Social Problems Perspectives, Disaster Research and Emergency Management: Intellectual Contexts, heoretical Extensions, and Policy Implications

homas E! Drabe" #ohn Evans Pro$essor, Emeritus Department o$ Sociology and Criminology %niversity o$ Denver Denver, Colorado &'('&)(*+& ,ted-dd)do!com

*Revision and expansion of the 2006 E.L. Quarantelli Theory Award Lecture presented at the annual eetin! of the A erican "ociolo!ical Association# $ew %or& 'ity# $ew %or&# Au!ust# 200(. )*nternational Research 'o ittee on +isasters# Research 'o ittee ,-# *nternational "ociolo!ical Association.. * wish to than& Ruth Ann +ra/e& for her wor& on this paper. * also want to than& 0ary 1reps for his critical review of an early draft. 2artial support was provided /y the *nternational Research 'o ittee on +isasters )*R'+. and the 3niversity of +enver throu!h the 4ohn Evans 2rofessorship 2ro!ra . Any opinions# findin!s# conclusions or reco endations expressed in this

paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the *R'+# the 3niversity of +enver# or any of the individuals ac&nowled!ed herein. .bstract

This essay explores the intellectual contexts wherein disasters are defined as non5 routine social pro/le s. The ar!u ent is advanced that this theoretical orientation can /oth open new doors for researchers and assist e er!ency ana!e ent professionals in

critically reviewin! existin! policy and future proposals. The essay is co prised of five sections6 7. introduction )how * ca e to this topic.8 2. social pro/le s perspectives )&ey insi!hts fro past and recent analyses.8 ,. disaster research )sa plin! of theoretical

issues and conclusions relevant to a social pro/le s orientation.8 9. e er!ency ana!e ent )selected policy areas and i plications. and :. conclusions )payoffs for future theory and application..

Social Problem Perspectives, Disaster Research, and Emergency Management: Intellectual Contexts, heoretical Extensions and Policy Implications

Introduction *a honored to have /een selected as a recipient of the E.L. Quarantelli Theory

Award and proudly accept. * want to than& +r. Ro/ert A. "tallin!s# for er *nternational Research 'o ittee on +isasters 2resident )200252006. for his role in a&in! this

happen as well as +r. Ronald ;. 2erry# our current 2resident )200652070.. This award only has /een ade twice /efore and * a hu /led to <oin the prior

recipients=+rs. Russell R. +ynes )3niversity of +elaware. and Allen >. ?arton )'olu /ia 3niversity.. * have the !reatest respect for /oth of these scholars. Russ was one of y doctoral professors. * assisted hi durin! the foundin! days of the +isaster

Research 'enter )+R'. at The @hio "tate 3niversity. >is classic text )+ynes 7-(0. reflected so e of the early literature reviews * co pleted. Even thou!h it was pu/lished nearly four decades a!o# it re ains a useful reference /oo& for e and any others.

;hile * never wor&ed directly with Allen ?arton# his theoretical syntheses# e.!.# 7-6,# 7-6-# sti ulated y curiosity and wor&ed li&e li!ht /ul/s in y for ative years. *

continue to ad ire the theory /uildin! s&ill he /rou!ht to the disaster case studies of his day. >is wor& helps all of us understand /etter how thin!s fit to!ether=how differin! events have parallels# how &ey analytic Aualities of social structure and collective stress reflected patterns that *a i!ht ree er!e in future disasters )e.!.# see ?arton 200:.. y other +R' entor=

eAually hu /led to receive this award na ed after

>enry Quarantelli. >is intellectual i print was si!nificant initially and has !rown over

the years as * try to &eep up with his latest contri/utions. Throu!h his wor& has /een /oth redirected and !reatly deepened. Than&s >enry=* Btal&C to you you ever could &now.

y thin&in! ore than

?efore turnin! to su/stance# * would /e re iss if * didnDt also than& the Theory Award "election 'o ittee# chaired /y +r. +ennis E. ;en!er )Texas A E F ittee e /ers were6 +rs. Linda ?.

3niversity# 3.".A... *n addition to ;en!er# the co

?ourAue )3niversity of 'alifornia# "chool of 2u/lic >ealth# 3.".A..# ;olf +o /rows&y )'hristian5Al/rechts53niversitGt Hu 1iel# 0er any.# 4. 1enneth Fitchell )Rut!ers 3niversity# 3.".A..# ?etty >. Forrow )Ilorida *nternational 3niversity# 3.".A..# and Tricia ;achtendorf )3niversity of +elaware# 3.".A... To each# * say# BThan&s.C Additionally# * want to than& +rs. ;illia As A. Anderson and ?. ;ayne ?lanchard. directors# Anderson at

any of you &now# /oth have years of experience as pro!ra

the $ational "cience Ioundation )$"I. and ?lanchard at the Iederal E er!ency Fana!e ent A!ency )IEFA.. Each provided intellectual and ad inistrative !uidance that per itted the successful co pletion of nu erous funded pro<ects that facilitated any of y pu/lications over the years. These /roadened and enriched y

understandin! of /oth the hu an side of disaster and the evolvin! profession of e er!ency ana!e ent. y wife# Ruth Ann +ra/e& who has edited and Fore i portantly# however# she has

Iinally# * want to pu/licly than& word processed all of

y wor& for decades.

enhanced the wor& /y /ein! /oth a BfriendlyC critic and an unwaverin! source of e otional support. %ou see# she always let e &now# that she# had faith in e.

After ?o/ "tallin!s explained to

e that the E.L. Quarantelli Theory Award

reAuired that the recipient present a pu/lic lecture# * /e!an explorin! a series of possi/le topics. * had <ust finished readin! the chapter /y 1reps and ?osworth )2006. in the Handbook of Disaster Research )RodrJ!ueH# Quarantelli and +ynes# 2006. and was pleased to see their lon!5ter pleased to see so e of efforts pushed to new hei!hts )e.!.# 7--,8 7--9.. * also was

y old data )e.!.# +ra/e& et al. 7-K7. /ein! used in their analysis y

)1reps and ?osworth 2006# p. ,09. and the /asic consistencies in their lo!ic with assess ent of strate!ies used /y local e er!ency

ana!ers to !uide post5disaster y

response networ&s )e.!.# +ra/e& 200,/.. >ence# * seriously considered pushin! preli inary Btheoretical

odel of disaster response effectivenessC )+ra/e& 200,/# p. 79-8

200:/. another step or two throu!h this lecture opportunity. +ays later * decided that * i!ht develop further# docu ent /etter# and expand on

a lecture * presented at the $ational Acade ies $atural +isaster Round Ta/le )+ra/e& 200,a.. There * had used the old hu an ecolo!y 2@ET odel )i.e.# population#

or!aniHation# environ ent# and technolo!y.# to exa ine a series of national and international trends. * also specified so e of the challen!es and opportunities these trends present to e er!ency ana!ers. There are i portant new lin&a!es that need to /e Ior exa ple# 'lar&e )2006. ur!es us to !o /eyond Li&e 2errow did

inte!rated with those o/servations.

the confines of disaster events as Ba/nor alC )e.!.# see p. 72-..

previously )7-K9.# he su!!ests that disaster is Bnor alC# at least in the sense that it should not /e viewed B. . . as separate fro the e// and flow of nor al life.C )'lar&e 2006# p. y $A" social trends lecture. ?ut while *

72K.. That was the underlyin! point of

descri/ed a variety of technolo!ical develop ents that were providin! opportunities )e.!.#

i ple entation of co puters into disaster response a!encies. and challen!es )e.!.# networ& failures durin! responses and privacy invasions throu!h isuse of data /ases.# *

really had not thou!ht throu!h the intricacies of the ways in which heavily networ&ed syste s=one of y trends=create new levels of vulnera/ility. 'onversely# as 2errow li&e so e terrorists !roups# can uch less vulnera/ility. >ence#

)2006. points out so well# decentraliHed syste s#

function with hi!h relia/ility# re ar&a/le efficiency# and

B. . . the loosely or!aniHed Al Qaeda networ& has survived at least three decades of dedicated international efforts to eradicate it.C )p. :,2.. "o what are the i plications of these o/servations for so e e er!ency ana!e ent officials who ar!ue that disaster response policy should pro ote !reater centraliHation and standardiHation a on! response a!enciesL Fi!ht not there /e

so ethin! to the ar!u ent advanced /y @yola5%e aiel and ;ilson )200,. that6 B"yste co plexity in and of itself could very well /e odern societyDs principal i!ht /est /e the paradi! of

vulnera/ility to terroris .C )p. 26..

>ence# recent policy chan!es

redirected. @r as they put it6 B . . . future develop ent should pro!ress fro

of /usiness and resource consolidation and centraliHation of power to a paradi!

decentraliHed power and dispersed resource allocation . . .C )@yola5%e aiel and ;ilson# 200,# p. 26.. This insi!ht parallels 2errowDs )200(. conclusions followin! his in5depth analysis of our vulnera/ilities resultin! fro natural disasters# advanced technolo!ies# and future !iven a variety of serious structural eanin!ful ca pai!n finance refor s#

terrorist attac&s. +espite his realistic pessi is flaws# includin! 'on!ressional failures in

increased corporate concentrations and radical policy chan!es i ple ented /y the ?ush

ad inistration# 2errow concluded that B. . . we have hardly /e!an to do the

ost effective

thin!6 reducin! the siHe of the tar!ets that inevita/ly will /e attac&ed.C )2errow 200(# p. ,2:.. As * thou!ht a/out these ideas for a few days# * /eca e ore and ore trou/led.

The failed response to >urricane 1atrina &ept poppin! up. 2unctuated /y i a!es * recalled seein! in television covera!e# discussions with e er!ency )e.!.# see +ra/e& 200(.# and scannin! policy reports wherein increased roles for the ana!e ent faculty any were proposin!

ilitary in future disaster responses and reduced e phasis on state

and local !overn ents# * &ept wonderin!# B>ow did thin!s !o so wron!LC B>ow did IEFA once a!ain /eco e the favorite tar!et of late ni!ht co icsL * thou!ht that ended after >urricane Andrew.C As * reflected on conversations * had over any years with the late Lacy "uiter

)for er +irector of E er!ency Fana!e ent for the "tate of Tennessee. who wor&ed so hard with 4a es Lee ;itt to push the Iederal E er!ency Fana!e ent A!ency )IEFA. toward levels of excellence any thou!ht could never happen# * /e!an to realiHe that y

e otions paralleled those expressed /y the +ixie 'hic&s. Fay/e you &now their al/u entitled BTa&in! the Lon! ;ayC. @ne of the son!s on this al/u Fa&e $iceC. )2006. contains these lines6 B*D *D *D not ready to a&e nice )i.e.# B$ot Ready To

not ready to /ac& down still ad as hell and

* donDt have ti e to !o round and round and round.C

@f course# they were dealin! with a specific event that later was docu ented in B"hut 3p And "in!.C Li&e thousands of others# Ruth and * were reco!nition in the 200( 0ra ost pleased with their

y Awards )Rocky Mountain News# Ie/ruary 72# 200(# pp. e

70577.. ?ut the an!er expressed in their son! paralleled what had /een /uildin! up in for several onths. And when * tried tal&in! with so e e er!ency

ana!e ent faculty#

really ho eland security types# a/out

y essay on 1atrina entitled B+onDt ?la e the

Micti sC )+ra/e&# 200:a.# * realiHed that reor!aniHations of IEFA and the creation of the +epart ent of >o eland "ecurity )+>".# were only the tip of the ice/er!. %ou see# * was /eco in! aware of new faculty who were viewin! disasters# and disaster victi s fro a very different perspective than ine )see +ra/e& 2006c.. ;hen * had a few

explain to

e at a conference that Bwe are at warC and Byour &ind of policy criticis orale of our troops and encoura!es the terroristsC# * decided * needed to * fir ly /elieve=and always have=that social values# ust /e exa ined

really hurts the

!o /ac& to so e /asics.

institutional arran!e ents# political structures# and such# always critically. a!ency#C And# those who express criticis

of a!ency doctrine# re!ardless of Bthe %et# * was encounterin! so e

ust /e /oth encoura!ed and protected.

ho eland security and e er!ency faculty who were expressin! the view# B*f youDre not with us# you are a!ainst us.C 2eriodN Fy last /oo& for the IEFA >i!her Education 2ro<ect was a revision of an instructor !uide * had prepared for colle!e or university faculty entitled Social Dimensions of Disaster )+ra/e& 20098 see also +ra/e& 2006d.. This resource reAuired an enor ous a ount of ti e and ener!y fro Ruth and *=it totaled 7#,7: pa!esN ?ut *

/elieved that it could facilitate faculty literature reviews and the preparation of pro!ra

and course

aterials.

*n this /oo&# in a chapter entitled B>istory of "ociolo!ical

Research on +isasters#C * included a /rief section with this learnin! o/<ective6 B"u ariHe the &ey ideas that define disasters as social pro/le s.C )+ra/e& 2009# pp. ,5 ended classroo wor&shop /uilt around

77 to ,57,.. This section included a reco

1repsDs )2007. article in the International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences which was the reco ended student readin!. ;or&shop discussion Auestions other social

included these6 BAccordin! to 1reps )2007.# how do disasters differ fro pro/le sLC and B;hat are disaster Oclai s5 a&in!D activitiesLC "tudents of e er!ency

ana!e ent# li&e their elder practitioners# need to /e

encoura!ed to exa ine disaster events within a social pro/le s context. ;hyL ?ecause if they are# disasters could not /e approached as si ply Bincidents to /e incidents wherein co unity ana!edC or

e /ers would /e encoura!ed to re ain uninvolved. To ana!ers * interviewed in a prior pro<ect

Auote one of the Bunenli!htenedC e er!ency

)+ra/e& 200,/.# B;e can handle the crisis without pu/lic interference.C +isasters could not /e approached as if they had no historical context. +isasters could not /e approached as if there were no other social pro/le s within the co unity. And the costs of disaster unity needs

iti!ation# in its varied for s# could /e <uxtaposed a!ainst /oth other co

=health insurance for the non5covered# shelter for the ho eless# and so forth=and /asic protections of privacy and freedo . >ow <ust to stay safe fro *n short# * a uch erosion in civil li/erties do we accept

future floods# hurricanes# or terrorist attac&sL very concerned a/out any of the policy directions and initiatives

that have occurred since 2resident 'linton left the ;hite >ouse in 4anuary# 2007. "o * re<ected the other topics * had considered for this lecture. *nstead# * decided to use this

occasion to ela/orate and inte!rate a series of theoretical connections that future researchers fra e their a!enda differently. * also hope it ana!ers in developin! a /roader perspective on their profession.

ay help

ay assist e er!ency

*Dll /e!in /y explainin! why it is essential to incorporate the analysis of disasters within ainstrea social pro/le s perspectives in sociolo!y. "uch perspectives and social social

hi!hli!ht /oth o/<ective conditions and social definitions of hu an har disruption. 'apturin! how these interrelate reAuires attention to

ainstrea

pro/le s constructs li&e class# status# power# ethnicity and !ender. And it reAuires attention to /oth social context and chan!e and historical and co parative research. "econd# havin! esta/lished the relevance of social pro/le s perspectives# * will show that disasters are a particular for of social pro/le s. That is# /y la/elin! disasters as

Bnonroutine#C we are challen!ed to address the i plications for /oth theory and pu/lic policy. ;hen such issues are raised# /asic Auestions of !eneraliHation of findin!s and taxono y are hi!hli!hted. Iinally# * will de onstrate that funda ental social science research has /een lar!ely i!nored /y e er!ency attac&s on "epte /er 77# 2007. 'onseAuently# that are pushin! the profession of e er!ency ana!e ent policy a&ers since the

any policy shifts are /ein! i ple ented ana!e ent in directions that have /een o put it bluntly: our nation

and will continue to /e /oth ineffective and inefficient.

has been going in the /rong direction since the attac"s on *)00!

Social Problems Perspectives: Past and Present Iollowin! his wor& at the 3niversity of 'hica!o# $ational @pinion Research 'enter )$@R'.# the late 'harles IritH ade any contri/utions to the disaster studies

70

area throu!h his lon!5ter su

stay at the $ational Acade y of "ciences. QuarantelliDs

aries of these and other efforts are i portant aspects of our historical le!acy )e.!.# ittees

see Quarantelli 7-K(a.. @ver the years# IritH helped or!aniHe nu erous co

which /rou!ht to!ether so e of the /est scholars in the country to assess a wide ran!e of research and policy issues )e.!.# 'o ittee on "ocioecono ic Effects of EarthAua&e ittee on *nternational +isaster

2redictions 7-(K Pchaired /y Ralph TurnerQ and 'o Assistance 7-(- Pchaired /y Russell +ynesQ.. @f uch help to

any# however# has /een his su

ary chapter )IritH 7-67.

entitled B+isastersC which appeared in the first edition of the widely used social pro/le s text edited /y Ro/ert 1. Ferton and Ro/ert A. $is/et )7-67.. This text was revised and updated three ti es. The second edition# pu/lished five years after the first# did not contain IritHDs chapter# nor did any su/seAuent versions# e.!.# 7-(6 )9 th edition.. +id this ean that Ferton and $is/et had decided that disasters were not social pro/le sL The rationale !iven at the ti e is infor ative. BThree new chapters have /een introduced=on alcohol# poverty# and war and disar a ent=to deal with vital pro/le s of conte porary society not included in the first edition. These additions have /een at a price6 to avoid len!thenin! an already lon! /oo&# it was necessary to drop the chapters on pro/le s of ilitary life# of disaster and catastrophe# and of transportation in the etropolis# which proved to /e ore appropriate for !raduate students than for under!raduates. Advanced students will want to consult those chapters in the first edition to learn how the sociolo!ical orientation helps to clarify pro/le s once assu ed to /e the exclusive province of other specialists.C )Ferton and $is/et 7-66# p. ix.. That is the essa!e of this lecture. That is# B . . . how the sociolo!ical orientation

helps to clarify pro/le s once assu ed to /e the exclusive province of other specialists.C )Ferton and $is/et 7-66# ix.. As the profession of e er!ency evolve and acco ana!e ent continues to

odate the constraints of any varyin! political ideolo!ies and

77

horrifyin! events li&e the attac&s on -577# a sociolo!ical perspective has as

uch or

ore

to offer today as it did in 7-67. And it is the collective responsi/ility of at least so e of us to /rin! our theory# includin! those uniAue insi!hts found within our analysis of social pro/le s# and our research# to issues confrontin! e er!ency Let ana!ers.

e illustrate this rich social pro/le s le!acy /y hi!hli!htin! seven the es y own courses. These enhance student capacity for critical

which * e phasiHe in

analysis# and in the tradition of a /asic li/eral arts curriculu # their capacity for freedo . Those i ple entin! new university pro!ra s in /oth e er!ency ana!e ent and

ho eland security are advised that failure to incorporate insi!hts li&e these will lessen the analytical capacity of their !raduates in their future roles. 0! here is a relationship bet/een the private troubles experienced by

individuals and the public issues o$ their day! Ior any of us# this insi!ht is one of the cornerstones of Bthe sociolo!ical

i a!inationC so well articulated /y '. ;ri!ht Fills )7-:-. in his /oo& /y that title. ?ac& in the 7-60s# Ferton and $is/et did not use the lan!ua!e# /ut proposed si ilar ideas which they ascri/ed to such theorists as ;e/er )7-96. and Fannhei )7-,6.. Ior

exa ple# in their discussion of fatalist versus activist value syste s# they wrestled with the issue of why certain social pro/le s re ain latent# off the pu/lic radar so to spea&. @f course# such latency varies over ti e within all societies as does the de!ree to which fatalis reflects their a<or value orientation. ?ut after referencin! ;e/er and

Fannhei # /oth of who fatalis

pointed this out previously# they wrote that B. . . the ethic of

has often /een replaced /y the ethic of responsi/ility# in which &nowled!e of the

72

sources of social pro/le s and efforts to control the

/eco e defined as a

oral

o/li!ation.C )Ferton and $is/et 7-66# p. (-(.. And they ela/orated as follows. BTo the extent that the ethic of responsi/ility spreads in a society# social pro/le s tend to /eco e anifest rather than re ainin! latent. ?ut even within such a society# lar!ely oriented toward directed social chan!e# countervailin! processes a&e for the continued latency for a ti e of certain social pro/le s.C )Ferton and $is/et# 7-66# p. (-(.. And so today we i!ht as& a/out the Bcountervailin! processesC that were

operative in the 0ulf states especially Louisiana# that prevented officials and citiHens fro /etter anticipatin! and preparin! for a stor li&e 1atrina )200:.. "o e would wash

their hands &nowin! that they had /een successful with the exercise &nown as >urricane 2a )e.!.# see ?rin&ley 2006# pp. 7K57-8 ?ourne 2009.. @thers would point to their wor&

that docu ented the continued loss of wetlands that had heretofore provided !reater protection )for ela/oration see ?ourne 2009.. ?ut the outco e re ains=over 7#,00 people died. ;hy did the chan!in! distri/utions of ris&=a process that had /een !oin! on for years=re ain off the pu/lic a!endaL ;hy didnDt the preparedness plans that had /een desi!ned !et i ple ented in a reduced the trau a of rescue for anner that could have saved ore lives and

any survivorsL

2erhaps part of the answer reflects the lo!ic in the revision of the Ferton5$is/et text. Re e /er IritH and disasters# while referenced once in the second edition# )p. (K9. was replaced /y EtHioniDs )7-66. analysis of B;ar and +isar a ent.C *t is noteworthy that this reference ca e within the context of discussion of the Bsocial ori!in of social pro/le s.C This discussion explicitly raises a funda ental theoretical Auestion for

disaster researchers that *Dll explore later# that is# are social pro/le s analysis fra ewor&s

7,

applica/le to /oth the pheno ena of war and BnaturalC disastersL The only place IritH and his earlier chapter were referenced was in answer to this Auestion. BIor whether the forces disruptin! patterns of social life are nature5 ade or an ade# they will# in the end# confront e /ers of the society with the tas& of respondin! to the # and the nature of that response is# in sociolo!ical principle# !reatly affected /y the structure of the society# /y its institutions# and its values.C )Ferton and $is/et 7-66# p. (K9.. To understand the failed 1atrina response# li&e that of any other disaster event# we always ust place e er!ency ana!e ent within the co unity# state and federal

context of the ti e. *t was this historical context that led >art an and "Auires )2006. to title their 1atrina analysis as here Is No Such hin! as a Natural Disaster . And their su/5title Race" #lass and Hurricane $atrina points us toward institutional patterns of racis # sexis # and a!eis uch that olded and shaped this flawed response. There was a on! e er!ency

ore to it than# for exa ple# the priority shift toward terroris

officials. The private trou/les of the 1atrina victi s reflected a whole ran!e of pu/lic issues. This capacity to shuttle /etween sociolo!ical i a!ination. 2. .ll societies are in a constant degree o$ change re$lecting patterns o$ consensus and dissensus among and /ithin institutional areas! This the e reflects y early trainin! with Russ +ynes when * served as a icro and acro levels is the pro ise of the

!raduate teachin! assistant in a social pro/le s course directed /y "i +initH. Later * used their text )+ynes et al. 7-69. in y own courses at the 3niversity of +enver wherein we a&e for sta/ility within societies and other

exa ined the processes of inte!ration that social syste s such as co

unities and fa ilies. *t is worth notin! that neither IritHDs

7-67 chapter# nor the concept Bdisaster#C is referenced or indexed in this text. >owever#

79

we always e phasiHed that the social fa/ric is /oth fra!ile# /ecause it always is su/<ect to chan!e# and powerful# /ecause it is ta&en for !ranted. 'onflicts# however# are ever present and can /oil over whenever patterns of strain /eco e redistri/uted and hi!hly polariHed. +ynes and his collea!ues put it this way. BThe possi/ility always exists that dissensus will /eco e extre e and result in conflict a on! !roups# threatenin! the sta/ility of the society= the 'ivil ;ar is an exa ple of dissensus /eco e !roup )re!ional. conflict.C )+ynes et al. 7-69# p. ,(:.. * suspect that this social pro/le s perspective !reatly facilitated +ynesD later analysis of the disaster literature )7-(0. that has helped various B echanis s of inte!ration.C Iocusin! on the co any of us /etter understand unity level# he carefully

wove case study data into a co prehensive whole. "o followin! a disaster event# various types of or!aniHational units=reflected in the four cells of the +R' Typolo!y=respond to disaster de ands. At ti es local officials# /oth within and a on! a!encies# ust

define areas of Be er!ency consensusC so that the B ass assaultC# to use ?artonDs )7-6-. ter # can /e coordinated. "uch processes# when viewed within the social pro/le s perspective# /eco e uch clearer to any tryin! to understand the reality of disaster# /e

they researcher or practitioner. 1! 2ecause social problems are socially constructed, so too must be their solutions! Fany of us use the phrase# Bsociety as patient.C ?y this# of course# we can illustrate the role of social structure as a constraint in /oth how social pro/le s are defined and the search for solutions. 3nli&e what we hear fro so e politicians today#

Ferton and $is/et )7-66.# of course# re<ected the doctrine that Bevil is the cause of evilC. *nstead they proposed B. . . that# to a su/stantial extent# social pro/le s are the unwilled#

7:

lar!ely indirect# and often unanticipated conseAuences of institutionaliHed patterns of social /ehavior.C )p. vii.. Today any of us would point to interco unity cri e rates and reference easures of social disor!aniHation the $etherlands that

docu entation of how these co5vary with various )e.!.# @h 200:.. @r we

i!ht descri/e recent research fro

validated and extended +ur&hei Ds )7-:7. classic wor& on suicide )van Tu/er!en and 3ltee 2006.. Iollowin! ;orld ;ar **# suicide rates in the 3.". did not drop as +ur&hei would have predicted whereas they did in European countries that re ained neutral. The researchers concluded B. . . that +ur&hei Ds political inte!ration theory could explain these e pirical pro/le s if it ta&es into account peopleDs e%pectations for the future and if it considers the social inte!ration of !roups.C )van Tu/er!en and 3ltee 2006# p. 2,,.. 'ertainly# the near daily reports of suicide /o /ers in *raA and elsewhere leads us to /e curious a/out possi/le lin&a!es a on! reli!ious ideolo!ies# different socialiHation processes# and resultin! otivations related to such /ehavior. Ferton and $is/et )7-66.

devoted an entire chapter to the topic of suicide )e.!.# 0i//s 7-66.. ;hile data fro iddle5eastern countries is a/sent# +ur&hei Ds analysis of BaltruisticC suicides is su ariHed and illustrated as a reflection of B. . . excessive social inte!ration.C )p. ,7,..

Fore recently# ?er!esen )2006. has e phasiHed that despite our li ited data /ases# several recent e pirical studies such as 2apes )200:.# clearly docu ent that6 B*n !eneral# suicide attac&ers are rarely socially isolated# clinically insane# or econo ically destitute individuals# /ut are ost often educated# socially inte!rated and hi!hly capa/le people

who could /e expected to have a !ood future.C )2apes 200:# p. 200 as Auoted /y ?er!esen 2006# p. 9:-.. "o today# social pro/le s analysts# li&e $eu/ec& et al. )200(.#

76

trace out these lin&a!es in their analyses of B artyrdo C# i.e.# B. . . to sacrifice oneDs life in the na e of the cause . . .C )p. 60:.. >ence# B. . . a stron! connection to oneDs faith or to political or!aniHations devoted to resistin! what they see as oppression actually enhances the chances of suicide rather than actin!# as +ur&hei . .C )p. 60:.. Re e /erin! the acute and chronic poverty that defined $ew @rleans lon! /efore 1atrina# we i!ht instead focus here. And if poverty is to /e reduced# li&e any ust /e on ele ents of structure. *t is these ele ents that predicted# as a deterrent .

other social pro/le # our focus are /rin!in! ore and

ore A erican citiHens to their /rea&in! points every day. ;hile study to study# we currently have nearly 20 percent of our

the rates vary a /it fro population=:: @ne research tea third the e.

illion people=livin! in a state of poverty )?loc& et al. 2006.. ;hyL su ariHed the situation very well and in so doin!# they illustrate y

BLoo&in! a/road also shows that !overn ent policies can dra atically reduce poverty levels. The pro/a/ility of livin! in poverty is ore than twice as hi!h for a child /orn in the 3nited "tates than for children in ?el!iu # 0er any# or the $etherlands. 'hildren in sin!le5 other households are four ti es ore li&ely to /e poor in the 3nited "tates than in $orway. The fact that sin!le5parent households are ore co on in the 3nited "tates than in any of these countries where the poor receive !reater assistance under ines the clai that ore !enerous policies will encoura!e ore sin!le wo en to have children out of wedloc&. These other countries all ta&e a ore co prehensive !overn ent approach to co /atin! poverty# and they assu e that it is caused /y econo ic and structural factors rather than /ad /ehavior.C )?loc& et al. 2006# p. 7(.. +! .s /ith /ealth and other $orms o$ privilege, the socially po/er$ul also have greater in$luence in de$ining /hat is and is not a social problem!

7(

This theoretical principle was reflected in the Ferton5$is/et text in several chapters. *n FertonDs )7-66. BEpilo!ueC which he su/titled B"ocial 2ro/le s and ar&ed ineAuality in the <ud!in!

"ociolo!ical Theory#C he e phasiHed that there is process re!ardin! this atter.

B"ocial definitions of social pro/le s have this in co on with other processes in society6 those occupyin! strate!ic positions of authority and power of course carry ore wei!ht than others in decidin! social policy and therefore# a on! other thin!s# in identifyin! for the rest what are to /e ta&en as si!nificant departures fro social standards.C )Ferton 7-66# p. (6:.. +o hoffDs )2006. loo& /ac& at '. ;ri!ht FillDs )7-:6. classic state ent on the concentration of power within the 3nited "tates is a !ood illustration of this the e. ;hile ac&nowled!in! the depth and /readth of FillsD analysis# he su!!ests that it had wea&nesses. Ior exa ple# the ilitary BchieftainsC do co prise part of the power elite# eAual standin! with the corporate rich and

/ut Fills was B. . . wron! to !ive the

appointees to the executive /ranch of the policy5plannin! networ&.C )p. :9K.. +o hoffDs exa ples infor solution. BThis point is de onstrated ost directly /y the fact that ilitary leaders are i ediately dis issed if they disa!ree with their civilian /osses# as seen nu erous ti es since the early 7-60s# and ost recently in the run5up to the invasion of *raA# when a top !eneral was pushed into retire ent for darin! to say there was a need for ore troops than for er corporate 'E@ and current "ecretary of +efense +onald Ru sfeld and his thin&5tan& advisors thou!ht necessary.C )+o hoff 2006# p. :9K.. "o while confir ed ore recent research# includin! his own )e.!.# +o hoff 200:. has he &ower Elite# it is +o hoffDs e to place far ore out analysis of social pro/le s# includin! disasters and approaches to

ost of the conclusions presented in

<ud! ent that /oth B . . . historical and sociolo!ical research leads e phasis than Fills did on corporate capitalis

and class conflict as the do inant factors

7K

in the power eAuation.C )+o hoff 2006# p. ::0.. This is not to deny that an independent power /ase is represented /y the ilitary# /ut only to ac&nowled!e that it is less

influential than the corporate cluster. *ndeed# as we have seen since FillsDs death# additional power /ases have e er!ed# althou!h they are ore transitory and less potent. a reli!ious

As +o hoff )2006. noted# B. . . power also can /e !enerated fro or!aniHational /ase# as seen in the civil ri!hts and the *ranian Revolution.C )p. ::0.. 3!

ove ent# the rise of the 'hristian Ri!ht#

here is an interdependence among social problems, including their

origins, analysis, and solutions! Fany of us have e phasiHed this ele ent of the social pro/le s perspective. >ence# aspects of cri e and poverty ay /e lin&ed directly to issues of race and

educational failure. Ferton and $is/et )7-66. put it this way6 B@win! to the syste atic interdependence a on! the parts of a social structure# efforts to do away with one social pro/le will often introduce other )either ore or less da a!in!. pro/le s.C )p. viii..

2erhaps no where has this principle /een explored /etter than in the after ath of >urricane 1atrina. Ior exa ple# in the analyses co piled /y >art an and "Auires )2006.# these interdependencies were hi!hli!hted throu!h powerful prose. B . . . so e noted the sic&enin!ly hi!h poverty rate a on! the cityDs /lac& residents# /ut said nothin! a/out how radicaliHed poverty contri/uted to the crisis. $either the concentration of su/sidiHed housin!# nor the lac& of car ownership a on! poor /lac&s=which ade it i possi/le for any African A ericans to flee $ew @rleans /ecause the cityDs iddle5class5 oriented evacuation plan was predicated on people leavin! in their own vehicles=were entioned. RacialiHed disinvest ent in schools# pu/lic health# and other critical institutions in the core city# which i pacts the su/ur/s as well# has existed for decades# /ut unli&e the wind and the water# it !arnered little attention. ;e do not /elieve that anyone intended to strand poor /lac&s in $ew @rleans. ?ut it was predicta/le . . .C )powell et al. 2006# pp. 6956:..

7-

;hile interdependent with race and poverty# 0ullette )2006. focused on the elderly# especially fe ales who represent an i portant poc&et of vulnera/ility. "uch areas of vulnera/ility are not sou!ht out /y hurricanes or earthAua&es# /ut the i pacts really are worsened. ;hile any of us have e phasiHed the !rowin! vulnera/ilities

reflected in the chan!in! a!e distri/ution of the 3.". population# few have analyHed e er!ent perceptions of Ba!e anxietyC. +aily doses of !eeHersC livin! within the opulence of denies the poverty experienced /y edia covera!e that portray Bold

anicured retire ent villa!es create a fiction that

ost elderly.

BA!e anxiety is /ein! cleverly anipulated into a political tactic on /ehalf of a conservative a!enda. The i a!e of expensive cod!ers distracts attention fro class warfare co in! fro the top=the ?ush tax cuts for the rich# the /ud!et surplus turned into a Iran&enstein deficit# the cuts in social pro!ra s# the deadly Aua! ire in *raA. All these costs uch# uch ore than the odest chan!es "ocial "ecurity needs to thrive /eyond 2092# or than national health care. @nce the alar s have /een sounded# then co e the Ore ediesD=wea&enin! the very pro!ra s that are our nationDs slender warrant of /ein! a hu ane de ocracy.C )0ullette 2006# p. 77,.. 4! Sociological analyses o$ social problems preclude blaming the victims! Livin! in poverty eans uch ore than dollar levels co unicate. %et# durin!

the past six years the nu /er of poverty stric&en A ericans not only has increased# /ut their inco e has dropped /elow previous levels. *n short# the poor within our nation have /eco e even poorer )e.!.# see 4ones5+e;eever and >art an 2006# p. K6.. ;hile all hu ans a&e choices# even the poor# sociolo!ical analyses unveil the we/s of social

constraint that narrow visions of option and cloud the last vesti!es of hope. +e!rees of freedo are socially constructed /y all of us# /ut a on! those at the /otto of the

econo ic pile# the perceived constraints /eco e so narrow that the very word BchoiceC

20

/eco es offensive. %et#

any# if not

ost who outside the poverty pit# continue to as&#

Bwhy donDt they <ust !et a <o/LC 3nfortunately# even a on! the co passionate# the reality of Bthe society as patientC re ains poorly understood. ;hyL Ru/in!ton and ;ein/er! )200,. put it succinctly in their introduction to ;a!nerDs )200,. insi!htful Bcritical analysisC. B*t is in the interest of a capitalist society to endorse solutions to social pro/le s that treat individual persons# there/y creatin! a ar&et for treat ent

industries while discoura!in! solutions that call for a radical chan!e in the social structure.C )p. 2:7.. This was the social pro/le s context within which * viewed the failed 1atrina evacuation. %ears a!o# this !eneral the e was well articulated /y Ryan )7-(7.. ?ut for e# it caused /ac& flashes to an earlier disaster=the ?i! Tho pson 'anyon Ilood of 7-(6=when other officials chastised victi s. B;e warned the # /ut they didnDt leave.C Rather than acceptin! the outco e of 7,- deaths as Bunavoida/leC# perspective caused y social pro/le s

e to as& these officials a different &ind of Auestion# one rooted in the

assu ption /ase that /la in! the victi s results in poor pu/lic policy. B?ut "heriff# isnDt it your <o/ to devise an evacuation plan that wor&sLC Fy application of this lo!ic to the failed 1atrina response resulted in an essay entitled B+onDt ?la e the Micti sC )+ra/e& 200:a.. Reactions a on! e er!ency picture# others donDt. *n his reflective essay re!ardin! what is and what is not a BdisasterC# ?arton )200:. offered a view that parallels ine. *n so doin!# he added i portant insi!ht as to ana!ers have /een tellin!=so e see the /i!

why a social pro/le s perspective helps us view disaster victi s differently. BThe role of a do inant ideolo!y which /la es the victi or stereotypes the as less than hu an is to reduce co unication /y and

27

with the # to wea&en their a/ility to or!aniHe the selves# and to a&e the rest of society unwillin! to listen to the or tal& a/out the .C )?arton 200:# p. 792.. %ears a!o# >enry Quarantelli and * )7-6(.# explored post5disaster /la in! processes and e phasiHed parallels docu ented for other social pro/le s. That is# /y a focus on personal B!uiltC# reAuired structural chan!es=root causes# rather than sy pto s = ay never /e considered# explosion at the coliseu attention away fro uch less i ple ented. @ur case exa ple was the 7-6,

in *ndianapolis where the search for Bthe !uiltyC deflected

a /asic structural ele ent=an inadeAuate inspection procedure. ade little

B;e /elieve that puttin! other persons into the sa e position could have

difference.C )+ra/e& and Quarantelli 7-6(# p. 76.. ?ut the conseAuences of such wron!5 headed /la e assi!n ent processes are even /la e draw attention fro ore insidious. B$ot only does individual i!ht actually !ive the

ore funda ental causes# /ut it

illusion that corrective action of so e sort is /ein! ta&en.C )+ra/e& and Quarantelli 7-6(# p. 76.. This is not to say that personal /la e assi!nation never precipitates structural chan!e# as we ac&nowled!ed. ?ut it is to say that too often# especially in A erican society# this perspective detracts fro analyses focused on structure8 analyses

wherein a society# or other social unit# is viewed as Bthe patient.C 5! 6i"e /ar in earlier analyses, terrorism is no/ commonly accepted as a social problem! Iollowin! the attac&s on -577# the threat of terroris Auic&ly /eca e identified have

and widely accepted as a social pro/le . ;hile infor ative analyses of terroris

/een co pleted# lin&a!es to the research literature on other disasters are lac&in!# however. * did not try to review every current text on social pro/le s# /ut * did read five.

22

@f course# neither Ferton and $is/et )7-66. nor +ynes et al. )7-69. included any references to terroris . $or did any of the authors selected /y Ru/in!ton and ;ein/er! )200,. for their sixth edition. The insi!hts fro various Bsocial constructionistsC

contained in this volu e# however# are

ost relevant to the process of Bacceptance.C

?estDs )200,. analysis# for exa ple# not only reviews so e of the criticis s that have /een ade over the years# /ut also differentiates /etween BstrictC and BcontextualC as a social pro/le we should

constructionis . >ence# when we analyHe terroris

re e /er ?estDs su!!estions. Ior exa ple# B. . . any analysis of the social construction of child a/use or any other social pro/le =reAuires locatin! clai s a&in! within at least part of its context.C )?est 200,# p. ,99.. 4ohn 2alen has written several ur/an sociolo!y texts )e.!.# 7--(.# /ut decided to assess the !eneral social pro/le s area in 2007. The last chapter of his /oo& is entitled BThe Environ ent6 ;ar and Terroris .C >e assessed these topics throu!h the lenses of the sa e three theoretical approaches used throu!hout# i.e.# functionalist# conflict# and interactionist. >e introduced students to such topics as population chan!e# environ ental racis # and /oth air and water pollution# /efore /rief discussion of Beco5terroris C. This /rief section served as the /rid!e to his final section on war and terroris . BRevolutionaryC terroris was illustrated with such exa ples as the 7--, /o /in! of the

;orld Trade 'enter# 7--: /o /in! of the Iederal ?uildin! in @&laho a# and the 7--: nerve5!as attac& on the To&yo su/way )p. 9((.. Althou!h selected in so e attac&s# e.!.# Fusli BsoftC tar!ets are ?ein! wea& ilitary tar!ets have /een

radicals /o /in! 3.". air/ases in "audi Ara/ia#

ore popular /ecause they /etter advance civilian disruption and fear. ost terrorists perceive their actions as

ilitarily# isolated politically#

2,

le!iti ate reli!ious or racial stru!!les. >ence# B. . . whether you la/el so eone a terrorist or a freedo fi!hter depends on your position.C )2alen 2007# p. 9((.. +espite the chapter

context of Bthe environ entC and discussion of certain unintended conseAuences of environ ental policies# e.!.# widespread use of insecticides# no lin& was for s of disaster or our rich research le!acy. FcMei!h and ;olfer )2009. devoted !roups of varied political persuasion ran!in! fro uch ore space to revolts /y nu erous ade to other

the 1u 1lux 1lan as Ban instru ent of

terrorC )p. 7,,. to ?aconDs Re/ellion )76(6.. *n an effort to expose the Broot causesC of such acts of violence# they e phasiHed the later as B. . . a desperate ove on the part of

the poor to share in or eAualiHe the wealth . . .C )p. 2-K.. >ence# actions li&e these are put into historical context with others that indicate the Bnor alcyC of such events when perceptions of in<ustice prevail# e.!.# the ;his&ey Re/ellion )7(-9.# the Ilour Riot )7K,(.# and so on. All of these occurred lon! /efore the B1erner ReportC pinpointed the lin&a!es a on! racis # poverty# and ur/an riots )i.e.# 3.". $ational Advisory 'o ission on 'ivil +isorders which was chaired /y 0overnor @tto 1erner# "u ary

Report# 7-6K.. >ence# crises or disasters such as these were placed into the /roader contexts of structural ineAuality and the conflicts that result when activists !oad the poor into sayin!6 BEnou!h is enou!h# weDre not puttin! up with this any ore.C ?ut /y 2009# the reality of !lo/aliHation was apparent and social pro/le s=all of the =were /est viewed as havin! B. . . so e &ind of international connection . . B )FcMei!h and ;olfer 2009# p. ,6:.. >ence# a <u p fro 0iddensDs )2000. view of a ulti5nationals was a ulti5

Brunaway worldC to corporate concentrations of power throu!h

lo!ical way to lead into the root causes of terroris . BFost sociolo!ists ar!ue that

29

nationals are har ful as they exercise power over the !overn ents# societies and environ ents of underdeveloped countries in such a way that they actually function as colonial achines of exploitation.C )FcMei!h and ;olfer 2009# p. ,(7.. ;ithin this ost i portant social pro/le confrontin! A erican

context# war e er!es as the society.

And in order to /e!in to understand it# we

ust reco!niHe the econo ic

interdependencies /etween econo ic !rowth and war related products. 4ust weapons production alone is a sta!!erin! reality. BThe 3nited "tates is the worldDs leadin! ar s supplier to other nations# RK92 /illion worth in 7--( . . .C )FcMei!h and ;olfer 2009# p. ,K6.. Thus# despite the adoption of various social policies to reduce the nu /er of wars and freAuency of terrorist attac&s# they ar!ued that the 3.". B. . . still i!nores the /asic value conflicts# ideas and ideals /etween ;estern and Eastern culturesC )p. ,-9.. And here at ho e# the lar!est !overn ent reor!aniHation in our history was i ple ented throu!h the creation of the +epart ent of >o eland "ecurity )+>". in 2002. This /ureau has responsi/ility for all disasters re!ardless of a!ent or ori!in. FcMei!h and ;olfer )2009. /riefly discussed a ran!e of issues pertainin! to the then newly created +>"# includin! the controversial conflict re!ardin! wor&ers represented /y unions and B ana!erial flexi/ilityC reAuire ents. Even ore controversial were +>" policies

re!ardin! citiHen surveillance and /order protection. Malue conflicts re!ardin! Bthe li itsC of civil li/erties and roles of ille!al i the interdependencies that social pro/le s. Ro/ert and 4eanette Lauer )2006. also ended their recent text with chapters entitled B;ar and Terroris C and BThe Environ ent.C "tartin! with FillsDs Bpersonal i!rants in the wor& force are /ut two of

ust /e illu inated if we are to /e!in to understand these

2:

trou/les=pu/lic issuesC fra ewor&# they reviewed the fa iliar litany of three /road study areas )i.e.# 76 /ehavioral variance# e.!.# cri e and delinAuency8 26 ineAuality# e.!.# poverty and ,6 social institutions# e.!.# fa ily pro/le s. which can /est /e understood /y usin! three overlappin! theoretical perspectives )i.e.# structural functionalis # conflict theory and sy /olic interactionis .. $either the ter BdisasterC nor Bnatural disasterC

appear in the index# /ut /oth the ?hopal )7-K9. plant tra!edy )p. 9,(. and the 'herno/yl nuclear plant explosion )p. 99K. are presented as exa ples of the types of threats industrialiHed societies terroris ust reco!niHe and try to prevent. 0rowin! pu/lic fears of future ilitary expenditures )p. 97K. and

attac&s )p. 976. are <uxtaposed a!ainst risin!

their value Auestion is stated /aldly. B;hat if the 3nited "tates invested the /illions spent on ilitary preparations in electronics# education# health# and other sectors that

/enefit hu an /ein!sLC )p. 97-.. Loss of civil li/erties# perhaps willin!ly !iven up /ecause of fears of terrorist attac&s )p. 920.# is inte!rated with detailed cross5national data on ilitary expenditures )p. 927.# weapons sales )p. 929. and the anipulation of

pu/lic threat perceptions. BFany A ericans accepted the notion that *raA was involved in the "epte /er 77# 2007# terrorist attac&s# that *raA had developed and was prepared to use weapons of ass destruction# and that a !ood part# if not ost# of world opinion favored the A erican position. The news edia# particularly Iox $ews# helped shape these isperceptions.C )Lauer and Lauer 2006# p. 92(.. Iinally# $eu/ec&# et al. 200(# pu/lished the fifth edition of their popular text# Social &roblems' ( #ritical (pproach. As they reor!aniHed and updated prior wor&# they introduced 'hapter ,.. aterials on terroris and expanded their discussion on war )now

Extensive data on

ilitary ar s sales and expenditures were used to

26

introduce the topics of terroris assess ents then follow.

and Bthe effects of

ilitaris C )e.!.# see pp. (65K6.. And

BFilitaris affects the Auality of life in ore than <ust econo ic ways. *t also interferes with our de ocratic ri!hts and civil li/erties.C )p. K(.. B*f hu an survival is the !oal# then disar a ent will play an i portant role in eetin! it. ?ut the first step is to reduce the ready access to weaponry. The 3nited "tates# now the nu /er one ar s exporter# ust stop a&in! the world into an unsta/le ar ed ca p throu!h its sale of ar s and ilitary5related technolo!y to other nations.C )p. -0.. B*t is up to people in the 3nited "tates and elsewhere# startin! at the !rass roots throu!h their political associations# co unity !roups# reli!ious institutions# or student or!aniHations# the na e a few# to /e!in to co unicate loud and clear to societyDs elites. OEnou!h is enou!h.DC )p. -7.. These seven the es provide i portant context for why * /elieve it will /e useful to pursue a definition of disaster as a special type of social pro/le . Ior social pro/le s are /oth anifest and latent conditions of co unities# re!ions# societies# and the entire

world. The processes /y which social pro/le s are socially constructed# redressed# or unaddressed call attention to the actions of individuals# !roups# and or!aniHations at all of these levels. >istorically# sociolo!y has and ust continue to play a &ey role in

unravelin! these processes. ?ut let nor a e /e clear /efore proceedin!. * a not proposin! a consensus on values#

* proposin! that this definition and approach are the only ones researchers should any that * /elieve will help us sort thin!s out so that /asic and

use. They are one a on!

/adly needed theoretical wor& can continue. Also# * /elieve that this perspective opens new doors throu!h which we should !o to insure /roader disse ination and use of the findin!s and conclusions of our wor&.

2(

Disaster Research: Integrative .pproaches and Conceptual Issues ;hen we put disaster research into the types of social pro/le s perspectives * su ariHed a/ove# what theoretical issues are recast and illu inatedL * will explore this

Auestion /y /riefly developin! six the es6 7. contri/utions /ein! i!nored8 2. so e /asic distinctions8 ,. studies of clai s a&ers8 9. e er!ence of a co ple entary perspective8

:. disasters are a non5routine social pro/le 8 and 6. payoffs. 0! Disaster researchers have constructed a scienti$ically based core o$

"no/ledge /hich too $re7uently has been ignored by high level policy ma"ers, especially during the past six years! This is not the place to review the core &nowled!e /ase that dates /ac& to 2rinceDs )7-20. classic study# the $@R' field tea reports su ariHed /y IritH )7-67. and others

)e.!.# IritH and Far&s 7-:9.# or the several reports pu/lished in the early $ational Acade y of "ciences series )e.!.# Foore et al. 7-6,. in which ?artonDs )7-6,. theoretical fra ewor& first appeared )see also ?arton 7-6-.. Additional study syntheses have

continued to appear over the years# includin! the excellent wor& of +ynes )7-(0.# and those in which * have participated# e.!.# Fileti# +ra/e& and >aas 7-(:# +ra/e& 7-K6# and +ra/e& 2009. @f course# the recently released Handbook of Disaster Research aries.

)RodrJ!ueH et al. 2006. sets a new standard for such su ;hen as&ed /y

y for er student +avid FcEntire )in press. to identify the &ey ade to the study of disasters# * )+ra/e& in press. selected yths# e.!.# Quarantelli and

contri/utions sociolo!ists had these four as /ein!

ost si!nificant6 7. de/un&in! disaster

+ynes 7-(28 Iischer 7--K8 2. innovations in research

ethods# e.!.# "tallin!s 20028

>o an 200,8 ,. extensions of sociolo!ical theory# e.!.# 1reps et al. 7--98 +ynes 2002#

2K

200: and 9. social criticis # e.!.# +ynes 7--98 A!uirre 2009. @thers# of course# would hi!hli!ht different aspects of this rich le!acy. * i!ht too on a different day or wee&# /ut

these four areas clearly constitute si!nificant contri/utions reflectin! our lar!er and co plex research le!acy. 3pon carefully readin! the final report of the -S77 'o ission )$'TA3" 2009.#

* was i pressed with the level of detail with which they effectively reconstructed the plannin! and process of the attac&s and the challen!es responders confronted. As * pointed out elsewhere# )+ra/e& 2006/# pp. 2295226.# however# inter5a!ency co any of the intra and

unication and coordination difficulties paralleled those that had /een

docu ented in nu erous places followin! other disasters )e.!.# +ra/e& 7-6K# 7-K6.. +espite pa!es of footnotes# the report ade no ention of this prior research as Tierney

)200:. underscored in her review. And while * a!ree with 2errow )200:. that the failure to even ention the lac& of leadership at the federal level was a a<or shortco in!#

i!norin! past disaster research reco

ay have paved the way for wron! headed policy and syste

endations li&e the e phasis on i ple entation of the incident co

)*'". as if this would fix everythin!. *Dll return to this specific issue later# /ut it illustrates y overall point. a<or policy reports co pleted after ittee of the 3.".

* also carefully reviewed three of the

>urricane 1atrina /y the ;hite >ouse staff )2006.# the "elect 'o

>ouse of Representatives )"?'*2R>1 2006.# and the >o eland "ecurity and 0overn ental Affairs 'o ittee of the 3.". "enate )'>"0A 2006.. The "enate report an5 ade and

noted Ba failure to act on the lessons of past catastrophes# /oth

natural . . .C )p. *576.# /ut did not specify the sources of such lessons# nor even what they

2-

were in specific ter s. *n fairness# however# * should note that the 'o

ittee did consult

with and cite testi ony and pu/lications produced /y several scientists focused on physical aspects of the stor # levee failure# and stor sur!e odelin!# e.!.# *vor van

>eerdeen )+eputy +irector of the L"3 >urricane 'enter. )see pp. 9579 throu!h 9576. and wor& /y 4ohn '. 2ine )+irector# +isaster "cience and Fana!e ent# L"3. and >assa FashriAue )Assistant 2rofessor Research# L"3 >urricane 'enter. )see p. 652,.. They also reviewed in detail the si ulated disaster exercise=&nown as B>urricane 2a C=and hi!hli!hted so e of the conclusions reported in local edia outlets the year prior to

1atrina# e.!.# $olan 200: )see 'hapter K of the "enate Report.. They also noted IEFADs failin!s after >urricane Andrew and the proposals and refor s i ple ented thereafter )e.!.# $ational Acade y of 2u/lic Ad inistration# 7--, and 7--9. includin! testi ony and e5 ail essa!es fro such policy oriented researchers as 4ohn >arrold )+irector#

*nstitute for 'risis# +isaster and Ris& Fana!e ent# 0eor!e ;ashin!ton 3niversity. and >er an Leonard )4ohn I. 1ennedy "chool of 0overn ent and >arvard ?usiness "chool. )see pp. 7957( and 79529.. Iinally# they noted that# B$either the >urricane 2a exercise

nor the resultant "outheast Louisiana 'atastrophic >urricane 2lan conte plated the shelter and transportation of pets.C )p. 765,6# footnote T7-,. despite prior /ehavioral research which had docu ented the need for such# e.!.# >ealth et al. 2007. These notations were the only exceptions * could find. The >ouse 'o ittee reco!niHed# however# that there should /e further

exploration of B. . . how socioecono ic factors contri/uted to the experiences of those directly affected /y the stor .C )p. 20. And they cited survey results pu/lished in the Natural Ha)ards *bserver /y 4ohn ?arnshaw )200:.. %et# they too so eti es fell into

,0

the trap of /la in! the victi s. BThose individuals in all states who had the evacuate# /ut did not do so#

eans to

ust also share the /la e for the inco plete evacuation and

the difficulties that followed.C )p. 70,.. ;ithout referencin! the disaster literature on lootin!# at least they reco!niHed the differences a on! so5called Blooters.C B*n so e cases# people looted stores for their survival and to di inish sufferin!# ta&in! ite s such as food# water# clothin!# flashli!hts# /atteries# and ca pin! supplies.C )p. 297.. Iortunately# additional sociolo!ical studies will continue to illu inate these atters# e.!.# ?ars&y et al. 2006. ?ut will they too /e i!noredL %ou so e in 'on!ress# )e.!.# Rep. 'harlie Felancon and Rep. ;illia ay re e /er that 4. 4efferson.# li&e

so e acade ics )e.!.# Natural Ha)ards *bserver 2006# and 2astor et al. 2006# p. 90. pressed for the appoint ent of an *ndependent 1atrina 'o MiewsC of the >ouse 'o representatives on this fallen on deaf earsN The ;hite >ouse Report )2006. which e phasiHed Blessons learnedC also i!nored ost of the social science literature on disasters. %et# seventeen B. . . ost critical ission )see BAdditional

ittee report# p. :9.. Ruth and * wrote to our con!ressional endation has

atter# did youL 3nfortunately# to date this reco

challen!es that were pro/le atic . . .C )p. 2. were identified to serve as a /ac&drop for a new vision. That is# a B$ational 2reparedness "yste C is to /e i ple ented alon! with a Bculture of preparedness.C *Dll return to these atters in the fourth section of this paper#

and here only note that the 6K- endnotes cited throu!hout the six chapters of the ;hite >ouse report include very few references to what ost of us would consider the

BstandardC sociolo!ical disaster research literature# althou!h a few historical )e.!.# Male and 'a panella 200:.# policy oriented )e.!.# 2latt 7---. and populariHed wor&s )e.!.#

,7

Larson 7---. were included.

The sin!le exception was reference to the text 4erry

>oet er and * )+ra/e& and >oet er 7--7. edited for the *nternational 'ity Fana!e ent Association re!ardin! the evolution of e er!ency see footnotes K and 77 in 'hapter Two# p. 7:.. ;hile lots of different types of other evidence could /e cited# y first the e ana!e ent within the 3.".A. )e.!.#

reflects two /asic conclusions6 7. a si!nificant scientifically /ased core of &nowled!e has /een created /y disaster and haHards researchers# and 2. durin! the last six years especially# this &nowled!e has too freAuently /een i!nored /y hi!h level policy a&ers.

(! Some basic distinctions can be help$ul in exploring the theoretical issues and implications inherent in a social problems perspective! 6et me illustrate this point by proposing de$initions $or $our "ey concepts: 08 social problem9 (8 disaster9 18 ha,ard9 and +8 terrorism! a. Social problem. Reviews of past and current texts reveal differences in how a Bsocial pro/le C is defined. Fost typical# however# are definitions li&e that proposed /y Ru/in!ton and ;ein/er! )200,# p. 9.# i.e.# B. . . an alle!ed situation that is inco pati/le with the values of a si!nificant nu /er of people who a!ree that action is needed to alter the situation.C This view is i plicit in the offered /y ore co plex definitions

any others such as Lauer and Lauer )2006# p. 9.. Iurther discussion#

however# usually follows re!ardin! the su/<ectivity inherent in such a position. >ow any people ust define a situation as /ein! Binco pati/leCL ;ho BselectsC the values a&in! such an assess entL

that are to /e used in

These Auestions have led so e writers# li&e 2alen )2007. to hi!hli!ht an alternative position.

,2

B"o e sociolo!ists say that pu/lic reco!nition is not crucial for an issue to /e a social pro/le . They say that social pro/le s are the issues identified /y social scientists as those a/out which people should /e concerned.C )p. (.. This atter was introduced years a!o /y Ferton )7-67. in the BEpilo!ueC of the ust

first edition of the Ferton5$is/et )7-67. social pro/le s text. ;ithout di!ressin!# * note# however# that any others

ade si ilar analyses over the years )e.!.# see Fills

7-9,.. ?ut to stay on point# *Dll si ply note the appropriateness of FertonDs chapter su/5 title which was B"ocial 2ro/le s and "ociolo!ical Theory.C After ac&nowled!in! the difficulties decidin! who i!ht /e the B<ud!es#C Ferton e phasiHed that B*t is with the those

social definition of social pro/le s as it is with other processes in society6 occupyin! strate!ic positions of authority and power of course carry

ore wei!ht . . .C )p.

206.. >ere# as in su/seAuent editions )e.!.# see Ferton 7-66# pp. (KK5(-2.# he followed with an ela/oration wherein B anifestC versus BlatentC social pro/le s were differentiated. *n this way he tried to provide an out fro i position. BApart fro anifest social pro/le s# those o/<ective social conditions identified /y pro/le definers in the society as at odds with their values are latent social pro/le s# conditions that are also at odds with values of the !roup /ut are not reco!niHed as /ein! so. The sociolo!ist does not i pose his values upon others when he underta&es to supply &nowled!e a/out latent social pro/le s.C Ferton 7-67# p. (0-.. Fore current writers# havin! /enefited fro analyses of this issue since the 7-60s# potential char!es of values

usually co e down on the side of offerin! at least three co ple entary theoretical fra ewor&s# i.e.# functional# conflict# interaction )e.!.# 2alen 2007# pp. 7,57K. which help in our understandin! the pu/lic issues and private trou/les of our ti e. ?ut the

,,

funda ental issue of value choices re ains with the individual analyst or reader. 2alen )2007. su ariHed his view as follows.

BThis text ta&es the position that it is i possi/le to eli inate personal values and experiences and we invaria/ly a&e value <ud! ents a/out which social pro/le s are ost i portant and what should /e done a/out the . ?oth professionals and nonprofessionals ali&e a&e su/<ective <ud! ents on how social pro/le s should /e solved. Everyone has /iases# /ut sociolo!ists a&e a conscious effort to try to ta&e their own /iases into consideration.C )2alen 2007# pp. (5K.. These considerations provide the context for the next three concepts. /. Disaster. *Dll return to this concept in a su/seAuent section# /ut for now let propose this definition fro 0ary 1reps )7-K-/.. +isasters are6 e

B. . . nonrountine events in societies or their lar!er su/syste s )e.!.# re!ions# co unities. that involve con:unctions of historical conditions and social definitions of physical har and social disruption. A on! the &ey definin! properties of such events are len!th of forewarnin!# a!nitude of i pact# scope of i pact# and duration of i pact )1reps 7-K-/# p. 27-.. Iro this theoretical position# which so ewhat parallels IritHDs definition )7-67# ay differ in ter s of such &ey in the definition is Ba on!C. ay# for certain research

p. 6::.# disasters are events of a certain type. ;hile they analytic criteria as len!th of forewarnin!# the operative ter

There are other di ensions /eyond these four listed that purposes# /e far

ore si!nificant. *Dll return to this issue later /ecause it is extre ely

i portant )see section 6# su/5section entitled Btechnolo!ical disastersC.. Also# these events are to /e understood as con<unctions of /oth historical conditions and social definitions of physical har and social disruption. fro Iinally# there is a BnonroutineC other social experiences. ittee on +isaster

Auality a/out disasters that also differentiates the

This definition is consistent with that used /y the 'o

Research in the "ocial "ciences )2006. which was chaired /y 1reps. ?y usin! it as their

,9

!uidepost# they were a/le to s&illfully inte!rate the &ey conclusions of past research and identify a co plex future research a!enda reflectin! Auestions li&e these. B. . . in what ways are terrorist threats si ilar to and different fro ris&s posed /y natural and technolo!ical disastersL >ow has the increased salience of willful disasters shaped the e er!ency ana!e ent syste in the 3nited "tatesL Also how prepared are local co unities and the nation as a whole for possi/le future attac&sLC )p. (0.. c. co Ha)ard. >aHards are conditions that have the potential to har to a

unity or environ ent )see +ra/e& 2009# pp. 25: throu!h 25-.. 'o

only# li&e

FiletiDs )7---. excellent follow5up to the /ench5settin! Bassess entC /y ;hite and >aas )7-(:.# we differentiate a on! BclassesC of these usin! various weather and earth science ter inolo!ies. "o# we refer to Bthe earthAua&e haHardC or Bthe flood haHardC for a !iven co unity# re!ion# or so eti es a nation. Thus# a haHard represents a potential# >urricane

whereas a disaster references a specific event that has actually occurred.

1atrina was a disaster that reflects the overall haHard or threat defined /y the potential for hurricanes in the co unity of $ew @rleans# the 0ulf 'oast re!ion# and the 3.".A. ost sociolo!ists have focused on so5called

;hile it is possi/le to /roaden the reference# BnaturalC haHards ran!in! fro

floods# tornadoes# earthAua&es# to frost# drou!ht# and heat

)e.!.# Fileti 7---.. @f !rowin! i portance# however# are the haHards reflectin! various technolo!ies ran!in! fro nuclear power plants )e.!.# 2errow 7-K9. to other toxic As illustrated /y the recent /rid!e collapse in aintained any

su/stances )e.!.# Eri&son 7--9.. Finneapolis# however#

uch of the nationDs entire infrastructure has not /een

properly. >ence# our failure to invest in our rich technolo!ical applications has left

da s# /rid!es# sewer and water syste s# and the li&e in a dis al state. 4ust li&e our cars

,:

or our ho es# all of these applications reAuire continued reinvest ents if the pro/a/ilities of disaster are to /e reduced. As * will ela/orate in su/seAuent sections# for years Quarantelli )e.!.# 7-K(/. has pushed us to confront Bthe funda ental Auestion#C i.e.# Bwhat is a disasterLC Fany have addressed this Auestion /y exa inin! various analytic criteria that differentiate a on! disaster events such as those noted a/ove and others li&e freAuency# ti e of day# and so on )see +ynes 7-(0# pp. :25:: and +ra/e& 7-K6# pp. 2252,# 9:596.. Fore recently# researchers li&e "i pson and 1atirai )2006. have sorted throu!h the literature to identify various discussions and proposals for disasters. easures and indicators of ris&# haHards# and

@thers have noted different discussions of Btaxono icC approaches )e.!.# Quarantelli

0reen and Fc0innis 2002.. 2roposals for Bstructurin! paradi! sC vary fro

who ur!es that the concept of disaster /e li ited to BconsensusC /ased events to 0reen and Fc0innis )2002. who B. . . /elieve that three classes descri/e the hi!hest order ran!e of disaster events . . . natural disasters# hu an syste s failures# and conflict /ased disasters.C )p. 9.. *n contrast# Eri&son )7--9. has proposed that events reflectin!

exposure# threatened or actual# to toxic su/stances clearly reflect Ba new species of trou/les.C *Dll extend this discussion context of o entarily to docu ent ore of the historical

y position and its relationship to pu/lic policy# /ut for now the point is to

underscore the diversity in viewpoints and lac& of closure a on! disaster researchers. d. errorism. Terroris is a strate!y to !ain political o/<ectives /y attac&in!

civilian populations with the intent of spreadin! fear and inti idation. @thers have used sli!htly different lan!ua!e# /ut this definition includes the /asic the es e phasiHed /y any )e.!.# see 'o ittee on "cience and Technolo!y for 'ounterin! Terroris 2002# p.

,6

268 $eu/ec& et al. 200(# p. K78 FcMei!h and ;olfer 2009# p. ,KK8 2alen 2007# p. 9(6.. 3ntil the attac&s on -S77# ost A ericans did not perceive Bterroris C as a social

pro/le . "pecific attac&s# li&e those of -S77# or earlier events )e.!.# /o /in! of 2an A Ili!ht 70, over Loc&er/ie# "cotland# 7-KK8 7--, /o /in! of the ;orld Trade 'enter in $ew %or& 'ity8 7--: /o /in! of the Alfred 2. Furrah Iederal /uildin! in @&laho a 'ity8 see +ra/e& 2009# "tudent >andout :5, or ;au!h 2000# for listin!s of nu erous terrorist attac&s.# are su/su ed within the a/ove definition of disaster. Thus# as with the disaster vs. haHard distinction# it is i portant to differentiate /etween specific events and a !eneral strate!y of conflict that historically has /een used /y Bthe wea&.C ;hile Bstate5 sponsoredC terrorist acts clearly occur# it is ore often a strate!y adopted /y those with is also used /y

ini al levels of political power. As 2alen )2007. put it# BTerroris

a!!rieved reli!ious# ethnic# and political !roups who can not see# or refuse to see# any other alternative to influencin! chan!e.C )pp. 9(:59(6.. ?y focusin! on BsoftC tar!ets li&e hotels# office /uildin!s# and other places of hi!h population density# those usin! this strate!y of rando iHed &illin!# expose vulnera/ilities that in earlier ti es clearly had re ained BlatentC in FertonDs use of the ter . Today# however# thin!s are very different. B. . . a national survey in 200, reported that K percent of A ericans said they were Overy worriedD and another ,0 percent that they were Oso ewhat worriedD that they or a fa ily e /er i!ht /eco e a victi of terroris . . .C )Lauer and Lauer 2006# p. 976.. As anipulation /y those

with other haHards# ris& perceptions chan!e and are su/<ect to

see&in! to instill different ran&in!s a on! Bthe social pro/le sC confrontin! a society )e.!.# see 4en&ins 200,..

,(

?ut there are co plexities and su/tleties that a social pro/le s perspective hi!hli!hts. B4ust who is it that defines what constitutes a cri inal actLC B>ow have such definitions chan!ed over ti eLC "tandard stuff in any social pro/le s course. "o it is with terroris "u/co as even a ?ush ;hite >ouse co ittee report e phasiHed# )i.e.#

ittee on "ocial# ?ehavioral# and Econo ic "ciences and the "ocial# ?ehavioral

and Econo ic "ciences ;or&in! !roup# /oth of which report to the $ational "cience and Technolo!y 'ouncil )$"T'. )200:. which in turn operates within the Executive @ffice of the 2resident.. A on! their definitional o/servations were these. B'onsensus as to what actions define terroris B. . . the use of the ter warfare and Oterroris D has /een difficult to attain.C )p. (.

ay over5si plify different types of actors# in a sin!le !roup or act so that

otivations# encapsulatin! the

critical varia/les are overloo&ed.C )p. (. BThe use of the ter OterroristD denies the perpetrator all clai to le!iti acy

within ;estern 'ulture . . .C )p. (. BThe root causes of one terrorist action another.C )p. (.. 1! Studies o$ ;claims)ma"ers< help illuminate the processes /hereby certain conditions, including ha,ards and disasters, become de$ined as social problems! The social construction of social pro/le s has evolved throu!h a series of penetratin! analyses that * si ply will note here. These include the pioneerin! wor& of "pector and 1itsuse )7-(,8 7-((. who ar!ued that fifty years of text/oo&s had still not !enerated a theory of social pro/le s /ecause the wron! Auestions were /ein! as&ed. *n ay have little in co on with those of

,K

an effort to !o /eyond the su/<ective vs. o/<ective value de/ate# they proposed that sociolo!ists should focus pri arily on Auestions that could /e addressed e pirically. That is# Bwhat do people say is a social pro/le LC And# Bhow do such perceptions evolve over ti eLC To date# this social constructionist perspective has /een applied to disaster research ost effectively /y ?o/ "tallin!s )7--:. in his now classic study of the any of the clai s5 a&in! activities descri/ed

BearthAua&e ris&.C >e docu ented that

/y "pector and 1itsuse )7-((.# see ed to illu inate what was happenin! within the BearthAua&e esta/lish entC )see pp. :9560.. 'learly B. . . the existence of clai s5 a&in! activity <ustifies placin! the earthAua&e threat in the cate!ory of pheno ena la/eled social pro/le s.C )p. 7-6.. %et# the natural5history odel of social pro/le s only

partially fit the earthAua&e case. A BpartialC fitL ;hy only BpartialLC Accordin! to "tallin!s the thin! issin! was controversy. B'urrently# ost i portant

ost of what earthAua&e safety advocates do

on a daily /asis is not at all controversial.C )p. 7-(.. And so "tallin!s was forced to as& a &ey Auestion6 B. . . can so ethin! /e a social pro/le without /ein! controversialLC )p.

7-(.. >e did find# of course# so e areas of conflict and controversy. ?ut these see ed to /e different so ehow than those co only associated with other social pro/le s.

BThe chief difference /etween these and the conflicts usually associated with social pro/le s is that they occur O/ac&sta!e#D out of pu/lic view. 2erhaps the earthAua&e threat is different not /ecause controversy is a/sent /ut /ecause so ehow it is the Owron! &indD of controversy.C )"tallin!s 7--:# p. 7-K.. Iinally# "tallin!s )7--:. resolved these atters /y proposin! that the earthAua&e

threat in the 3.".A.# up to 7-K0 at least# was /est la/eled as a Bpartially constructed social

,-

pro/le .C BLi&e or!aniHed cri e in the 7-60s and white collar cri e in the 7-K0s# it re ains visi/le to insiders /ut nearly invisi/le to those outside the earthAua&e esta/lish ent.C )pp. 20,5209.. And he identified three chan!es that could occur that i!ht ove the construction process alon!6 7. personaliHation )i.e.# na e those

responsi/le for

ini iHin! or distri/utin! the ris& such as B!reedy developersC or

Bcurrent politiciansC.8 2. politiciHation )i.e.# identification of certain candidates who would support certain le!islation# /allot initiatives# etc..8 and ,. BpresentiHationC )i.e.# e phasis on how everyday decisions# not future ones# affect ris& distri/ution. )see pp. 206520K.. +o you see any parallels to the processes that have /een operative the past few years re!ardin! the anufacturin! of the fear of terroris L

+! . complementary perspective on disasters and ha,ards has emerged that incorporates insights $rom social problems theorists despite the misgivings and cautions o$ some! *n the late 7-60s * was invited to write a short essay on disaster research )+ra/e& 7-(0.. This exercise caused where/y units of analysis could /e specified ethodolo!ical issues in

e to Auestion the procedures

ore explicitly. * saw this as necessary to

esta/lish so e /asis for !eneraliHation across study findin!s and !uidance in future sa ple selection and study desi!n. The issues of /oth internal and external validity see ed critical to e. These atters had real salience to e since any Auestioned the

relevance of our la/oratory si ulation research to or!aniHational responses to Breal worldC disasters )e.!.# see +ra/e& and >aas 7-6-# 7-6(.. typolo!y to illustrate "o * proposed a si ple

y concerns a/out how B. . . to inte!rate disaster studies into other fa ily and or!aniHational studies to civil distur/ances and

su/stantive areas ran!in! fro

90

revolutions Quarantelli and +ynes 7-6-C.

)+ra/e& 7-(0# p. ,,:.. The typolo!y also

illustrated three types of co parative research that * /elieved was necessary for the &nowled!e accu ulation process6 7. across events8 2. across societies8 and ,. across !roups and or!aniHations. * envisioned a series of e er!ent taxono ies for /oth the structural units of analysis and the disaster events /ein! selected for study so as to construct B . . . e pirically tested relationships with the universe to which they apply specified.C )+ra/e& 7-(0# p. ,,9.. A decade later * revisited so e of these issues upon receivin! an invitation fro 0ary 1reps to prepare a paper on taxono y for a conference desi!ned to review his tea Ds analysis of Bor!aniHed responsesC they identified within post5disaster interviews conducted /y +isaster Research 'enter )+R'. staff durin! the 7-60s )see 1reps 7-K-d.. Their data /ase included such disasters as the 7-69 Alas&a earthAua&e and >urricanes ?etsy )7-6:. and 'a ille )7-6-.. *n y conference paper * raised a lot of Auestions and

proposed so e future directions. A on! these Auestions was B. . . when should a crisis event /e classified as a disasterLC )+ra/e& 7-K-/# p. ,7-.. This ore salient in atter had /een ade

y thin&in! /y QuarantelliDs *R'+ 2residential address in 7-K6

)Quarantelli 7-K(/. and a series of studies conducted /y 2eter Rossi and his associates )e.!.# Rossi et al. 7-(K8 Rossi et al. 7-K28 ;ri!ht et al. 7-(-8 ;ri!ht and Rossi 7-K7.. The Rossi !roup was hi!hly critical of the ;hite5>aas )7-(:. assess ent pro<ect and a lot of other disaster5haHard research. "o they had atte pted to increase the ri!or of their research study desi!ns /y increasin! their survey sa ple siHes. concluded that disasters really had little or no effect on co ?y doin! so they

unities. And since there

was ne!li!i/le i pact# it was /ad pu/lic policy to succu / to the lo//y efforts /ein!

97

ade /y those within a B!rowin! disaster industry.C *n short# a Bno5effectC conclusion clearly <ustified a Bno fundsC position for either research or a elioration# /e it preparedness# or whatever. *D iti!ation#

over statin! their position <ust a /it# /ut * clearly recall

hearin! such views /ein! expressed at their conference. * was invited as a disaster researcher# /ut also had re!istered criticis s of any

past studies. And * refused to /e drawn into false choices /y an a!enda structured around Bthe worthC of past wor& /e it that flowin! fro the BoldC $@R' studies# the +R' or the y critiAue of their wor& )+ra/e&

3niversity of 'olorado )e.!.# ;hite and >aas.. "o in

7-K7.# * endorsed their effort at desi!n ri!or /ut re ained suspicious of their study sa ple which was co prised of too what had led the any Bs all scaleC events. *n y <ud! ent# this is y criticis

to the conclusion that disasters had Bno effect.C As * put

then6 B"i ply put# were they studyin! disastersLC )+ra/e& 7-K-/# p. ,20.. A second the e * introduced pertained to social pro/le s. B. . . * have /elieved that one for of inte!ration we should see& would /e within theories of social pro/le s

)+ra/e& 7-K7..C )+ra/e& 7-K-/# p. ,,(.. * pushed this idea very /riefly /y proposin! that we should try to /uild /etter /rid!es with e er!ency ana!ers and one way of doin! As

this was to define disaster as B. . . a low+priority" nonroutine social problem. e er!in! professionals# e er!ency

ana!ers can /e helped to develop a sense of

perspective and /asis for interpretation /y expandin! upon a social pro/le s fra ewor&.C )+ra/e& 7-K-/# p. ,97.. Iollowin! this conference# 1reps as&ed essay that e to expand on this idea throu!h an

i!ht /e included in a special issue he was editin! for the International *n his introduction to this special issue

,ournal of Mass Emer!encies and Disasters.

92

1reps )7-K-c. noted that this pu/lication reflected B . . . a resolution passed at the 7-K6 *"A eetin! of the Research 'o ittee on +isastersC )p. 27,. which B . . . called for a

special issue devoted to the !eneral Auestion of the /oundaries of the field.C )p. 27,.. As a very practical atter# as co5editor )7-K:57--0. of our <ournal )i.e.# International Ior

,ournal of Mass Emer!encies and Disasters.# * was wantin! so e !uidance.

exa ple# should we accept articles focused on war or other types of conflict situationsL *f a civil distur/ance li&e the riots in ;atts )Los An!eles area of 'alifornia. was relevant to our readership# what a/out a riot within a prisonL *n the openin! essay 1reps )7-K-c.# explained that he would ela/orate on B. . . y

thou!hts on the /oundaries Auestion and what * see as the essential role of taxono y in disaster research.C )p. 27,.. *n his article# 1reps )7-K-/. addressed the Auestion B;hat is a disasterLC and proceeded to lay out a ri!orous approach where/y future taxono ic wor& could lead to a series of sche a where/y multiple ta%onomies could /e used to a!!re!ate past findin!s and !uide the desi!n of new co parative studies )see pp. 2,05 2,7.. >e then referenced y earlier wor& )e.!.# +ra/e& 7-K7. and explicitly clai ed B. . .

disasters are nonroutine social pro/le sC )p. 2,,.. >e then ela/orated /riefly on these ideas and concluded with a state ent with which * was and re ain in full a!ree ent. B* a certain that a cooperative dialo!ue /ased on utual respect for co petin! episte olo!ies is the path to scientific pro!ress in disaster research. * hope this exchan!e serves an exa ple of what is needed.C )1reps 7-K-a# p. 2K0.. *n that sa e issue# Quarantelli )7-K-. /e!an his essay with this state ent. BThe Auestion of a taxono y of disaster research cannot /e addressed sort of answer is !iven to the eanin!fully until so e

ore funda ental issue6 ;hat is a disasterLC >e then

ela/orated /y su!!estin! that 1repsDs ar!u ent was inadeAuate /ecause B . . . 1reps is

9,

operatin! with co

on sense notions of social pro/le s=na ely# so ethin! happens

that disrupts people.C )p. 29-.. Iurther ore# B. . . except for a few disaster researchers# other sociolo!ists apparently do not see disasters as social pro/le s.C )p. 29-.. Iinally# toward the end of his essay Quarantelli )7-K-. proposed6 B+isasters are /etter seen as part of social chan!e dyna ics than as nonroutine social pro/le s.C )p. 29-.. ;hyL ;hy would a Bsocial chan!e dyna icsC perspective /e /etterL Quarantelli proposed several reasons includin! the /asic and very i portant idea that this would insure that disasters would B. . . /e seen as an inte!ral part of what usually !oes on in the social structure# rather than as an external intrusion fro the outside . . .C )p. 2:0.. *#

however# would propose that this is one of the very reasons why * /elieve a social pro/le s perspective is so useful. >e also re!istered another concern which * addressed a/ove# that is# the issue of /ias. BA social chan!e e phasis also avoids the extre e relativis and the ideolo!ical /ias inherent in any social pro/le approach# alon! with acceptin! elite views of what constitutes pro/le s )that researchers so eti e act as surro!ates for political and econo ic elites ay partly dis!uise /ut does not circu vent the issue..C )Quarantelli 7-K-# p. 2:0.. Quarantelli )7--K. continued to push all of us to address this funda ental Auestion throu!h a co pilation of essays that revealed varied answers# perspectives# and orientations. As he first did in his B2residential AddressC# /ac& in 7-K6# he forced us to thin& hard a/out the assu ptions we were a&in! when we casually tossed around ter s

li&e Bnatural disastersC and started to !eneraliHe to other social situations li&e civil distur/ances or war )Quarantelli 7-K(/.. Fost recently# he tea ed with Ron 2erry )200:. to edit another round of essays and reactions and reactions to the reactions# in and effort to press us even harder. As * read these# * found yself in a!ree ent with 2erry

99

that too often B. . . disaster researchers are spendin!

ore ti e tal&in! past one another i!ht prefer a ore

than tal&in! to one another.C )2erry 200:# p. ,7:.. And while * co plex syste # hence the ter taxono y rather than typolo!y# * a

in full a!ree ent

with RonDs conclusion that e pirically docu ented instances of inconsistency# e.!.# a/sence or presence of lootin! /ehavior# reAuires B . . . a syste that ena/les understandin! and 200:# p. ,7:.. * also noted the definition ?o/ "tallin!s reco ended that incorporated a portion of classifyin! occasions

eanin!ful interpretation of such disparities.C )2erry

of that proposed /y 1reps and *# i.e.# nonroutine. >ence# BA disaster is a social situation characteri)ed by nonroutine" life+threatenin! physical destruction attributed to the forces of nature" re!ardless of what other causal factors may seem to be involved )italics in ori!inal. )"tallin!s 200:# p. 26,.. ;here we disa!ree# however# is the /oundary i plied /y Bforces of natureC and no reference to social pro/le s. * was# however# !lad to see that others# especially " ith )200:.# underscored the i portance of hi!hli!htin! the nonroutine nature of disasters )p. 2KK.. *n contrast# ?arton )200:. identified direct parallels to the inte!rative power of his concept of Bcollective stressC and the fra ewor&s used /y social pro/le s analysts. B3sin! the concept of Ocollective stressD to exa ine a wide ran!e of situations of lar!e5scale deprivation varyin! on several di ensions# with Olocal physical disasterD as one su/type# raises i portant theoretical Auestions and points to a wide ran!e of e pirical cases fro which to learn answers. The wider concept relates the pro/le s of preventin!# iti!atin!# and copin! with physical disasters to the !eneral field of social pro/le s and the eans /y which societies deal or fail to deal with the .C )?arton 200:# p. 7:7.. QuarantelliDs )200:. concludin! essay covered a lot of !round that provided food for thou!ht. Re!ardin! the need for classification syste # or ay/e syste s in uch y

9:

view# he referred /ac& to a distinction he phenotype.

ade in his 7-K( article# i.e.# !enotype versus

BEssentially a&in! this distinction ar!ues that less o/vious or visi/le characteristics are far ore i portant than surface features. @ur prediction is that our eventual new paradi! will involve far ore !enotypical rather than phenotypical features we now al ost exclusively use.C )Quarantelli 200:# p. ,97.. This parallels a view he expressed previously re!ardin! the whether or not reactions to ilitary attac& involvin! nuclear /o /s would parallel those followin!

natural disasters. B. . . if people are as&ed to evacuate fro a certain area# whether the i petus for the evacuation is radiation fallout or a hurricane doesnDt atter. >owever# people are only !oin! to accept certain warnin!s as le!iti ate. ?ut funda entally# we thou!ht that a nuclear attac& was Aualitatively different fro any other situation. Therefore# we could not say to what de!ree the response to a nuclear attac& or a hurricane would /e si ilar.C )Quarantelli 2009/# p. ,2:.. "ee why the issue of !eneraliHa/ility is so i portant for /oth disaster theory and policyL "tallin!s )2006/. has ela/orated on /oth the i portance and co plexity of this issue for /oth cross5event and within event co parisons. Analyses li&e his reflect the type of hard wor& reAuired to push the field further )see especially pp. 6256: and 6(5(7.. Iinally# Quarantelli )200:. a!ain noted his preference for a Bsocial chan!e approachC which B. . . would force us to consider the )all /ut i possi/le to consider in a social pro/le )p. ,:,.. As this issue has /e!un to sensitiHe researchers# ore co parative wor& will help ore positive aspects of disasters

context that focuses on the ne!ative..C

us /etter identify si ilarities and differences in a wide variety of non5intentional versus intentional disaster a!ents li&e war situations. As noted /y the 'o ittee on +isaster

96

Research in the "ocial "ciences )2006# pp. 7057-.# co parative historical research on the policy develop ents that follow a<or events provides an e pirical pathway toward

understandin! how social definitions e er!e and pu/lic policy evolves )e.!.# see also Ru/in 200( and ?ir&land 2006# 7--(.. Another !ood exa ple of the level of specificity reAuired to pursue this tas& is 1irschen/au Ds )2006. analysis of fa ily preparedness activities. *t turns out that while there are certain si ilarities# within his *sraeli data /ase at least# conditions of intentional conflict li&e war# differ si!nificantly fro ?ut there is concepts. ay reAuire explanatory odels that

those docu ented for earthAua&es and other natural haHards.

ore to this issue than <ust intentionality or conflict as differentiatin! ost infor ative and should /e considered

'lar&eDs )2006. insi!hts are

carefully /y all disaster researchers. Ior exa ple# in contrast to our e phasis on the post5event e er!ence of an altruistic co unity# which does have a clear e pirical

/asis# he appropriately Auestions the li its of this conclusion. "ure it does fit hundreds of cases studied thus far# /ut what if London# for exa ple# were hit /y surpriseL ;hat i!ht /e the relevance of the altruistic co of the world syste L B;hat# after all could Ui /a/we really do to help En!land recoverL . . . the response wouldnDt /e unifor even within the 3nited "tates. The reli!ious ri!ht would pro/a/ly say Londoners /rou!ht it on the selves8 it was divine retri/ution for sinful /ehavior. Russia could do little.C )'lar&e 2006# p. 7(6.. B* donDt ean to sound coldhearted# /ut if weDre really !oin! to thin& s artly and i a!ine well a/out worst cases we have to /e honest a/out political realities. The happy conclusion of disaster researchers=that altruistic co unities for after cala ity=has li its.C )'lar&e 2006# p. 7((.. unity conclusion fro the acro level view

9(

@f course# Quarantelli

ay well /e ri!ht in his o/<ections to efforts to lin& for ultiple

disaster studies to those of other social pro/le s. ?ut * /elieve there is roo

approaches at this point in the develop ent of the field. "o letDs exa ine an alternative. 3! Disasters are a nonroutine social problem! *n 7--2 Russ +ynes sent a draft paper to e which was the /asis for re ar&s he

ade at a conference in "pain on the uses of sociolo!ical research )see +ynes 7--2.. >e as&ed for reactions and additional exa ples that i!ht /e incorporated into a future

article for pu/lication. * found his /asic ar!u ent interestin!# of course# and after several exchan!es we decided to co5author a new draft wherein we su ariHed a few &ey

sociolo!ical findin!s and their policy i pacts )+ynes and +ra/e& 7--9.. BThe conseAuences of the research tradition has /een to transfor policy approaches to disaster. That transfor ation has /een ost co plete in the 3nited "tates# /ut# in !eneral# those policy chan!es have also had other national and international i plications. *n the 3nited "tates# responsi/ility for disaster was Ode ilitariHedD. At the national level# this has eant pullin! to!ether diffuse functions to create a Iederal E er!ency Fana!e ent A!ency with responsi/ility for Oco prehensiveD e er!ency ana!e ent. An all haHards approach is e phasiHed conceptually which can /e i ple ented throu!h the develop ent of inte!rated e er!ency ana!e ent syste s within local co unities.C )+ynes and +ra/e& 7--9# p. 7:.. ;e then loo&ed toward the future and /e!an /y su ariHin! an insi!htful paper

/y Quarantelli )7--7. re!ardin! various social trends that in his <ud! ent would B. . . produce ore and worst disasters.C )p. 7K.. The nine trends we selected fro his paper

e phasiHed technolo!ical and population chan!es that <ointly increased vulnera/ility. Ior exa ple# we su ariHed QuarantelliDs conclusion that B ore vulnera/le &inds of any areas such as Ilorida in the 3.".# new

populations will /e i pacted# e.!.# in

9K

retire ent co

unities and lar!e concentrations of tourists are particularly vulnera/le to

hurricanes.C )p. 7-.. After listin! these trends# we Auoted his conclusion /ecause we were in co plete a!ree ent. BO*t is that solutions are not to /e found pri arily in new technolo!ies or /etter use of existin! ones. The difficulties note ste fro social factors. "ocial pro/le s can only /e dealt with socially8 technolo!ical i prove ents can only address technolo!ical pro/le s.DC )p. 2(# in Quarantelli 7--7.. )as Auoted in +ynes and +ra/e& 7--9# p. 7-.. QuarantelliDs use of the concept of social pro/le s in this context re inded e of

his earlier o/<ections to the position * had advanced previously. ?ut that was not the specific point +ynes and * were tryin! to develop. Rather# /eyond QuarantelliDs analysis# we saw the need to place disaster research within a uch /roader theoretical perspective.

;e illustrated this /y notin! " elserDs )7--7. analysis of three lar!e scale B aster trendsC fro which additional types of chan!es could /e identified. A on! the ei!ht we

specified was that B. . . social pro/le s will /eco e increasin!ly internationaliHedC and that not only would there /e B. . . a continuation of widespread pro/le s of chronic insta/ilityC /ut also a B. . . continuin! erosion of traditional for s of social sta/ility.C )+ynes and +ra/e& 7--9# pp. 7-520.. A on! the several points y analysis here are these. BAs the profession of e er!ency ana!e ent atures and disaster researchers are pressed to specify the li its of !eneraliHa/ility of increased nu /ers of localiHed data /ases# hi!her priority will /e !iven to ore funda ental Auestions6 >ow and why do societies differ in their copin! responses to ris&L ;hat social constraints pattern the differential distri/ution of ris&# /oth te porally and !lo/ally# as new policy initiatives are i ple ented that are intended to iti!ate disaster i pacts and ade in our /rief conclusion that are ost relevant to

9-

i prove disaster preparedness# response and recoveryLC +ra/e& 7--9# p. 27..

)+ynes and

;hile not very extensive# we /elieved that the e pirical /ase and theoretical orientations flowin! fro disaster and haHard researchers B. . . had a rather profound

effect on pu/lic policy.C )+ynes and +ra/e& 7--9# p. 27.. ?ut the types of issues e er!in! on the horiHon would reAuire that disaster researchers and e er!ency ana!ers

B. . . loo& toward the discipline of sociolo!y for relevant theoretical paradi! s.C )+ynes and +ra/e& 7--9# p. 27.. "o we ended on a note of caution re!ardin! the future of sociolo!y and its potential contri/ution to the e er!in! profession of e er!ency ana!e ent.C BA new partnership ay e er!e that could prove to /e utually /eneficial. To the extent that the discipline fra! ents su/stantively# sta!nates intellectually and withers politically# it will fail to provide the insi!hts needed.C )+ynes and +ra/e& 7--9# p. 27.. A/out a year after this piece was pu/lished# 0ary 1reps as&ed ela/oration of e to co5author an

y 7-K-a article which we entitled B+isasters Are $onroutine "ocial

2ro/le s.C )1reps and +ra/e& 7--6.. Therein we advanced our case /y pointin! out that the B. . . phase Ononroutine eventsD distin!uishes disasters as unusual and dra atic social happenin!s fro the reservoir of everyday routines and concerns . . .C )p. 7,,..

Iurther ore we e phasiHed how our B. . . reference to Ohistorical conditionsD and Osocial definitionsD underscores the need to understand how social definitions of disaster e er!e and the ix of co petin! definitions that ay /e involved.C )p. 7,9.. Iinally# we ust /e lin&ed to the unity# and /e

illustrated how the threshold of social disruption and physical har co plexity of the syste

selected for study# e.!.# fa ily versus co

:0

socially defined. )p. 7,9.. @n this last point we were underscorin! the wisdo within ?artonDs )7-6-. collective stress perspective. Iro

i plicit

our vanta!e point# however# the wor& of social constructionists# li&e the

"tallin!s )7--:. study# complemented the approach we proposed. 3sin! the controversy noted a/ove re!ardin! the conference or!aniHed /y ;ri!ht and Rossi )7-K7.# we ar!ued that B. . . the false dualis advocated /y so e functionalists and any social

constructionists . . .C )p. 7,-. was a pitfall that should /e avoided. Rather# /oth the o/<ective aspects of disaster hi!hli!hted /y functionalists and the clai s5 a&in! activities studied /y social constructionist types should /e included in the future research a!enda. 1reps )2007. ela/orated on these the es in his entry entitled B+isasters# "ociolo!y ofC for the International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences . 3nli&e poverty# he proposed# disaster events can /e de arcated in social ti e and space. 0enerally spea&in!# however# disasters re ain a low priority for local officials and the pu/lic /ecause the pro/a/ility of i pact is low. ;hen certain tri!!erin! events occur# however# the perception of ris& distri/ution ay /e redefined /y &ey interest !roups iti!ative

there/y per ittin! temporary acceptance of selected preparedness andSor

actions li&e the airport security chan!es after the -S77 attac&s. *n short# B. . . disasters are nonroutine pro/le s /ecause social processes related to the chan!e dra atically#

dependin! on what sta!e of their life histories is /ein! considered.C )1reps 2007# p. ,(7-.. *n 4! problems! y opinion he has it exactly ri!ht. here are many payo$$s to approaching disasters as nonroutine social

:7

'areful readin! of the wor&s cited a/ove could produce a lon!er listin!# /ut here * will hi!hli!ht six of the ost i portant. atter# includin!

a. Historical conte%t. "ocial pro/le s reAuire that the su/<ect

disasters# /e placed within their historical context. *n his review of five recent /oo&s on disaster# "tallin!s )2006a. illustrated this /y startin! his essay with a su ary of +ynesDs

)2000. analysis of the 7(:: Lis/on earthAua&e wherein the local !overn ent# for the first ti e# B. . . wrested power fro the church and assu ed pri ary responsi/ility for

response# recovery# and re/uildin!.C )"tallin!s 2006a# p. 22,.. Thus# when >urricane 1atrina ade landfall in Au!ust 200:# B. . . the cultural repertoire of causal explanations

for disasters had !rown considera/ly.C )p. 22,.. /. Root causes. "ocial pro/le s perspectives push analysts to di! deeper so as to identify root causes. Thus# the responses durin! 1atrina# for exa ple# surprised so e. ?ut the underlyin! patterns of racis # sexis # a!eis # and classis that * noted a/ove# uch to

reflected pre5event patterns of vulnera/ility. The concept of vulnera/ility offers

the study of social pro/le s# includin! disasters# e.!.# FcEntire 20098 Enarson et al. 200,8 ;isner et al. 200,8 ?olin 20068 Enarson et al. 2006. RodrJ!ueH and ?arnshaw )2006. illustrated this nicely in their review essay which included (t Risk );isner et al. 200,.. BThe authors ar!ue that a nu /er of varia/les# includin! Oclass . . . occupation# caste# ethnicity# !ender# disa/ility# health status# a!e# i i!ration statusD and the Onature and extent of social networ&sD )p. 77. i pact disaster vulnera/ility. . . . The authors also discuss how factors such as wars# national de/ts# fa ines# drou!hts# illness# and ur/aniHation place people at ris&# increase their vulnera/ility# and a&es the disaster recovery process extre ely difficult.C )RodrJ!ueH and ?arnshaw 2006# p. 220..

:2

"i ilarly# Quarantelli )200:. has proposed that disasters B. . . are overt anifestations of latent social vulnera/ilities# /asically of wea&nesses in social structures or social syste s.C )p. ,9:.. *n this sense# li&e other social pro/le s then# disasters can /e seen as Onor alD )e.!.# 2errow 7-K9.. As Quarantelli )200:. ela/orated in co parin! disasters to 2errowDs concept of Onor alD accidents# B. . . disasters are si ilar in that they latently exist in the lar!er social syste s# and are the result of a conver!ence of a variety of social factors none of who i!ht /e very i portant in the selves.C )p. ,96.. These

insi!hts /rin! us close to the es hi!hli!hted in chaos theory8 a co plex set of episte olo!ical and athe atical develop ents that * /elieve ay provide a !reat deal

of help to future disaster researchers )e.!.# see 1oehler 7--68 2iotrows&i 2006.. c. errorism. As noted a/ove# terroris has /eco e constructed as a social

pro/le . @f course# there are those who confuse the issues /y referrin! to a Bwar on terroris C. >ard to wa!e war on a strate!yN ?ut that point aside# any sociolo!ists and

other social scientists who had /een studyin! disasters with other Aualities tried to /rin! their ethods and theory to various attac&s /y !roups usin! this strate!y# e.!.# A!uirre# et

al. 7--K8 ;au!h 2006. *n short# /y adoptin! a social pro/le s perspective# the analysis of disasters in !eneral can /e incorporated. Aside fro social pro/le s texts * reviewed did not entionin! a few specific events# however# the a&e this connection.

This is not to say that terrorist attac&s are exactly li&e other disasters. "o e have proposed certain differences /eyond the di ension of intentionality or conflict. Ior exa ple# ;au!h )2006# p. ,-2. has hi!hli!hted that such events are cri e scenes which in turn places uniAue constraints on responders. The a<or difference is that the roles

:,

shift# i.e.# B . . . the lead roles of a!encies and officials responsi/le for capturin! or &illin! the perpetrators rather than perfor in! lifesavin! roles and helpin! reduce the i pact of the disaster on people and property.C )pp. ,-25,-,. )see also FcEntire et al. 2007.. @nce a!ain# the Auestion of !eneraliHation raises its head. And unli&e Quarantelli )7--K# p. ,. who would exclude conflict situations fro preference is to include the his definition of disaster# y

as part of the study area and e pirically explore which a&in! such co parisons we can /etter

research conclusions fit and which donDt. ?y infor

our efforts to construct a theoretical structure that can !uide us in deter inin! the

appropriateness and li its of !eneraliHation of our findin!s. As Quarantelli )200:. has noted# however# this atter is very co plex and reAuires uch further exploration )e.!.#

see especially pp. ,,65,,K.. d. echnolo!ical disasters. Events li&e the 7-(- incident at the Three File

*sland nuclear power plant )e.!.# 2errow 7-K9. and the deadly explosion at the 3nion 'ar/ide facility in ?opal *ndia )e.!.# "hrivastava 7-K(.# introduced response patterns and policy issues that i!ht /e ost disaster researchers had not considered. "uch ris&s# how they i!ht constrain /oth their distri/ution and

easured# and the social factors that

perception evolved into a discipline which only a few tried to /rid!e )e.!.# "lovic et al. 7-(98 1unreuther and Ley 7-K2.. "i ilarly# controversies re!ardin! potential toxicity i pacts# li&e the school children exposed at Love 'anal )e.!.# Levine 7-K2. or the lon! s olderin! under!round coal fires in rural 2ennsylvania )e.!.# 1roff5" ith and 'ouch 7--0.# su!!ested to so e analysts li&e Eri&son )7--9. that a Bnew speciesC of trou/les had e er!ed. >ence# 2icou and his collea!ues )7--(. placed their case study of the E%%on -alde) oil spill into Eri&sonDs fra ewor& since the patterns of an!er# hostility#

:9

ra!e# and other responses differed si!nificantly fro

those typically reported /y disaster natural

researchers. *ndeed# they concluded that6 B. . . technolo!ical disasters differ fro disasters in their characteristics and conseAuences for hu an co 7--(# p. 7,..

unities.C )2icou et al.

?ut they also concluded B. . . that technolo!ical disasters can /e odern social pro/le .C )p. ,79.. ?oth

conceptualiHed# understood and reco!niHed as a

of these the es were introduced in the openin! essay of their edited collection of reports on this event which /roadly assessed the social# econo ic# ecolo!ical# psycholo!ical and le!al conseAuences. As inte!ratin! conceptual tools# these two the es put their case study of this sin!le event into a peoples they uch /roader theoretical context. And fro the native

et durin! this process they learned the reality of cultural differences in

interpretin! events li&e this especially as they pondered the si!nificance of phrases li&e Bthe day the water diedC. The e er!ence of /ewilder ent# then distrust# followed /y uncertainty were parallels to what Eri&son )7--9. also had o/served at his previous study locations. And as he e phasiHed in his BIorewordC to the 2icou et al. )7--(. text# one conseAuence of such e er!ence )Eri&son 7--(# p. xiii.. *a in total a!ree ent with 2icou and his associates re!ardin! the desira/ility of ay /e da a!e to the social fa/ric of the co unity

placin! events li&e the E%%on -alde) spill into a social pro/le s fra ewor&. * disa!ree with the and Eri&son# however# re!ardin! the utility and desira/ility of usin! either

Ba!ent toxicityC or Btechnolo!icalC as a sole differentiatin! event characteristic for the future theory develop ent of a sociolo!ical theory of disaster. QuarantelliDs position far Rather# * find ust /e /oth

ore invitin!. That is# our differentiatin! criteria

social in nature and abstract )see Quarantelli 200:# pp. ,,-5,97..

::

"o what

i!ht such criteria /eL ;hile the a!ent characteristics that 1reps and *

)7--6. proposed were useful for evacuation studies and others=Aualities li&e event scope# duration of i pact# and len!th of forewarnin!=other di ensions of a different Auality are reAuired for a which * o/viously a ore co prehensive theory. *f * were writin! the paper today#

not# * would explore the utility of these five6 7. perceived scope of

impact )i.e.# is the i pact perceived to /e local# national or !lo/al in scope of i pact.8 2. perceived de!ree of routiness )i.e.# to what de!ree are the relevant social and physical structures perceived to /e understood and su/<ect to anipulation8 see 2errow 7-6(.8 ,.

perceived de!ree of intentionality )i.e.# to what de!ree is the event perceived to /e a conseAuence of hu an intent# error# accident or failure.8 9. perceived de!ree of social worth of impacted ob.ects )i.e.# !iven the cultural values of the i pacted syste # includin! people# physical structures# and their social si!nificance.8 and :. perceived de!ree of collective stress )i.e.# to what de!ree do the disaster de ands exceed the syste capacity includin! various for s of syste vulnera/ility# e.!.# see FcEntire 2009.. This atter so e

is a co plex puHHle that others will have to address# /ut havin! !iven the thou!ht# * a

convinced that future classification syste s of disaster will reflect such

atters as these. e. &arallel processes. @nce disasters are placed into a social pro/le s other atters of

perspective# we /e!in to as&# as noted a/ove# how do they differ fro

pu/lic concern and policyL ?ut we also can /e infor ed /y analyses of other social pro/le s. 2arallels in the processes of /la e assi!nation# for exa ple# and the search for root causes that reflect strains within social structure are o/vious exa ples. The late Lou Uurcher )7-K-. did not want to a/andon Bsocial chan!e theoryC# /ut did not view this as a

:6

reAuire ent to usin! a social pro/le s perspective as a way to enrich and expand disaster research. *ndeed# at the 7-K- 1reps conference he identified B. . . six a<or

characteristics that see ed to correspond with the typolo!ies of disaster response.C )p. ,62.. A on! these were such the es as BThe social pro/le evaluated /y hu an /ein!sC )p. ,6,. and Bthe social pro/le social causationC )p. ,62.. >is conclusion underscored processes.C B2erhaps# dependin! upon the particular orientation of social pro/le s theory# +ra/e& is ri!ht that there can /e an effective er!in! with disaster theory. The parallels see o/vious.C )p. ,6,.. "ti ulation of thin&in! in /oth of these directions and others will /enefit the Auality of future disaster research. f. &olicy !uidance. * noted a/ove the efforts Russ +ynes and * )7--9. ade to is defined and orally

has a si!nificant ele ent of y the e here of Bparallel

illustrate how past disaster research had influenced so e policy develop ent. "ince that essay was pu/lished# a !reat deal of i pact occurred within the >i!her Education 2ro<ect sponsored /y the Iederal E er!ency Fana!e ent A!ency )e.!.# see +ra/e& 2006d.. Fany faculty now teachin! within the over 700 for al e er!ency pro!ra s have /een influenced and assisted /y the ana!e ent de!ree that pro<ect.

aterials flowin! fro

As their students /eco e acAuainted with the research literature fro

sociolo!y and other

social science disciplines# future policy will /e i pacted at all levels of !overn ent. 3nfortunately# the past six years has not reflected a continuation of the pattern +ynes and * saw e er!in! in 7--9. ?ut * re ain convinced that the introduction of a social pro/le s perspective into the curricula experience of future e er!ency ana!ers would

/e a !ood thin!. ;ithout it# * fear the profession will drift into a series of policy failures

:(

that will hinder their capacity to /e effective. "uch constraint will reduce the a/ility of the entire nation to cope with the diverse and horrific challen!es we surely will confront.

Emergency Management Policy Implications A social pro/le s perspective on disasters has e er!ency any policy i plications for ore strate!ic

ana!ers. The most important of these is that it provides a

perspective on their profession.

Fore co prehensive# co plex# and internationally

/ased views of history# social structure# and alternative value positions# can help infor alternative policy approaches and choices. =ar too o$ten, especially during the past six years, emergency management has been dri$ting in directions that are inconsistent /ith many $undamental values and constitutional protections that re$lect the very ethos o$ this nation! .nd these directions are inconsistent /ith much o$ the disaster research legacy! *Dll ela/orate on this conclusion /y /riefly exa inin! nine interrelated issues6 7. coordination8 2. catastrophic plannin!8 :. ana!erial odels8 ,. inter!overn ental partnerships8 9.

ilitary roles8 6. professional trainin!8 (. ho eland security

interface8 K. civil li/erties8 and -. a necessary shift in priorities. 0! he primary tas" o$ emergency managers is to $acilitate the coordination

o$ agency and organi,ational activities related to the preparedness $or, response to, recovery $rom and mitigation o$ disasters! Althou!h this has not always /een the case# since the late 7-(0s an all5haHard approach to e er!ency ana!e ent has evolved and /eco e widely accepted as

le!iti ate )e.!.# see +ynes# Quarantelli and 1reps 7-(28 +ra/e& and >oet er 7--78FcEntire et al. 20028 >addow and ?ulloc& 200,8 2erry and Lindell 200(8 FcEntire

:K

200(8 Lindell and 2erry 200(8 Ru/in 200(.. horiHontally across all sectors of a co happens to /e fro vertically fro

This coordination function extends

unity# whatever the <urisdictional authority *t also extends

villa!e or town to city and county /oundary.

a local area to a re!ion# to state and federal levels. ediate i pact# coordination

"ince all disasters are local in their initial and i processes are

ost effective when the lowest level of !overn ent is the principle ost other

plannin! unit and the central point of authority and control. Thus# as with

social pro/le s# the pri ary locus of decision5 a&in! ideally should reside at the lowest level of !overn ent# with resources /eco in! availa/le for specialiHed purposes and on a te porary /asis when nonroutine situations de and such action. *n short# the e er!ency enhanced. "uch enhance ents the federal level this ana!e ent function ust /e revisited and !reatly

ust occur within local# state and federal a!encies. At a&in! si!nificant chan!es within the +epart ent of

ust occur /y

>o eland "ecurity )+>". so that emer!ency mana!ement becomes whole once a!ain as any have reco ended )e.!.# see @ffice of *nspections and "pecial Reviews 2006# pp.

7,:57,6.# or throu!h the recreation of an independent Iederal E er!ency Fana!e ent A!ency )IEFA. as any advocated in the wa&e of the failed response to >urricane

1atrina )e.!.# Fi&uls&i 2006.. Recent reor!aniHations are steps in the ri!ht direction# /ut uch ore is reAuired )e.!.# B2ost51atrina Fana!e ent Refor Act#C April 7# 200(..

*ndeed# a 32*SUo!/y national poll );ater an 200(. indicated that over seven in ten )(7V. A ericans B. . . /elieved that IEFA should /e restored to the status of an independent a!ency.C )p. 7..

:-

(!

he most e$$ective managerial model $or emergency managers is one

rooted in community problem solving and change that emphasi,es cooperation, communication, and coordination! *n recent years# older notions of Bco as Bthe appropriateC and and controlC have /een reintroduced

odel )Tierney 2006.. +espite nu erous critiAues )e.!.# ?uc& et al.

20068 Quarantelli 2009a8 +ynes 7--98 1u/an 7--,8 $eal and 2hillips 7--:8 ;en!er et al. 7--08 +ra/e& 7-K(# p. 2K-8 2006/# p. 2,2.# various versions of co philosophy have /een proposed andSor and and control

andated )e.!.# see +>" 2006.. Ior exa ple# uch of the

upon docu entin! the flawed intera!ency coordination that characteriHed

initial response to the ;orld Trade 'enter attac&s on "epte /er 77# 2007# )e.!.# see pp. 2K:5,0,.# the -S77 'o adoption of the *ncident 'o ission )$'@TA3T3" 2009. reco and "yste ended nationwide

)*'". )p. 2-(.. "o e policy reviews# li&e that

of ?ea )2009. cautioned a!ainst such

andates for several reasons.

B"o e i!ht contend that the i position of the *'" syste # as set out in the $ational *ncident Fana!e ent "yste )$*F".# si!nals federal involve ent in an arena traditionally ad inistered /y state or local !overn ents. "uch individuals i!ht ar!ue that such an approach could lead to practices and decisions that ay result in inefficiencies# ore /ureaucracy# or an erosion of state authority !uaranteed under the Tenth A end ent of the 3.". 'onstitution.C )?ea 2009# p. 79.. EAually i portant# as with any standardiHed federal policy# the *'" eAually applica/le to e er!ency ana!e ent pro!ra s in co ay not /e

unities with different odes and de!rees of

histories# su/5cultures# de o!raphic characteristics# and varyin!

involve ents /y voluntary !roups and associations. 'itin! such wor&s as 1endra and ;achtendorf )200,.# Lowe and Iother!ill )200,. and the *'FA 0reen/oo& that >oet er and * edited )7--7.# ?ea stated that Bthe *'" fra ewor& ay help as well as hinder

60

spontaneous and creative responses /y volunteers.C )p. 7:.. varia/ility# he raised red fla!s.

Re!ardin! co

unity

BThe syste ay not /e appropriate for local !overn ents with s all or id5siHed fire depart ents and ay reAuire considera/le refittin! for nonfire e er!ency activities. Re!ardless of the siHe of the co unity# the *'" application should /e flexi/le enou!h to allow for local differences in or!aniHation# politics# and needs. *'" should therefore /e reviewed for applica/ility /efore it is adopted.C )?ea 2009# p. 7:.. ;hile appropriate as a tactical strate!y for any first responders# especially law

enforce ent and fire a!encies in lar!e Fetropolitan areas# the *'" is not a panacea );en!er et al. 7--08 FcEntire 2006.. Even co and especially that relevant to co plex odel# one rooted in unity level e er!ency ana!e ent# uch ore

ost state and federal a!encies# reAuires a

ultiple strate!ies that facilitate cooperation and

coordination )e.!.# see +ra/e& 7-K(# 7--0# 200,/8 Foynihan 2006.. 3nfortunately# as * noted a/ove# policy doctrine flowin! fro the ;hite >ouse after >urricane 1atrina

reflects a very different vision# one reflective of approaches that failed in the past. B@ne odel for the co and and control structure for the Iederal response in the new $ational 2reparedness "yste is our successful defense and national security statutory fra ewor&. *n that fra ewor&# there is a clear line of authority that stretches fro the 2resident# throu!h the "ecretary of +efense# to the 'o /at and 'o ander in the field. . . . Althou!h the 'o /atant 'o ander i!ht not OownD or control forces on a day5to5day /asis# durin! a ilitary operation he controls all ilitary forces in his theater8 he exercises the co and authority and has access to resources needed to affect outco es on the !round.C );hite >ouse 2006# p. (7.. 1! 6i"e the hori,ontal community level net/or"s that $unction to prepare $or, respond to, recover $rom, and mitigate against, vertical inter)governmental net/or"s addressing emergency management $unctions can best be coordinated through multiple strategies that emphasi,e partnership o$ team building, and trust,

67

rather than bureaucratic orientations and actions re$lecting intimidation, direct orders, or secrecy! As reflected in our constitution# there are clear separations of powers /oth a on! the three co5eAual /ranches of !overn ent# i.e.# executive# le!islative and <udicial# and across the inter!overn ental syste . This decentraliHed structure provides the hi!hest levels of protection and security a!ainst all haHards# althou!h specialiHed federal units# with narrowly defined tas&s such as the $ational >urricane 'enter or 3.". 0eolo!ical "urvey# are reAuired so that ti ely infor ation can /e provided to policy the inter!overn ental syste . *n part# the nu erous failures durin! the response to >urricane 1atrina reflected the wron!headed policy shifts pro oted /y +>" such as $*F" and the *'". FoynihanDs )2006. detailed analysis of the >ouse and "enate reports on 1atrina docu ents this in detail. BThere is wea& e pirical evidence on the validity of these clai s# /ut the +>" has pro oted the *'" approach as applica/le to all types of crises. This is a contesta/le proposition# and even a cursory exa ination of different types of crises su!!ests contin!encies that will affect the efficacy of hierarchical networ&s.C )p. ,.. "o despite andates fro +>" in 2009 wherein $*F"# includin! *'"# and the any a&ers across

$ational Response 2lan )$R2. /eca e national policy# the response to 1atrina had failin!s. FoynihanDs )2006. su ary is on tar!et.

BThe networ& response was di inished /y capacity pro/le s of &ey e /ers# whose resource pro/le s led to inadeAuate nu /ers of personnel who were poorly prepared for their tas&s. These capacity pro/le s also wea&ened coordination# as did a lac& of understandin! a/out new crisis ana!e ent policies that provided the rules /y which networ&s response were to /e !uided. These policies called for hierarchical controls over the networ& of crisis responders# /ut were unfa iliar to any responders# and never properly i ple ented durin!

62

1atrina. As different networ& e /ers stru!!led to co plete their tas&s# trust /etween networ& e /ers also declined# wea&enin! another &ey networ& coordination echanis .C )p. 7.. As any of us have e phasiHed )e.!.# 2errow 200(# pp. 77(577-8 +ra/e& 2006/8 ana!e ent odels rooted in the principles of /ureaucracy have li ited ultia!ency networ&s that characteriHe post5disaster

+ynes 7--9.#

applica/ility to the e er!ent

responses. As Foynihan )200:. put it in his analysis of the responses to the Exotic $ewcastle +isease in the state of 'alifornia in 200,# B$etwor&s are a nonhierarchical approach to the ana!e ent# reliant on horiHontal relationships# infor ation# expertise#

and trust to direct a self5or!aniHin! process . . .C )p. (.. Iurther ore# /y the ti e 1atrina hit in Au!ust of 200:# staff orale within IEFA had plu eted. And as 2errow noted# ana!ers who were

this had far reachin! conseAuences. B. . . the low not political appoint ents would spread to lower !eneral. *n an or!aniHation with low ay /e /etter than /rea&in! the 77(577K.. ?rin&leyDs )2006.

orale of upper

ana!e ent# and then to e ployees in

orale# stic&in! to the rules to protect your career

even if the rules are inappropriate.C )2errow 200(# pp.

a!nificently detailed description of Bthe !reat delu!eC# i.e.# unication failures

1atrina# provides careful docu entation of the coordination and co

that so terri/ly wounded the inter!overn ental syste . >is conclusions are on point and provide another specific illustration of why * disfavor the current policy drift. 'ertainly# the flawed 1atrina response reflected alternative explanations are any factors# and dependin! on where one sits#

ore or less appealin!.

BThe one that rin!s truest# thou!h# is that cronyis riddled IEFA and its contractors in the ?ush ad inistration# a&in! inco petence and not racis the &ey to the response. As Lieutenant 'o ander +uc&worth# noted# the /ureaucracy Owas to /la e.DC )?rin&ley 2006# p. 67K..

6,

;hile * personally /elieve that /oth racis # li&e sexis

and a!eis # and also

/ureaucratic inco petence were operative# the strained inter!overn ental syste was a &ey factor as ?rin&ley noted. BAt the end of the first wee& after 1atrina# ?ush tried in every way possi/le to pressure 0overnor ?lanco into cedin! control of troops in her state# alon! with# effectively# responsi/ility for the course of the response. *t was the sort of political fi!ht that ?ush was used to winnin!# /ut ?lanco# for her part# stood up to the 2resident. . . . *t was a /attle lar!ely hidden fro the pu/lic# /ut in winnin! a /attle royale with the 2resident# ?lanco chan!ed the second ter of 0eor!e ?ush# leavin! hi open to other atte pts to curtail the sweepin! power he assu ed for hi self. . . . The country could always /ounce /ac& fro a natural disaster# and the hurricane was a natural disaster. ?ut the 0reat +elu!e was a disaster that the country /rou!ht on itself.C )?rin&ley 2006# p. 67-..

+! .s /ith all other disasters, responses across the $ull li$e cycle o$ $uture catastrophic events, including those resulting $rom actions ta"en by terrorists, enhancement o$ the capacities o$ local and state governments should be given priority! *f one accepts the pre ise that catastrophic events are Aualitatively different fro other disasters# as Quarantelli# )200,# p. ,. for exa ple has proposed# it ay see to

follow that the pri ary enhance ent reAuired is at the federal level. Reflectin! a false i a!e of local chaos and ina/ility to respond# so e have proposed policies that reflect hi!h levels of centraliHation of authority# especially re!ardin! certain haHards. 'learly# the ris&s of future pande ics li&e the influenHa out/rea& of 7-7K )?arry 200:.# and terrorist attac&s fro actions that do estic or internationally /ased !roups are real. And the ran!e of

i!ht /e reAuired is su/stantial.

Iortunately# so e actions >e!!.# B2ande ic and All5>aHards 2reparedness ActC P".,6(KQ8 si!ned on +ece /er 7-# 2006. have /een ta&en to address preparedness issues

69

in reco!nition of the B. . . uncertain /ut ur!ent threat . . .C )$ational 0overnors Association 2006# p. 7. represented /y a pande ic influenHa out/rea& with far ore

lethal potential than the 7-7K &iller event. B@nce a pande ic happens# we will divide forever the pro!ress of our nation as pre5pande ic and post5pande ic.C )$0A 2006# p. 7.. +espite such efforts# however# a lac& of trust and increased conflict has e er!ed within the inter!overn ental syste . * a inde/ted to y /rother5in5law for alertin! e

to a recent /ashin!ton &ost article that illustrates this point all too well. BA decision /y the ?ush ad inistration to rewrite in secret the nationDs e er!ency response /lueprint has an!ered state and local e er!ency officials# who worry that ;ashin!ton is repeatin! a series of ista&es that contri/uted to its /un!led response

to >urricane 1atrina nearly two years a!o. "tate and local officials in char!e of respondin! to disasters say that their input in shapin! the $ational Response 2lan was i!nored in recent onths /y senior ;hite >ouse

and +epart ent of >o eland "ecurity officials# despite calls /y con!ressional investi!ators for a shared overhaul of disaster plannin! in the 3nited "tates. O*n y 7- years in e er!ency ana!e ent# * have never experienced a ore

polariHed environ ent /etween state and federal !overn ent#D said Al/ert Ashwood# @&laho aDs e er!ency e er!ency ana!e ent chief and president of a national association of state

ana!ers.C )>su 200(# p. 7.. ust /e tas&ed with

As with hurricanes or tornadoes# specialiHed federal a!encies the functions of

onitorin! and warnin!. ?ut coordination and control of other activities#

includin! response and recovery# should rest pri arily within the local and state

6:

!overn ent layers. 'ertainly# specialiHed plannin! for hi!hly i pro/a/le events# as 'lar&e )2006. has discussed# should /e co pleted especially within the federal level where horiHontal coordination is ost difficult !iven the siHe and co plexity of the

a!encies involved. $either the scope nor the co plexity of such challen!es# however# should /e accepted as rationale for !reater centraliHation of authority at the federal level in the na e of effectiveness# efficiency# or security. ?ut as >arrald noted# ?ush

appointees appear B. . . to /e !uided /y a desire to ensure centraliHed control of what is an inherently decentraliHed process. . . . Response to catastrophic events reAuires colla/oration and trust in a /road networ& of or!aniHations.C )>su 200(# p. 7.. 3! ?hile the $ederal military has had an increased presence in many aspects o$ disaster li$e cycles during the past six years, this role should not be expanded $urther! "everal scholars )e.!.# Anderson 7-6-# 7-(08 +ra/e& et al. 7-K7. have docu ented the any roles the federal ilitary have played in disasters of various types.

Recently# especially after 1atrina# so e have called for increased shiftin! of resources and responsi/ility to various sectors of the ilitary )Tierney 2006# p. 970.. *n part# this ittee of the and does not

reflected certain conflicts and coordination difficulties as the "elect 'o 3.". >ouse report docu ented in detail. Ior exa ple# B. . . $orthern 'o

have adeAuate insi!ht into state response capa/ilities or adeAuate interface with !overnors# which contri/uted to a lac& of 1atrina responseC )p. 227.. "uch utual understandin! and trust durin! the

atters appear to reflect tensions that !o far /eyond ittee noted# citin! an article in the /all

this sin!le event# however. As the >ouse 'o

66

Street ,ournal# the state controlled $ational 0uard leadership has seen this of !reat concern.

atter to /e

BAd iral 1eatin! who heads 3.". $@RT>'@F# a newly created ilitary /ody overseein! ho eland defense# has told law a&ers that active5duty forces should /e !iven co plete authority for respondin! to catastrophic disasters. . . . The head of the ;ashin!ton "tate $ational 0uard# 0eneral Ti othy Lowen/er!# su!!ested in e5 ails to collea!ues that Ad iral 1eatin!Ds su!!estion a ounted to a Opolicy of do estic re!i e chan!e. /all Street ,ournal# +ece /er K# 200:.C )"?'*2R>1 2006# p. 227.. Less politiciHed was the conclusion reached /y 'layton )2006. who exa ined policy shifts and needs related to B*ncidents of $ational "i!nificance.C >is conclusion is an exa ple of the type of analysis reAuired. B+espite recent calls for the contrary in the after ath of >urricane 1atrina# it would /e antithetical to the 3.". syste of !overnance and its philosophical underpinnin!s for local responsi/ilities and response to /e OfederaliHedD too early and for the +o+ to assu e the lead a!ency for respondin! to *ncidents of national "i!nificance. Le!islatin! chan!e and esta/lishin! specific reAuire ents in law for cooperative +>"# +o+ and state trainin! and exercises would esta/lish ini u reAuire ents for re!ional plannin! and preparedness and# ulti ately# /etter response. *t is ti e to /etter shape the efforts and responsi/ilities of the federal a!encies with reality and codify# train# and exercise the so that the national response capa/ility reflects the professionalis of state and local a!encies.C )'layton 2006# A/stract.. 3pon co pletin! a detailed assess ent of the ilitary response durin! >urricane

1atrina# the staff of the 0overn ent Accounta/ility @ffice )0A@. )2006. concluded that B. . . disaster plans and trainin! exercises involvin! the incorporate lessons learned fro ilitary did not sufficiently ilitary

past catastrophes to fully delineate the

capa/ilities that could /e needed to respond to a catastrophic natural disaster.C )p. ,. Reflectin! this conclusion# they titled their report as Hurricane $atrina' Better &lans and E%ercises Needed to 0uide the Military1s Response to #atastrophic Natural Disasters.

6(

Reco!niHin! that +epart ent of +efense )+o+. was aware of various pro/le s and was B. . . /e!innin! to ta&e actions to address the lessons learned . . . )p. ,7.# the tea # never the less# concluded that the issues B. . . . are often co plex# cross a!ency /oundaries# and are# in so e cases# lon! standin!.C )p. ,7.. reco >ence# four

endations were offered callin! for clarification in roles# especially with $ational ilestones# and B . . . the develop ent of detailed plans and ilitary is li&ely

0uard units desi!nation of

exercises to fully account for the uniAue capa/ilities and support that the

to provide to civil authorities in response to the full ran!e of do estic disasters# includin! catastrophes.C )p. ,:.. The response to the BdraftC report /y the Assistant "ecretary of +efense )2aul Fc>ale# dated Fay :# 2006# Appendix *** of the 0A@ report# pp. 9K59-. is infor ative. A on! the &ey points of ost relevance to y o/servation a/ove )T:. are these.

B;e reAuest you a&e several chan!es in the draft report. *n !eneral# our co ents fall under two /road cate!ories. Iirst# the report calls for !reater +o+ role durin! do estic disaster response. ;hile we a!ree with the !eneral thrust of your reco endation# stri&in! the appropriate /alance /etween the ilitaryDs pri ary warfi!htin! role overseas and the need to support civil authorities at ho e is a difficult# /ut funda ental issue. . . . The !oal is to enhance the capacity of other a!encies and state and local !overn ents to perfor their assi!ned responsi/ilities durin! do estic disaster response# with the continued a/ility to call on 3.". ilitary support when reAuired /y the circu stances. ... *n addition# as Lieutenant 0eneral >onorW points out in his Fay 7# 2006# letter to you )attached.# the title of the draft 0A@ report is isleadin! in that it does not reco!niHe +o+Ds extensive plannin! and exercise schedule prior to Au!ust 2-# 200:.C )p. 9K.. Twenty days after the Fc>ale letter# the 0A@ contact person# Fs. "haron 2ic&up )2006. )+irector# +efense 'apa/ilities and Fana!e ent. released a B"tate ent for the RecordC to the "u/co ittee on Terroris # 3nconventional Threats and 'apa/ilities#

6K

'o

ittee on Ar ed "ervices# >ouse of Representatives. >er state ent referenced the ost relevance

a/ove report# outlined the &ey findin!s# and e phasiHed two ideas of

here. That is6 7. BFany of the challen!es faced in the response point to the need for /etter plans and ore ro/ust exercises . . .C )p. ,.# and 2. B. . . su/stantial i prove ent the hi!hest ana!e ent levels in +o+ and fro

will reAuire sustained attention fro leaders across !overn ent.C )p. :..

Reflectin! on the six year anniversary of their final report )2007# 3.". 'o ission on $ational "ecurity. callin! for a !reater priority on ho eland security#

0ary >art and ;arren Rud an e phasiHed their views that the $ational 0uard should /e pri ary in this responsi/ility. su/co reco reco *n testi ony /efore the >ouse Appropriations

ittee )7S,0S0(.# /oth expressed re!rets that the detailed and Blower5profile endationsC they had ade six years a!o were i!nored includin! B. . . a &ey

endation that the $ational 0uard /e used as the /ac&/one of ho eland security.C ented# B. . . we all &now where the $ational

)"pren!el eyer 200(# p. K.. >art co

0uard is today.C B*tDs not securin! the ho eland.C )p. K.. Lawrence 4. 1or/# a for er assistant "ecretary of +efense in the Rea!an ad inistration# expanded on his testi ony /efore the "enate Ar ed "ervices 'o ittee

)April 7(# 200(. in a co5authored paper )1or/ and +u!!an 200(. to docu ent >artDs o/servation in uch ore detail. Ior exa ple# re!ardin! troop and eAuip ent shorta!es

durin! the 1atrina response# they put it this way. B'ontrary to official state ents /y the ?ush ad inistration# a dearth of ready troops was also to /la e. >ad a su/stantial nu /er of essential 0uard units /een readily availa/le# lo!istical !aps that occurred durin! 1atrina operations would have /een iti!ated.C )p. :..

6-

?ut as they note# su/seAuent responses reflect continuations of such shorta!es due to the failed policies in *raA. Ior exa ple# after the 200( tornado in 0reens/ur!# 1ansas# 0overnor 1athleen "e/elius pointed out that B. . . the stateDs $ational 0uard has only a/out 90 percent of the eAuip ent it is allotted /ecause )p. :.. And other states reflect the sa e deficiencies. B"adly the pro/le s pla!uin! the 1ansas 0uard are not uniAue. The 0uards of 'alifornia# Ilorida# AriHona# $ew 4ersey# *daho# Louisiana# "outh 'arolina# @&laho a# Fichi!an# $ew Fexico# @re!on and Ar&ansas also have less than half the eAuip ent they need to deal with natural disasters.C )1or/ and 1u!!an 200(# p. :.. 4! he pro$ession o$ emergency management /ill be enhanced through uch of it has /een sent to *raA.C

university and college level degree programs that must gro/ both in number and 7uality! As noted a/ove# there are now over 700 e er!ency with another 700 in develop ent. )?lanchard 2006.. ana!e ent de!ree pro!ra s Li&e all other professions# ana!e ent

however# the intellectual tools reAuired for the art of practicin! e er!ency

is not confined to a sin!le acade ic discipline. >ence# these pro!ra s are nested and ad inistratively within a variety of depart ents and colle!es at the present ti e. Re!ardless of their ad inistrative ho e# the theories# social sciences are ethods# and findin!s fro all the

ost relevant. And this includes the social problems perspective on

disaster research# * outlined in the first section of this paper. Ior it is within this perspective that /asic issues of ineAuality# vulnera/ility# corporate power and concentration# and the li&e# can effectively /e /rou!ht into these classroo s. Iailure to exa ine Broot causesC of disaster at these levels of analysis# will li it the depth of e er!ency ana!e ent education. "uch li itations in Auality can allow these courses to

(0

drift into /eco in! trainin! !rounds for future /ureaucrats rather than enli!htened professionals. *ncreased drift toward ore /ureaucratic# ilitaristic# or en!ineerin! and other ana!e ent pro!ra s# is a potential a&es ost

physical science e phases within e er!ency

direction with which * disa!ree. A footnote )T6. in FertonDs )7-67. BEpilo!ueC the funda ental point and further illustrates why a social pro/le s perspective is relevant. BAlthou!h they occasionally waver in their <ud! ents of Ophysical pro/le sD X i.e. the usual array of nature5 ade catastrophes=as constitutin! social pro/le s# Iuller and Fyers conclude their excellent contri/ution to a sociolo!ical theory of social pro/le s /y settin! forth uch the sa e position adopted here. Ior exa ple6 O;hile the earthAua&e itself ay involve no value5<ud! ents# its conseAuences inevita/ly will call for oral <ud! ents and decisions of policy. 2eople will not a!ree on how uch should /e spent in reconstruction# how it should /e spent# or how the funds should /e raised.D Richard '. Iuller and Richard R. Fyers# O"o e Aspects of a Theory of "ocial 2ro/le s#D (merican Sociolo!ical Review# Mol. 6 )Ie/ruary# 7-97.# p. 2(.C )Ferton 7-67# p. (0:.. 'urrently two i portant challen!es such pro!ra s. protected.

ust /e confronted /y faculty responsi/le for ust /e stren!thened and atter should /e

Iirst# the capacity for social criticism

A social pro/le s perspective

ay help this# /ut the

addressed explicitly. "tudents and faculty should /e encoura!ed to critically exa ine past# current and proposed e er!ency ana!e ent policy chan!es.

As * have e phasiHed elsewhere )e.!.# +ra/e& 2006a#c# 200(.# inadeAuate develop ent of a capacity to critically review e er!ency ana!e ent policy# /oth

existent and proposed# is the !reatest weakness in current colle!e and university pro!ra s. ;e would /e wise to re e /er the o/servations of any theorists who have

ade this !eneral point over the years )e.!.# 0ardner 7-6:.. *ndeed# such reAuire ent# as

(7

To

2aine stated so succinctly shortly after our nationDs /irth# is the duty of every citi)en.

; he de$ects o$ every @overnment and Constitution, both as to principle and $orm, must on a parity o$ reasoning, be as open to discussion as the de$ects o$ a la/, and it is a duty /hich every man o/es to society to point them out!< )2aine 200,# p. 26,8 ori!inal pu/lication 7(-2.. And a few pa!es later# as he explained to La Iayette why he added Bpart the secondC to his initial essay# i.e.# BRi!hts of FanC he offered this sentence which has an eerie relevance to todayDs political cli ate. BIreedo had /een hunted ade en

round the !lo/e8 reason was considered re/ellion8 and the slavery of fear had afraid to thin&.C )p. 266..

"econd# the interface with ho eland security courses# e phases# and pro!ra s should /e exa ined critically. As * have ela/orated elsewhere )+ra/e& 200(.# different perceptions of Bthe pro/le #C assu ptions a/out it# and focal tas&s# reveal important cultural differences that preclude si ple inte!ration of e er!in! pro!ra s. ;hat is ost

clear is that inte!ration can not /e acco plished /y ad inistrative fiat or si ply addin! one or the other na e to a pro!ra reAuired. *n so e# si ply any cases# pro!ra area. 'areful and thou!htful analyses will /e

inte!ration efforts will reflect culture conflict and in

ay not occur. "uch future outco es will reflect !overn ental policy professional associations and other such external edical profession# li&e others )e.!.#

chan!es# disaster events# pressures fro

forces. As ?arryDs )200:. infor ative history of the

;ilson and @yola5%e aiel 20028 Foore 7-(08 >all 7-(:.# clearly docu ent# such pressures# conflicts and ad<ust ents reflect co professions. on processes docu ented for nu erous

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"ustained fundin! to encoura!e and nurture e er!ency pro!ra s# however# disciplinary# ust /e increased. "i ilarly# there

ana!e ent courses and

ust /e parallel enrich ent of

ultidisciplinary# and interdisciplinary disaster and haHard research activity

so as to provide a continuin! array of study findin!s and theoretical analyses that for the core intellectual foundation for these pro!ra s )e.!.# see Fileti 7---# pp. 2::526:8 'o ittee on +isaster Research in the "ocial "ciences 2006# pp. 2K252K:.. 5! he assumptions, tas"s, and policies that de$ine ;homeland security< must

be examined critically $rom a broad social problems perspective! As revealed /y the or!aniHational charts that were created initially# and continue to evolve# there are any tas&s that co prise Bho eland securityC. Reflectin! the pu/lic

outra!e that followed the -S77 attac&s and the earlier proposals# e.!.# >art5Rud an 2007 )3.". 'o ission on $ational "ecurityS27 st 'entury.# 'on!ress initiated the lar!est in our history /y esta/lishin! the +epart ent of >o eland "ecurity.

!overn ent refor

@ne of the early state ents issued /y the ;hite >ouse in 4une# 2002# indicated that the new ca/inet level secretary# would /e responsi/le for five core units )@ffice of >o eland "ecurity 2002.6 7. ?order and Transportation "ecurity8 2. E er!ency 2reparedness and Response8 ,. 'he ical# ?iolo!ical# Radiolo!ical and $uclear 'ounter easures8 9. *nfor ation Analysis and *nfrastructure 2rotection and :. Fana!e ent. Each of these areas involved transfers of personnel fro 2 and the 'oast 0uard into area 7. A$ course, activities by other agencies /ere to be coordinated better even though they /ere outside this agency! Fost i portant a on! these was the iti!ation as it pertained to the terrorist threat. atter of existin! a!encies li&e the IEFA into core area

As later docu ented /y the -S77

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'o

ission )$'@TA3T3" 2009. i portant cultural /arriers a on! the several

intelli!ence a!encies resulted in structural stovepipes that severely reduced intera!ency infor ation sharin!. Ilawed intelli!ence re!ardin! weapons of ass destruction );F+.

used to <ustify the pree ptive attac& on *raA# precipitated another structural ad<ust ent desi!ned to insure /etter coordination a on! the various a!encies. Thus# the creation of the +irector of $ational *ntelli!ence presu a/ly has i proved the effectiveness of the ultia!ency networ& responsi/le for this critical tas&. ;hat do social pro/le s perspectives add to an analysis of the ho eland security di ension of e er!ency ana!e entL 'onsider the parallel to cri e. "ocial pro/le s

texts e phasiHe historical patterns in cri inal activity# chan!in! le!al definitions of what constitutes a cri inal act# and the e// and flow of policy desi!ned to iti!ate. These and the

the analysis of related issues provide a /asis for recastin! cri inal activity fro

actions of evil people to lar!er social issues of structural patterns of ineAuality# failin! schools# <o/ exportation# and other ;hile addin! teachers# atters reflectin! the Bsociety as patientC orientation.

ore loc&s to apart ent doors# li&e purchasin! !uns for classroo lo!ical to any# especially within the context of a particular

ay see

trau atic event# such actions do not address the root causes of cri e. "i ilarly# recall suicide. ;hile y earlier co ents re!ardin! social pro/le s perspectives on these assess ents and their edia pu/lications were

ost A ericans will never /enefit fro

lin&a!es to Broot causesC# /y the sprin! of 200(# so e popular

introducin! these ideas. Ior exa ple# in a discussion of increased threat perceptions re!ardin! future terror attac&s# Newsweek reporters )>irsh and %ousafai 200(. Auoted 2a&istani Iorei!n Finister Fian 1hurshid Feh ood 1asuri re!ardin! ;hite >ouse

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criticis

of their failure to rei!n in terror trainin! facilities. 1asuriDs response

ay have

/een totally political# /ut at least it pointed to directions /eyond BLetDs /e honest. There are a lot of people all over the Fusli

ilitary solutions. *ndonesia to

world# fro

"o alia# who are hostile to what they re!ard as A erican forei!n policy. %ou need to tac&le the root causes.C )p. ,(.. Racis i is deeply e /edded in A erican society. *t# li&e the atter of

i!ration# has a lon! history and reflects the evolution of co plex policy chan!es that

too often have /een adopted to treat specific sy pto s. As /andaids on an infected cut# they cover over the o/vious# /ut fail to address the infection that places the patient at ris&. "o too# proposals to /uild hi!her and lon!er walls alon! our southern /order with Fexico# do not reflect the co plexity of the history or the econo ic and social dyna ics that co prise Bthe i i!ration pro/le .C As Fc'or&el )2006. pointed out in her review

of FarilDs )2009. case study of the 3.". ?order 2atrol# there is a B. . . profound disconnect /etween official policy and the co plex environ ental# political# and interpersonal realities of the /order.C )p. 7((.. "o ewhat li&e any e er!ency initiatives#

ana!ers tryin! to i ple ent or <ustify certain ho eland security terroris these a!ents try to do their <o/s in a professional and inadeAuate trainin! li ited a/ility to co

anner. ?ut B. . . a lac& of resources any with

eant that a!ents freAuently wor&ed their shifts alone# unicate with the "panish5spea&in! i

i!rants they apprehended.C

)p. 7((.. 'onseAuently# /oth the B. . . a!ents and the i

i!rants they encountered Pwere

putQ in positions of !reat vulnera/ilityC which in turn B. . . exacer/ated pro/le s of utual distrust.C )p. 7((..

(:

Fy point is this. The ho eland security di ension of e er!ency ust /e placed within a

ana!e ent

uch broader strate!ic framework. @ne of the few who have

addressed this need is 0ary >art )2006.. >e clearly ac&nowled!es that there are terrorist !roups that ust /e identified and destroyed /efore they can hurt people. 2arallel to

local# state# or federal law enforce ent personnel# our anti5terror Bforces#C in the /roadest sense of that ter # ust have the resources reAuired to !et the <o/ done. ?ut creatin! Ba

spearC or Ba shieldC to use >artDs lan!ua!e# are only two aspects of what is reAuired. And so# /uildin! on >artDs critiAue# * have reco students to adopt ended that university faculty encoura!e

y social pro/le s perspective. ;ith it they can step /ac& and as&

ore funda ental Auestions. B;hat are the sources of insecurityLC Ior as >art re inds us# BIreedo reAuires security. An insecure individual or an insecure nation cannot /e is a strate!y desi!ned to increase

said to /e truly free.C )p. 7(,.. And /ecause terroris fear# those who would use this strate!y

ust /e stopped. ?ut there are additional sources

of fear and insecurity that also threaten the nation. Ior so e it is the fear of losin! a <o/# others /ein! cau!ht in the cross5fire of !an! violence. And for illions of elderly it is aintain a /ody

fear of a/andon ent# pay ent of dru! /ills# and even enou!h food to wea&ened /y parts that si ply are wearin! out.

B*t is the source of considera/le wonder that those ost ea!er to sacrifice so e freedo s to create a shield# or spear# a!ainst terroris are unwillin! to de onstrate eAual Heal in attac&in! other sources of insecurity to create a cloa& of security.C )>art 2006# p. 7(:.. >ence# we would do well# as >art )2006. reco wisdo ends )p. 7(:. to ponder the

of 2resident Iran&lin +. Roosevelt. *n his 7-97 "tate of the 3nion speech he fro fear# freedo fro want# freedo of speech# and

specified four freedo s6 freedo freedo

of worship. And so instead of definin! ho eland BsecurityC in an overly narrow

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way# e phasiHin! our protection resultin! fro

ilitary and law enforce ent shields and

ultiple /lan&ets of

initiatives in airline passen!er scrutiny# port container ore strate!ically

surveillance# or hi!her walls in AriHona or 'alifornia# we need to focus on todayDs parallel to RooseveltDs insi!ht.

B@ur new four freedo s should /e freedo of the co ons# freedo of livelihood# freedo of a sound environ ent# and freedo fro fear.C )>art 2006# p. 7(6.. &! Recently adopted policies, li"e the %S. Patriot .ct and others pertaining to electronic eavesdropping, ;data mining,< /arrantless physical searches, and the li"e, permit unacceptable assaults on $undamental civil liberties and $or the most part must be re:ected! "ince the -S77 attac&s# ris& perceptions of A ericans have /een chan!ed. "u/stantial nu /ers# as noted a/ove# now fear death or in<ury fro attac&s. "o it is ore i portant than ever that we &eep the future terrorist

ost funda ental Auestion of

a social pro/le s perspective clearly in front of us. This is# Bwhat Aualities identify a !ood societyLC In my o/n social problems courses years ago, and in my disaster classes especially since the *B00 attac"s, I emphasi,e this 7uestion and the value issues, choices and trade)o$$s that each o$ us as individuals must decide! B*t is not the o/<ective of this course to select a set of values for you. Rather the o/<ective is to !et you to thin& a/out the values you /elieve in today# exa ine the critically and understand e /ers of our

/etter how they are lin&ed to the private trou/les /ein! experienced /y

society and a ran!e of interdependent pu/lic issues. And as you ponder these# loo& for

((

lin&a!es to the 'onstitution of the 3nited "tates and the civil li/erties protected throu!h the ?ill of Ri!hts.C *n such discussions# we should see& wisdo fro a wide variety of thin&ers of a&e the point. Iirst# an prefers

various political persuasions. * will cite only two exa ples here to

listen to +ostoevs&y )7-60. as his B0rand *nAuisitorC explains why B. . . peace# and even death# to freedo

of choice in the &nowled!e of !ood and evil.C )p. 72-..

B* tell you that an is tor ented /y no !reater anxiety than to find so eone to who he can hand over Auic&ly that !ift of freedo with which the unhappy creature is /orn.C )pp. 72K572-.. B. . . they will /e !lad to /elieve our answer# for it will save the fro the !reat anxiety and terri/le a!ony they now endure supplyin! a free# individual answer. And everyone will /e happy# all the illions of creatures except the hundred thousand who rule the . Ior only we# we who !uard the ystery# will /e unhappy.C )p. 7,:.. @ur nationDs founders# of course# had very different visions of /oth hu an nature and the role of !overn ent in an ideal society. ;e should thin& hard on the policy i plications and wisdo reflected in their writin!s# especially those who thou!ht hard

a/out the /asic principles of de ocracy. 'onsider these words that Tho as 2aine sent to 0eor!e ;ashin!ton in 7(-7. B;hen * conte plate the natural di!nity of an# when * feel )for $ature has not /een &ind enou!h to e to /lunt y feelin!s. for the honour and happiness of its character# * /eco e irritated at the atte pt to !overn an&ind /y force and fraud# as if they were 1naves and fools# and can scarcely avoid dis!ust at those who are thus i posed upon.C )BRi!hts of FanC# p. 7(2.. BThat there are en in all countries who !et their livin! /y war# and /y &eepin! up the Auarrels of nations# is shoc&in! as it is true8 /ut when those who are concerned in the !overn ent of a country a&e it their study to sow discord and cultivate pre<udices /etween nations# it /eco es ore unpardona/le.C )B2reface to the En!lish Edition#C p. 7,9..

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@f course# 2aine was defendin! the Irench Revolution and re<ectin! ?ur&eDs interpretation of it# the Irench 'onstitution# and their potential i pact on future relationships /etween En!land and Irance. "o after seein! B. . . old pre<udices wearin! awayC 2aine proposed that ?ur&e B. . . i ediately /e!an sowin! the seeds of a new

inveteracy# as if he were afraid that En!land and Irance would cease to /e ene ies.C )B2reface to the En!lish Edition#C p. 7,9.. * suspect * &now what 2aineDs view of the 3"A 2atriot Act would /eN *t is so ewhat ironic that the chapter in the second edition of the Ferton5$is/et social pro/le s text )7-66. that replaced IritHDs )7-67. disaster su ary was authored

/y one of our for er )7--:. A"A presidents# A itai EtHioni. As * noted a/ove it was titled6 B;ar and +isar a entC )EtHioni 7--6.. After explorin! any other topics over unity

the years# includin! co plex or!aniHations )e.!.# EtHioni 7-69. and co

inte!ration processes )e.!.# EtHioni 7--6# 7---# 200,.# EtHioni )2009. focused his analytic powers on the 3"A 2atriot Act. >e hi!hli!hted the tensions /etween !overn ent actions desi!ned to increase citiHen protection and the cost of a decrease in civil li/erties )EtHioni 2009.. As he assessed these issues and tried to wal& the Bti!htrope of /alance#C you can trace his ove ent toward acceptance and trust of Bthe authoritiesC. Iar /etter to have a

few e5 ails or phone calls reviewed that are not supposed to /e availa/le# than allow a !roup of terrorists to /e successful in their evil deeds. "chehrDs )200:. review of his wor& is very critical and points out EtHioniDs failure to hi!hli!ht the influential roles played /y a variety of politically conservative or!aniHations and individuals in the creation of this le!islation# e.!.# Ia ily Research 'ouncil# +onald Ru sfeld# and 2aul

(-

;olfowitH. Even

ore dispara!in! are EtHioniDs state ents reflectin! a view that the

/est federal oversi!ht should reside with Bthe pu/licC. BThis ust /e consistent with his previously articulated /elief that de ocracies are constituted /y a Ofree pressD# otherwise# how can Othe pu/licD truly &now what is happenin!L 3nfortunately# here too EtHioni is stron!er on rhetoric than truth. ;ith six corporations ownin! and controllin! virtually all a<or edia# the e /edded nature of edia <ournalists with !overn ent officials# and the near /lac&out of all edia critical of state activities# it is hard to see how Othe pu/licD will /e a/le to deduce precisely the achinations of state actors.C )"chehr 200:# pp. 6795 67:.. *n their Introduction to Homeland Security # ?ulloc& and her collea!ues )200:# pp. 90,5972. provided a helpful su 'o ary of this co plex and len!thy piece of le!islation.

only referred to as BThe 2atriot ActC it contains nu erous sections and su/5

sections li&e these six6 7. BTitle **6 Enhanced "urveillance 2roceduresC8 2. B"u/title ?6 Enhanced * i!ration 2rovisionsC )includes B"ection 97C which provides a detailed

le!al definition of Bterrorist activityC that includes plannin! or discussions a/out possi/le plannin! of such future actions.8 ,. BTitle M***6 "tren!thenin! the 'ri inal Laws

A!ainst Terroris C )includes B"ection K0,C which B. . . prohi/its har/orin! any person &nowin! or havin! reasona/le !rounds to /elieve that such person has co a/out to co itted or to /e

it a terrorist offenseC and B"ection K09C which Besta/lished Iederal itted at 3.". facilities a/roadC8 9. B"ection 7077C which

<urisdiction over cri es co

a ends the Tele ar&etin! and 'onsu er Iraud and A/use 2rotection ActC8 B"ection 7072C which a ends the Iederal Transportation 'ode6 and 6. B"ection 7079C which directs the @ffice for "tate and Local +o estic 2reparedness "upport of the @ffice of 4ustice 2ro!ra s to B. . . a&e !rants to enhance state and local capa/ility to prepare for

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and to respond to terrorist actsC )p. 972. and authoriHes appropriations for I% 2002 throu!h I% 200(. These few ite s illustrate the scope and co plexity of this le!islation. ;hile favorin! the last ite # i.e.# enhance ent of state and local capa/ility# it is y opinion# li&e that of any others# that sections of this le!islation !o uch too far in

extendin! the authority of federal a!encies in their efforts to prevent future attac&s /y terrorists. As with other for s of violence# the /oundary /etween protectin! citiHens fro har and protectin! their /asic civil li/erties is a atter a/out which reasona/le ore of a focus within the

people can disa!ree. Fy point is that such issues should /e e er!ency ana!e ent and disaster research co unities.

@/viously# these

atters are very co plex le!ally and far /eyond the scope of

this paper. "o *Dll si ply note two current exa ples of this controversial social pro/le area. As context# /y the way# * found it helpful to return to the text/oo& used in the social pro/le s course in which * enrolled as an under!raduate )7-:-.# i.e.# >orton and Leslie )7-::.. The chapter entitled B'ivil Li/ertiesC has uch relevance to today even if we

never have a B odern day 4oe Fc'arthyC appear on scene. ?ut we do have Bwarrantless physical searchesC ta&in! place despite the concerns expressed /y hi!h level officials li&e I?* +irector Ro/ert Fueller )e.!.# see Ra!avan 2006.. And 2resident ?ush did si!n the B4ohn ;. ;arner +efense AuthoriHation Act of 2006C )@cto/er 7(# 20068 2L 70-5,69. which# accordin! to one analyst Bta&es the cuffs off.C )"tein 2006# p. 2.. B"pecifically# the new lan!ua!e adds Onatural disaster# epide ic# or other serious pu/lic health e er!ency# terrorist attac& or incidentD to the list of conditions per ittin! the 2resident to ta&e over local authority . . .C )"tein 2006# p. 2.. Apparently in response to the flawed 1atrina response# so e policy a&ers slipped this

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lan!ua!e into the defense /ill as a rider. B@ne of the few to co plain# "en#. 2atric& 4. Leahy# +5Mt.# warned that the federal artial law.C easure virtually invites the ;hite >ouse to declare Accordin! to "tein# Leahy included the

)"tein 2006# p. 2..

followin! re ar&s in the 'on!ressional Record on "ept. 2-# 2006. This rider Bsu/verts solid# lon!standin! posse comitatus statutes that li it the ilitaryDs involve ent in law enforce ent# there/y declare a&in! it easier for the 2resident to

artial law . . .C further ore BThe chan!es to the *nsurrection Act will allow the ilitary# includin! the $ational 0uard# to carry out law enforce ent

2resident to use the

activities without the consent of a !overnor. . .C )"tein 2006# pp. 25,.. A variety of other actions have ta&en place since the -S77 attac&s that cu ulatively have helped to alter ris& perceptions producin! hei!htened levels of fear )e.!.# see Altheide 2006 and Iuredi 2006.. The social construction of such perceptions# li&e any other aspects of ris& perception chan!e# should also /e studied /y disaster researchers so that e er!ency happenin! in their co own actions. Let that erit ana!ers and others can /etter understand what is a&e ore infor ed <ud! ents a/out their

unities and there/y

e illustrate this Bfear !enerationC process /y notin! only four topics

uch further attention.

Iirst# there are the issues related to the >o eland "ecurity Advisory "yste )>"A". with its color coded scale. A on! the issues are the va!ueness of warnin!s# lac& of specificity re!ardin! protective actions# pro/le s of disse ination across the inter!overn ental syste # etc. )see Reese 200:.. *ndeed# as A!uirre )2009. has ar!ued# the >"A" is ore of a pu/lic relations device than a true warnin! syste . ?ut# television ore

viewers are re inded daily# and on so e networ&s li&e BIox noiseC even

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freAuently# that future terrorist attac&s

ay /e co in!. And they pro/a/ly are. The real

Auestion# however# is the !eneration of hi!her fear levels the /est strate!y to produce support for a /alanced# threat /ased# e er!ency excellent su ary report fro the 'o ana!e ent pro!ra L As noted in the

ittee on +isaster Research in the "ocial

"ciences )2006.# the >"A" initiative is not reflective of years of solid studies /y disaster researchers. B;hile ost disaster researchers would a!ree that the scale is not a warnin! syste # uch of what has /een learned /y disaster researchers on effective ris& co unication practices is lar!ely i!nored in the develop ent of the syste . . .C )'o ittee on +isaster Research in the "ocial "ciences 2006# p. ,70.. "econd# what are the i pacts on ris& perceptions of the continued violence in *raA# the *srael52alestine areas# and elsewhereL The daily reportin! of these activities ay /e &ey in the construction of inappropriate fear levels. ;hile these ay en!ender

support for certain political a!enda# the overall i pacts need /etter study and understandin!. This process ay have i portant parallels to shifts in ris& perception

docu ented for other social pro/le s# e.!.# predatory pu/lic school teachers and distur/ed &ids shootin! up schools. A rash of hi!hly pu/liciHed incidents can alter fear levels which in turn can /e used to pro ote a variety of a!enda# e.!.# school security devices li&e ore funds for

etal detectors and witch hunts tri!!ered /y unfounded

alle!ations of Binappropriate /ehavior.C @/viously# incidents li&e the Mir!inia Tech )200(. and 'olu /ine school so e teachers=/oth assacres do happen and ay tri!!er copy5cats <ust as

ale and fe ale=cross the line of trust expected of the . ?ut

failure to &eep such incidents in perspective# as with terroris # can produce very poor pu/lic policy decisions.

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Third# is the very co plex

atter of

ulti5national fir s and corporate

concentrations within the 3.".A. Ior exa ple# increased corporate concentration of edia ownership and control# as noted durin! the con!ressional hearin!s in which the +ixie 'hic&s were invited to testify after their co usic was tar!eted /ecause of a critical

ent a/out *raA war policy# the i pacts of content and viewer ha/its should lead to a&in!. ;ith li ited air space# the pu/lic a!enda is anipulated

ore infor ed policy

/oth /y intent and default. @ver reportin! of terrorist activities and increased nu /ers of popular dra atic television series focused on terrorist plots# ay reflect intent. And

excessive covera!e of the latest starlet who happens not to /e wearin! underwear# or who is now in reha/# illustrate the Bnarcotic potentialC of the ass edia. As Ferton )7-:(.

put it years a!o6 B2ropa!anda is no su/stitute for social policy and social action# /ut it can serve to root policy and action in the understandin! of the people.C )p. :2K.. Iourth# and finally# we ust explicitly reco!niHe how a /road ran!e of interest /andwa!on as a way to pro ote their own a!enda

!roups have /ou!ht into the terroris

and resource /ases. As Lustic& )200(. has pointed out so clearly# anti5!un !roups press for le!islation usin! potential terror attac&s in their presentations as does the $ational Rifle Association and others who propose increased citiHen ar s purchases. Iar i portant# however# has /een the rush to the ission and a!enda. This includes ore

oney pots /y those who have recast their universities#

ost sectors of the society ran!in! fro

to pediatricians# phar acists# and others# who have alter their a!enda to participate in the so5called B;ar on TerrorC. ?y so doin!# they further le!iti ate and enhance the pu/lic perception of a hei!htened threat. The overall conseAuence is that the entire nation has played directly into the ai s of s all !roups of Fusli fanatics. B. . . they hi<ac&

K9

Fadisonian de ocracy itself# to create a vortex of a!!randiHin! exploitation of the ;ar on Terror for self5interested a!endas that spin our country out of control.C )Lustic& 200(# p. -.. Thus# the conseAuences of these altered ris& perceptions are ost profound. As Al

0ore )200(. put it6 B . . . when fear and anxiety play a lar!er role in our society# lo!ic and reason play a di inished role in our collective decision the &ey processes that define our for a&in!.C )p. 9K.. *n short#

of !overn ent are put at ris&.

Enhanced understandin! of such policy controversies# and related sectors of institutional chan!e# includin! the propa!anda potentials of the e er!ency ana!ers to thin& ore strate!ically a/out ris& co edia# can assist

unication# /oth dan!ers

and possi/ilities for the pu/lic !ood. *t is within this type of lar!er social context that ost of the sections of the 3.". 2atriot Act# and other policies that ay infrin!e on our

civil li/erties# should /e exa ined. This position is consistent with that of 0ary Farx )200(. who is one a on! doHens creatin! a new sociolo!ical su/field of surveillance studies. As he put it recently6 B3sin! criteria such as the nature of the !oals# the procedure for creatin! a surveillance practice# ini iHation# consideration of alternatives# reciprocity# data protection# and security and i plications for de ocratic values# * su!!est twenty Auestions to /e as&ed a/out any surveillance activity )Farx 200:.. The ore these can /e answered in a way affir in! the underlyin! values# the ore le!iti ate the surveillance is li&ely to /e.C )Farx 200(# p. 72-.. *! Emergency managers should increase their priority on matters related to global /arning, both mitigation e$$orts and strategic adaptations, and place all $uture ha,ards policy revie/s $or natural, technological, and con$lict based threats, including terrorism, into a social problems perspective!

K:

Let

e /e clear here. * a

not reco

endin! that efforts to

iti!ate )i.e.# counter

intelli!ence# law enforce ent# special forces attac&s# etc.. and /etter prepare for response and recovery fro nation we ust do future terrorist attac&s si ply /e put aside. The threat is real and as a uch /etter in a wide variety of ways# especially /y reco!niHin! the the Auestionin! /y analysts li&e >art )2006..

types of alternative strate!ies that flow fro Rather what * a

proposin! for consideration and de/ate is !reater emphasis on policies iti!ative

that are proactive re!ardin! future cli ate chan!es. These policies should /e

/oth in pro!ra s ai ed at reducin! !lo/al warnin!# reduction of car/on e issions# and in adaptations to it. Extre e worst case scenarios in future sea level rises# for exa ple# need not /e used ri!idly in plannin! and develop ent decisions. ?ut local and state level approaches to such with other iti!ative actions should /e encoura!ed throu!h new initiatives. As ust /e put into the context of atters of racis # sexis #

atters of pu/lic policy# these future initiatives

all other social pro/le s confrontin! co and a!eis . *a

unities includin!

in full a!ree ent with Lustic&Ds )200(. conclusion re!ardin! the ;ar on

Terror. That is# ;?e have been, and are being, suc"ered, suc"ered big)time!< )p. -.. "o a shift in priorities is in order. Iurther ore# y position parallels that outlined /y

2astor et al. )2006. in their discussion of Benviron ental <ustice.C As they docu ented# the Environ ental 2rotection A!ency )E2".# had /e!un to incorporate the concept of Benviron ental eAuityC into its structure in 7--2. And under the 'linton ad inistration the o entu resulted in the Executive @rder $o. 72K-K which andated B. . .

environ ental <ustice as part of the federal !overn entDs

ission.C )p. 77.. ;hile they y social pro/le s

use so ewhat different ter s# the lo!ic of their analysis parallels

K6

perspective. *ndeed# it is no accident that so e of the sa e critics# e.!.# 2eter Rossi# who attac&ed the ;hite5>aas assess ent pro<ect )7-(:. and other disaster research that caused e to initially propose this view# also were instru ental in attac&in! the research

studies that had /een used to <ustify this policy shift. >ence# their criticis s# e.!.# Anderton et al. 7--9# fueled the supporters of the ?ush ad inistration who Auic&ly pushed for new directions )2astor et al. 2006# pp. 70577.. B*n a society see in!ly hoo&ed on puttin! haHards in the /ac&yards of those already /urdened /y poverty and racial discri ination# ownin! up to the reality would a&in!.C )2astor et al. 2006# p. 7:.. 2astor et al. )2006. correctly identify the !aps /etween ost disaster researchers ost current a&e a !ood startin! place for policy

and those studyin! other aspects of environ ental issues. As * noted a/ove# social pro/le s texts

a&e this lin& e%cept they have yet to inte!rate disaster studies and As 2astor et al. )2006. noted6 BEnviron ental

instead focus solely on terroris .

sociolo!y /oo&s# for exa ple# rarely discuss disaster research# and disaster studies rarely draw on environ ental <ustice literature.C )p. 2(.. * /elieve that y social pro/le s

perspective provides an additional and co ple entary /rid!e toward these fra ewor&s# especially any &ey principles and concepts. Ior exa ple# Bco unity e power ent is

central to the precepts of environ ent <ustice.C )p. ,:.. "i ilarly# B. . . an overe phasis on technocratic and scientific expertise for decision a&in! can lead to a process that oral Auestions )that is#

inappropriately fra es funda entally political and OtranscientificD issues. in scientific ter s . . .C )p. ,:.. Fy call for a priority shift# one wherein the terroris

preparedness challen!e is

retained within the overall emer!ency mana!ement portfolio # is consistent with the

K(

reco

endations of

any others. Ior exa ple# the staff within the @ffice of *nspections

and "pecial Reviews )2006. within the @ffice of *nspector 0eneral of the +>" docu ented the chan!es in IEFADs /ud!et and personnel that occurred followin! its ove into +>" )see pp. 7705722.. A on! these included B. . . a nu /er of chan!es to the ad inistration of !rants for natural haHards preparedness PthatQ di inished IEFADs involve ent in how states conduct e er!ency trainin!# plannin!# exercises# and other functions.C )p. 772.. Iurther ore# other chan!es B. . . diverted attention fro haHard preparedness to terroris natural

preparedness. *n 200:# IEFA no lon!er ad inistered

natural haHards preparedness !rants . . .C )p. 77,.. "hiftin! this function to the @ffice of +o estic 2reparedness )@+2. eant that BIEFA lost its direct preparedness ana!e ent a!encies.C )p. 776.. Additionally#B. . . orale and inadeAuate succession plannin!.C and excellence durin! the

relationship with the state e er!ency

IEFADs understaffin! include decreased

)p. 77-.. Thus# in contrast to the i a!ery of professionalis

;itt era# /y 200,# B. . . IEFA was ran&ed the worst place to wor& in Iederal !overn ent /y its own e ployees in the @ffice of 2ersonnel Fana!e ent surveys analyHed /y the 2artnership for 2u/lic "ervice.C )p. 77-.. These atters are relevant side issues that are contextual to the &ey point# i.e.# the preparedness at the expense of everythin! else. The

current over e phasis on terroris

*0 staff honed in on this point toward the end of their assess ent. BThe response to >urricane 1atrina de onstrated that +>"D efforts to protect and prepare the nation for terrorist events and natural disasters have not yet translated into preparedness for all haHards. "tate e er!ency ana!e ent staff we interviewed said the a<ority of +>" preparedness !rants are spent on terroris preparedness# which has not afforded sufficient support or fundin! for natural haHard preparedness.C )@ffice of *nspections and "pecial Reviews 2006# p. 7,:..

KK

And despite policy docu ents that could /e interpreted as reco!nition of a natural haHard preparedness priority# the *0 staff concluded otherwise. BThrou!h the docu ents in the $ational 2reparedness "yste address all haHards# the prevalence of terroris 5

related ite s in these fosters a perception that the preparedness for and response to a terrorist event is different fro +>" that of a naturally occurrin! event.C )p. 7,6.. >ence# the

ust explicitly e /ar& upon a cultural chan!e so as to carry out its e er!ency

ana!e ent within an all5haHard perspective )see pp. 7,:579,.. (s part of this shift in priorities" I recommend new preparedness and miti!ation initiatives focused on !lobal warmin! and its potential socioeconomic impacts2 "uch initiatives will /e ost effective

if they are developed and i ple ented pri arily within state and local levels althou!h /oth national and international pro<ects are ur!ently reAuired as well. These nine co plexes of policy areas# while only /riefly reviewed here# illustrate so e of the ways that e er!ency ana!ers can /e encoura!ed to think more to the

strate!ically a/out their profession. ;e /est acco plish this /y introducin! the

notion that for some research purposes# certainly not all# it is helpful to conceptualiHe disasters as non5routine social pro/le s. Iailure to adopt a ore strate!ic view of their

profession# one enriched /y the future studies co pleted /y disaster and haHard researchers fro this profession. a wide variety of social science disciplines# will constrain the !rowth of "uch constraint will wea&en a critical capacity necessary for the

continued resiliency of the 3.".A.

K-

Conclusions * have6 7. proposed a lin&a!e to social pro/le s perspectives8 2. su ariHed the

intellectual context for and rationale for further exploration of the &ey episte olo!ical issue that constrains the !eneraliHation of our research findin!s8 and ,. illustrated the si!nificant policy i plications of these two atters. * will now offer five conclusions.

>opefully# these will sti ulate others# /ecause of either a!ree ent or disa!ree ent# to push this analysis uch further. "uch is the nature of acade ic wor&.

0! De$ining disasters as nonroutine social problems provides a po/er$ul $rame/or" $or interpretation, context, and $uture research! +isasters# fro this perspective# are interpreted as normal events lar!ely

ori!inatin! within identifia/le historical and structural conditions. Li&e other social pro/le s# understandin! the private trou/les experienced reAuires the capacity to shift a/straction levels and exa ine relevant pu/lic issues. And so eti es the analysis ust

transcend the pu/lic concerns of any !iven era and identify latent <uxtapositions of social trends and structural conditions that will i!nite in future areas of conflict# insta/ility# and hu an hurt. This orientation provides a conte%t for drawin! upon the insi!hts seen /y others who have selected different areas of hu an travail for study ran!in! fro cri e to race

relations to poverty and so on. As with analyses of these areas# however# there is no inherent /ias toward the ne!ative. +isasters do at ti es# and for so e have positive conse3uences )e.!.# see +ra/e& and 1ey 7-K9.. ;hat this perspective forces the analyst to specify# however# is a definition of the value <ud! ents that are /ein! ade to declare any !iven /ehavior as BpositiveC or uch of the ti e#

-0

Bne!ative.C >ence# the cultural context of the definer is

ade explicit and

ay /e

contrasted with that of others whose circu stance and value position

ay differ. "o5

called B!ood /usiness practicesC that so e would define as BunethicalC illustrate a type of analysis that si ilarly per its enhanced understandin! of the historical contexts and ideolo!ies that foster classroo s of children who will /eco e suicide /o /ers within the next few years. The sa e can /e said for the thousands of A erican citiHens who will /e in<ured or &illed /ecause of do estically /irthed !an! violence. The sa e can /e said for the /illions of youn! !irls fro centuries past# li&e illions today# whose personal

security reAuires unAuestionin! o/edience and loyalty to un<ust syste s rooted in patterns of ineAuality# a/use# and intolerance. 'learly# this orientation presses analysts to as& new research 3uestions not <ust a/out BroutinenessC /ut also any other i portant atters. *n what ways# and with what

conseAuences# are disasters BnonroutineCL ;hat additional differences# and of course si ilarities# can /e identified when disasters are co pared to other social pro/le sL *n what ways are these processes si ilar# and different# across the ran!e of societies existent today and over centuries pastL *f the society is the patient# as a social pro/le s

perspective assu es# what is /ein! said to disaster researchers as they pursue their craftL (! De$ining disasters as nonroutine social problems does not preclude or invalidate other de$initions that may be re7uired $or other theoretical $rame/or"s and research agenda at this point in the history o$ the $ield! At the ti e 1reps and * )7--K. reviewed and extended the social pro/le s application# y focus was on co unity evacuations. * docu ented that several &ey

event characteristics were helpful in understandin! certain aspects of evacuation /ehavior

-7

)e.!.# +ra/e& 7--9# 7--6.. This wor&# alon! with that of the 1reps tea

)e.!.# 1reps and

?osworth 7--9.# led us to identify the four properties * noted in the definition a/ove# e.!.# scope of i pact. ;hile helpful for so e li ited and specific purposes li&e these# * a in

full a!ree ent with Quarantelli )200:. that these are not a final answer to the co plex issue of taxono y. *ndeed# * totally a!ree with Quarantelli that we the /iolo!ical co ust !o /eyond the o/vious as did alC that placed

unity when they created the cate!ory of B a

whales# hu ans# and /ats into the sa e taxono ic niche. That is exactly the type of reasonin! that led 1reps and * to propose further analysis of the concept of BroutinenessC alon! the lines that 2errow )7-6(. had done in his develop ent of a typolo!y of or!aniHations. Rather than traditional sortin!s done co only on ission# often

ista&enly la/eled B!oalC# for exa ple# fire depart ents vs. schools vs. voluntary disaster a!encies# this approach offers an alternative pathway. Throu!h it# we can !o /eyond the traditional weather cate!ory !roupin!s or assu in! that all aspects of technolo!ical crises are Aualitatively different fro of natureC or hu an caused conflict. ;e those ori!inatin! fro so5called Bacts

ust continue to stru!!le creatively with this

funda ental issue so as to specify the limits of !enerali)ability of our study findin!s. ?ut letDs never for!et the error in the lo!ic that led so e to assu e that B/etter researchC reAuired# or was characteriHed# /y si ply havin! a lar!er nu /er of Bcases.C 1! De$ining disasters as nonroutine social problems highlights the

multidirectional path/ays that can enhance the $lo/s o$ research $indings and theoretical $rame/or"s among other sociologists, those oriented in other social science disciplines, and members o$ related pro$essions be they practicing

-2

emergency managers, $ire and la/ en$orcement, public health, la/, planning, and the li"e! ;hen * /e!an y reviews of several recently pu/lished social pro/le s texts# y

initial vision of this conclusion was totally inadeAuate. ?ein! /linded /y the past# * envisioned future social pro/le s texts wherein the disaster research le!acy would /e displayed. ;hether the insi!hts were sprin&led throu!hout standard chapters on fa ily# poverty# cri e# etc.# or /e hi!hli!hted in a separated chapter li&e IritHDs )7-67. did not atter to e as * pondered the challen!e with excite ent. Then * recall thin&in!# as * any. only does#

often do# BA does not preclude ?.C "o * saw a lot of wor& ahead for *t didnDt ta&e lon!# however# as to realiHe the severity of y pen pushed

y thin&in! as it co

y i paired vision. The challen!e !oes far /eyond future social ust /e ulti5directional. As we reach

pro/le s text/oo&s. And the infor ation flow out

ore freAuently to /rin! our B!oodsC to others wor&in! within different acade ic and

professional settin!s# we too will !row in unanticipated ways. "o eti es it will /e /ecause of Auestions or criticis . ?ut other ti es it will /e /ecause so eone else has had a creative insi!ht a/out a statistical the ethod or conceptual fra ewor& that helped

understand so e aspect of cri e# or how certain ele entary school classroo s

trau atiHed students trapped therein. *f we are open to such ideas# new ways to thin&in! a/out disasters and haHards will sti ulate !rowth. To the de!ree that we encoura!e isolation and separateness# our !rowth will /e constrained. Thin&in! throu!h the

nu erous lin&a!es afforded within social pro/le s perspectives will sti ulate such !rowth a on! disaster researchers.

-,

+! De$ining disasters as nonroutine social problems highlights a $ocus on root causes, both domestic and international! Recent writin!s /y ;is er et al. 200,# Enarson et al. 200, and pressed all of us to thin& harder a/out the any others have

eanin! of Bsocial vulnera/ilityC )e.!.#

FcEntire 2009.. 2atterns of ris& are shaped /y social processes that usually reflect the contours of power and privile!e. +oes the ris& of livin! in a flood prone area parallel the pathway that results in the death of a hate cri e victi despised /y his &illersL And do either of these ris&s whose sexual orientation is erit the a ount of pu/lic

expenditures currently /ein! allocated daily to ensure that all airline passen!ers re ove their shoes /efore /oardin!L ;e often hear rhetoric a/out fundin! decisions for disaster iti!ation and preparedness pro!ra s /ein! /ased on threat assess ents. ?ut what ran!e of threats are really /ein! assessed /y those holdin! and directin! the flow of dollarsL And when we return to the orientation proposed /y >art )2006.# and as& a/out the real sources of insecurity confrontin! all A erican citiHens# not <ust the well off# the lin&a!e to social pro/le s perspectives /eco es uch clearer. Ior it has /een within

these fra ewor&s# enriched /y /asic sociolo!ical studies of cri e# poverty# sexis # racis # a!eis /een and the li&e# that our understandin! of root causes of social problems has

ost enhanced. *ncreasin!ly# we ust fra e our research a!endas within cross5national and

historical contexts. The pollutants of Love 'anal fa e )e.!.# Levine 7-K2. did not arrive there li&e the 7--- tornado that hit Foore# @&laho a )+ra/e& 200,/.. And the wo an who was /eaten /adly /y a spouse# whose sense of frustration with flood relief run5 arounds and cleanup fati!ue /oiled over# is every uch a victi as those te porarily

-9

livin! in a Red 'ross shelter )e.!.# Iother!ill 2009.. ?ut we

ust di! deeper and

ulti ately confront the realities of Bthe power eliteC and their roles in the chan!in! distri/utions of ris& and patterns of victi iHation. ;hile ost ay prefer to stay within

the confines of flood studies# for exa ple# even if they accept the challen!e of cross5 societal analysis# even they ust confront the hu an caused nature of floodin! /e it construction or aintenance#

reflections of ti /er harvestin!# failed levee and da unre!ulated upstrea

develop ent# or <ust stupidity. @thers

ust venture into the less Record levels of ar s

charted waters of conflict disasters and their root causes. production and sales# expanded to the econo ic security of

ilitary trainin! facilities# and the li&e# are lin&ed directly any# not <ust those at the top. >ow such econo ic

interdependencies fuel policy decisions within /oth the pu/lic and private sector reAuire scrutiny. Ior it is within such structural arran!e ents that the root causes of the ost

violent disasters are to /e found. @ne need not accept the strate!y or the value set of the Benviron ental <ustice ove entC )e.!.# 2astor# et al. 2006.# for exa ple# /ut it i!ht

very well /e a !ood place to start. And so too is further reflection on the i plications of the conclusions reached /y Tho as 2aine in his initial essay on the BRi!hts of FanC )ori!inal pu/lication# 7(-7.. Ior exa ple# ponder the relevance of these words to an analysis of Broot causesC of disaster. BEvery war ter inates with an addition of taxes# and conseAuently with an addition of revenue8 and in any event of war# in the anner they are now co enced and concluded# the power and interest of 0overn ents are increased. ;ar# therefore# fro its productiveness# as it easily furnishes the pretence of necessity for taxes and appoint ents to places and offices# /eco es a principal part of the syste of old 0overn ents8 and to esta/lish any ode to a/olish war# however advanta!eous it i!ht /e to

-:

$ations# would /e to ta&e fro such 0overn ent the /ranches.C )2aine 200,# p. 2:9..

ost lucrative of its

3! De$ining disasters as nonroutine social problems can provide emergency managers /ith a theoretical $oundation that /ill enhance their capacity to more e$$ectively practice their pro$ession! "ince the creation of IEFA in 7-(-# the profession of e er!ency has experienced acceleration in its lon!5ter ;ilson and @yola5%e aiel 2000.. Iro ana!e ent

evolution )e.!.# 2eta& 7-K98 +ra/e& 7--78

two university de!ree pro!ra s in 7--6# /y a

decade later over 700 were operatin!. Additionally# over :0 pro!ra s were introducin! students to aspects of ho eland and defense security )?lanchard 2006.. * noted these earlier and y concern a/out the current capacity and interest of faculty in critical ana!e ent policy. * /elieve fir ly that the social pro/le s

exa ination of e er!ency

perspective on disaster that * have herein proposed would assist these faculty# and su/seAuently# those practicin! within this profession to develop a more strate!ic perspective on their profession. ?y explicitly reco!niHin! and /etter understandin! the ix of social trends and structures within which their a!encies are e /edded# ran!in! fro the local co unity to the international context# they will /etter /e a/le to provide

the leadership and technical expertise reflected in the vision state ents of their professional associations )e.!.# *nternational Association of E er!ency Fana!ers# *AEF.. And they will /etter /e a/le to !rasp the policy i plications of /road historical analyses li&e ?arryDs )200:. analysis of ilitary troop ove ents and e er!ent

Auarantine efforts that resulted in /oth the rapid spread of the 7-7K influenHa virus and poorly i ple ented iti!ation policies. Iurther ore# an understandin! of how social

-6

processes and structures# interact with environ ental realities li&e those descri/ed /y 4ared +ia ond )200:. in his theoretical fra ewor& of societal collapse# can provide e er!ency ana!ers with the /readth of &nowled!e essential for ore infor ed policy

review and creation. B;hen people are desperate# undernourished# and without hope# they /la e their !overn ents# which they see as responsi/le for or una/le to solve their pro/le s. They try to e i!rate at any cost. They fi!ht each other over land. They &ill each other. They start civil wars. They fi!ure that they have nothin! to loose# so they /eco e terrorists# or they support or tolerate terroris .C )+ia ond 200:# p. :76.. +isasters are nonroutine social pro/le s. At least that is one way of viewin! con<unctions of historical conditions and social definitions of physical har and social

disruption. *t is not the only way# nor does it preclude other definitions and perspectives. ?ut it is a perspective that offers so e uniAue insi!hts# inte!rative echanis s# and

lin&a!es to /oth su/stantive areas of study and the future practice of e er!ency ana!e ent. Than& you for your attention durin! y effort to explore this option.

-(

Re$erences A!uirre# ?eni!no E. 2009. B>o eland "ecurity ;arnin!s6 Lessons Learned and 3nlearned.C International ,ournal of Mass Emer!encies and Disasters 22 )$o. 2.6:75K0. A!uirre# ?eni!no E.# +ennis ;en!er and 0a/riela Rico. 7--K. BA Test of the E er!ent $or Theory of 'ollective ?ehavior.C Sociolo!ical 4orum 7,6,075,20. Altheide# +avid L. 2006. AltaFira 2ress. errorism and the &olitics of 4ear. Lanha # Faryland6

Anderson# ;illia A. 7-6-. B"ocial "tructure and the Role of the Filitary in $atural +isaster.C Sociolo!y and Social Research :,629252:2. Anderson# ;illia A. 7-(0. BFilitary @r!aniHations in $atural +isaster6 Esta/lished and E er!ent $or s.C (merican Behavioral Scientist 7,697:5922. Anderton# +ou!las L.# Andy ?. Anderson# 2eter Rossi# 4ohn F. @a&es# Fichael Iraser# Eleanor ;e/er# and Edward 'ala/rese. 7--9. B>aHardous ;aste Iacilities6 OEnviron ental EAuityD *ssues in Fetropolitan Areas.C Evaluation Review 7K )$o. 2.672,5790. ?arnshaw# 4ohn. 200:. B'ontinuin! "i!nificance of Race and 'lass A on! >ouston >urricane 1atrina Evacuees.C Natural Ha)ards *bserver ,0 )$o. 2.67757,. ?arry# 4ohn F. 200:. he 0reat Influen)a' History. $ew %or&6 2en!uin ?oo&s. he Epic Story of the Deadliest &la!ue in

?ars&y# Lauren# 4oseph Trainor# and Fanuel Torres. 2006. B+isaster Realities in the After ath of >urricane 1atrina6 Revisitin! the Lootin! Fyth.C Quic& Response Report $o. 7K9. ?oulder# 'olorado6 $atural >aHards 'enter# *nstitute of ?ehavioral "cience# 3niversity of 'olorado at ?oulder. ?arton# Allen >. 7-6,. Social *r!ani)ation 5nder Stress. ;ashin!ton# +.'.6 $ational Research 'ouncil# $ational Acade y of "ciences. ?arton# Allen >. 7-6-. #ommunities in Disaster' ( Sociolo!ical (nalysis of #ollective Stress Situations2 0arden 'ity# $ew %or&6 +ou/leday and 'o pany# *nc. ?arton# Allen >. 200:. B+isaster And 'ollective "tress.C 2p. 72:57:2 in /hat Is a Disaster6' New (nswers to *ld 7uestions# edited /y Ronald ;. 2erry and E.L. Quarantelli. 2hiladelphia# 2ennsylvania6 Yli/ris.

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Foynihan# +onald 2. 200:. 8evera!in! #ollaborative Networks in Infre3uent Emer!ency Situations. Fadison# ;isconsin6 *?F 'enter for the ?usiness of 0overn ent# 3niversity of ;isconsin5Fadison. Foynihan# +onald 2. 2006. B;hat Fa&es >ierarchical $etwor&s "ucceedL Evidence Iro >urricane 1atrina.C 2aper presented at the annual eetin! of the Association of 2u/lic 2olicy and Fana!e ent in Fadison# ;isconsin# $ove /er. $ational Acade y of 2u/lic Ad inistration. 7--,. #opin! with #atastrophe' Buildin! an Emer!ency Mana!ement System to Meet &eople1s Needs in Natural and Manmade Disasters ;ashin!ton# +.'.6 $ational Acade y of 2u/lic Ad inistration. $ational Acade y of 2u/lic Ad inistration. 7--9. Review of (ctions aken to Stren!then the Nation1s Emer!ency Mana!ement System. ;ashin!ton# +.'.6 $ational Acade y of 2u/lic Ad inistration. $ational 'o 2009. ission on Terrorist Attac&s 3pon the 3nited "tates )$'@TA3T3".. he ?D99 #ommission Report. $ew %or&6 ;.;. $orton.

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"chehr# Ro/ert 'arl. 200:. BThe Far!inaliHin! Rhetoric of $ationalis .C #ontemporary Sociolo!y ,9 )$o. 6.6602560:. "elect ?ipartisan 'o ittee to *nvesti!ate the 2reparation for and Response to >urricane 1atrina )"?'*2R>1.# 3.". >ouse of Representatives. 2006. ( 4ailure of Initiative' 4inal Report. ;ashin!ton# +.'.6 3.". 0overn ent 2rintin! @ffice. "hrivastava# 2aul. 7-K(. Bhopal' (natomy of a #risis2 'a /rid!e# Fassachusetts6 ?allin!er. "i pson# +avid F. and Fatin 1atirai. 2006. BFeasure ent and *ndicators for +isasters6 Topical ?i/lio!raphy.C );or&in! paper T06507.. Louisville# 1entuc&y6 'enter for >aHards Research and 2olicy +evelop ent# "chool of 3r/an and 2u/lic Affairs# 3niversity of Louisville. "lovic# 2aul# >oward 1unreuther# and 0il/ert I. ;hite. 7-(9. B+ecision 2rocesses# Rationality# and Ad<ust ent to $atural >aHards.C 2p. 7K(5206 in Natural

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"pren!el eyer# F.E. 200(. B6 %ears Later# >art La ents "tatus of $ational "ecurity.C Rocky Mountain News# 4anuary ,7# p. K. "tallin!s# Ro/ert A. 7--:. &romotin! Risk' #onstructin! the Earth3uake hreat . $ew %or&6 Aldine de0ruyter. "tallin!s# Ro/ert A. )ed... 2002. Methods of Disaster Research. 2ennsylvania6 Yli/ris 'orporation. 2hiladelphia#

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