaped grain of rice. Hence, the original meaning of 0b6i came from the white color of rice. By extension its meaning includes pure, clear, and understanding. It also can be used as a verb that ineans to articulate clearly, to profess.
Combinations
E m
6
%El
m z l )
E&D (%Dl
]
mian bai mian si. bai chi bai
white face white facial complexion red and white
Stroke Sequence
121 ( h )bcii W h i t e
8 1 .#
Equivalents black
hzi Black
SigniGncs and Stroke Counts simplified % 12; complex
12
Pictograph of a flame rising up and venting through a chimney, i.e., the color of what has been charred by fire.
Explanation
The oracle-bone forrn of this character depicts a person who is being enveloped by sinolte from a fire. Its original meaning is to be covered with sinolte. This meaning was later extended to include the color black. By analogy, it was extended to include meanings such as the darkness of night and privacy.
Combinations
E G % !
%
%13(1
(@%I
!
( @.$% )
(%EL3
rnian he'i mian si. hzi hei fing
black face black facial complexion black wind
Stroke Sequence
Associative compound; however, the coinplex form of the character is a signific-phonetic compound.
-
Originally this character was drawn like the simplified character is drawn today. On the left is the signific component 7 shui, water. On the right is the component mu, the eyes. The combination of the two components gives the idea of the water of the eyes. Hence the character means tears.
However, at some point in history the complex form of the character came into use. It is simply the signific component shzri, water, with a phonetic component li. Note that the printed font used here presents a variant of the complex character that students should learn to recognize when reading. But, in handwritten Chinese, the strokes should be made as presented in the Stroke Sequence below.
Combinations
3 8 7$( 3 8 53 38 ?%
( ?!7k3
[ ?R%3
[ ?'%%3
lki shui lki qiao Zki rk
tears tear orifices hot tears
Stroke Sequence
190
?El
($R] lgi Tears
83
[ $7)
hlln Sweat
Equivalents sweat(ing)
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 2/ 3 + 3; complex
7 k($)
4 (3) + 3
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the signific right is the phonetic f gzn.
7 shul: and on the
Explanation
This compound represents the body fluid.
Combinations
85 A34 %3 4
( ?T%3
C A??3 I %??3
han qi da han huang han
sinell of sweat great sweating yellow sweat
Stroke Sequence
? T ($T)hLin S w e a t
84 $
xibn Drool
Eqnivallents drool Signifies and Stroke Counts 3 + 6; complex simplified
7 k(; i)
4 ( 3 )+ 7
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the water signific 7 shul', on the right is yhn, which is a phonetic element, but which may also contribute to the meaning.
Explanation
yan, a dragging motion. It is The phonetic component on the right is composed of k- yin, and k zhi, here meaning the foot. Thus, the meaning of yan becomes "extension," "extend," or "prolong," which could be thought of as part of the original meaning of ?$@ xirin, "drool." Note that while the simplified and complex characters look the same, the phonetic is drawn with 6 strokes in the simplified and 7 strokes in the complex. (The difference is clearly illustrated in the stroke sequence below.) Beginning students should not put too much effort into memorizing this sort of difference; when using dictionaries later, however, it will be important to recall that there are many fine details to determining stroke counts.
Combinations
$ @ A&
[ ?%@I% 1
($ ( @@ )
xian tud
drool-spittle
?%AI@?@ :E?$@
? iT-
1 ) xian wkipi y& drool is the humor of the spleen tan xian phlegm-drool
xian xia drooling
( ?%-F1
Stroke Sequence
194
(?@I
xihn Drool
195
8 5 . \$)% [ $ ! $ ! $ I
ti
Snivel
Equivalents snivel, nasal mucus, tears

Signifies and Strake Counts simplified 7 3 + 7; complex 7 J C (
)
4 (3) + 7
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the water signific ? right is the phonetic % di.
shut on the
Explanation
The phonetic connotes the meaning of a sequence of action, from which derives the sense of the younger brother, i.e., the one who follows in sequence. From the combination with ? shui, the water on the left side, there develops the meaning of water that follows in sequence, such as tears and snivel.
Combinations ,@ 1 \% 7-rI@$%1
& &$ p , $3
bi ti ($ ) bi ti huang () @ ) bi ti hucing zhu6 ( @$$$%) bi ti qing
snivel; nasal mucus yellow snivel; yellow nasal mucus turbid yellow snivel (nasal mucus) clear snivel (nasal mucus)
Stroke Sequence
?$(-@) ti Snivel
86 @ [@]
Spittle
Equivalents spittle Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified L l 3 + 8; complex El 3 + 8
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the mouth signific U ka"u; on the right is the phonetic chui
Explanation
The phonetic component on the right, 3%chui, depicts a plant with drooping leaves or fruit. The meaning of spittle comes from the combination of this with the mouth signific, i.e., that which falls from the mouth. In the lesser seal script, the character was composed of the inouth or water on the left side symbolizing the liquid of the mouth, i.e., the spittle. It is also used as a verb: to spit, spitting.
Combinations ?! ( ?%u@
@I $&
@fi
3 I@E?@3 I ~@JQ 3
xian t z ~ d tud y2
tz~d xu2
drool and spittle spittle humor spitting of blood
Stroke Sequence
n% [c@)tltd S p i t t l e
Chinese Medical. Characters: Basic Vocabulary
$PIe
[)
yTn
Cause
Equivalents cause
Signifncs and Stroke Counts simplified 3 + 3; complex
a 3+3
Pictograph/ideograph showing a man lying flat on a mat.
Explanation
The ancient form of the character depicts a man lying flat on a mat with both arms and legs spread wide. Thus, its original meaning is "mat." It is the original character for yin, a straw mat or mattress. Its meanings eventually extended to include dependence, according, carry on, continue, reason, and cause.
Combinations
ZB Fjtllkl 9blkl
CZm3
Ir;SJmI
C5TB 3
siin yin nGi yin wai yfn
three causes (of disease) internal causes external causes
Stroke Sqquence
IZI [ E ) y f t l C a u s e
8 8 .%
(a)xi6
Evil
Equivalents evil
Signifies and Stroke Counts si~nplifiedP 2 + 4; complex Character Composition
Signific-phonetic compound. On the right is the signific [i the left is 5f ya, the phonetic.
(
8)
7 (3) + 4
(E yi, town); on
Explanation
wki and The signific component i% yi is composed of surrounding walls P jik, an official seal, i.e., the city, the state. When i% yi is used as a signific, it
is written as [i and is always placed on the right side of the character ([i on the left is a different signific). The component on the left is 5f yd, the teeth, which is the phonetic component. When the character is pronounced xik it bears the meaning of "evil" or "not upright," but the derivation of this meaning is unclear. In Chinese medicine, it is used to refer to all pathological causes. Note that in certain complex character dictionaries, this character is to be found under the 7-stroke signific g , yet that signific is drawn with 3 strokes.
Combinations
2P5 1382 P El%P fl$2P %4/3
[2 P %3
xi& qi
/w
k/(XB
CE 3 f P3 ( E%%P 3 C d$%P 3 g2[31 ( /[2P 3 [f /[3fB 3
yin xik ydng xi6

fei xik
shi xik ba xik shang bii xik
evil qi yin evil yang evil lung evil repletion evil Eight Evils (point name) Upper Eight Evils (set of points)
Stroke Sequence
202
(Zp]
xid Evil
203
89
yin
Excess
Equivalents excess
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 2/ 3 + 8; complex
7 k ( $ ) 4 (3) + 8
Character Compcpsitioan
Signific-phonetic. On the left is the signific component the right is the phonetic component yin.
7 shui, water. On
Explanation
The phonetic component of this character may contribute to the meaning of the character. It depicts a downward facing hand, f i zhuci, seizing a part of a loom, 2 ting, to convey the meaning of encroaching. Thus the character ?3? y h means water seeping into something through seams or craclcs (i.e., water j j i yin chwcing, a encroaching). This meaning is reflected in the term "wet-spreading sore" or "seeping sore." In Chinese medicine, 9 % yin most commonly appears in the term fi?% liil yin, the six excesses, which are the six environmental qi as forces that invade the body to cause disease.
s?3?$&
It should be noted that outside medicine, ?gyin is most commonly used in yin hui, obscene, salacious; ?%@ yin the sense of sexual licentiousness (??I!$$& dang, lascivious). In this meaning, it appears in the term ?g+g yin yang hz~d, epimedium, a medicinal used to treat impotence. The Chinese name of this medicinal means "lusty sheep plant."
Combinations fi?% [ k t 4 Z3 Stroke Squence
liu y in
six excesses
$2 (-@I yin Excess
90. &
[m)g
Wind
Equivalents wind
Signifies and Stroke Coonhs simplified J % , 4; complex 9
Associative compound. This character is coinposed of f i fan, which is also the phonetic element, and & chdng, bugs or insects, which are said to breed when the wind blows.
Explanation
In lesser seal script, this character represented insects & chdng that are borne on the wind. As the wind of spring brings insects to life, the association of wind with spring in the five phases is perhaps reflected in this character. The interior component is & chdng, insects; the external component is ,%fan, an early pictograph of an encompassing square that was often used in characters to syinbolize the change associated with natural phenomena. Here it also serves a phonetic function.
Combinations
mfb
Am
[
'=w%
[ J%$b 3 I'+R)
[ Am 1 [) )
f i g xi& wind evil zhdngfing wind strike bafing Eight Winds (set of points) shang biifing Upper Eight Winds (set of points)
Stroke Sequence
n [ ~ g l ] f i t ?W g ind
Ideograph. The character is composed of * mi&, "house" or "roof." Under the roof is the contracted form of the character $$ m&g, meaning an abundance of grasses. On the bottom is A bing7the ancient form of ice.
Explanation
The bronze inscriptions of the character depicts a person surrounded by a heap of thatch trying to stay warm under the roof. There are two lines under the man's feet as a symbol of ice. These two lines were simplified into two dots in later forms. Hence the original meaning of hbn is cold. Coldness can produce shivering. By analogy, its extended meaning is fear, fearful trembling.
Combinations
%%' %%
ma
+'% +%
C %%P 3 C% %3
CJ!%3 C 9 % 3 C 9 % 3
[ A!%@% [
w/?a-~@%
han xi& xi&han fing han zhcing han zhcjng han weiqixiihan
cold evil evil cold wind-cold center cold cold strike stomach qi vacuity cold large intestinal vacuity cold
da chdng xii han
Strolte Sequence
209
9%. 8 [ $$ ) sh6 Summerheat

Equivalents summerheat
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 4 + 8; complex El 4 + 9
Character @campositicon
Signific-phonetic compound. On top is the signific component El ri, the sun. On the bottom is the phonetic component % zhZ.
Explanation
This is another character for which the phonetic simply acts as a phonetic. Note that the complex character is only slightly different from the simplified, the difference being a single stroke.
Combinations
'=I='%
(9%)
( %%\1 [ I%%% 1
(
\
3% El3 2
% $I
8 %
(RBI
)
zhdng shzi shzi ri. yang shzi yin shzi qing shzi ri.
surnrnerheat strike summerheat-heat yang summerheat yin summerheat clear suininerheat-heat
Stroke Sequence
2-[@] shii S u m m e r h e a t
21 1
Signiflcs and Stroke Counts plex
7 k($
4 (3)
+ 14
Signific-phonetic. On the left is the signific component ? shui, water; on the right is the phonetic component E xi&.
Explanation
On the left is the signific component ? shui, water. The phonetic component on the right is composed of El ri, the sun, on top and ,%&st, silk, below. There is another forn of the complex character, @, which is now only seen in older texts.
Combinations
$ ? j$ '
$
(%?a)
[)
)
%g $ ? j $ [ %?R 1
)X,$'
[ EEL% 3
shzi shi han shi fing han shi fing shi
suinmerheat-damp cold-damp wind-cold-damp w ind-damp
Stroke Sequence
C h i n e s e Medical C h a r a c t e r s : Basic Vocabulary
21 3
)
Equivaleats dry, dryness
zho Dryness
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified A 4 + 13; complex
4 + 13
Signific-phonetic compound. On the lefi is the fire signific right the phonetic @ zao.
hud; on the
Explanation
pin, meaning a The phonetic component on the right is composed of group of mouths, to taste, or a collection of small objects, on top of mu, wood, tree. It is not clear how this association of components came to mean "dry."
Combinations
1%
R$d@
@j g
C R B 3 C 3
( @$%j
fing zao fei zao bi zao

lcdu ziro
wind-diyness lung dryness dry nose dry mouth dryness-fire
U$ $
C U B 3
1$%A 3
zao huo'
Stroke Sequence
$$$
($@I
Z&O
Dryness
21 5
95.
[ RI
r2
Heat
Equivalents beat
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified ,,, 4 + 6; complex
(
jl\\
) 4+
11
Associative coinpound. On top is the phonetic component the bottom is fire, A(,,,,) hud.
yi, to hold. On
Explanation
The top component is composed of H lu on the left, meaning a large clod of dirt, and ji on the right, meaning a hand holding an object, or to hold. The oracle-bone forrn of the character indeed depicts a person holding a burning torch. Beginning with the lesser seal script, the fire signific was added to the bottom to signify the idea of heat, which is the basic meaning of this character.
Combinations ?& ?fTS ( %%T(;
Fl?& %% $9 % R* ?&
f l I f 1 @ ? B ? 4 T%?B?4 k%T?4
r2 xi& ~2ng rcS, han r2 (%%I zao r2 I! % %3 fei rcS, C B$% 3 ( Bi.j&$&% 3 gli'n da'n shi r2 ITE$&% 1 xia jiiio shi rcS, [k%T%I shang han xia r2
1 C R % 3
heat evil wind-heat cold and heat dryness heat lung heat liver-gallbladder dainp-heat lower burner damp-heat upper-body cold, lower-body heat
Stroke Sequence
SigniFnes and Stroke Counts
Signific-phonetic compound. On the left is the water signific the right is the phonetic g wen.
7 shul', 011
Explanation
ineans The phonetic may contribute to the meaning of this character. benevolent, kind. In the complex character it is composed of an upper part qid, which means a prisoner (and was changed to E 3 ri in the simplified script), and a lower part Tm mirz, which ineans a bowl. It suggests giving a bowl of rice to a prisoner as an example of an act of kindness. The notion of warmth is represented by combining g wen with the water signific 7 shzri, warinth being a water temperature that is gentle on the body.
Combinations
?!2P R i g
?GiT
?%$ %?&
I? E Y B 3
( ? % 7 ; 3
?a$'
c EUBI
(? @ ? B 3
wen xi& fing wen shf wzn wen xia wen zhijng shzi wen
warm evil wind warmth damp warmth warm precipitation warm the center summerheat-warrnth
I ?&+I 3 C %?E3
Stroke Sequence
j g
lei7 -
Warm
21 9
97
()
tdn Phlegm
Equivalents phlegm
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified 5 + 8; complex j5+8
Signific-phonetic compound. The sickbed signific $ yhn, the phonetic. nt. is combined with
Explanation
The component & yan, which means to flame, may also add to the meaning if it reflects an early conception of heat as a cause of phlegm. The outer part is the signific component nt., to lie on a bed, that is extended to mean illness. Chinese characters formed with this component are virtually all related to illness or disease. The inner component is &yan, flame. It is constructed by duplication of the character A hud, one on top of the other. These two coinponents give rise to the idea of sicluless erupting like flames, i.e., phlegm. It is interesting to note that the English equivalent, phlegm, comes from the Creek yhlegein, to burn.
Combinations
& ; @ %@
$gLL
(%%) ( @ @ )
($$$jg)
r2 tan han tan zao tan P n g tan tan xian
heat phlegm cold phlegm dryness phlegm wind phlegm phlegm-drool
Ja,@ @fz
(Ebm
(@ $ % 3
Stroke Sequelnee
& [g) tcin P h l e g m
98.$A
[@I
Drink, Rheum?
Equivalents drink, rheuin, fluid intake

Signiges and Stroke Counts simplified '? 3 + 4; complex $$ 9 (8) + 4
Associative compound. On the left is $$ shi, which represents a food jar; on the right is 2 @an, meaning releasing of breath.
Explanation
In the bronze inscriptions the character depicts a man bending over a wine jar. Variants of the bronze-inscription character depict a man holding the wine jar in his arms with his tongue pointing to it. Its original meaning is to drink wine. However, its meaning was extended to include drinking in general as well as the drink, i.e., liquid, and, in medical terms, rheum. Note that the signific is s sorneti~nes drawn with 9 stro
8 stroltes, as shown here, and in the following character.
Combinations @ tA ( @@A 1
%tA
7 $ ( tA
tA2P
l a tA
(%@1 17 R &1
11m1
I@YP 1
tan yfn han yliz shuiyfn si yfn yli? xi6
phlegm-rheum cold rheum water-rheum the four rheums rheum evil
Stroke Sequence
tR
~ f 1 7D r i n k ,
Rheum
99
[)
shi Eat, Food
Eqnivalents eat, food, diet, suckle, consume, meal

Signifacs and Stroke Cou~ats simplified & 9; complex $$ 9
A pictograph representing a food jar. The ancient form of the character depicts a food jar with rice inside. Some interpretations suggest that the upper part of the character depicts a mouth that is upside-down and open, indicating the act of eating. Thus the meaning of the character: food, eating.
Combinations h/b/ ' fig vi%&j

&;@
%& %& &Ifi
(&%I [@&I k3z&)
C@$)
yik shi shi tan tan shi sheng shi shi zhdng
food and drink food-phlegm phlegm-food eat raw food stroke
Stroke Sequence
&
(&I
sfzi Eat, Food
8 0 0 . $$$ [)@) y
Equivalents stasis
Stasis
Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified f'- 5 + 8; complex j-'- 5 + 8
Signific-phonetic coinpound. The illness signific phonetic.
r n2 with $$ yii as a
Explanation
Sometimes it is thought the phonetic component $$ yu contributes to the meaning of the character. $$ may represent $$ yu, silt, sludge, in which case @ yii would mean a pathological phenomenon analogous to silting.
Combinations @& cgm3

JflL%
C n l m 3
yu xu2 xu2 yil
static blood blood stasis
Stroke Sequence
Coulmas F (1989) Writing Systems of the World. Oxford: Blackwell. Creel H (1939) Literary Chinese by the Inductive Method. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Dawson R (1984) A New Introduction to Classical Chinese. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fazzioli E (1987) Charact2res chinois: du dessin b l'idke, 214 elks pour comprendre la Chine. Paris: Flainmarion. Flaws B (1998) Teach Yourself to Read Modern Medical Chinese: A Stepby-Step Worlcbook and Guide. Boulder: Blue Poppy Press. McNaughton W (1979) Reading and Writing Chinese: A Guide to the Chinese System. Tolcyo and Rutland: Tuttle Language Library. Nosman J (1988) Chinese. Cambridge Language Surveys Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ramsey S R (1987) Languages of China. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Wang Hongyuan (ZzB) (1994) Atrx sources de l'kcriture chinoise. Beijing: Sinolingua. Wieger L (1965) Chinese Characters: Their Origin, Etymology, History, Classzfication and Signification. New York: Paragon Boolc Reprint Corp., Dover Publications, Inc. Wilder G D and Ingram J H (1972) Analysis of Chinese Characterfls. Taipei: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company.
&?J44g (1950, 9" edition 2000) Company 38 # E
((
-?{?f)l
. TaibEi
6jk:
Siin-Min Boolc
R i e k % $ ! $ $ $ $ @ Z $ E & (1986) (gi&k%$&)) . Sichuiin m ) 11, HubEi $djk: Sichuiin Lexicographical Publishing )I/ &$ # kh gfi $k , HHitbEi Lexicographical Publishing $A k 3%# kb $,$k
ALRXFkHFk4~0
$ d , s h t i (1 995) (?X?%$gz#9
E%+$kO
. Sichuiin
a)11 : Bii Sh6 Boob Publishing
$AB g (g$%! B!J q m?)) . Taibei l&? A b : Wit-Nan Book Publishing 5 %@ 3

tfififlo
7@7%
(1984) ( &E?& )) . Tokyo: Mitsumura Shuiko Shoin Publishing Co.

0
Ltd. it;x.g&$k%$cj-%&+I!!
Xh? s(1996) (( ?B~%*%n$?
60
a ) ) . Beijing j b g : China Peace Press q m

Sinolingua ~i$@~khfibi$ko
+aTzaE;i;lt 33?% (2000) (?%.$it$)) . Beijing j b g :

3FgJh;h (1994)
Publishing House k%*h% fifi$kO
('$$H ?X?@gm $i!)) . ShanghBi kg: ShanghBi Bookstore
i&%$$ (2000) ((?x??%q&)) . Beijing j b 3 : Beijing University Press Ab
Z%Ykhfifi$ko
Bibliography
Numbering refers to character numbers, not page nuinbers b&,eight I ( , 11 bai, white 80 b&o,envelop 56 bi, nose %, 71 biiio, interior $?, 21 chang, intestine Jfi, 50 chi, red 8, 78 da, large A, 14 diin, gallbladder l l , 51 di, earth ith, 3 Z7#, ear .$, 72 Br, two I , 5 fei, lung fl$, 48 prig, wind R, 90 fii,bowel lfj,44 giin, liver 45 gz7, bone B,64 gzliing, bladder nj'i, 54 han, cold %, 91 hhn, sweat ?T, 83 hei, black %, 81 hucing, yellow $$, 79 Izuo", fire A, 31 ji, flesh flh, 61 jiiio, burner, scorch &, 5 5 jin, metal $2, 33 jin, liquid ?$, 39 jin, sinew $8, 58 jing, essence @, 41 jing, channel %,73 jizi, nine h, 12 lciii, open 7f-, 66 I&, restrain %, 36 lo"zl,mouth R , 70
n,
a,
a?,
ZBi, tears ?El, 82 If, exterior g, 22 Ziil, six A, 9 Zzld, network vessel %, 74 nzai, vessel h+k,59 mcio, body hair %, 63 nzian, face aifj, 75 77z&, wood &, 30 nzil, eye El, 68 nBi, internal fi , 1 9 pang, bladder Jig, 53 pi, spleen A@, 47 pi, skin &, 62 qi, seven k, 10 qi, qi 5,37 qiao, orifice %, 65 qing, clear %,23 qing, green-blue %, 77 rB, heat #?, 95 rkn, hurnan A, 2 rdu, flesh 60 ~ ~ 7three 1 , Z,6 sB, color, co~nplexion&,
m,
76
shang, up k, 17 shk, tongue %,69 shirt, spirit ?$, 42 shBn, ltidney 'B,49 shgng, engender %, 35 shi, da~npness 93 slli, ten --k, 13 shi, repletion g, 26 shi, food, eat @, 100 slzzi, summerheat %, 92
?a,
shzli, water 71<,34 si, four D, 7 tan, phlegm &, 98 ti, snivel $$$, 85 tidrz, heaven 1 tzi, earth 37,32 tzld, spittle @, 86 wai, external 9b, 20 wBi, stomach g,52 wgn, wannth 96 wzi, five -E,8 xia, down 7;^, 1 8 xihn, drool @, 84 xiiio, small /I\, 1 5 xie', evil %, 88 xiiz, heart J L ~ 46 , xing, move; phase qljr^, 2 9 xii, vacuity I ! ? , 25 xzlB, blood Ifn., 38 yang, yang P I , 28 yB, humor \i@, 40 yi, one -, 4 yin, yin 27 yin, cause 87 yi77, excess $ ! I ? 89 , yin, drink; rheum %$T, 99 yii, stasis I $ 97 , yzi, at T, 67 zang, viscus I @, 43 zao, dlyness jg, 94 zh6ng, center q7, 1 6 zhzi, govern &, 57 zhzld, turbid $&,24
z,
?a,,
m,
a,
ndex
(Numbering refers to character numbers, not page numbers) fire, huo' A, 3 1 67 at, yzi 7 , five, wzi 5 , 8 black, l15i %, 8 1 flesh, tddu @J, 60 bladder, pcing %, 53 flesh,j i 61 bladder, gu27ng h%, 54 food, eat, shi @, 100 blood, xuk &, 38 four, si 129, 7 body hair, mcio %, 63 gallbladder, d&n RE!, 5 1 bone, gzi 'f!?, 64 govern, zhzi &, 57 bowel,@ bfi, 44 green-blue, qing %?, 77 burner, scorch, ji27o %, heart, xirz JIG46 55 ca~lse, yirz El, 87 95 heat, rk center, zhorzg dr7, 16 heaven, tiGn ?'?, 1 channel, jing %,73 human, rkn A, 2 clear, qing ?@, 23 humor, yk ?@, 40 cold, hcin %, 91 interior, bia'o 3 , 2 1 color, complexion, sk I ? ! , , internal, nki If;J, 19 76 intestine, chdng 50 dampness, shT 93 kidney, shkn 'B,49 down, xia T, 18 large, da A, 14 drink; rheum, yin tA, 99 liquid, jin ?$, 39 drool, xicin @, 84 liver, gcln 1?,45 dryness, zao j % , 94 lung,fei fl$, 48 ear, El* q, 72 metal, jin &, 33 earth, d i i t ! , 3 mouth, lco'zi R,70 earth, tzi k, 32 move; phase, xing ?7,29 eight, b 2 7 )(, 11 network vessel, lud ?&, engender, slzzng !%, 35 74 56 envelop, bclo 12 nine, jizi h, essence, jing #%, 41 nose, bi &, 71 evil, xii %, 88 one, yi -, 4 excess, yirz ?3?,89 open, lciii f i , 66 exterior, l i E ! L, 22 orifice, qiao @, 65 external, wai Pb, 20 phlegm, tan I % 98 , eye, mir 68 qi, qi %,37 face, r~zicirz 75 red, chi &,78 repletion, shi %, 26 restrain, 1 2 2 g, 36 seven, qi k, 10 sinew,jin %,58 six, l i i ~A, 9 sltin, pi E, 62 small, xi60 /I\, 15 snivel, ti ? $ I , 85 spirit, shin $$, 42 spittle, tub 86 l $ ,47 spleen, pi J stasis, yzl @, 97 stomach, wki B, 52 summerheat, shzi %,92 sweat, han $?,83 tears, lki El, 82 ten, shi f, 13 three, sGn z, 6 tongue, shi %, 69 turbid, zhud ?.It!, 24 two, krfl 1 , 5 17 up, shang k, vacuity, xzl &, 25 vessel, nzai 87$,59 viscus, zang 43 warmth, w5n ? ! , 96 water, shui 7k, 34 white, bai 80 wind,fing R, 90 wood, r77il $,30 yang, yang P I , 28 yellow, huarzg %, 79 yin, yin m, 27
an,
a,
a,
$a,
a%,
a,
a,
s,
a,
m,
(Numbering refers to character numbers, not page numbers)

1 Stroke - yi, one, 4
2 $trokes Sc; qi, seven, 10 h , jizi, nine, 12 - dr, two, 5 A rin, human, 2 /\. bii, eight, 11 f+ shi, ten, 13
d
0 bbi, white, 80 & pi, skin, 62
%$ lztci, network vessel, 74 E l a MI&, stomach, 52
E l
nzh, eye, 68
aE! dn'n, gallbladder, 5 1

j%ij 177ia17, face, 75
3 Strokes =. scin, three, 6 1shang, up, 17 1 ; ^ xia, down, 18 T yzi, at, 67 R lzciu, moutli, 70 x k tzi, earth, 32 f;; da, large, 14 /j\ xibo, small, 15
/
6 Strokes !%l yin, cause, 87 di, earth, 3 $ T han, sweat, 83 @ gr, ear, 72 rrdz~, flesh, 60 WI ji, flesh, 61 shk, tongue, 69 & sd, color, complexion, 76 xzli: blood, 38 ' 7 xing, move; phase, 29 %b xii, evil, 88 PEl yang, yhng, 28 /% yin, yin, 27
7 Strokes 166, restrain, 36 AT gGn, liver, 45 a 6 chang, intestine, 50 j $ chi, red, 78 li, exterior, 22 '$2yin, drink; rheum, 99
,!I.?? 17nii,vessel, 59
& shi, food, eat, 100

$f gzi, bone, 64 BO Strokes
$% ti, snivel, 85
r6, heat, 95
% qiao, orifice, 65
j j k gzlling, bladder, 54
zh77g, viscus, 43
11 Strokes @ tzld, spittle, 86 $@ yd, l~umor, 40
$ 9 yin, excess, 89
$$f qing, clear, 23 xii, vacuity, 25 % hzlarrg, yellow, 79
4 Stroltes
9 zhGng, center, 16
5 wzi, five, 8
lii~, six, 9 l$j nki, internal, 19 ticin, heaven, 1 FT- liii, open, 66 JL\ xin, heart, 46 $ mil, wood, 30 % mao, body hair, 63 k= -6 qi, qi, 37 7 5 ( shzli, water, 34 A hzlci, fire, 3 1 R fing, wind, 90
12 Strokes
% hh77, cold, 91 % shzi, s~unmerlzeat, 92

? ! wen, warmth, 96
8 Strokes shi, repletion, 26 PB I&, tears, 82 $ 3jing, channel, 73 A* fei, lung, 48 II X a shdn, kidney, 49 $? bibo, interior, 2 1 9 jin, metal, 33
$5!sl.ri, dampness, 93
& jicio, burner, scorcll, 55
f& jin, sinew, 58
pi, spleen, 47
j % , bowel, 44
%! hei, black, 8 1
13 Strokes @ tin, phlegm, 98 @ yii, stasis, 97
jing, essence, 4 1
5 Strokes & zhzi, govern, 57 @, bcio, envelop, 56 si, four, 7 b'b wai, external, 20 $k shgng, engender, 35
a qing, green-blue, 77 9 Strokes i!: jiiz, liquid, 39 $& zhub, turbid, 24 ?Zxian, drool, 84 $$ shkn, spirit, 42
1 %pang, bladder, 53
bi, nose, 7 1 $ $ zao, diyness, 94
Chinese? iinese is very probably the most rewarding single investment nt of East Asian medicine can make. A knowledge of Chinese ccess to the knowledge and experience of East Asian ver a period of two thousand years. By learning Chinese, one nto a library of information a thousand times larger than any n English or any other Western language. One gains the mmunicate with Chinese physicians in their own language their knowledge and experience. Ultimately, one gains the nk in the language that has been nsed by generations of ois and scholars to record their experiences and considertraditional Chinese medicine.
~bilityof the written language means that the modern inese medicine has relatively easy access to the literature of of course the English-speaking student embarking on the ~gChinese can similarly gain access to the literature of the r the present. The continuing importance of the classical ltiquity requires students to be conversant with classical as 1 Chinese. The continuity of the written language means to learn different forms of the same language rather than Zes. required to learn Chinese may have been exaggerated in e other European languages such as French or Italian, )wn script, which is known to be highly complex. Ir is less :hat the grammar of Chinese is infinitely much simpler lean languages, and it has a basic structure similar t o that ]ugh the script is difficult to learn, the number of ne has to learn for the purposes of gaining access to East erature is astoundingly low. presents the fipst 100 characters based upon frequency texts, as well as an overall program designed to help the he necessary tools for building a thorough vocabulary. : (in a series of five) presents the basics of Chinese with the etymologies of the 100 most commonly seen :ned as a workbook, it offers students practice in recognize, and write the characters and provides the itudents need to become familiar with the written se medicine and thereby enrich their studies.

Wiseman - Chinese Medical Characters - Vol I - Basic Vocabul

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wiseman - Chinese Medical Characters - Vol I - Basic Vocabul

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chinese Medical Characters

Volume One: Basic Vocabulary

Why Learn Chinese?

The Nature of Chinese Language

Chinese M e d i c a l Characters: Basic V o c a b u l a r y

Transcription and Pronunciation

As the English m. The Chinese the sound made by a cow.

m6, 'mother', is pronounced lilce moo,

& qu, 'to go', or g$l&, 'green', pronounced like a

Chinese Medical Characters: Basic Vocabulary

Evolution of the Script

Categories of Chinese Graphs

LLI shiin, mountain;

-yg one; - i.r, two

T zl", child; -k n&, girl, woman 1shang, up;

$ 1 jizng, river; 3'f: han, sweat

[ @% ] hui yi, associative

hao, like, love

El + j?j = sB ming, brightness

) zhuin zhir, mutu-

% lio, old age

ally interpretive '[ @$f$) j i i ji&, loan characters

Graphs and Dictionary Usage

?E shi, dampness hu4 fire signific: % r2, heat; $ % zao, dryness

% mri, tree signific: 4% xihng, oak;

% mi, rice signifie: % jing, essence; $ 9fgn, powder; %$ zh6u, congee

Changes in Chinese Script

FBT ji6 gLi wPn

&T jin wPn Bronze Script

xi&ozhuhn Lesser Seal Script

@$$lc6i shfi Regular Style

Chinese Medical Characters: Basic Vocabulary

Equivalents heaven, celestial

tian rkn di tian tian

heaven, humankind, and earth every day (colloquial)

CAA3 IEA3 (Atfr)

tiiin rkn d i da rkn xu rkn rkn zh5ng

Chinese Medical Characters: Basic Vocabulary

k tzi with phonetic & yg.

tiGn rkn d i tian d i shzng d i huang sh&g d i 2r d i

Chinese Medical Characters: Basic Vocabulary

Signifies and Stroke Counts simplified - 1; complex

(-I!%) C-kZiI (--I

y i yin y i yang yi y i ( -Q 18] y i bui 2r bai

Chinese Medical Characters: Basic Vocabulary

Equivalents two, second

17B3 13!33 (323

2r bai 2r yang 2r yin

Chinese Medical Characters: Basic Vocabulary

2FB Stroke Sequence

siin yin siin ybng

three yin [channels] three yang [channels]

= I51 S&Z Three

Chinese Medical Characters: Basic Vocabulary

Equivalents four, fourth

ST-2, Four Whiteness four greatness four qi

Chinese Medical Characters: Basic Vocabulary

Equivalents five, fifth Signitics and Stroke Counts simplified -- 1 + 3; complex 1 2 +2

I5131 [ ml\ 1 ( m? 1 CZSI

wu"xin wu"xing wu"zhu"

five colors five hearts five phases five governings

Cf i m ? f1 l i ufii C fi$$) l i uj i n g C f i % I l i u qi ( fig?1 l i uyin

six bowels six channels six qi six excesses