GENERATION

The threat that voltage dips impose on wind power generation

by Simon Davies and Dr. John van Coller, University of the Witwatersrand. A better understanding of the problems associated with voltage dips at the terminals of these generators is necessary to ensure rotor side converters are adequately rated and protected. Loss of generation during a critical period of a voltage dip can also introduce stability problems on the network and thus it is important that this problem is addressed. The response of the rotor circuit of the generator to a voltage dip is presented. The influence of trapped flux in the generator at the instant of voltage recovery appears to generate rotor currents that can be sufficient to damage converter devices. Measurements and simulations are presented to further analyse the threat of voltage dips on rotor circuit converters. The growing demand for distributed generation and renewable energy resources has seen an increase in the popularity of wind power. Wind turbines are quickly becoming cost effective sources of generation as their power ratings increase with advances in materials, power electronics and control technologies. Wind energy converters (WECs) can be found in various forms, the most popular of which is the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) which has several advantages over its fixed frequency/speed counterparts [1]. The DFIG has a wound rotor that is connected to the grid through back-to-back voltage source converters (Fig. 1). These converters decouple the mechanical and electrical rotor frequencies and hence supply power at the grid voltage and frequency [2]. This also allows for increased efficiency as the turbine speed can be adjusted to maximise the output power of the generator for a particular wind speed. The converters can also control the flux and hence the torque of the generator. A reduction in torque pulsations and oscillations that are common with wind turbines is achieved resulting in better power quality and a longer gearbox lifespan [3]. The DFIG will act as an asynchronous generator only if the rotor circuit allows bidirectional power flow at both sub-

Fig. 1: Doubly fed induction generator.

synchronous and super-synchronous speeds (typically 30% of synchronous speed [2]). Only the power in the rotor circuit needs to be converted which reduces the ratings of the converters to approximately 25% of the total power. The converters can also supply or absorb reactive power to and from the grid and hence maintain the terminal voltage at the generator. The generation/absorption of reactive power is limited by the rating of the converters connected to the rotor circuit. One drawback of using DFIGs is the vulnerability of the rotor converters to supply disturbances such as voltage dips. Converter failure resulting in the loss of generation during a critical period of a voltage dip can introduce stability problems on the network. It is thus very important to understand the threat that voltage dips impose on the generators and their associated converters. A significant amount of research aimed at improving the control of the converters to handle system disturbances such as voltage

dips has been published [2-4]. However, very little information exists as to what is happening from the generators perspective during a voltage dip. The aim of this paper is to identify and explain the transients that can cause problems to rotor side converters used in DFIG schemes. Measurements conducted on a simplified LV DFIG system identify how the response of the generator to a voltage dip can develop significant electrical transients in the rotor circuit. Simulations performed using the Alternative Transients Program (ATP) confirm these results and allow for a more detailed understanding of how the generator behaves during a voltage dip. Voltage dips Voltage dips are classified as a sudden reduction in the RMS voltage for a period of between 20 ms and 3 s of any or all phase voltages in a single or poly-phase supply. The duration of a voltage dip is the time measured from the moment the RMS voltage drops below 0,9 per unit of the declared

Fig. 2: Simplified DFIG test circuit.

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voltage to when the voltage rises above 0,9 per unit of the declared voltage [5]. Voltage dips are generally caused by network faults. Large fault currents flowing through the network result in large voltdrops across the network impedances resulting in voltage reduction further down the network. Doubly fed induction generator response to voltage dips A voltage dip at the supply terminals of an induction generator will produce transient currents and transient torques depending on the severity of the dip and on the machine parameters [6]. The sudden reduction of voltage at the supply terminals of the generator as a result of a three phase fault will have the following consequences: The generated real power is reduced [6]. There is still the ability for both rotor and stator currents to flow so torque can still be produced. Large transient rotor and stator currents as a result of the voltage dip will generate large transient torques [7]. Fatigue as a result of exposure to voltage dips can reduce the lifetime of the gearbox connected to the turbine. The theorem of constant flux linkage [6] states that the mutual flux linking the stator and rotor windings in the machine cannot instantaneously change. At the instant of a voltage dip, the stator voltage attempts to enforce a new flux condition in the generator. This forces the rotor circuit to respond to maintain the mutual flux at that instant. This effect results in significant transient currents developed in the rotor circuit. Furthermore, because the rotor windings have rotational speed and the flux linkage is not able to change instantaneously, the flux fixed to the stator at this instant induces high voltages on the rotor side. In a short-circuited squirrel cage generator these transient rotor currents and voltages have little consequence; however in the case of DFIGs, with rotor circuit converters, the resulting transient rotor voltages and currents can have damaging effects if no protection exists (i.e. a crowbar) or if devices are not rated sufficiently. Doubly fed induction generator response to voltage recovery The response of the generator to voltage recovery after a voltage dip can generate even larger transients depending on the flux conditions within the generator at the time of recovery. These can be identified as re-switching transients similar to those developed when a machine changes from one steady state operating condition to another (e.g. star-delta switching) [6]. Some of the more important considerations due to voltage recovery are as follows: The process of voltage recovery in the machine is complicated and depends on the flux conditions within the machine. Effects such as skin effect in the rotor windings, the reaction of the core due to the rapid rise in flux and mechanical considerations inherent in the design of the shaft and windings complicate the process [6, 8]. The theorem of constant flux linkage plays an important role in the understanding of the transients generated during voltage recovery. At the instant of voltage recovery the flux linkage must remain constant. The severity of the transients generated is thus dependant on the flux conditions within the machine at that instant. It takes time for magnetic energy stored in a generator to dissipate. Trapped flux will continue to induce both rotor and stator emfs dependant on the size and parameters (time constants) of the generator. Larger generators tend to have longer time constants, thus the effect of a voltage dip can be more severe. Upon voltage recovery, phase differences may exist between the supply voltage and induced emfs as a result of trapped flux. If phase opposition occurs, the transient currents may be very severe (recorded currents similar to that of direct-on-line start are not uncommon). Thus the amount of stored energy in the generator and the position of the rotor which affects the flux linkage, will affect the transients developed in both the stator and rotor circuits at the instant of voltage recovery [6, 8]. Large transient torques are associated with the transient currents developed at voltage recovery. These torques can be severe enough to damage mechanical energize - June 2006 - Page 52

Fig. 3: 3 phase 0,4 p.u. voltage dip.

Fig. 4: Measured stator current

Fig. 5: Simulated stator current.

Fig. 6: Measured rotor current.

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Dip magnitude (p.u.) 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,8 0,6 0,4 Dip duration (ms) 100 100 100 50 50 50 Table 1: Selection of dip results. DC bus voltage/current (p.u.) 2,0 2,7 3,5 2,6 3,1 3,6

components such as the gearbox connected to the turbine. Simplified test circuit Rotor transients developed by the generator during a voltage dip will be injected into the DC bus via the rotor side converter. In this case, the converter is simplified to a three phase diode bridge rectifier (the anti-parallel diodes of the rotor side converter) connected to a DC bus capacitor and a load resistor (Fig. 2). Converter control circuitry can limit the conduction of the IGBTs; however it cannot control the response of the anti-parallel diodes to the electrical transients developed by the rotor during a voltage dip. Measurements and simulations were conducted on a 19 kW 4 pole wound rotor induction generator. Balanced three phase and single phase dips were applied using the Eskom/Wits voltage dip test bed. A variety of dips were chosen to show the effects of different voltage dip parameters on rotor circuit transients. Results Simulations were per formed using the Alternative Transients Program (ATP) [9]. A standard d-q model of a wound rotor induction generator is used to predict the transient performance during a voltage dip. The test circuit described in Fig. 2 was used in all simulations. Saturation and skin effect in the windings were neglected. Figs, 3 - 9 show both the measured and simulated results for a balanced three phase 0,4 p.u. voltage dip. The induction generator is fully loaded with a constant load torque and operates at 0,2 p.u. slip. These waveforms are representative of all tests performed and give valuable insight into what is happening from the generators perspective during a voltage dip. The waveforms show that there are two distinct transients at the start of the dip and at the instant the voltage recovers. Measured waveforms are on the left and simulated waveforms are on the right. There is reasonable agreement between measured and simulated waveforms

although it is very difficult to simulate the same conditions in the generator at the instant of the start of the voltage dip and at the instant of voltage recovery. Analysing the stator current (Figs. 4, 5) it is evident that at the start of the voltage dip, the stator voltage attempts to enforce a new flux condition in the generator. The rotor circuit is forced to compensate and maintain the mutual flux producing an equal and opposite MMF to that of the stator current (Figs. 6, 7). This rotor current surge is injected into the DC bus through the rotor side converter and is the cause of the DC bus voltage transient at the start of the dip (Figs. 8, 9). Phase opposition of the rotor flux in the generator is believed to be the cause of the transient at voltage recovery. This is explained in more detail in the next section. Analysis The most important factor influencing rotor transients during a voltage dip is the dip magnitude. Larger dips produce larger electrical and mechanical transients. The IGBTs used in the rotor converters are typically rated at 2 p.u. voltage and current. Table 1 shows typical p.u. transients for a selection of voltage dips. Single phase and three phase dips exhibit very similar transients and have been grouped together. It is clear that voltage dips are cause of concern to converter devices as over-currents and over-voltages may exceed the ratings of the devices. Perhaps the most interesting result is that shorter dips produce larger transients than longer dips. This implies that the effect of remnant flux in the machine plays an important role in the rotor transients at the instant of voltage recovery. Trapped flux within the machine during a dip will induce energize - June 2006 - Page 53

Fig. 7: Simulated rotor current.

Fig. 8: Measured DC bus voltage.

Fig. 9: Simulated DC bus voltage.

EMFs in both the stator and rotor windings. If at the point of voltage recovery a phase difference exists between the induced emfs in the generator and the grid voltage, very large currents will result. If phase opposition occurs, currents may even approach that of direct-on-line starting. This effect is well known during supply switching or reconnection (star-delta switching) and appears to occur for both three phase and single phase dips. Large generators will store large amounts of energy for longer periods of time as they have longer time constants. The effect of trapped flux in a larger machine can thus be more significant. Preliminary simulations of a larger generator confirm this fact.

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The point on the 50 Hz cycle at the start of the dip and at voltage recovery has an effect on the rotor transients developed by the generator. This is clearly evident for single phase dips which may be very severe at one point in the cycle, but quite insignificant at another. The size of the DC bus capacitance also affects the transients in the rotor circuit during a dip. A larger capacitance reduces the rotor transient considerably. The tendency to use smaller capacitance in the DC bus of modern converters limits the effect of the capacitance in the reduction of rotor transients during a voltage dip. The torque transients as a result of voltage dips cannot be neglected. The interaction of both large stator and rotor currents during a voltage dip will produce significant transient torques. Shorter dips appear to be more severe in terms of the mechanical response of the generator with torques approaching direct-on-line start values. Gearbox failure is a possibility for more severe dips if adequate measures are not taken to limit over-current transients in the generator. Conclusions This paper has identified the threat that voltage dips impose on DFIGs. The response of the induction generator to a dip has been discussed with specific regard to the rotor transients. The mechanism of constant flux linkage plays an important role in the magnitude of the currents and voltages produced in the rotor circuit. Trapped flux present in the generator during a voltage dip appears to play a significant role in the production of transient currents, especially for shorter dips. The above analysis assumes that the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2 is valid during the dip. If the converters maintain some control over the rotor current during the dip then a more detailed investigation would be required. Voltage dips are a common occurrence on the utility networks. The effect of these dips on wind power generators such as DFIGs must be well understood to ensure equipment is adequately rated and protected. Acknowledgement This paper was first presented at Cigrs 5th Southern Africa Regional Conference in October 2005and is reproduced with permission. References
[1] V. T. Ranganathan, R. Datta, Variablespeed wind power generation using doubly fed wound rotor induction machine - A comparison with alternative schemes, IEEE Transactions on energy conversion, v17 n 3 Sept 2002 pp 414-421. [9] [2] R. Pena, J. C. Clare, G. M. Asher, Doubly fed induction generator using backto-back PWM converters supplying an isolated load from a variable speed wind turbine. IEE Proceedings: Electric Power Applications, v 143, n 5, Sep, 1996, p 380-387. I. Cadirci, M. Ermis, Double-output induction generator operating at subsynchronous and supersynchronous speeds: steadystate performance optimisation and wind-energy recovery, IEE Proceedings, Part B: Electric Power Applications, v 139, n 5, Sep, 1992, pp 429-442. J. B. Ekanayake, L. Holdsworth, X. Wu, N. Jenkins, Dynamic modeling of doubly fed induction generator wind turbines, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, v18, n2, May 2003, pp803-809 NRS. Minimum standards, NRS 048-2 (Electricity Supply Quality of Supply). NRS, 2003. M. G. Say, Alternating Current Machines 4th ed, Pitman, London, 1976. J. C. Das, Effects of momentary voltage dips on the operation of induction and synchronous motors, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, v 26, n 4, Jul-Aug, 1990, pp 711-718. P. K. Kovacs, Transient Phenomena in Electrical machines, Elsevier, New York, 1984. Leuven EMTP Centre, Alternative Transients Program Rule Book, Leuven, Belgium, 1992.

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6] [7]

[8]

Contact Simon Davies, s.davies@ee.wits.ac.za

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