HNC Materials Steve Goddard

Diagnose causes of failure of materials

The project I’m going to concentrate my research
on for this assignment will be helicopter rotor
blades. I chose these because they are a critical
and well developed part to every aircraft made in
the AgustaWestland.
Failure of a blade during flight would be considered
extremely un-acceptable, this means that every
possible aspect of failure would have been
researched.

The rotor blades are aerofoils that provide lift and,

unlike fixed wing aircraft, they can do this without
needing to move forward. This means helicopters
are ideally suited for flight operations in areas in
which there is no usable runway.
In addition to the single main rotor there is a tail
rotor, or a device designed to fulfil a similar
function, that prevents the helicopter simply
spinning around the rotor blade. The tail rotor
provides a force, which works against the direction
of the torque produced by the main rotor blades.
Dual rotor head helicopters overcome the torque AW139 – Main Rotor Blade
force by having the two rotor heads spinning in
opposite directions. Some rotor blade systems can move between the horizontal
and vertical plane depending on the stage of flight. These are found in the tilt
rotor aircraft.

The rotor blades fulfil two functions. Described in a simple way, they provide both
lift and thrust. The configuration of the rotor blade will depend on the design of
the helicopter and the purpose for which it is to be used, as well as the overall
weight. Some helicopters have a single rotor head with 2 blades, some have four
blades and some helicopters have two-rotor heads.

EH101 – ASW Italian Navy

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HNC Materials Steve Goddard

1. Identify potential causes of failure that may occur in service.

Potential causes of failure that may occur in service could be:

Causes of failure in some engineering industry investigations

Origin %
• Improper material selection 38
• Fabrication Defects 15
• Faulty Heat Treatment 15
• Mechanical Design Fault 11
8
• Unforeseen Operating Conditions
6
• Inadequate Environmental Control
5
• Improper or Lack of Inspection And Quality Control 2
• Material Mix-Up

Summary of data from laboratory reports on failed aircraft components

Origin %
• Improper Maintenance 44
• Fabrication Defects 17
• Design Deficiencies 16
• Abnormal Service Damage 10
7
• Defective Material
6
• Undetermined Cause

Mechanisms of failure in some engineering industry investigations

Mechanism %
• Corrosion 29
• Fatigue 25
• Brittle Fracture 16
• Overload 11
7
• High Temperature Corrosion
6
• Stress Corrosion/ Corrosion Fatigue/ Hydrogen
3
Embrittlement
3
• Creep
• Wear, Abrasion and Errosion

Mechanisms of failure of aircraft components

Origin %
• Fatigue 61
• Overload 18
• Stress-Corrosion 8
• Excessive Wear 7
3
• Corrosion
2
• High Temperature Oxidation
1
• Stress Rupture

All the data described above come from essential metallurgy for engineers by AC
Vivian.

The data clearly shows that in general with aircraft components, fatigue is the
main cause of failure followed by improper maintenance.

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HNC Materials Steve Goddard

2. Discuss the factors that may influence the service life of the
component.

I have thought of various things that may affect the service life of a rotor blade.
Although some of these reasons may seem quite general I have tried to
categorise them into each part of the components life.

Design • Material Selection

• Too much detail on the design for
the manufacturing process
• Size of weight saving cavities
• Aerodynamic shape
• Incorrect surface modelling
• Thickness
• Small Radii
• Sharp Corners
• Lack of finite element analysis*

Manufacturing • Manufacturing Process (i.e. sand

casting opposed to investment
casting)
• Machine Malfunction
• Inaccurate drawings
• Surface Imperfections
• Indentations
• Inclusions
• Poor surface finish (i.e. Corrosion)

Delivery • Inadequate Packaging

• Inappropriate transportation

In Service • Accidental Overloading

• Exposure to extreme heat
• Exposure to static mechanical
stresses
• Creep**

* Finite element analysis is the basically

a computer programme that analyses a
‘solid model’ and highlights areas of
stress concentrations usually using
colours this is an example of Finite
element analysis used on a gear box.

** Creep is defined as the time

dependant and permanent deformation
of components under a constant load or
stress. Creep is an undesired property
and will definitely have an impact on the
service life of the component. Polymers
are most sensitive to creep.

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HNC Materials Steve Goddard

Finite Element Analysis

Environmental factors will also affect the service life of the component. There are
two main types of environmental fatigue; Thermal fatigue: occurs when the
temperature is very varied, the changes in component temperature increase the
thermal stress, which can cause expansion or contraction of the component; and
Corrosion fatigue: this is caused by cyclic stresses and chemical attack. Even in a
normal environment corrosion fatigue will play a part in the service life of the
component. To start with there is a chemical reaction between the material and
environment which will result in small pits being formed in the material, which
then become stress concentration points. These pits will increase the crack
propagation which will in turn increase the chance of failure.
There are several ways to avoid corrosion fatigue they are:

• Apply a protective coating e.g. Alocrom, Anodising, Powder coating.

• Select a more corrosive resistant material.
• Reduce the corrosiveness of the environment.

It is also worth noting that combining materials in design, for example having Al-
Lith in contact with titanium can cause severe exfoliation corrosion.

3. Describe and illustrate the typical macroscopic features that would be

present in failures associated with:

Ductile fracture

Ductile fracture involves plastic deformation in the vicinity of an advancing crack,

and is a slow process. It is stable, and will not continue unless there is an increase
in the level of applied stress. It normally occurs in a trans-granular manner
(across the grains) in metals that have good ductility and toughness. Often, a
considerable amount of plastic deformation – including necking – is observed in
the failed component. This deformation occurs before the final fracture.
Ductile fractures are normally caused by simple overloads or by applying too high
a stress to the material, and exhibit characteristic surface features with a
significant portion of the fracture surface having an irregular, fibrous face. They
also have a small shear lip, where the fracture surface is at a 45° angle to the
applied stress. The shear lip, indicating that slip occurred, gives the fracture the
cup-and-cone appearance shown in Figure 2. Simple macroscopic observation of
this fracture may be sufficient to identify the ductile fracture mode.

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HNC Materials Steve Goddard

Macroscopic Ductile Fracture

Examination of the fracture surface at a high magnification – using a scanning

electron microscope (SEM) – reveals a dimpled surface. Under a normal tensile
stress, these dimples on the left picture are usually round or equiaxed (having the
same dimensions in all directions) – while if shear stress has been dominant, the
dimples are oval-shaped or elongated, with the ovals pointing towards the origin
of fracture as shown in the right picture.

Macroscopic Ductile Fracture surface

Brittle Fracture

In brittle fractures, cracks spread very rapidly, with little or no plastic flow, and
are so unstable that crack propagation occurs without further increase in applied
stress. They occur in high strength metals, in metals with poor ductility and
toughness, and in ceramics.
Even metals that are normally ductile may fail in a brittle manner at low
temperatures, in thick sections, at high strain rates (such as impact), or when
flaws play an important role. Brittle fractures are frequently observed when
impact rather than overload causes failure.
Brittle fracture can be identified by observing the features on the failed surface.
Normally, the fracture surface is flat and perpendicular to the applied stress in a
tensile test. If a failure occurs by cleavage, each fractured grain is flat and
differently oriented, giving a shiny, crystalline appearance to the fracture surface
(below).

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HNC Materials Steve Goddard

Macroscopic Brittle Fracture

Initiation of a crack normally occurs at small flaws which cause a concentration of

stress. Normally, the crack propagates most easily along specific crystallographic
planes by cleavage. However, in some cases, the crack may take an inter-
granular (along the grain boundaries) path, particularly when segregation or
inclusions weaken the grain boundaries (Figure 5). Note that a crack may
propagate at a speed approaching the speed of sound in the material!

Macroscopic view (x1000) of

Intergranular brittle fracture

Fatigue Fracture

A phenomenon which results in the sudden fracture of a component after a period

of cyclic loading in the elastic regime. Failure is the end result of a process
involving the initiation and growth of a crack, usually at the site of a stress
concentration on the surface. Occasionally, a crack may initiate at a fault just
below the surface. Eventually the cross sectional area is so reduced that the
component ruptures under a normal service load, but one at a level which has
been satisfactorily withstood on many previous occasions before the crack
propagated. The final fracture may occur in a ductile or brittle mode depending on
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HNC Materials Steve Goddard

the characteristics of the material. Fatigue fractures have a characteristic

appearance which reflects the initiation site and the progressive development of
the crack front, culminating in an area of final overload fracture. Fig. la illustrates
fatigue failure in a circular shaft. The initiation site is shown and the shell-like
markings, often referred to as beach markings because of their resemblance to
the ridges left in the sand by retreating waves, are caused by arrests in the crack
front as it propagates through the section. The hatched region on the opposite
side to the initiation site is the final region of ductile fracture. Sometimes there
may be more than one initiation point and two or more cracks propagate. This
produces features as in Fig. 1b with the the final area of ductile fracture being a
band across the middle. This type of fracture is typical of double bending where a
component is cyclically strained in one plane or where a second fatigue crack
initiates at the opposite side to a developing crack in a component subject to
reverse bending. Some stress-induced fatigue failures may show multiple
initiation sites from which separate cracks spread towards a common meeting
point within the section.

There are many types of corrosive attack, some are explained below:

Uniform attack is a form of electrochemical corrosion that will occur over the
exposed surface, and will leave behind a deposit. In a
macroscopic sense the oxidation occurs randomly
over the surface. Good examples of these are the
rusting of steel and iron and tarnishing of silver ware.
This is probably the most common type of corrosion
attack and can be easily predicted or rectified, it can
be prevented by careful component design and
material selection.

Galvanic corrosion is an electro

chemical action of two dissimilar metals in the
presence of an electrolyte and an electron
conductive path. It occurs when dissimilar
metals are in contact.

Crevice corrosion occurs in crevices and

recesses or under dirt, where the solution
becomes stagnant and there is localized depletion
of dissolved oxygen. The crevice must be wide
enough for the solution to penetrate, yet narrow
enough to let the ions and dissolved gases to
stagnate, usually within several thousands of an
inch. Crevice corrosion can be prevented by using
welded joints instead of riveting or bolted joints,
using non absorbent gaskets if possible, removing
accumulated deposits and designing the product so there are no stagnant areas
and good drains.

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HNC Materials Steve Goddard

Pitting is another form of localized corrosion where

small pits and holes can occur within the metal.
Pitting usually penetrates along the top of the
horizontal surface, downward in a vertical direction.
This is hard to identify or spot and usually going
undetected. The mechanism for pitting is the same
as crevice corrosion in that the oxidation occurs
within the pit itself. It is gravity that makes the pits
grow downwards, a pit may occur by a surface defect
such as a scratch or a variation in the composition of
the material. Pitting can be prevented by ensuring that all materials used have a
good surface finish.

Erosion corrosion occurs from the combined

action of chemical attack and mechanical abrasion
or wear as a consequence of fluid motion. Virtually
all metal alloys are susceptible to erosion corrosion.
The best way to reduce erosion corrosion is to
change the design features to eliminate fluid
turbulence i.e. reducing tight corners, change in
diameter

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is caused by the

simultaneous effects o f tensile stress and a specific
corrosive environment. Stresses may be due to
applied loads, residual stresses from the
manufacturing process, or a combination of both. To
start with small cracks form and then propagate
perpendicular to the stress with the end result
occurring in failure.

4. Evaluate the methods that could be used to provide an estimate of

the life of the component

Page 8 of 11 Blade Test facility at Boeing

HNC Materials Steve Goddard

The easiest method of estimating a components life it to carry out fatigue tests on
it. By setting up a test rig that will replicate the typical forces the component will
suffer under normal use.
The blade would be attached the test rig. Then you would have actuators creating
forces up and down on the blade, using strain gauges to measure the forces
applied. The actuators would be set to cycle through load cases determined by a
pc.

The aim of the rig testing is to establish a set of points along an S-N Curve. By
setting the maximum force to say 400MPa, and using a frequency that would be
typical to the component you can determine how many cycles it takes before
failure. This can sometimes be a very long process and often a high frequency is
used to complete the test data in less time. This would then be repeated for
different forces, say 350, 300, 250, 200 MPa etc; until a good curve can be
created, and extrapolated down until maximum cycles at low forces can be seen.
This is done because it would take far too long to actually test with these
conditions, it would take too long. Also after a certain point the curve or line
becomes relatively constant.

The pictures below show how a 32 m rotor blade is fatigue tested by being bent
cyclically in a flap wise direction for 5 million full cycles. A full flap wise test thus
takes about three months.
If you look closely to the left you can see another (shorter) rotor blade being bent
cyclically in an edgewise (chord wise) direction.
In both cases the blades are bent using a cycle close to the natural frequency of
the blade.
The natural frequency is the frequency with which the blade will oscillate back
and forth, if you push it once in a certain direction and let go. The natural
frequencies are different in the flap wise and edgewise direction: The blade tends
to be much stiffer in the edgewise direction, thus it has a higher natural frequency
for edgewise bending.
Each blade is set in motion by an electric motor mounted on the blade which
swings a weight up and down. The foundations which carry the blade socket have
to be very solid: The foundation for the large blade socket consists of 2,000
tonnes of concrete.
This video which these pictures were taken from was shot at the rotor blade test
facility of the Risoe National Laboratory Sparkær Test Centre in Jutland, Denmark.

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HNC Materials Steve Goddard

The pictures above show screen shots from a video illustrating fatigue tests on
blades.

The measurement results from the strain

gauges are continuously monitored on
computers. Nonlinear variations in the pattern
of bending may reveal damage in the rotor
blade structure.

Static Testing of Rotor Blades

Rotor blades are also tested for strength (and thus their ability to withstand
extreme loads) by being bent once with a very large force. This test is made after
the blades has been subject to fatigue testing, in order to verify the strength for a
blade which has been in operation for a substantial amount of time.

5. Suggest suitable methods for improving the service life of the

component

Suitable methods for improving the service life of the component would be to
analysis the testing that is done on a previous product and look at areas that
could be improved and modified to create a superior product.
Other ways would be to ensure that the points mentioned in the list for question 1
are all considered in the life of the blade.
Materials could also be changed and new alloys with specific properties could be
used to increase the life of the blade.

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HNC Materials Steve Goddard

Bibliography

http://www.ami.ac.uk/courses/topics/0124_seom/index.html#2 –
Fracture

http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/manu/bladtest.htm - Blade Test

Info

Creep and Fatigue Notes from class

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