Indian Architecture

Chennakesava Temple, Belur in Karnataka, India. Main article: Indian Architecture Further information: Indus Valley Civilization, Indo-Islamic architecture Indian Architecture encompasses a wide variety of geographically and historically spread structures, and was transformed by the history of the Indian subcontinent. The result is an evolving range of architectural production that, although it is difficult to identify a single representative style, nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity across history. The diversity of Indian culture is represented in its architecture. It is a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building types, forms and technologies from West and Central Asia, as well as Europe. Architectural styles range from Hindu temple architecture to Islamic architecture to western classical architecture to modern and post-modern architecture. India's Urban Civilization is traceable to Mohenjodaro and Harappa, now in Pakistan. From then on, Indian architecture and civil engineering continued to develop, and was manifestated temples, palaces and forts across the Indian subcontinent and neighbouring regions. Architecture and civil engineering was known as sthapatya-kala, literally "the art of constructing".

The Hall of Private Audience at Fatehpur Sikri in Uttar Pradesh, India, an early example of the architecture of the Mughal Empire. The temples of Aihole and Pattadakal are the earliest known examples of Hindu temples. There are numerous Hindu as well as Buddhist temples that are known as excellent examples of Indian rock-cut architecture. According to J.J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson,[7] the Sulbasutras were appendices to the Vedas giving rules for constructing altars. "They contained quite an amount of geometrical knowledge, but the mathematics was being developed, not for its own sake, but purely for practical religious purposes."

During the Kushan Empire and Mauryan Empire, Indian architecture and civil engineering reached regions like Baluchistan and Afghanistan. Statues of Buddha were cut out, covering entire mountain cliffs, like in Buddhas of Bamyan, Afghanistan. Over a period of time, ancient Indian art of construction blended with Greek styles and spread to Central Asia. It includes the architecture of various dynasties, such as Hoysala architecture, Vijayanagara Architecture and Western Chalukya Architecture. The Church of St. Anne which is cast in the Indian Baroque Architectural style under the orientation of the most eminent architects of the time. It is a prime example of the blending of traditional Indian styles with western European architectural styles.
Though old, this Eastern tradition has also incorporated modern values as India became a modern nation state.[1] As the country became more integrated with the world's economy, [1] traditional Vastu Shastra remains influential in India's architecture during the contemporary era.[1]

Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BC-1300BC)

Further information: Indus Valley Civilization

A well and drainage system at Lothal.

A bath and toilet excavated in Lothal.

The entire Kalibangan citadel unexcavated.

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (33001300 BC; mature period 26001900 BC) that was located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, consisting of what is now mainly modern-day Pakistan and northwest India. Flourishing around the Indus River basin, the civilization primarily centred along the Indus and the Punjab region, extending into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley and the GangesYamuna Doab. Geographically, the civilization was spread over an area of some 1,260,000 km, making it the largest ancient civilization in the world. The Indus Valley is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with its contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of well over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving) and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses. The baths and toilets system the cities had is acknowledged as one of the most advanced in the ancient world. The grid layout planning of the cities with roads at exact right angles is a modern system that was implemented in the cities of this particular civilization. The urban agglomeration and production scale of this particular civilization was unsurpassed at the time and for many future centuries. The mature phase of this civilization is known as the Harappan Civilization, as the first of its cities to be unearthed was located at Harappa, excavated in the 1920s in what was at the time the Punjab province of British India (now in Pakistan). Excavation of Harappan sites have been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar-Hakra river and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Lothal, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira, Kalibanga, and Rakhigarhi.

Post Maha Janapadas period (1500 BC200 AD)

The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th-1st century BC). The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.

Grand Anicut dam on river Kaveri (1st-2nd Century AD) is one of the oldest water-regulation structures in the world still in use.[2] Further information: Hindu temple architecture, Buddhist architecture, and Indian rock-cut architecture

The Buddhist stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.[3] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.[3][3] Fortified cities with stpas, viharas, and temples were constructed during the Maurya empire (c. 321185 BC).[4] Wooden architecture was popular and rock cut architecture became solidified. [4] Guard railsconsisting of posts, crossbars, and a copingbecame a feature of safety surrounding a stupa.[4] Templesbuild on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal planswere constructed using brick and timber.[4] The Indian gateway arches, the torana, reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism.[5] Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BC - 11th century AD).[6] Rock-cut stepwells in India date from 200-400 AD.[7] Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550-625 AD) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 AD) took place.[7] The city of Mohenjo-daro has wells which may be the predecessors of the step well. [8] As many as 700 wells, constructed by 3rd millennium BC, have been discovered in just one section of the city, leading scholars to believe that 'cylindrical brick lined wells' were invented by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization.[8] Cave temples became prominent throughout

western India, incorporating various unique features to give rise to cave architecture in places such as Ajanta and Ellora.[4] Walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-storied buildings which consistently used arched windows and doors are important features of the architecture during this period.[4] The Indian emperor Ashoka (rule: 273232 BC) established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire by 230 BCE.[9] One of the edicts of Ashoka (272231 BC) reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted." [10] Buddhist architecture blended with Roman architecture and Hellenestic architecture to give rise to unique blendssuch as the Greco-Buddhist school.[11] Indian art and culture has absorbed extraneous impacts by varying degrees, and is much the richer for the exposure. This cross fertilization between different art streams converging on the subcontinent produced new forms that, while retaining the essence of the past, succeeded in the integrating selected elements of the new influences. A long tradition of art and culture was already established well before the beginning of 20th century in India. Indian painting can be broadly divided into two categoriesMURALS and MINIATURE.

Hindu temple architecture

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Mahadeva Temple at Itagi, Koppal district in Karnataka, also called Devalaya Chakravarti,[1][2][3] 1112 CE, an example of dravida articulation with a nagara superstructure

Angkor Wat, a World Heritage Site and the world's largest Hindu building[4] and is present on Cambodia's national flag

Shiva temple, the main shrine of Prambanan, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia.

The cross section of Shiva temple, one of the largest Hindu temples in south-east Asia, Central Java

India's temple architecture is developed from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of whom belong to the larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma (caste). A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, the garbha graha or wombchamber, in which the idol or deity is housed, often called circumambulation, a congregation hall, and sometimes an antechamber and porch. The garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikara. At the turn of the first millennium CE two major types of temples existed, the northern or Nagara style and the southern or Dravida type of temple. They are distinguishable by the shape and decoration of their shikhara(Dehejia 1997).

Nagara style: The tower/shikhar is beehive/curvilinear shaped. Dravida style: The tower/shikhar consists of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions.[5]

The earliest Nagar temples are in Karnataka (e.g. Galaganath at Pattadakal) and some very early Dravida-style temples (e.g. Teli-ka-Mandir at Gwalior) are actually in North India. A complex style termed Vesara was once common in Karnataka which combined the two styles.

A complex style termed Vesara was once common in Karnataka which combined the two styles. This may be seen in the classic Hindu temples of India and Southeast Asia, such as Angkor Wat, Brihadisvara, Khajuraho,

History
The temple is a representation of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the microcosm (the inner space). The Magadha empire rose with the Shishunaga dynasty in around 650 BC. The Ashtadhyayi of Panini, the great grammarian of the 5th century BC speaks of images that were used in Hindu temple worship. The ordinary images were called pratikriti and the images for worship were called archa (see As. 5.3.96100). Patanjali, the 2nd century BC author of the Mahabhashya commentary on the Ashtadhyayi, tells us more about the images. Deity images for sale were called Shivaka etc., but an archa of Shiva was just called Shiva. Patanjali mentions Shiva and Skanda deities. There is also mention of the worship of Vasudeva (Krishna). We are also told that some images could be moved and some were immoveable. Panini also says that an archa was not to be sold and that there were people (priests) who obtained their livelihood by taking care of it. Panini and Patanjali mention temples which were called prasadas. The earlier Shatapatha Brahmana of the period of the Vedas, informs us of an image in the shape of Purusha which was placed within the altar. The Vedic books describe the plan of the temple to be square. This plan is divided into 64 or 81 smaller squares, where each of these represent a specific divinity.

Historical Chronology
Early temples in approximate chronological order: [6]

Gupta period temples at Sanchi, Tigawa, Eran, Bhumra, Nachna Deogarh 500-525 Bhitargaon Brick temple 6th cent Mahabodhi Temple Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur 600-625 Mahabalipuram 650-675 Rajiv Lochan, Rajim, 600 Parsurameswar Temple, Bhubaneshwar 600-650 Aihole Meguti Temple 634, Lad Khan and Durga Temples 7th cent. Alampur Garuda-brahma 696-734, Svarga brahma 681-696, Visva-Brahma 700 Badami Malegutti, Bhutanath Ellora, Kailas 750-775, cave 32, 800-825 Pattadakal Virupaksh, Mallikarjuna, 745 Temples at Mahua, Amril, Naresar, Batesar: 8th century Osian Surya 700-725, Harihar 775-800 Gwalior Teli Ka Mandir 725-750 Vaital Deula, Bhubaneshwar, 750-800 7

Madhakheda MP 825

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Oldest Rockcut cave of India Barabar Caves

Entrance of Rockcut cave temple(Similar style as Barabar Caves) at Guntupalle, Andhra Pradesh

An early group of caves at Kanheri Caves

Primitive beds in early viharas at Kanheri Caves

Rock cut stair leading to Kanheri

Guntupalle Rockcut Caves, Andhra Pradesh Indian rock-cut architecture is more various and found in greater abundance than any other form of rock-cut architecture around the world.[1] Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. Rock that is not part of the structure is removed until the only rock left are the architectural elements of the excavated interior. Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious in nature.[2][3] There are known more than 1,500 rock cut structures in India. Many of these structures contain artworks of global importance, most are adorned with exquisite stone carvings. These ancient and medieval structures are amazing achievements of structural engineering and craftmanship.[4] In India, caves have long been regarded as places of sanctity. Caves that were enlarged or entirely man-made were felt to hold the same sanctity as natural caves. In fact the sanctuary in all Indian religious structures, even free standing ones, retain the same cave-like feeling of sacredness, being small and dark without natural light.[5] The Oldest rock-cut architecture is the Barabar caves, Bihar built around 3rd Century BC, other early cave temples are found in the western Deccan, mostly Buddhist shrines and monasteries, dating between 100 BC and 170 AD. They were probably preceded as well as accompanied by wooden structures which are destroyed over time while stone endures. Throughout the history of rock-cut temples, the elements of wooden construction have been retained. Skilled craftsmen learned to mimic timber texture, grain and structure. The earliest cave temples include the Bhaja

Caves, the Karla Caves, the Bedse Caves, the Kanheri Caves and some of the Ajanta Caves. Relics found in these caves suggest an important connection between the religious and the commercial, as Buddhist missionaries often accompanied traders on the busy international trading routes through India. Some of the more sumptuous cave temples, commissioned by wealthy traders, included pillars, arches, and elaborate facades during the time maritime trade boomed between the Roman Empire and south-east Asia.[6] Although free standing structural temples were being built by the 5th century, rockcut cave temples continued to be built in parallel. Later rock-cut cave architecture became more sophisticated as in the Ellora Caves, culminating ultimately the monolithic Kailash Temple. After this, rock-cut architecture became almost totally structural in nature (although cave temples continued to be built until the 12th century), made from rocks cut into bricks and built as free standing constructions. Kailash was the last spectacular rock-cut excavated temple.[7]

Early caves
The earliest caves employed by humans were natural caves used by local inhabitant for a variety of purposes such as shrines and shelters. The early caves included overhanging rock decorated with rock-cut art and the use of natural caves during the Mesolithic period (6000 BC). Their use has continued in some areas into historic times. [8] The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, a World Heritage Site, are on the edge of the Deccan Plateau where deep erosion has left huge sandstone outcrops. The many caves and grottos found there contain primitive tools and decorative rock paintings that reflect the ancient tradition of human interaction with their landscape, an interaction that continues to this day. [9]

Cave temples

Ajanta caves

When Buddhist missionaries arrived they naturally gravitated to caves for use as cave temples and abodes, in accord with their religious ideas of asceticism and the monastic life. The Western Ghats topography with its flat-topped basalt hills, deep ravines and sharp cliffs, was suited to their natural inclinations. The earliest of the Kanheri Caves were excavated in the 1st and 2nd centuries B.C. as were those at Ajanta which were occupied continuously by Buddhist monks from 200 BCE to 650 AD.[10][11] The Buddhist ideology encouraged identification with trade, monasteries became stopovers for inland traders and provided lodging houses that were usually located near trade routes. As their mercantile and royal
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endowments grew, cave interiors became more elaborate with interior walls decorated with paintings and reliefs and intricate carvings. Facades were added to the exteriors as the interiors became designated for specific uses as monasteries (viharas) and worship halls (chaityas). Over the centuries simple caves began to resemble three-dimensional buildings, needing to be formally designed and requiring highly skilled artisans and craftsmen to complete. Theses artisans had not forgotten their timber roots and imitated the nuances of a wooden structure and the wood grain in working with stone.[12]

Worship hall (Chaitya) at Ajanta Caves

Badami Cave Temples - Sanctum sanctorum inside Cave No.1

Early examples of rock cut architecture are the Buddhist and Jain cave basadi, temples and monasteries, many with chandrashalas. The aesthetic nature of these religions inclined their followers to live in natural caves and grottos in the hillsides, away from the cities, and these became enhanced and embellished over time. Although many temples, monasteries and stupas had been destroyed, by contrast cave temples are very well preserved as they are both less visible and therefore less vulnerable to vandalism as well as made of more durable material than wood and masonry. There are around 1200 cave temples still in existence, most of which are Buddhist. The residences of monks were called Viharas and the cave shrines, called Chaityas, were for congregational worship.[12] The earliest rock-cut garbhagriha, similar to free-standing ones later, had an inner circular chamber with pillars to create a circumambulatory path (pradakshina) around the stupa and an outer rectangular hall for the congregation of the devotees. The Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra, a World Heritage Site, are 30 rock-cut cave Buddhist temples carved into the sheer vertical side of a gorge near a waterfall-fed pool located in the hills of the Sahyadri mountains. Like all the locations of Buddhist caves, this one is

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located near main trade routes and spans six centuries beginning in the 2nd or 1st century B.C.[13] A period of intense building activity at this site occurred under the Vakataka king Harisena between 460 and 478 A profuse variety of decorative sculpture, intricately carved columns and carved reliefs are found, including exquisitely carved cornices and pilaster.[14] Skilled artisans crafted living rock to imitate timbered wood (such as lintels) in construction and grain and intricate decorative carving, although such architectural elements were ornamental and not functional in the classical sense. [12] Another example of cave temple architecture are the Badami Cave Temples at Badami, the early Chalukya capital, carved out in the 6th century. There are four cave temples hewn from the sides of cliffs, three Hindu and one Jain, that contain carved architectural elements such as decorative pillars and brackets as well as finely carved sculpture and richly etched ceiling panels. Nearby are many small Buddhist cave shrines.[15]

Monolithic rock-cut temples

Varaha Cave Temple 7th century

Pancha Rathas monolith rock-cut temple, late 7th century

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Ellora cave 16

The Pallava architects started the carving of rock for the creation of a monolithic copies of structural temples.[5] A feature of the rock-cut cave temple distribution until the time of the early Pallavas is that they did not move further south than Aragandanallur, with the solitary exception of Tiruchitrapalli on the south bank of the Kaveri River, the traditional southern boundary between north and south. Also, good granite exposures for rock-cut structures were generally not available south of the river.[7] A rock cut temple is carved from a large rock and excavated and cut to imitate a wooden or masonry temple with wall decorations and works of art. Pancha Rathas is an example of monolith Indian rock cut architecture dating from the late 7th century located at Mamallapuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Ellora cave temple 16, the Kailash Temple, is singular in that it was excavated from the top down rather than by the usual practice of carving into the scarp of a hillside. The Kailash Temple was created through a single, huge top-down excavation 100 feet deep down into the volcanic basaltic cliff rock. It was commissioned in 8th century by King Krishna I and took more than 100 years to complete.[16] The Kailash Temple, or cave 16 as it is known at Ellora Caves located at Maharastra on the Deccan Plateau, is a huge monolithic temple dedicated to Lord Shiva. There are 34 caves built at this site, but the other 33 caves, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain, were carved into the side of the plateau rock. The effect of the Kailash Temple is that of a free-standing temple surrounded by smaller cave shrines carved out of the same black rock. The Kailash Temple is carved with figures of gods and goddesses from the Hindu Puranas, along with mystical beings like the heavenly nymphs and musicians and figures of good fortune and fertility.[17] Ellora Caves is also a World Heritage Site.[18]

Free-standing temples
There is no time line that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-standing temples built with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The building of free-standing structures began in 5th century, while rock cut temples continued to be excavated until the 12th century.

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Rock-cut monuments in India

Ellora caves. Cave 34. The yakshini Ambika, the yakshini of Neminath at a Jain Cave at Ellora

Rock cut steps at Ramatheertham, Andhra Pradesh

Bojjannakonda Rockcut Caves, Andhra Pradesh

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Rock cut Stupas, Bojjannakonda

Panoramic view of relief sculpture at Mahabalipuram, a World Heritage Site

Aihole has one Jaina/ Badami Cave Temples Bagh Caves Ellora Caves has twelve Buddhist, 17 Hindu and five Jain temples.[19] Kanheri Caves Mahabalipuram Pancha Rathas Pandavleni Caves Shore Temple - structural Undavalli caves, Andhra Pradesh Varaha Cave Temple at Mamallapuram Masroor Temple at Kangra Bojjannakonda Buddhist Site, Andhra Pradesh Guntupalle Buddhist Site, Andhra Pradesh Ramatheertham, Andhra Pradesh

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Early Common EraHigh Middle Ages (200 AD1200 AD)

The temple complex at Khajurahoadhering to the shikhara temple style architectureis a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Further information: Architecture of Karnataka, Dravidian architecture, Architecture of Bengal, Western Chalukya architecture, and Badami Chalukya Architecture

Universitieshousing thousands of teachers and studentsflourished at Nalanda and Valabhi between the 4th-8th centuries.[12] South Indian temple architecturevisible as a distinct tradition during the 7th century ADis described below:[13]
Mru-Gurjara Temple Architecture originated somewhere in sixth century in and around areas of Rajasthan. Mru-Gurjara Architecture show the deep understanding of structures and refined skills of Rajasthani craftmen of bygone era. Mru-Gurjara Architecture has two prominent styles Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara. According to M. A. Dhaky, Maha-Maru style developed primarily in Marudesa, Sapadalaksa, Surasena and parts of Uparamala whereas Maru-Gurjara originated in Medapata, Gurjaradesa-Arbuda, Gurjaradesa-Anarta and some areas of Gujarat.[14] Scholars such as George Michell, M.A. Dhaky, Michael W. Meister and U.S. Moorti believe that Mru-Gurjara Temple Architecture is entirely Western Indian architecture and is quite different from the North Indian Temple architecture.[15] There is a connecting link between Mru-Gurjara Architecture and Hoysala Temple Architecture. In both of these styles architecture is treated sculpturally.[16] The South Indian temple consists essentially of a square-chambered sanctuary topped by a superstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillared porch or hall (maapa, or maapam), enclosed by a peristyle of cells within a rectangular court. The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and carry niches housing sculpture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the kina type and consists of an arrangement of gradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the corners and rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at the centre. The tower is topped by a dome-

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shaped cupola and a crowning pot

North Indian temples showed increased elevation of the wall and elaborate spire by the 10th century.[17] Richly decorated templesincluding the complex at Khajurahowere constructed in Central India.[17] Indian traders brought Indian architecture to South east Asia through various trade routes.[11] Grandeur of construction, beautiful sculptures, delicate carvings, high domes, gopuras and extensive courtyards were the features of temple architecture in India.Examples include the Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneshwar in Odisha, Sun Temple at Konark in Odisha, Brihadishwar Temple at Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu.

Late Middle Ages (1100 AD1526 AD)

Ornate lintel over mantapa entrance, Belur temple. Further information: Hoysala architecture and Vijayanagara architecture

Vijayanagara Architecture of the period (1336 - 1565 AD) was a notable building style evolved by the Vijayanagar empire that ruled most of South India from their capital at Vijayanagara on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka.[18] The architecture of the temples built during the reign of the Vijayanagara empire had elements of political authority.[19] This resulted in the creation of a distinctive imperial style of architecture which featured prominently not only in temples but also in administrative structures across the deccan.[20] The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past. [21] Hoysala architecture is the distinctive building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire in the region historically known as Karnata, today's Karnataka, India, between the 11th and the 14th centuries.[22] Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. Other examples of fine Hoysala craftmanship are the temples at Belavadi, Amrithapura, and Nuggehalli. Study of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct. [23] A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to detail and skilled craftmanship. The temples of Belur

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and Halebidu are proposed UNESCO world heritage sites.[24] About a 100 Hoysala temples survive today.[25]

Islamic influence and Mughal Era (1526 AD-1857 AD)

In the August 1604 CE the construction of the Harmandir Sahibthe holiest shrine of the Sikh religionwas completed. Further information: Mughal architecture and Indo-Islamic architecture

Qutub Minar a prominent example of Islamic architecture in India.

Mughal tombs of sandstone and marble show Persian influence.[26] The Red Fort at Agra (156574) and the walled city of Fatehpur Sikri (156974) are among the architectural achievements of this timeas is the Taj Mahal, built as a tomb for Queen Mumtaz Mahal by Shah Jahan (162858).[26] Employing the double dome, the recessed archway, white marble and parks while stressing on symmetry and detail was visible during the reign of Shah Jahan.[27] Quranic verses were described on the walls of the buildings.[1] However, the depiction of any living beingan essential part of the pre-Islamic tradition of Indiawas forbidden under Islam.[1] The Architecture during the Mughal Period has shown a very good blend of Indian style with the Iranian style. Some scholars hold that cultural contact with Europe under Manuel I of Portugal (reign: 25 October 149513 December 1521) resulted in exchange of architectural influences. [28] Little

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literary evidence exists to confirm the Indian influence but some scholars have nonetheless suggested a possible relation based on proximity of architectural styles. [28]

Colonial Era (1500 AD1947 AD)

The Chepauk Palace at Chennai, once the residence of the Nawab of Arcot Further information: Indo-Gothic

Under colonial rule, architecture became an emblem of power, designed to endorse the patron. Numerous outsiders invaded India and created architectural styles reflective of their ancestral and adopted homes. The European colonizers created architecture that symbolized their mission of conquest, dedicated to the state or religion. [29] The British, French, Dutch and the Portuguese were the main powers that colonized India.[30] [31] British Colonial Era: 1615 to 1947 The British arrival in 1615 overthrew the Mughal empire. Britain reigned India for over three hundred years and their legacy still remains through building and infrastructure that populate their former colonies. [32] The major cities colonized during this period were Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Agra, Bankipore, Karachi, Nagpur, Bhopal and Hyderabad. [33][34] St Andrews Kirk, Madras is renowned for its colonial beauty. The building is circular in form and is sided by two rectangular sections one is the entrance porch. The entrance is lined with twelve colonnades and two British lions and motto of East India Company engraved on them. The interior holds sixteen columns and the dome is painted blue with decorated with gold stars.[35] The staple of Madras was Fort St. George, a walled squared building adjacent to the beach. Surrounding the fort was White Town settlement of British and Indian area Black Town later to be called Georgetown. Black Town described in 1855 as the minor streets, occupied by the natives are numerous, irregular and of various dimensions. Many of them are extremely narrow and ill-ventilateda hallow square, the rooms opening into a courtyard in the centre." [36]

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Garden houses were originally used as weekend houses for recreational use by the upper class British. Nonetheless, the garden house became ideal a full-time dwelling, deserting the fort in the 19th Century.[37] Calcutta Madras and Calcutta were similar bordered by water and division of Indian in the north and British in the south. An Englishwoman noted in 1750 the banks of the river are as one may say absolutely studded with elegant mansions called here as at Madras, garden houses. Esplanade-row is fronts the fort with lined palaces.[38][39] Indian villages in these areas consisted of clay and straw houses, later transformed into a metropolis of brick and stone.[40] The Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, is the most effective symbolism of British Empire, built as a monument in tribute to Queen Victorias reign. The plan of the building consists of one large central part covered with a larger dome. Colonnades separate the two chambers. Each corner holds a smaller dome and is floored with marble plinth. The memorial stands on 26 hectares of garden surrounded by reflective pools. [41] French: 1673 to 1954 The French colonized a fishing village (Pondicherry) in Tamil Nadu and transformed it into a flourishing port-town. The town was built on the French grid pattern and features neat sectors and perpendicular streets and divided into two sectors, French Quarter (Ville Blanche) and the Indian quarter (Ville Noire). French styled villas were styled with long compounds and stately walls, lined houses with verandas, large French doors and grills. Infrastructure such as banks, police station and Pondicherry International Port still hold the French presence. To preserve Pondicherry an organization names INTACH was formed. Authorization is needed from INTACH, to annihilate any original French Architecture. [42] French expanded their empire by colonizing coastal towns, Yanam in Andhra Pradesh, Karaikal in Tamil Nadu and Mahe in Kerala with a French atmosphere of quiet towns around beaches. French spelling on signage and traffic signs still remains.[43] Dutch: 1605 to 1825 The Dutch entered India with the only interests of Trade in the early 17th Century. During their 200 years in India, they colonized Surat, Bharuch, Venrula, Ahmedabad, Malabar Coast, Kochi and Sadras.[44] Surat a Dutch factory in 1630s Bharuch: Trading Post of the Dutch East India Company had a Dutch cemetery. Venrula: a warehouse was built for 3000 Guilders by Leendart Janszoons and a castle for the protection of the Dutch. Ahmedabad: The Dutch cemetery lies on the bank of Kankaria lake. It holds a mix of Indian and European styled graves, with domed tombs, pyramids, walled and plain grave stones. Malabar Coast Kochi: The Dutch Palace (Mattancherry Palace) The palace was originally built by the Portuguese, it fell into the hands of the Dutch when the Portuguese lost control of Kochi. Dutch cemetery The cemetery runs parallel to the beach and is the oldest European cemetery in India. It holds 104 tombs that visually narrate the Dutch influence in Architecture during the era. The cemetery is guarded by heavy walls and the entrance pillar still carries the original calligraphic inscription 1724 David Hall which was the residence of the famous Dutch
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Commander and Governor of Kochi, Adriaan van Reed lot Drakestein was built in 1695. The hall has been restored as a cultural centre and art caf for young, visual and performing artists. Bastion bungalow This Dutch styled building near the Fort Kochi beach was built to protect the harbor. Thakur House the Dutch built this bungalow overlooking the sea as a club. Sadras 17 km (11 mi) from the rock cut temples of Mamallapuram is another Dutch settlement. Pullicat Pullicat lake 55 km north of Madras is a million years old and the second largest lagoon in India. It was the most important trading post of the Dutch. They built two cemeteries. One was ruined due to negligence and at the entrance is flanked by stone pillars, having 76 tombs. Images of skeletons are carved onto the gravestones, symbolizing life and death.[45][46] Portuguese: 1498 to 1961 The Portuguese arrived as merchants in the 1498 and were more driven by a Catholic missionary zeal than gaining powers in India. The Portuguese gained a foothold Goa and ruled for 400 years.[47] Portuguese dominance in Goa still remains. Their missionary spirit built many magnificent cathedrals, churches, basilicas and seminaries. The Basilica of Bom Jesus (Good Jesus), Old Goa, former capital during the Portugal rule. The three storied Renaissance styled church was built of plaster and laterite in 1605, it holds the body of St.Francis. The interior is built in a Mosaic- Corinthian style and adorned with wood and gold leaf. The walls embrace old painting of saints as the floor is laid with pure white marble.[48] The Portuguese - Catholic houses faced the street with unique large ornamental windows opening onto verendahs. Bold colours were painted on houses constructing distinct identity, allowing the sailors to recognize their houses from sea. The covered porches and verandas were designed for socializing contrary to the Hindu styled housing. Front doors were lined with columns, and railings were popular in embellishment. [49] The interior of Goan-Portuguese houses consisted of elaborate patterns created with tiles imported from Europe and a false ceiling installed of wood. The walls are painted with bright colours contrasting to the earthy coloured furniture. The walls were made of out mud or laterite stone and coloured with vegetable and natural dyes. Gateposts and compound walls were craved with great detail. [50] Indian Architecture continued to flourish as they took influence from the colonies. Indian Architecture further shaped as they combined the colonial influences with traditional Architecture.

Republic of India (1947 ADpresent)

Further information: List of World Heritage Sites in India and Category:Indian architecture

In recent times there has been a movement of population from rural areas to urban centres of industry, leading to price rise in property in various cities of India. [51] Urban housing in

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India balances space constrictions and is aimed to serve the working class. [52] Growing awareness of ecology has influenced architecture in India during modern times.[53] A significant feature of India's architecture is the courtyard. [54] Klaus-Peter Gast (2007) elaborates on the significance of courtyards in India: [54]
The courtyards also take up an old Indian architectural motif whereby the courtyard provides light and air for the rooms directly in this hot climate, and people are able to spend time outside or inside according to the time of day. The courtyard is also the classical symbol of something shared, a place where people meet, spend time with each other and live together. This aspect is emphasised in the courtyard for the general public, which is placed immediately inside the entrance and constructed in the form of a Kund, a large area of stone steps. Here people spend their waiting time together almost as if in a state of communal meditation. A waiting area that would be completely inconceivable in Western culture functions as a think tank here, with the ambience of waiting stimulating communal reflection.

Climate responsive architecture has long been a feature of India's architecture but has been losing its significance as of late.[55] Indian architecture reflects its various socio-cultural sensibilities which vary from region to region. [55] Certain areas are traditionally held to be belonging to women.[55] Villages in India have features such as courtyards, loggias, terraces and balconies.[52] Calico, chintz, and palamporeof Indian originhighlight the assimilation of Indian textiles in global interior design.[56] Roshandans, which are skylights-cumventilators, are a common feature in Indian homes, especially in North India.[

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