Lecture 1-Introduction & Conceptual Bridge Design Consideration

ACEN 3 DAY TECHNICAL TRAINING ON INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN OF SHORT SPAN BRIDGES
LECTURE 1 INTRODUCTION & CONCEPTUAL BRIDGE DESIGN CONSIDERATION
OBJECTIVE To provide overview of various bridge types and process involve in selecting suitable bridge type for a design. To identify the planning and conceptualization process of the bridge design.
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1.0 INTRODUCTION Bridge Engineering is an exciting field of Engineering. Bridges sometimes offer the only solution for a transportation system to cross rivers, difficult ground conditions, or reducing conflict points in transportation system by carrying one mode/traffic over the other (flyovers), etc.
Bridge Engineering goes beyond mere design of the physical bridge structures, such as deck, abutments, piers and foundations. It covers all the topics that impact on the safe operation of the bridge throughout its serviceable life span. The past century is known for the construction of more bridges prior to the discovery of new technology, material availability and advancement in bridge engineering. At this stage, bridge design has evolved from early art forms to a sophisticated science.
Every bridge design must begin with the conceptualisation of the nature of the bridge. This will involve the planning, obtaining economical span length for the bridge, the nature of the bridge site / environment, the bridge loading and as well as the type of bridge to be designed for.
Concrete bridges are undoubtedly the most predominant bridge construction types in Nigeria today, probably due to the cost and ready availability of materials for its construction. This means that bridge designers in the country are constantly faced with the challenges of designing concrete bridges. And a complete bridge design process involves series of complex stages, each involving iterative processes of analysis, synthesis and appraisal.
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1.1. Bridge and its Uses A bridge is a route designed to provide continuous passage over a river, valley or any obstacle. On a river, bridge allows traffic and water to flow pass one another on different levels at the same geographical point, thus resolving the most difficult problem a road would encounter on its route, a bridge forms part of the road and owes its origin to the river or any other obstacle.
Alternatively, a bridge is a continuation of a roadway/railroad, when the latter takes off from the ground. Bridges are not only for crossing over river but also over other types of flows, such as traffic routes (like in the case of Flyovers), or other natural or artificial obstacle( In the case of viaducts, i.e. bridge constructed over deep valleys which renders the construction of embankment an expensive solution).
Other function of a bridge can be seen from it economical, social and advancement of a community, by providing shortest effective transportation route for commerce between communities. Also, an aesthetically pleasing architectural bridge structure will serves as a monumental edifice that will attract tourism, and this is a major concept adopted in modern bridges today.
1.2. General Planning and Design Consideration The following factors must not be ignored in bridge engineering:
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The site, as the choice of bridge site affects greatly the choice of type of bridge structure and the economic span of the bridge. The stream/river hydrology and hydraulics. Environmental Impact: Additional constraints have been added to the bridge planning and design by increasing demands for an overall ecosystem approach environmental impact assessment. This means that in addition to hydrology and hydraulics, consideration must be given to the impact of a new bridge crossing on existing vegetation, terrestrial and aquatic habitat, recreational areas and fishery resources. Aesthetic, historical and archaeological impacts may also require attention. The environmental factors: wind, temperature, humidity, rainfall, atmospheric pollution level. The soil characteristics Bridge loading In river crossing, navigational restraints, the types of vessels using the river. Bridge design data bridge construction sequence
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2.0 SELECTION OF BRIDGE TYPE It is very important for every bridge designer to understand the various bridge types and their attributes for effective selection of suitable bridge type.
Four main factors are used in describing a bridge. By combining these terms one may give a general description of most bridge types. I. II. III. IV. Span (simple, continuous, cantilever) Material (stone, concrete, metal, etc.) Placement of the travel surface in relation to the structure Form (beam, arch, truss, etc.).
Table 2.1 below can be useful as rough guide in selecting bridge deck type based on economic span range.
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ACEN3DAYTECHNICALTRAININGONINTRODUCTIONTOTHEDESIGNOFSHORTSPANBRIDGES
TABLE2.1
Span Upto20m BridgeDeckType Insitureinforcedconcrete. Insituprestressedposttensionedconcrete. PrestressedpretensionedinvertedTbeamswithinsitufill. 16mto30m Insitureinforcedconcretevoidedslab. Insituprestressedposttensionedconcretevoidedslab. PrestressedpretensionedMandIbeamswithinsituslab. Prestressedpretensionedboxbeamswithinsitutopping. Prestressedposttensionedbeamswithinsituslab. Steelbeamswithinsituslab. 30mto40m PrestressedpretensionedYU beamswithinsituslab. Prestressedpretensionedboxbeamswithinsitutopping. PrestressedposttensionedIbeamswithinsituslab. Steelbeamswithinsituslab. 30mto250m Boxgirderbridges Asthespanincreasestheconstruction tendstogofrom'allconcrete'to'steelbox/concretedeck' to'allsteel'. Trussbridgesforspansupto50mtheyaregenerallyless economicthanplategirders. 150mto350m 350mto? Cablestayedbridges. Suspension bridges.
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Environment (i.e. bridge site) also imposes great varying conditions on the bridge structure, giving rise to a whole variety of bridge types and shapes. Bridge designs differ in the way they support loads. These loads include the weight of the bridges themselves, the weight of the material used to build the bridges, and the weight and stresses of the vehicles crossing them.
2.1. Bridge Types There are basically eight common bridge designs: beam, cantilever, arch, truss, suspension, cable-stayed, movable, and floating bridges. Each design differs in appearance, construction methods and materials used, and overall expense. Some designs are better for long spans. Beam bridges typically span the shortest distances, while cable-stayed and suspension bridges span the greatest distances.
Beam Bridges Beam bridges represent the simplest of all bridge designs. A beam bridge consists of a rigid horizontal member called a beam that is supported at both ends, by vertical posts called piers or abutments. Beam bridges are the most commonly used bridges in highway construction.
Cantilever Bridges Cantilever bridges are a more complex version of the beam-bridge design. In a cantilever design, a tower is built on each side of the obstacle to be crossed, and the bridge is built outward, or cantilevered, from each tower. The towers support the entire load of the cantilevered arms. The
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arms are spaced so that a small suspended span can be inserted between them. The cantilevered arms support the suspended span, and the downward force of the span is absorbed by the towers.
Arch Bridges Arch bridges are characterized by their stability. In an arch, the force of the load is carried outward from the top to the ends of the arch, where abutments keep the arch ends from spreading apart. Arch bridges have been constructed of stone, brick, timber, cast iron, steel, and reinforced concrete.
Truss Bridges Truss bridges utilize strong, rigid frameworks that support these bridges over a span. Trusses are created by fastening beams together in a triangular configuration. The truss framework distributes the load of the bridge so that each beam shares a portion of the load. Beam, cantilever, and arch bridges may be constructed of trusses.
Suspension Bridges Suspension bridges consist of two large, or main, cables that are hung (suspended) from towers. The main cables of a suspension bridge drape over two towers, with the cable ends buried in enormous concrete blocks known as anchorages. The roadway is suspended from smaller vertical cables that hang down from the main cables. In some cases, diagonal cables run from the towers to the roadway and add rigidity to the structure. The main cables support the weight of the bridge and transfer
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the load to the anchorages and the towers. Suspension bridges are used for the longest spans.
Cable-Stayed Bridges Cable-stayed bridges represent a variation of the suspension bridge. Cable-stayed bridges have tall towers like suspension bridges, but in a cable-stayed bridge, the roadway is attached directly to the towers by a series of diagonal cables. A cable-stayed bridge is constructed in much the same way as a suspension bridge is, but without the main cables.
Movable Bridges Movable bridges make up a class of bridge in which a portion of the bridge moves up or swings out to provide additional clearance beneath the bridge. Movable bridges are usually found over heavily travelled waterways.
Floating Bridges Floating bridges are formed by fastening together sealed, floating containers called pontoons and placing a roadbed on top of them. A pontoon typically contains many compartments so that if a leak occurs in one compartment, the pontoon will not sink. Some floating bridges are constructed using boats or other floating devices rather than pontoons. Floating bridges were originally developed and are most widely used as temporary structures for military operations.
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Combination Bridges Combination bridges include crossings consisting of several types of bridges or both bridges and tunnels.
3.0 CHOICE OF BRIDGE SITE The bridge design of necessity begins with the selection of a site. Choice of the right location is crucial for the designing and planning of a bridge. But above all, safety considerations that govern the technical, functional, economic, efficiencies, and expeditiousness, and authentic requirements are very important, it is necessary for a bridge and each of its components to be safe, durable, reliable, and stable. This is usually checked by using current specifications. But not all questions of durability, reliability, and stability may be answered by analysis. Therefore in some cases it is necessary to provide special measures such as testing the performance of the structure and examining its behaviour under maximum loading on site. Occasionally an unusual structural form may be subjected to wind tunnel test. When in doubt seek a second opinion. The site for road or rail bridge crossing will be restricted to certain reaches of the river through constraints imposed by the alignment of the road or rail. The choice of site must of necessity avoid costly river works.
The choice of site for a bridge must start with desk study using maps, aerial photographs and Satellite imageries; followed by site inspection (reconnaissance survey). The bridge site is not chosen in isolation; it is chosen to harmonize with the transportation-desired alignment. Sometimes transportation alignment dictates and generally governs the
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selected site. However the following information should be taken into consideration in the choice of bridge site:
The river channel regime, that is, whether it has a wide flood plain or whether it is incised with little or no flood plain. The stability of channel. It is necessary to determine whether the river is statically stable, dynamically stable or unstable. meandering river may during flood change its course. A
This is
precisely the case with the Owena River Bridge at Okitipupa in Ondo State during the 1964 flood. The river changed its course and the bridge was no longer perpendicular to the river but in line with the river flow. The road embankments were completely washed off. The river flow pattern. It is necessary to find out whether the channel migration is active. Range of water levels, low and high-water levels and frequency of occurrence. Range of discharges, particularly flood discharges and their frequency of occurrence. Width of waterways, width of flood plain, meander length and width. Type and grade of river bed material. Type of material composing the river bands. Location of any rock outcrops or other hard points in the channel boundaries that may act like bridge substructures to cause a form of local scour.
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3.1. Factors Affecting Design Economical aspects in fixing spans of a bridge: Let length of one span total number of spans total length of bridge na ... ... Let cost of one pier cost of superstructure per metre of span (is proportional to length of span) P = ka (k = cost coefficient) Let Q = cost of superstructure per span Q = Pa = ka x a Q = ka ... ... Let C = total cost of bridge excluding abutments C = nQ+F (n-1) ... but n = L/a Substituting for n in equation (1.03) C = L/a [Q + F (L/a-1)] Substituting for Q = ka in equation (1.03) C = L/a [ka + F (L/a -1)] = kLa + F (L/a-1) ... C is minimum when dc/da = 0 Differentiating equation (1.04) dc/da = kL- FL/a = 0 = KLa FL = 0 F = ka From equation (1.02) F = Q The span is economical when the cost of pier equals the cost of one span of the superstructure. a n L L F P = = = = = =
(1.01)
(1.02) (1.03)
(1.04)
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4.0 HYDRAULIC CONSIDERATIONS
4.1. Basic Hydraulic Requirements For a bridge crossing, there are two basic hydraulic requirements that the bridge crossing must seek to satisfy: A suitable location and alignment from the perspective of the river characteristic, traffic and the environment. The capability of the bridge opening and embankments to pass the design discharge, and to withstand severe flood or debris conditions without compromising the serviceability and structural integrity of the bridge or adversely affecting the environment. 4.2. Bridge Location (Hydraulic/Environmental Aspects) Where the location of a proposed bridge is not fixed by other considerations, the following considerations should be used as guide in selecting the location for the bridge and the route. I. The choice of bridge location is generally determined by economics balanced with environmental considerations. In crossing a flood plain, the most economical solution that combines bridge opening and the most economical embankment height must be determined. II. Environmental factors cannot be ignored in the selection of bridge location. The interaction of the route and bridge location must be carefully evaluated in order not to adversely affect a fragile ecosystem. III. Location of existing utilities must not be ignored especially in the oil producing areas. The integrity and normal operation of these
utilities must be ensured.
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IV.
Stream characteristics and geomorphology sometimes vary within the river under consideration for crossing sites. Stable river reaches that do not require elaborate channel control works are preferred.
V.
The alignment of the bridge and the location of the waterway opening should fit so far as possible the existing river alignment and the location of the principal channel. However in some situations where the alignment route dictates, channel modification may be necessary to provide a reasonable maintainable crossing. In the case of meandering streams, they are sometimes modified by channel diversion. Where streams are alternating single-and
multiple-channel reaches, single-channel locations are normally preferable. VI. Bridges are usually located on straight reaches of the river avoiding sharp bends. However where the bends provide stable channels, there is no reason why the bridge should not be located there; as it may offer the shortest total length of the bridge. In unstable rivers, the outer banks at bends are often particularly unstable to bank erosion. If the bend location is adopted, the banks should be stabilized. VII. The hydraulic effects of existing nearby bridges and other infrastructure should be carefully considered especially the effect on the proposed bridge hydraulics. In the case of complex
combinations, numerical or physical hydraulic modelling is sometimes used to evaluate current patterns. VIII. When planning a major new bridge, overall watershed-planning issues should be addressed through consultation with all
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stakeholders involved in the basin.
Future plan for Dam
developments or other works could affect the choice of the location. Consideration should be given to factors such as climate change and land-use change that might result in increased flows, increased settlement yield, and morphologic changes to the river. 4.3. Design Discharge and High Water Levels Criteria The fixing of the design discharge and design high water ideally should be based on the cycle cost of the project, i.e. the initial capital cost and the operational maintenance costs (which should include costs associated with road closures due to flooding). There has to be appropriate balance between capital cost and operating/maintenance costs depending greatly on the scale of the planned structure and integrity of use.
The design discharge and design high water levels depend on the flood return period T.
Various countries fixed the flood return period for estimating design discharge and design high water levels. The British mostly consider 100year return period. The U.S. guidelines (Richardson and Davis 1995) recommend that the return period of the super-flood should be in the order of 500 years. In the absence of reliable estimate for the return period, a discharge equal to 1.7 times the 100-year is suggested.
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Design Discharge The design discharge corresponding to the return period T is computed based on statistical frequency analysis of stream flow data. However the result of the frequency analysis is not necessarily the final value of the design discharge. It is sometimes advisable to review or adjust T-year value as derive from frequency analysis, or use other methods of analysis, in order to take account of the following factors: Climate change Land-use changes in the catchment area (past and potential future) Possible changes to the operating rules for existing reservoir Planned upstream or downstream reservoirs Possible flow diversions into or out of the river Possible influences on other riparian water users Criteria used for existing nearby bridges Past occurrence of catastrophic flood.
Design High Water Level For open-water river conditions, the high water level corresponding to the design discharge may be estimated from documented stage-discharge relationships or from open channel hydraulics computations.
In some cases, discharge data may be scarce but a record of annual maximum water levels (stages) may be available. In such a case, design high water level may be derived from frequency analysis of the stage data. If the data are for open-water floods only, the corresponding design discharge may be estimated from hydraulic computations.
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4.4. Height of Bridge Sometimes the route profile may control the height of the bridge. But for most bridges, especially major bridges, the elevation of the underside of the superstructure is normally determined by the design high water level plus appropriate freeboard or clearance. The following factors should be taken into account when considering clearance: The maximum expected height of waves, where not included in the design high water level Wind set up and storm surge in coastal waters, lakes and reservoirs, where not included in the design high water level Elevation of the water at light bends in high velocity streams Projection of logs and other floating debris Statutory navigational requirements Consideration should also be given to the susceptibility of the superstructure to the impact by debris and to the hydraulic forces that would be generated.
4.5. Hydraulic Design Procedures Before sealing the preliminary design and estimate for a new bridge and approach roads, it is advisable to go through a systematic process for checking the various items of hydraulic design as discussed above. Figure 4:1 sets out this process in the form of a linear flow chart. At various stages the consequences of a choice can be assessed against previous choices and adjusted if necessary.
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FIG. 4.1: Flow chart with suggested procedure for bridge hydraulic studies
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1.
Initial Conception of Project Hydraulic factors should be given priority consideration when a road project is conceived, because they have important bearing on initial design and route location. For example the relative cost of alternative routes may depend on the cost of drainage structures. Also the
environment traversed by the route may greatly influence choice. For example, one route might cross an environmentally sensitive wetland while the other may pass through a favourable and stable environment
2.
Basic Data Collection After the choice of alternative routes, all available information pertaining to the hydraulic study should be assembled and reviewed and arrangements should be made for collection of additional information if necessary.
3.
Selection of Design Values The hydraulic capacities of existing structures and channels should be evaluated using assembled office and field information. Using hydraulic analysis and other considerations, values may then be determined for design discharge and high water level etc. as discussed above. Other constants such as permissible backwater effects, clearance and statutory navigational requirements should be examined.
4.
Selection of Bridge Location and Waterway Opening The selection of bridge location is not only controlled by hydraulic factors but by such other factors as road alignment, slope stability, nature of
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foundation materials, and assessment of economic and other consequences of alternative choices.
5.
Waterway Design Proposal Key information on hydraulic parameters and proposed waterway geometry should be summarized for use by the structural engineers. Such information may include length and height requirements, critical water levels, estimated depth of scour, arrangement of channel control works and approaches, and other relevant data such as borings, and wave lengths. Any hydraulic constraints on span layout and on details of piers, etc should be noted.
6.
Selection of Span Arrangement and Foundation Type The economic span of a bridge at any location is dictated by the foundation materials and they are governed by structural and foundation considerations. There has to be close collaboration between the
hydraulic engineer and the structural engineer in arriving at a compromise design if necessary. This may involve modifying the waterway design proposal, since choice of span lengths and foundation geometry to meet other conditions may affect allowable scour and the size of the waterway opening. important In some cases potential for debris blockage may be an consideration when selecting span arrangements.
Consideration should also be given to the potential effects of likely construction works and procedures on scour, backwater and channel processes in the general vicinity of the bridge. As a rough guideline, the general vicinity refers to a length of at least 10 channel widths on either side of the bridge.
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7.
Preliminary Drawings General arrangement plans and profile of the river and the selected road alignment should show sufficient length of the river to enable an appreciation of the rivers silent features and their relationship to the bridge. Air photo-mosaic plans or satellite imagery are most useful in this respect: Critical water bed and subsoil levels should be indicated on the drawings and an accompanying report.
8.
Review, Approval and Adoption of Project Proposal The complete project design proposal (which may involve alternatives) should be checked for compliance with the basic hydraulic requirements discussed above. Environmental Impact assessment should be carried out at this stage, seeking approval from the appropriate authorities and localities.
9.
Performance Evaluation and Feedback The hydraulic performance of bridges in service should be reviewed periodically. Items to be considered include flood levels, scour problem, damage or problems related to debris, erosion of riverbanks and channel control works, environmental consequences and changing of river morphology and behaviour. If changes to the catchment area are
apparent, such as increase urbanization, deforestation, mass wasting, etc., it may be prudent to review the hydrology and hydraulics to ensure that an acceptable level of safety and reliability persists.
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5.0 LOADING CONSIDERATIONS Bridges unlike buildings are designed to carry moving loads and are sometime overloaded. Bridges are designed to interact with the environment, with the river which they cross, the soil which carries them, their self-weight, imposed dead weights and the moving live loads (see Fig. 5:1).
FIG. 5.1: Bridge loads and load distribution
The predominant loads on bridges are gravity loads due to self weight and that of moving traffic using the bridge and its dynamic effects. Others loads includes wind, earthquakes, snow, temperature etc.
Bridge loading and their applications in bridge design will be demonstrated in the subsequent lectures.
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6.0 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE To produce a buildable bridge, the designer must have a good appreciation of the site conditions and of modern construction technology. The way a bridge is built affects to a greater extent the moments and shears generated in the structure. The construction method assumed in the design should always be on the drawings while any special constraints which the design would impose on alternative methods of construction clearly stated in the drawings
6.1. Method of Construction To a large extent, the method of construction will be dictated by the nature of obstacle to be crossed. Below is an example of typical bridge stages of construction Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3: Stage 4: Piling Casting of pile cap Casting of abutment walls, pier columns Casting of part of capping beam, plinth, laying of bearings and precast beams Stage 5: Stage 6: Stage 7: Stage 8: Stage 9: Laying of precast beams and precast planks Casting of part of capping beam up to top of precast beam Casting of In-situ concrete slab Compaction of backfilling behind abutment Placement of precast parapet & casting of inner kerb and approach slab Stage 10: Stage 11: Stage 12:
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Laying of walkway pipe, casting of lean concrete Laying of bituminous surfacing within carriageway Stone pitching around abutment
Discussion
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REFERENCE
I. Etteh.E.I.I, (Unpublished); Introduction to Bridge Design Volume 3. II. Parke and Hewson,(2008); ICE Manual of Bridge Engineering, Second Edition, III. Ryall, M.J. et al (Edited), 2000; Manual of Bridge Engineering, Institution of Civil Engineers, UK
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ACEN 3 DAY TECHNICAL TRAINING ON INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN OF SHORT SPAN BRIDGES