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Mechanics (Greek ) is the branch of science concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when s b!

ected to forces or displace"ents# and the s bse$ ent effects of the bodies on their environ"ent% &he scientific discipline has its ori'ins in (ncient Greece with the writin's of (ristotle and (rchi"edes)*+),+)-+ (see .istory of classical "echanics and &i"eline of classical "echanics)% / rin' the early "odern period# scientists s ch as Galileo# 0epler# and especially 1ewton# laid the fo ndation for what is now known as classical "echanics% 2t is a branch of classical physics that deals with particles that are either at rest or are "ovin' with velocities si'nificantly less than the speed of li'ht% 2t can also be defined as a branch of science which deals with the "otion of and forces on ob!ects%
Contents
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o o o o o o

* 3lassical vers s $ ant " , 4elativistic vers s 1ewtonian "echanics - General relativistic vers s $ ant " 5 .istory 5%* (nti$ ity 5%, 6edieval a'e 5%- 7arly "odern a'e 5%5 6odern a'e 8 &ypes of "echanical bodies 9 : b;disciplines in "echanics 9%* 3lassical "echanics 9%, < ant " "echanics = >rofessional or'ani?ations @ :ee also A 4eferences *B C rther readin' ** 7Dternal links

3lassical vers s $ ant ")edit+

Classical mechanics

Branches)hide+ .istory &i"eline

o o
Formulations)show+

:tatics

/yna"ics 0inetics 0ine"atics (pplied "echanics 3elestial "echanics 3ontin " "echanics

:tatistical "echanics

Fundamental concepts)show+ Core topics)show+ Rotational motion)show+ Scientists)show+

E & 7

Quantum mechanics
2ntrod ction Glossary .istory

Background)show+

Fundamental concepts)show+

Experiments)show+

Formulations)show+

Equations)show+

Interpretations)show+

Ad anced topics)show+

Scientists)show+

E & 7

&he "a!or division of the "echanics discipline separates classical "echanics fro" $ ant " "echanics% .istorically# classical "echanics ca"e first# while $ ant " "echanics is a co"paratively recent invention% 3lassical "echanics ori'inated with 2saac 1ewtonFs laws of "otion in Principia MathematicaG < ant " 6echanics was discovered in *A,8% Hoth are co""only held to constit te the "ost certain knowled'e that eDists abo t physical nat re% 3lassical "echanics has especially often been viewed as a "odel for other so;called eDact sciences% 7ssential in this respect is the relentless se of "athe"atics in theories# as well as the decisive role played by eDperi"ent in 'eneratin' and testin' the"% < ant " "echanics is of a wider scope# as it enco"passes classical "echanics as a s b;discipline which applies nder certain restricted circ "stances% (ccordin' to the correspondence principle# there is no contradiction or conflict between the two s b!ects# each si"ply pertains to specific sit ations% &he correspondence principle states that the behavior of syste"s described by $ ant " theories reprod ces classical physics in the li"it of lar'e $ ant " n "bers% < ant " "echanics has s perseded classical "echanics at the fo ndational level and is indispensable for the eDplanation and prediction of processes at "olec lar and (s b)ato"ic level% .owever# for "acroscopic processes classical "echanics is able to solve proble"s which are n"ana'eably diffic lt in $ ant " "echanics and hence re"ains sef l and well sed% 6odern descriptions of s ch behavior be'in with a caref l definition of s ch $ antities as displace"ent (distance "oved)# ti"e# velocity# acceleration# "ass# and force% Intil abo t 5BB years a'o# however# "otion was eDplained fro" a very different point of view% Cor eDa"ple# followin' the ideas of Greek philosopher and scientist (ristotle# scientists reasoned that a cannonball falls down beca se its nat ral position is in the 7arthG the s n# the "oon# and the stars travel in circles aro nd the earth beca se it is the nat re of heavenly ob!ects to travel in perfect circles% &he 2talian physicist and astrono"er Galileo bro 'ht to'ether the ideas of other 'reat thinkers of his ti"e and be'an to analy?e "otion in ter"s of distance traveled fro" so"e startin' position and the ti"e that it took% .e showed that the speed of fallin' ob!ects increases steadily d rin' the ti"e of their fall% &his acceleration is the sa"e for heavy ob!ects as for li'ht ones# provided air friction (air resistance) is disco nted% &he 7n'lish "athe"atician and physicist 2saac 1ewton i"proved this analysis by definin' force and "ass and relatin' these to acceleration% Cor ob!ects travelin' at speeds close to the speed of

li'ht# 1ewtonJs laws were s perseded by (lbert 7insteinJs theory of relativity% Cor ato"ic and s bato"ic particles# 1ewtonJs laws were s perseded by $ ant " theory% Cor everyday pheno"ena# however# 1ewtonJs three laws of "otion re"ain the cornerstone of dyna"ics# which is the st dy of what ca ses "otion%

4elativistic vers s 1ewtonian "echanics)edit+


2n analo'y to the distinction between $ ant " and classical "echanics# 7insteinFs 'eneral and special theories of relativity have eDpanded the scope of1ewton and GalileoFs for" lation of "echanics% &he differences between relativistic and 1ewtonian "echanics beco"e si'nificant and even do"inant as the velocity of a "assive body approaches the speed of li'ht% Cor instance# in 1ewtonian "echanics# 1ewtonFs laws of "otion specify that # whereas in 4elativistic "echanics and Korent? transfor"ations# which were first discovered by .endrik Korent?# speeds)% ( is the Korent? factor# which is al"ost e$ al to * for low

General relativistic vers s $ ant ")edit+


4elativistic corrections are also needed for $ ant " "echanics# altho 'h 'eneral relativity has not been inte'rated% &he two theories re"ain inco"patible# a h rdle which " st be overco"e in developin' a theory of everythin'%

.istory)edit+
Main articles: History of classical mechanics and History of quantum mechanics

Antiquit!)edit+
Main article: Aristotelian mechanics &he "ain theory of "echanics in anti$ ity was (ristotelian "echanics%)5+ ( later developer in this tradition is .ipparch s%)8+

Medie al age)edit+
Main article: Theory of impetus

(rabic 6achine 6an script% Inknown date (at a ' essL *9th to *Ath cent ries)%

2n the 6iddle ('es# (ristotleFs theories were critici?ed and "odified by a n "ber of fi' res# be'innin' with Mohn >hilopon s in the 9th cent ry% ( central proble" was that of pro!ectile "otion# which was disc ssed by .ipparch s and >hilopon s% &his led to the develop"ent of the theory of i"pet s by *5th cent ry Crench Mean H ridan# which developed into the "odern theories of inertia# velocity# acceleration and "o"ent "% &his work and others was developed in *5th cent ry 7n'land by the NDford 3alc lators s ch as &ho"as Hradwardine# who st died and for" lated vario s laws re'ardin' fallin' bodies% Nn the $ estion of a body s b!ect to a constant ( nifor") force# the *,th cent ry Mewish; (rab 1athanel (2ra$i# of Ha'hdad) stated that constant force i"parts constant acceleration# while the "ain properties are nifor"ly accelerated "otion (as of fallin' bodies) was worked o t by the *5th cent ry NDford 3alc lators%

Earl! modern age)edit+


&wo central fi' res in the early "odern a'e are Galileo Galilei and 2saac 1ewton% GalileoFs final state"ent of his "echanics# partic larly of fallin' bodies# is his Two New Sciences (*9-@)% 1ewtonFs *9@= Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica provided a detailed "athe"atical acco nt of "echanics# sin' the newly developed "athe"atics of calc l s and providin' the basis of 1ewtonian "echanics%)8+ &here is so"e disp te over priority of vario s ideasL 1ewtonFs Principia is certainly the se"inal work and has been tre"endo sly infl ential# and the syste"atic "athe"atics therein did not and co ld not have been stated earlier beca se calc l s had not been developed% .owever# "any of the ideas# partic larly as pertain to inertia (i"pet s) and fallin' bodies had been developed and stated by earlier researchers# both the then;recent Galileo and the less;known "edieval predecessors% >recise credit is at ti"es diffic lt or contentio s beca se scientific lan' a'e and standards of proof chan'ed# so whether "edieval state"ents are equivalent to "odern state"ents or sufficient proof# or instead similar to "odern state"ents and hypotheses is often debatable%

Modern age)edit+
&wo "ain "odern develop"ents in "echanics are 'eneral relativity of 7instein# and $ ant " "echanics# both developed in the ,Bth cent ry based in part on earlier *Ath cent ry ideas%

&ypes of "echanical bodies)edit+


&h s the often; sed ter" "od! needs to stand for a wide assort"ent of ob!ects# incl din' particles# pro!ectiles# spacecraft# stars# parts of "achinery# parts of solids# parts of fl ids ('ases andli$ ids)# etc% Nther distinctions between the vario s s b;disciplines of "echanics# concern the nat re of the bodies bein' described% >articles are bodies with little (known) internal str ct re# treated as "athe"atical points in classical "echanics% 4i'id bodies have si?e and shape# b t retain a si"plicity close to that of the particle# addin' ! st a few so;called de'rees of freedo"# s ch as orientation in space% Ntherwise# bodies "ay be se"i;ri'id# i%e% elastic# or non;ri'id# i%e% fl id% &hese s b!ects have both classical and $ ant " divisions of st dy% Cor instance# the "otion of a spacecraft# re'ardin' its orbit and attit de (rotation)# is described by the relativistic theory of classical "echanics# while the analo'o s "ove"ents of an ato"ic n cle s are described by $ ant " "echanics%

: b;disciplines in "echanics)edit+
&he followin' are two lists of vario s s b!ects that are st died in "echanics% 1ote that there is also the Otheory of fieldsO which constit tes a separate discipline in physics# for"ally treated as distinct fro" "echanics# whether classical fields or $ ant " fields% H t in act al practice# s b!ects belon'in' to "echanics and fields are closely interwoven% &h s# for instance# forces that act on particles are fre$ ently derived fro" fields (electro"a'netic or 'ravitational)# and particles 'enerate fields by actin' as so rces% 2n fact# in $ ant " "echanics# particles the"selves are fields# as described theoretically by the wave f nction%

Classical mechanics)edit+

>rof% Palter Kewin eDplains 1ewtonFs law of 'ravitation in 62& co rse @%B*)9+

&he followin' are described as for"in' classical "echanicsL 1ewtonian "echanics# the ori'inal theory of "otion (kine"atics) and forces (dyna"ics)%

(nalytical "echanics is a refor" lation of 1ewtonian "echanics with an e"phasis on syste" ener'y# rather than on forces% &here are two "ain branches of analytical "echanicsL ener'y% action% Ka'ran'ian "echanics# another theoretical for"alis"# based on the principle of the least .a"iltonian "echanics# a theoretical for"alis"# based on the principle of conservation of

3lassical statistical "echanics 'enerali?es ordinary classical "echanics to consider syste"s in an nknown stateG often sed to derivether"odyna"ic properties% 3elestial "echanics# the "otion of bodies in spaceL planets# co"ets# stars# 'alaDies# etc% (strodyna"ics# spacecraft navi'ation# etc% :olid "echanics# elasticity# the properties of defor"able bodies% Cract re "echanics (co stics# so nd ( Q density variation propa'ation) in solids# fl ids and 'ases% :tatics# se"i;ri'id bodies in "echanical e$ ilibri " Cl id "echanics# the "otion of fl ids :oil "echanics# "echanical behavior of soils 3ontin " "echanics# "echanics of contin a (both solid and fl id)

.ydra lics# "echanical properties of li$ ids Cl id statics# li$ ids in e$ ilibri " (pplied "echanics# or 7n'ineerin' "echanics Hio"echanics# solids# fl ids# etc% in biolo'y Hiophysics# physical processes in livin' or'anis"s 4elativistic or 7insteinian "echanics# niversal 'ravitation%

Quantum mechanics)edit+
&he followin' are cate'ori?ed as bein' part of $ ant " "echanicsL :chrRdin'er wave "echanics# sed to describe the "otion of the wavef nction of a sin'le particle% 6atriD "echanics is an alternative for" lation that allows considerin' syste"s with a finite; di"ensional state space% < ant " statistical "echanics 'enerali?es ordinary $ ant " "echanics to consider syste"s in an nknown stateG often sed to derive ther"odyna"ic properties%

>article physics# the "otion# str ct re# and reactions of particles 1 clear physics# the "otion# str ct re# and reactions of n clei 3ondensed "atter physics# $ ant " 'ases# solids# li$ ids# etc%

>rofessional or'ani?ations)edit+
(pplied 6echanics /ivision# ("erican :ociety of 6echanical 7n'ineers Cl id /yna"ics /ivision# ("erican >hysical :ociety 2nstit tion of 6echanical 7n'ineers is the Inited 0in'do"Fs $ alifyin' body for 6echanical 7n'ineers and has been the ho"e of 6echanical 7n'ineers for over *8B years% 2nternational Inion of &heoretical and (pplied 6echanics

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