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CE 31D STRUCTURAL DESIGN II

EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN OUTLINE OF TOPICS (3 No. Sessions at 2 hrs each) by R. Clarke Delivery Media:
Oral Internet Blackboard Handouts Slides/Transparencies

Equipment:

Slide Projector

Transparency Projector

Computer Projector

Objective: To enable the earthquake-resistant design of regular RC space frame buildings. Scope/Limitations: UBC-94; Regular Buildings; Special Ductile Moment-Resisting Space Frames of Reinforced Concrete. Primary Approach: Procedure-Based; Graphics-Based; Example-Based. TOPICS 1.0 The Effects of Earthquakes on Buildings 1.1 The Earthquake Cause-to-Effect Chain 1.2 Typical Building Responses to Inertia (Framed Buildings) 2.0 Earthquake-Resistant Structural Design 2.1 The Design Earthquake 2.2 Earthquake Resistant Design Philosophy 3.0 Earthquake-Resisting Structural Systems 4.0 The Earthquake-Resistant Design of RC Special Ductile Moment-Resisting Space Frames 4.1 Load Combinations 4.2 Beam Design 4.3 Column Design 5.0 Example Design of a RC Special Ductile Moment-Resisting Space

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1.0

The Effects of Earthquakes on Buildings

1.1

The Earthquake Cause-to-Effect Chain

In accordance with tectonic plate theory, the earths crust is divided into a number of plates. These plates, which are composed of rock, are interlocked at their surface thereby forming fault lines. However, each plate is moving relative to the other so that over time, the interlocked plates develop strain and therefore potential energy is stored in the plates at the fault. When this strain reaches a limit, the plates slip and release the energy. This is the primary cause of an earthquake. This release of energy generates two types of waves: body waves (P and S), which radiate from the sources of the slip, and surface waves (L and R), which are restricted to the surface (Fig 1 items 1 to 3). The P wave propagates in the same direction as its motion and travels at about 5.6 km/s and is the first wave to arrive at a location. The S wave propagates at right angles to its motion and travels at about 3.2 km/s. S waves inflict more damage to a building since they transmit more energy. Surface waves travel more slowly than body waves, and R waves generally travel slower that L waves. All the waves are refracted and reflected at discontinuities, and reflected at the surface, so that at any point a complex combination of wave-forms arrives over a period greater than that taken for the original disturbance. The magnitude of an earthquake is an expression of the amount of energy released at the source of the earthquake (called the hypocentre or focus) and is usually expressed using a logarithmic scale (e.g. Richter scale). The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of the actual ground shaking at a particular point on the surface of the ground. A qualitative measure of the intensity is the MM scale which ranges from I to XII and is a subjective assessment based on observation of the effects of the earthquake (e.g. an earthquake is of MM intensity V if it is felt outdoors; sleepers are awakened; doors swing, etc). A common quantitative measure of earthquake intensity is the ground acceleration. This is recorded on an accelerometer for the duration of the earthquake (Fig 1). The ground shaking is a dynamic phenomenon in that it induces inertia forces on a building (Fig 1 item 4). The inertia forces are in a feedback relationship with the building. This is because the magnitude of the inertia forces depends on the deformation of the building, which in turn depends on the magnitude of the inertia forces.

1.2

Typical Building Responses to Earthquakes (Framed Buildings)

The inertia forces are the applied loads on the building. The total inertia force is equivalent to the base shear, V of seismic design code formulae. The design engineer must know the values of the inertia forces in order to analyse and then design the building. Although the inertia forces vary with time, the engineer is typically concerned with the maximum inertia force applied at each floor. The inertia force acting on a floor is applied through the CG of the floor (Fig 2). However, the CG of the floor does not coincide with the centre of stiffness or rigidity, CR, of the floor (Fig 3). Hence this causes torsion of the floor, in addition to the direct inertia forces (Fig 4). Though we know the inertia and torsion forces on the floor, the building is typically modelled as a space frame. Therefore to analyse the building, the inertia and torsion forces his must be converted to point loads on the frames (Fig.5). Analysis of the frame under the earthquake loads gives certain typical patterns of the design actions (moments, shears and axial loads) for the structural elements.

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Fig 6 to 8 shows typical bending moment and shearing force diagrams for beams. Fig 9 shows typical axial load and bending moment diagrams for columns.

2.0

Earthquake-Resistant Structural Design 2.1 The Design Earthquake

In order to design buildings to resist earthquakes, the first question to be answered is what magnitude of force must the building resist. The design earthquake can be defined in terms of any effect resulting from the fault slip (e.g. ground acceleration, ground velocity, ground motion spectra, etc) and that imposes stresses on the building. Hence, the design earthquake must be differentiated from the design event. It is common to express the design earthquake in terms of the ground acceleration. The design earthquake is typically defined with respect to an event with a 90% probability of non-exceedence in a 50 year period. This corresponds to an earthquake with a return period of 475 years. This is usually determined by seismologists through study of the history of earthquakes for the area in question. The outcome of this study is typically an iso-acceleration contour map for the area. This describes the design earthquake in terms of a percentage of the acceleration due to gravity (e.g. 0.3g). Earthquakes of the order of 0.08g are considered minor earthquakes, and greater than 0.3g are considered to be major earthquakes. It must be emphasised however that in addition to the magnitude of ground shaking, building damage due to earthquakes is a function of the duration of the earthquake, or number of cycles of vibration when the building is in the inelastic range. 2.2 Earthquake Resistant Design Philosophy

The general philosophy of earthquake resistant building design is that: (a) For minor earthquakes there should be no damage (b) For moderate earthquakes there may be minor, repairable, structural damage and some non-structural damage (c) For major earthquakes - there may be major, unrepairable, structural and nonstructural damage but without collapse of the building. Though the building can be designed to remain in the elastic range of material behaviour for major earthquakes (as it must be for nuclear facilities), by international consensus, it is agreed that this approach is most economical. This approach is called design by hysteretic damping. The objective is to allow the structure to enter the inelastic range at certain points, and maximise the energy absorbed by plastic flow. To achieve this, any type of possible brittle failure (e.g. shear failure, bond failure, slip, etc) must be suppressed as much as possible. This approach is therefore based on the need for ductility in the structural system chosen to resist the earthquake. Some systems (materials plus geometric configuration) are naturally more ductile than others. Each system has a ductility capacity. This capacity is determined, in the case of reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry, by the arrangement of the reinforcement. In the case of structural steel the ductility capacity is determined by the arrangement of the connections, and selection of the section types. Since the ductility demand on the structure is typically not calculated, it is important that the detailing be consistent with the force reduction factor used to determine the base shear.

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GENERAL PROCESS FLOWCHART FOR EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN OF BUILDINGS

1. Choose Structural System

2. Choose Earthquake Direction

3. Determine Base Shear, V, by ELF

4. Distribute V vertically to each floor

5. Check if Dynamic Analysis (DA) is reqd (due to irregularity)

6. Perform DA (Response Spectrum or Modal Analysis are typical; Time History; Non-Linear Dynamics sometimes used). 7. Reduce Inertia Forces due to ductility (except for non-linear dyn) 8. Compare with V from ELF and use larger value

Is DA reqd?
y

9. For each floor, distribute inertia forces horizontally to each system including torsion

All eq directions considered ?

10. Consider next earthquake direction

Change system properties or Choose another system

y

11. Apply load combinations

12. Analyse structure to get member design actions (M,V,P). 13. Check structure for if drift and overturning are within limits.

Drift, OT are OK?

14. Design and detail each member; apply ductility rules. END

- Typically (too often) not done; structure assumed to be regular and torsion negligible

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a (ms-2)

Typical accelerogram t 4. Inertia (dynamic) forces on each floor

3. L and R surface waves

Soil

Rock

2. P and S waves propagated in rock and soil.

1. Fault slip

Fig. 1. The Cause-to-Effect chain of earthquake forces on buildings.

Roof slab CG

Inertia force at each floor always acts through CG of that floor

BUT,

Fig. 2. Distribution of Inertia Forces to floors.

Roof slab CR, Centre of Rigidity Each floor has a centre of rigidity or stiffness , (CR), relative to a horizontal (lateral) load acting at right angles to the floor. This is because each floor is supported by frames and/or walls that resist the lateral load.

CG and CR do not coincide

(due to asymmetry, in plan view, of the location, dimensions, and materials of the frame and/or walls)

Fig. 3. The centre of rigidity concept.

This causes torsion of the floor that, in effect, increases the lateral load on the floor.

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e, eccentricity

Inertia force plus torsion

Fig. 4. The generation of torsion on a floor.

F1

F2

F3

F4

F1

F2

F3

F4

Fig. 5. Horizontal Distribution of Inertial and Torsional forces to Individual Frames or Walls.

Inertial and torsional storey forces distributed to frames and/or walls in proportion to relative stiffness (for rigid floors).
Negative moment

right

Positive moment

E left

Fig. 6. Beam Moments Under E only.

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Moments under D+L

Moments under E right

Moments under D+L+ E right

Fig. 7. Beam Moments Under D+L+E right at the same time.

= M/L

Shear under D+L E right E left

Shear under E

Shear under D+L+ E

Fig. 8. Beam Shear Under D+L+E .

Typical column axial load (P) envelope.

Typical column moment (M) envelope under E.

P/bh

Over-reinforced behaviour

Balance point

Under-reinforced behaviour

M/bh2

Fig. 9. Column strength interaction curve (for section x-x).

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3.0

Earthquake Resistant Structural Systems1

A system is a unified collection of inter-connected parts. A system has a unique matrix of properties and behaviour (i.e. changes of properties) that defines it. A structural system is a collection of structural elements intended to be the primary vehicle in transferring loads on the structure from its source, to the soil. An earthquake-resistant structural system is a structural system with properties and behaviour that are favourable towards the objective of adequately resisting earthquakes. Given that the main earthquake-resistant design philosophy is the use of the phenomenon of hysteretic damping to resist earthquakes, this implies that a main desirable property of the system is high ductility. Systems comprised of certain materials and methods of construction, naturally possess better system ductilities than others. An overall measure of the system allowable or ultimate ductility is the Rw factor of the UBC-94 response modification factor. The larger the Rw value, the better the system ductility. See the attached table for examples. Other desirable properties which promote high ductility and overall favourable seismic response of the structural system are: regularity; continuous load path; short load path; multiple load paths (redundancy), and strong connections. These requirements translate into a set of dos and donts with respect to the geometric configuration of the structural system. It is not that the donts will not work, but the reliability of the response calculations will be quite low. By experience, the dos give adequate performance. See the attached table for examples.

4.0

The Earthquake-Resistant Design of RC Special Ductile Moment-Resisting Space Frames

The following is an example of the desirable hinge mechanism for ductile momentresisting frames.

= (xu - xy)/ xy = ductility xu = Ultimate deflection xy = Yield deflection

Though ductility is typically stated as the key requirement for earthquake resistant structural systems (designed by the hysteretic damping concept), it must be emphasized that this is due to the high energy absorption under dynamic conditions that results when the system has high ductility. Therefore to be more specific, the primary parameter is the
1

Excerpted and modified from Earthquake Resistant Design For Engineers and Architects 2nd Edition, Wiley-Interscience, by David J. Dowrick, Earthquake Design Practice, Thomas Telford,London, by David Key, and The Seismic Design Handbook, Chapman and Hall, Edited by Farzad Naeim.

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energy absorption. This is displayed by the load-deflection hysteresis loops of the structural system as it undergoes the dynamic motion. A typical example for regular structural steelwork ductile moment-resisting space frames is as follows. This system displays the maximum possible energy absorption of all present available earthquake resistant structural systems. The energy absorption is equivalent to the total area of the hysteresis loops. The shape of the typical loop shown is called the spindle shape, and is considered the ideal loop shape.

General Comments All frame elements must be detailed so that they can respond to strong earthquakes in a ductile fashion. Any elements which are necessarily incapable of ductile behaviour must be designed to remain elastic at ultimate load conditions. Non-ductile modes such as shear and bond failures must be avoided. This implies that anchorage and splices of rebars should not be done in areas of high concrete stress, and a high resistance to shear should be provided. Rigid elements should be attached to the structure with ductile or flexible fixings. As many zones of energy-absorbing ductility as possible should be provided before a failure mechanism is created. For framed structures this means that the yielding should occur first in the beams, then in the columns (weak beam-strong column). Movement joints should be provided at discontinuities so that pounding is avoided.

Summary of Factors Affecting Ductility of Reinforced Concrete Members:For practical values of section size and reinforcement: Section ductility capacity is increased for: An increase in the compression reinforcement An increase in concrete compressive strength An increase in ultimate concrete strain

Section ductility capacity is decreased for: An increase in tensile steel reinforcement An increase in steel yield strength An increase in axial load

General Materials Requirements:Concrete Quality: The minimum recommended characteristic cylinder crushing strength is 20 MPa but less than 27 MPa for lightweight concrete

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Reinforcement Quality: Suitable quality must be ensured by both specification and testing. An adequate minimum yield stress may be ensured by specifying steel to an appropriate standard, such as BS4449 or ASTM A615 or A706. The actual yield stress should not exceed the minimum specified yield stress by more than 124 MPa. Grades of steel with characteristic strength in excess of 415 MPa should not be used.

4.1 Load Combinations (ACI-83)

U = 1.4D + 1.7L U = 0.75[ 1.4D + 1.7L 1.87E] U = 0.9D 1.43E U = Ultimate Load (or its effects) D = Dead Load (or its effects) L = Live Load (or its effects) E = Earthquake load (or its effects)

4.2 Beam Design Rules: 1. 2. 3. 4. b/h shall not be less than 0.3 (b, total beam width; h, total beam depth). b shall not be less than 250mm. b shall not be greater the column width plus 0.75h on each side. The minimum longitudinal steel content as a fraction of the gross cross-sectional area of the web shall be 1.4/fy (N/mm2) or 200/fy (psi). 5. The maximum longitudinal steel content as a fraction of the gross cross-sectional area of the web shall be 0.025 6. The positive moment strength at the beam-column joint face shall not be less than one-half of the negative moment strength provided. 7. At any section in the beam span, neither the negative nor the positive moment strength shall be less than a quarter of the maximum moment provided at the face of either beam-column joint. 8. Lap splices shall not be used: within joints; within 2h from the face of the beamcolumn joint, at locations of potential plastic hinging. 9. Lap splices where used shall be confined by hoops or spiral reinforcement with a maximum spacing or pitch of d/4 or 100mm (d, effective depth to main steel). 10. Transverse reinforcement in beams must satisfy requirements associated with their dual function as confinement reinforcement and shear reinforcement. 11. Confinement reinforcement in the form of hoops is required: over a distance 2d from the column face, over distances 2d on both sides of sections within the span where flexural yielding may occur due to earthquake loading. 12. The first hoop shall be 50mm from the column face and the maximum hoop spacing shall be the smallest of d/4; 8 times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar; 24 times the diameter of the hoop bar, or 300mm. 13. Where hoops are not required, the hoop spacing shall be less than d/2. 14. Shear reinforcement is to be provided so as to preclude shear failure prior to the development of plastic hinges at the beam ends. Design shears for determining shear reinforcement are to be based on a condition where plastic hinges occur at beam ends due to the combined effects of lateral displacement and factored gravity loads. The probable flexural strength associated with a plastic hinge is to be computed using a strength reduction factor of 1.0 and assuming a stress in the tensile reinforcement of 1.25 fy. Note that the hoop reinforcement may satisfy the shear steel requirements and vice versa.

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15. In determining the required shear reinforcement, the contribution of the concrete is to be neglected if the shear associated with the probable flexural strengths at the beam ends is greater than one-half the total design shear, and the factored axial compressive force including earthquake effects, is less than Agfc/20.

4.3 Column Design Rules: 1. The shorter cross-sectional dimension shall be greater than or equal to 300mm. 2. The ratio of shorter dimension to the perpendicular dimension shall be greater than or equal to 0.4. 3. The maximum and minimum longitudinal steel content as a fraction of the gross cross-sectional area shall be 0.06 and 0.01. 4. For all members framing into a beam column joint, the sum of the flexural strength of the columns (for the relevant axial load level) must be greater than 1.2 times the sum of the flexural strength of the beams. 5. Lap splices are to be used only in the middle half of the column. 6. As in beams, transverse reinforcement in columns must be provide confinement to the concrete core and lateral support to the longitudinal bars, as well as shear resistance. In columns however, the transverse reinforcement must all be in the form of closed hoops or continuous spiral reinforcement. Sufficient reinforcement should be provided to satisfy the requirements for confinement or shear, whichever is larger. 7. Confinement requirements: For spiral reinforcement or circular hoop reinforcement, the volumetric ratio must be greater than, 0.12 fc/ fyh or 0.45[(Ag/Ach) 1] (fc/ fyh) fyh is the specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement, Ach is the core area of column section measured to the outside of transverse the transverse reinforcement in in2. For rectangular hoop reinforcement total cross-sectional area within spacing s, must be greater than, 0.12shc fc/ fyh or 0.3 shc [(Ag/Ach) 1] (fc/ fyh), hc = cross-sectional dimension of column core, measured centre-to-centre of confining reinforcement. 8. The maximum hoop spacing shall be the smallest of: quarter the smaller crosssectional dimension, or 100mm. 9. The hoop reinforcement is to be provided over a length l0 from each joint face, where l0 is the largest of: d, one-sixth the clear span of the member, or 450mm 10. Transverse reinforcement for shear in columns is to be based on the shear associated with the largest nominal moment strengths at the column ends (using fy and = 1) corresponding to the factored axial compressive force resulting from the largest moment strengths. 11. Generally, it will be necessary to provide multiple stirrups, or stirrups and cross-ties, in order to give satisfactory confinement and restraint to main column reinforcement. Generally, overlapping hoops are to be preferred. In either case, one stirrup should surround the whole of the main reinforcement. Where restrained bars are less than 200mm apart, it is not necessary to restrain intermediate bars. As an exercise, the student should examine ACI-315 on the seismic detailing rules for reinforced concrete elements.