Book 10

Module 7A

CATEGORY B1 MECHANICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS BELTS GEARS BEARINGS REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Licence By Post

For best examination results always use latest issue number.

Licence By Post

Copyright

B1 EASA 66 7A.10 to 7A.13 ISSUE 06 0607

 Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission from Licence By Post. Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.

AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturers handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.

CONTENTS Page Duplicate inspections Design requirements Control cable maintenance Swaging Manual splicing Swaged splices Proof loading Cable maintenance Chains and sprockets Control system components Pulleys Turnbuckles Control rods Other cable control systems Bowden controls Teleflex controls Flexball controls Belts and pulleys Springs Bearing maintenance Maintenance of gears 1 2 3 4 9 13 15 17 19 24 24 25 29 31 31 35 39 40 42 44 49

HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK The material in this book is for the B1 person. There is a reasonable amount of detail in parts of the book to warrant careful reading. It is also a good idea to read the various sections in conjunction with the appropriate material in module 6. Of necessity there is some overlap and material from module 6 has been included where it is considered as essential background reading. The CAA will expect you to be able to maintain the various systems in this book to include inspection, replacement, fault location etc. If possible, carefully inspect any equipments on your aircraft that are covered in this book cables, remote control systems, pulleys etc. Look at them carefully and also check the AMM for details of the maintenance checks; how to replace them etc. Details of scientists/engineers are included for interest only and need not be committed to memory. Note. Drawings from CAP (Civil Air Publication) 562 may not be found in that publication due to amendment action by the CAA.

INSPECTION OF IN-SITU CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS The main purpose of this section is to give details of the inspection of components within a cable control system to include: * * * * Steel cables Bowden cables Push/pull rods Bearings etc

Before tackling this it should be noted that if the controls are related to flying controls or engine controls then after any disturbance of the control system a duplicate inspection is required.

Duplicate Inspections A control system is defined as a system by which the flight attitude or the propulsive force of an aircraft is changed (BCAR Sect A, Chapter A6-2). Flight control systems include the main flying control surface systems, lift and drag devices, trim and feel systems, together with any flight control locking systems and the associated operating mechanisms and controls. In the case of rotorcraft, the flight control system includes collective pitch, cyclic pitch and yaw. The engine control system includes the primary engine controls and related control systems (eg throttle, fuel cock, oil-cooler controls etc) and the mechanisms used by the crew to operate them. A duplicate inspection of a vital point/control system is defined as an inspection which is first made and certified by one qualified person and subsequently made and certified by a second qualified person. Components, systems or vital points subject to duplicate inspection, must not be disturbed or re-adjusted between the first and second parts of the inspection. The second inspection must, as nearly as possible, follow immediately after the first inspection. In some circumstances, due to peculiarities of assembly or accessibility, it may be necessary for both parts of the inspection to be made simultaneously. Control system components, the parts of which are concealed during bench assembly before installation, shall have a duplicate inspection on assembly, during manufacture, overhaul or repair. Both parts of the duplicate inspection and the results of any test made during and after final assembly shall be certified on the Inspection Record for the part concerned. -1-

A duplicate inspection of the control system in the aircraft shall be made (a) before the first flight of all aircraft after initial assembly, (b) before the first flight after the overhaul, replacement, repair, adjustment or modification of the system. The two parts of the duplicate inspection shall be the final operation and, as the purpose of the inspection is to establish the integrity of the system, all work should have been completed. If, after the duplicate inspection has been completed, the control system is disturbed in any way before the first flight, that part of the system which has been disturbed shall have another duplicate inspection before the aircraft flies. In some instances it may not be possible after complete assembly of the aircraft to inspect all parts of the system because some sections of the system may get progressively boxed in and sealed during assembly operations. In such cases the condition and security of any section which is liable to be sealed must be established to the satisfaction of the persons named before the section is sealed and the related Inspection Record endorsed accordingly. Inspection Records should be prepared to ensure that any duplicate inspection required at an early stage during assembly operations is clearly indicated, thus avoiding unnecessary dismantling at later stages. Suitably qualified licensed or approved aircraft engineers should carry out duplicate inspections. The inspection must be carried out systematically to ensure that each and every part of the system is correctly assembled and is able to operate freely over the specified range of movement without risk of fouling. Also that it is correctly and adequately locked, clean and correctly lubricated and is working in the correct sense in relation to the movement of the controls by the crew.

Design Requirements EASA CS 25 (large aeroplanes), EASA CS 27 (small helicopters) and EASA CS 29 (large helicopters) state that each element of each control system must be designed, or distinctly and permanently marked, to minimise the probability of incorrect assembly that could result in the malfunction of the system. This means that for control systems which, if incorrectly assembled would hazard the aircraft, the design should be such that at all reasonable possible breakdown points it is mechanically impossible to assemble the system to give an out-of-phase action. For example, cross connection of control cables, reversed controls or interconnection between two systems which was not intended. In other words, the systems should be Murphy proof as far as possible.

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These requirements are satisfied in practice in a number of ways. For example, by the use of end fittings having different diameter threads for different cables; by the use of different diameter pins in correspondingly different diameter holes in end fittings; by staggering the positions of breakdown points so that cross-connecting is impossible, and by the use of keyed cable connectors

CONTROL CABLE MAINTENANCE Handling of Control Cables Cable may be permanently damaged and its working life may reduced by careless handling and unwinding. Care is necessary to prevent the cable from forming itself into a loop, which, if pulled tight, could produce a kink. If this happens the kink is permanent and the cable is useless. A kink is shown by the core strand leaving the centre of the rope and lying between the outer strands, or protruding in the form of a small loop. Cable should always be stored on suitably designed reels. The diameter of the reel barrel should be at least forty times the cable diameter. British Standards stipulate that reels should be made from a wood which will not corrode the cable and that contact surfaces should be lined with an inert waterproof material. Precautions should also be taken to protect the cable from dirt, moisture and damage in transit. To remove cable from a reel, a spindle should be placed through the centre of the reel and supported in a suitable stand. Cable may then be removed by pulling the free end in line with the reel, allowing the reel to rotate. Cable should not be unwound by paying off loose coils, or by pulling the cable away from a stationary reel laid on its side. When a long length of cable has been cut from a reel and it is necessary to coil the cut piece, the coil diameter should be at least 50 times the cable diameter, with a minimum diameter of 150mm (6 in). Care must be taken to prevent dust, dirt and moisture, from coming into contact with the coiled cable. The ends of stored cable are whipped (tied with strong cord) to prevent fraying of the ends. If a length has been cut from the reel, the remaining free end should be whipped also. When a coil is being unwound, the coil should be rotated so that the cable is paid out in a straight line.

Cutting The Cable Cable should always be cut using cable cutters or heavy duty pliers, alternatively, the cable may be laid on an anvil and cut with a sharp chisel and a hammer. Cable should not be cut by a flame. -3-

If a non-preformed cable is being cut, it should be whipped with waxed cord on both sides of the cut, prior to being cut. With a preformed cable it will normally only be necessary to bind the cable temporarily with masking tape or string as the strands will not unravel unduly.

Cable End Fittings Cable end fittings may be joined to the cable by Swaging (common), Hand Splicing, or Machine Splicing. Hand splicing and machine splicing are almost never seen on large commercial aircraft. Hand splicing is very difficult to do and must only be undertaken by suitably qualified personnel, it is a form of weaving the strands of the wire back through the wire itself. Machine splicing is a form of crimping two parts of the cable together and swaging is forcing the metal of an end fitting by plastic deformation into the lay of the cable.

Fig. 1 ATTACHMENT OF CABLE END FITTINGS

SWAGING Swaging is an operation in which a metallic end fitting is secured to the end of a cable by plastic deformation of the hollow shank of the end fitting into the lays of the cable. The end of the cable is inserted into the hollow shank of the fitting and the shank is squeezed in a swaging machine so that it grips the cable. This is the most satisfactory method of attaching an end fitting to a cable and it can be expected to provide a cable assembly at least as strong as the cable itself. Most transport aircraft and a large number of light aircraft, use control cables manufactured in this way.

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Manufacturers of cable assemblies normally swage with rotary machines. In these machines the shank of the end fitting is placed between suitable dies and is subjected to a series of squeezing movements, which reduce the shank diameter progressively and lock the fitting onto the cable. Swaging may also be carried using a portable swaging machine, which squeezes the shank of the end fitting between dies. A range of swaged end fittings is covered by BS specifications and others, but some older aircraft may be fitted with cable assemblies containing components complying with SBAC AS specifications, which are not obsolete. When it is necessary to make up control cables for these aircraft, approval may be granted for the use of equivalent BS parts, but the complete cable control run may have to be changed. Specifications such as those from BSI provide a range of fittings which prevent incorrect assembly of control cables. Barrel type turnbuckles, tension rod type turnbuckles and cable connectors designed to connect screwed end and tapped end swaged end fittings. On the BSI system for each size of cable two alternative sizes of end fittings are available and each size is provided with either a left or right hand thread. Swaged fittings must be arranged to ensure that a control run cannot be incorrectly assembled. This can also be achieved in a multiple cable run by the use of cable connectors and by placing the turnbuckles/connectors so that they do not occur at the same location within the airframe.

Portable Swaging Machines It is usual for unserviceable cables to be replaced by cables which have been manufactured, pre-stretched and proof loaded in accordance with an approved drawing. Supplied from an approved supplier (usually the aircraft manufacturer), with correct part numbers and serial numbers and correct stores documentation (JAA form 1 etc). Occasions may arise when such a cable is not available and it is necessary to make up a cable assembly locally. Provided that the process is permitted and that the appropriate drawings/instructions are available, end fittings may be swaged onto a cable using a hand-operated machine such as the one shown in figure 2. NOTE: The proficiency of a person engaged in the manufacturer of locally made-up cable assemblies should be established by trail swagings on test cables, which should be tested to the satisfaction of the supervising inspector. The effectiveness of subsequent swaging operations should be checked periodically, by selecting a representative sample and subjecting it to a tensile test and testing to destruction.

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DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 2 PORTABLE SWAGING MACHINE

Various types of swaging machines are available most supplied with sets of dies for swaging various types and sizes of fittings. Often supplied with GO-NOGO gauges for checking shank diameter before and after swaging. The swaging machine is normally bolted to a bench and should be used on a low bench so that adequate downward force can be applied by hand to the lever. An adjusting screw in the head of the machine alters the amount of squeeze applied and a graduated scale permits accurate setting.

Fig. 3 GO NO-GO GAUGES

Swaging Procedure The procedure outlined below is applicable to the machine shown in figure 2. The procedure for most other machines is similar but in any case the machine manufacturers literature must be followed. 1. Inspect the cable to ensure that it is the correct size and type. Check that it is not damaged or contaminated and has the correct documentation. Check the size by using a suitable gauge or my measurement and checking documentation.

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2.

Whip the cable either side of the cut and double check the length of cable required by reference to the AMM/IPC/drawing/old cable noting that it might have stretched. Cut the cable to length and ensure that the ends are clean and square and that the lay has not unravelled.

3.

NOTE. Swaging elongates the end fitting and an allowance for this must be made when cutting the cable. The allowance to be made should be stated on the appropriate drawing or specification. 4. Select the appropriate end fitting (size and type), inspect for damage and corrosion and clean by immersion it in solvent. Allow to dry. Check size new with the gauge. Assemble the end fitting to the cable by pushing the cable into the hole in the end. With drilled-through holes, the cable end must pass the inspection hole, but be clear of the locking wire hole. For fittings with a blind hole, the cable must bottom in the hole. Bottoming may be checked by marking the cable with paint at a distance from the end, equal to the depth of the hole. Ensure that the paint mark reaches the fitting when the cable is inserted. When the cable and the fitting are correctly assembled, they should be a snug fit both should be lightly lubricated. 6. Fit the correct dies (size marked) into the machine, for the particular size of end fitting. Open the handles and unscrew the adjuster until the end fitting can be placed in the dies (passing it through the access hole). With the end fitting centred in the die, close the handles fully and screw-in the adjuster until the dies grip the fitting. Open the handles and tighten the adjuster by the amount of squeeze required for the particular end fitting normally approximately 0.18mm (0.007in). Place the fitting in the position shown in the drawing, so as to swage to within approximately 1.2mm (0.050in) from the inspection hole. Check that the cable is in the correct position and carefully push the handle down fully to its stop to squeeze the fitting.

5.

7.

8.

NOTE. Always swage from the end furthest from the cable as the end fitting will elongate with the open end moving up the cable by a small amount. 9. Pull the handle up releasing the dies and rotate the fitting through approximately 50 axially carry out the next squeezing as per item 8 above. Repeat this process of squeezing and turning until the fitting has been rotated one full turn (360) about 7 or 8 turns. -7-

10.

Withdraw the end fitting from the dies by 1.6mm (0.0625 in) and repeat the cycle of squeezing and turning. Continue this operation until the whole shank is swaged ending at the end next to the cable. Check the diameter of the shank (using the gauge or a micrometer) and if it has not been reduced to the size required by the appropriate drawing or specification, reset the adjusting screw and repeat the swaging operation (items 7 to 11). When the shank of the end fitting has been reduced to the correct diameter, remove and inspect the fitting. Check for ovality, cracks and distortion. Check that the cable strands have not unravelled or are distorted. Check that the cable is sufficiently buried in the end fitting. If any faults are found then the fitting will have to be cut off and a new swage (with a new fitting) will have to be made. If the cable has been cut to the correct length originally, then a new length of cable will have to be used.

11.

12.

NOTE. Removal of the end fitting is achieved by raising the handle which parts the dies and lifting the cable into the access hole so it can be pulled clear. 13. Fit an identification tag as laid down in the drawing and stamp with the cable part number, name etc (in some cases the part number may be etched directly onto the end fitting). The identification may be in the form of a wired-on tag, or a cylindrical sleeve lightly swaged onto the shank of the end fitting. Assemble any slide-on fittings on the cable and swage on the opposite end fitting. It is very important to get this end correct because any rejection of this one, or if the cable length is wrong it will all have to be all done again. Dip the end fittings in lanolin, to prevent corrosion resulting from damaged plating and to exclude moisture.

14.

15.

On completion of the swaging operation, the following inspection should be carried out: (a) Check that the correct combination of cable and fittings has been used. Re-check the diameter of the swaged shank, using a GO-NOT GO gauge or a micrometer. If the diameter of the fitting is too small, it has been over-swaged and as such the cable and the fitting must be rejected. Excessive work hardening of the fitting will cause it to crack and may also damage the cable.

(b)

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(c)

Check, by means of the inspection hole or paint mark, that the cable is correctly engaged in the end fitting.

(d)

Check that the swaging operation has not disturbed the lay of the cable, where the cable enters the end fitting. Ensure that the shank is smooth, parallel and in line with the head of the fitting and that the swaged shank length is correct. Proof-load the completed cable assembly in accordance with the appropriate drawing. (British practice is to load the cable assembly to 50% of its minimum breaking strength America 60%.) Inspect the fittings for cracks using a lens of 10 x magnification, or carry out a crack detection test, using the magnetic or dye penetrant processes. Check that the cable assembly is the correct length and ensure that any required identification marking, including evidence of proof-loading, has been carried out and that any specified protective treatments have been applied.

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

NOTE. The first swaged fitting in a production batch is usually sectioned after proof loading, so that the interior surface can be examined for cracks. If this check is satisfactory, the settings on the swaging machine should be noted and used for completion of the complete batch.

MANUAL SPLICING Although manual splicing may be permitted for some particular applications, it is seldom used on aircraft cables. It is not as strong than either the swaged fitting or the swaged splice and considerable experience and skill is required in order to obtain splices of adequate strength and quality. The task is difficult and takes a long time. There is also a high risk of fingers getting pricked by the wire. Great care is needed to avoid injury. Persons engaged on splicing should be given an initial competency test and representative samples of their work should be selected periodically for tensile testing. Splices on cable manufactured to BS W9 or W11 should not fail at less than 80% of the breaking strength of the cable. There are several methods of splicing, the procedure in each case varying in detail. A recommended method is given in the following paragraphs, but other methods may be used, provided that the resulting splice is no less strong.

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Splicing Procedure The cable is normally spliced around a brass or steel thimble. The identification tag and where applicable, the turnbuckle eye-end, should be placed on the thimble and the centre of the thimble bound to the cable. The cable should be whipped with waxed cord on either side of the thimble, as shown in figures 4, 5 & 6.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 4 METHOD OF WHIPPING CABLE

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 5 WHIPPING OF CABLE TO THIMBLE

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 6 FIGURE OF EIGHT WHIPPING OF CABLE TO THIMBLE

NOTE. When cutting the cable to length, approximately 23cm (9 in) should be allowed for each splice on cable sizes up to 3.2mm (1/8 in) and 30cm (12 in) should be allowed for each splice on cables between 4.0mm (5/32 in) and 6.4mm (3/4 in) diameter. The method of whipping with a waxed thread is illustrated in figure 4. A loop of cord is formed to lay on the cable (A) and careful tight winding is commenced from the open end of the loop towards the closed end (B). When a sufficient length has been whipped, end b of the cord is passed through the loop and pulled under the whipping by pulling end a (C). The ends are then cut off. - 10 -

It is essential that the cable and thimble are securely held in a vice, using cable clamps or specially prepared vice blocks to protect the cable. The thimble and cable is bound with a figure of eight binding as shown in figure 6. No attempt should be made to splice a cable without fully effective clamping devices. The cable strands and wires are very springy so as much restraint as possible is needed. The individual strands at the end of the cable should be separated and whipped or soldered to prevent unlaying of single wires. The cable is then ready for splicing. NOTE. For descriptive purposes, the six outer strands of the free end of the cable will called the free strands and will be numbered 1 to 6, while the outer strands of the main cable will be lettered a to f as shown in figures 7 and 8.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 7 SPLICING - FIRST SET OF TUCKS (FRONT SIDE)

Each free strand is tucked under one cable strand and over the next cable strand to complete one tuck. This is repeated at least four times. As this happens the free strand moves along the cable and at about 45 to the centre line. The core strand is positioned so that there are three free strands on either side and it should be bent back slightly. The first round of tucks should be completed as follows 3 under a, 1 under b and c, 2 under b. Turn the cable over (reverse side) and tuck 4 under f, 5 under e and 6 under d. All free strands should be pulled very tight and gently hammered with a hide faced (or plastic faced) hammer with the cable held on a wooden block. This helps to give the splice a better shape and keeps the strands in position. Care should be taken to avoid disturbing the lay of the cable by excessive pulling or hammering. The core strand should be taken forward and temporarily secured to the main cable with thread, then pulled under a suitable free strand into the centre of the splice. - 11 -

The six free strands should then, in turn, be tucked over a strand and under a strand, eg 3 over b and c, 1 over d and under e. On completing the second round of tucks, the free strands should be pulled tight and gentle hammered as before.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 8 SPLICING - FIRST SET OF TUCKS (REVERSE SIDE)

The third round of tucks should be completed in a similar manner to the second, taking care to bury the core strand in the centre of the splice. The last full round of tucks, ie the fourth, should be the same as the second and third rounds. A half round of tucks, for finishing the splice, should be completed by tucking alternate free strands over one and under two main cable strands. To finish and shape the splice, it should be beaten with a hardwood or rawhide mallet on a hardwood block, while the cable is held taut. The splice should be rotated against the direction of tucking during the beating process. Excessive hammering must be avoided. Free strands should be cut off flush with the splice and the last one and a half tucks should be whipped with waxed cord. The central binding and figure-of-eight lashing is removed. If both ends of the cable are to be spliced, the cable length should be checked before commencing the second splice, so that the completed cable will be of the required length. On test lengths a length with a maximum allowance of plus or minus 1/8 in (3mm) is expected. Note. To assist in the separation of the strands of the cable an ice pick is used. The splice should be inspected for symmetry and appearance. The wires should be close together and no light should show through the strands. A typical finished splice is shown in figure 9.

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DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 9 TYPICAL FINISHED SPLICE

The resistance of the splice to bending should be checked. A poor splice will bend reasonably easy, and the strands and wires will slacken and move. The thimble should be checked for tightness and damage. The lay of the strands in the cable should be maintained as far as the splice permits, as disturbance in the lay adjacent to the splice may result in weakening of the cable. The completed cable must is proof-loaded.

SWAGED SPLICES A number of proprietary methods are available to secure cable in the form of a loop, which may then be used to attach the cable to a terminal fitting or turnbuckle.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 10 EXAMPLE SWAGED SPLICE - TALURIT

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The Talurit system is typical and is approved for use on some British aircraft control cables and is also widely used on ground equipment. The process provides a cable assembly which, when used with cables to BS W9 and W11, has a strength equal to approximately 90% of the breaking strength of the cable. It may only be used to replace cables employing the same type of splice, or hand splices and must not be used where swaged end fittings were used previously or where the AMM does not specifically mention that they can be used. A typical Talurit splice is shown in figure 10. To make this type of splice, the end of the cable is threaded through a ferrule of the appropriate size, looped around a thimble and passed back through the ferrule. The ferrule is squeezed between dies in a hand-operated or power-operated press. The metal of the ferrule is extruded between the two parallel lengths of cable and around the cable strands firmly locking the cable without disturbing its lay. Ferrules are made in a variety of shapes, sizes and materials. Aluminium alloy ferrules are used with galvanised or tinned carbon steel cable and copper ferrules are used with corrosion resistant steel cable. When making a splice, the correct ferrule should be selected by the code numbers indicated on the appropriate drawing and the associated dies fitted to the press. The loop and thimble should be adjusted after the swages have closed sufficiently to grip the ferrule. The cable must grip the thimble firmly and the dimensions indicated in drawings supplied with the press, must be obtained before swaging commences. The press should be operated until the faces of the dies touch, then the pressure is released. Continuing to apply pressure after the faces have met may cause damage to press and dies. Only one pressing operation is normally required, but some long ferrules are designed for swaging in two separate operations, each swage in this case being half the length of the ferrule. After swaging, surplus metal is visible as a flash along each side of the ferrule, this may be removed with a file. If no flash has been formed, the sizes of the ferrule and dies should be re-checked and it should be ascertained that the press is operating correctly. The inspection of the finished splice consists of ensuring that the ferrule is correctly formed and not cracked and carrying out a proof test. In some instances a dimensional check is also specified, but, since the dies meet during the pressing operation, little variation in diameter can be obtained.

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PROOF LOADING All cables must be proof-loaded after swaging or splicing, by subjecting the cable to a specified load. The purpose of proof-loading is to ensure that the end fittings are satisfactorily installed, and to pre-stretch the cable, ie to bed-in the strands and wires. British practice is to load the cable to 50% of its declared minimum breaking strength. American practice is to load the cable to 60%. If no specific instructions are included in the drawing, then loading of the cable should be carried out in accordance with whichever of these practices is appropriate. If end fittings have been fitted or splices have been made on pre-stretched cable, no appreciable elongation will result from proof loading. If the cable was not pre-stretched, it may be expected to elongate slightly and this should have been taken into consideration on the appropriate drawing. A typical test rig suitable for proof loading cables is shown in figure 11, but other similar methods would be acceptable. The cable should be contained within a protective guard, to safeguard the operator in the event of cable failure.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 11 PROOF LOADING TEST RIG

Adapters should be used to attach the cable end fittings to the test rig and these should be at least as strong as the cable. Particular care should be taken not to damage the thimbles on spliced cables as these will distort easily. Use packing or bushes to spread the load. Before proof loading a cable with swaged end fittings, the cable should be painted with a quick-drying paint at its point of entry into the fittings and allowed to dry. Cracking of the dried paint during proof loading will indicate slipping of the cable resulting from an unsatisfactory joint. Procedure 1. Fit the cable between the screw jack and the calibrated spring balance or calibrated strain gauge system.

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2.

Measure its length under enough tension to take up any slack, but not enough to cause any stretch. Fit the safety cover. Turn the screw jack handle slowly to tension the cable until the specified load is reached. Maintain this load for the minimum specified period (normally 30 seconds for swaged fittings, but up to 3 minutes for splices). Release the load, lift the safety cover and carefully examining the cable for signs of pulling out of the end fittings, or stretching of the splice.

3. 4.

5.

The end fittings should be checked for cracks using an electro-magnetic NDT method or, if the fitting is stainless steel, a penetrant dye process can be used. The length of the completed cable assembly should be measured after proof loading. Prior to measurement, cables longer than 120cm (4 ft) should be tensioned with a load of approximately 550 N (112 lbf), or 2% of the breaking load of the cable, whichever is the least. Figure 12 shows the reference points and tolerances for the measurement of cables fitted with swaged end fittings to British Standards. Cables with different types of end fittings, or loops, should be measured according to the appropriate drawings or specifications.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 12 CABLE NOMINAL LENGTHS

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Cable Maintenance Always consult the AMM for specific cable maintenance practices. Before installing a cable which has an identification tag affixed other than as shown in British Standard SP53, SP54, SP105 and SP106, the tag should be removed and for future identification purposes, the particulars on it should be entered in the Aircraft Log Book. Where applicable the protective treatment specified should be applied to the cables. However, where the cables pass through or over fairleads, any excess lubricant should be removed to prevent these parts collecting abrasive dust, which would wear the cables. NOTE. In order to improve the wear and fatigue life of control cables, British Standards require a lubricant to be applied during manufacture of the cable. It is important, therefore, when cleaning cables not to wash out the lubricant by saturating the cable with a solvent. The cables should be free from: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Broken wires and kinks. Bird-caging where the strands open up to form a sort of a cage. Corrosion. Wear (thinning). Stretching (other than that which is allowed).

All of these would adversely effect the strength of the cable and/or affect system operation. Broken wires can be checked for by bending the cable as shown in figure 13 and visually checking for any broken strands on the outside of the bend. An in-situ check for the same thing involves taking a piece of rag and laying it on the cable and carefully running it along the length. Any broken strands will catch on the rag. Be careful, broken strands can catch the hands and cause nasty puncture wounds.

Fig. 13 CHECKING FOR BROKEN STRANDS

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Broken strands are not allowed near components such as fairleads, pulleys, pressure cabin seals etc. A certain number might be allowed in free-run lengths of the cable provided there are not more than a certain number per unit length but check the AMM. Kinks can be seen as permanent bends in the cable sometimes accompanied by the heart strand kinking out from the middle of the cable. Kinked cables must be replaced. Bird Caging is identified by the strands tending to move outwards from the centre of the cable; the cable being a slightly larger diameter locally; and light being visible through the strands. Bird Caging renders the cable unserviceable.

Fig. 14 CONTROL CABLE WEAR PATTERNS

Any corrosion on the cable must be thoroughly investigated. Slight surface corrosion can be treated (provided the AMM says so), but not with any chemicals. The lay of the cable must be untwisted by hand to look inside the strands to determine if any internal corrosion has taken place. This would render the cable unserviceable.

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Wear may be external or internal. Examples of external wear are shown in figure 14. Taken from the Airbus manual it shows maximum permissible wear limits of 50% of the diameter of the individual outer wires. Internal wear may be accompanied by local thinning of the cable which will require replacement. Wear may be caused by rubbing against pulleys, guards, and fairleads and results from jamming of pulleys etc and the mis-alignment of fairleads and components. Over stretching can be caused by over tensioning of the cable which could also result in excessive wear on pulleys and bearings for pulleys, bell crank levers etc. Stretching may also be the result of a mal-functioning Cable Tension Regulator. If stretching was caused by high tensions then pull-off checks should have revealed this, or the aircrew might have complained about heavy controls.

Cable Tensions It is important the cables should be correctly tensioned, and this can be helped by having the control surface locks in position during tensioning to support the weight of the control surfaces but check the AMM. During tensioning, adjustment should be made equally on all turnbuckles, otherwise circuits which incorporate a number of pulleys and fairleads and/or where the cables have to negotiate several bends may be difficult to tension evenly. Where the tension is specified in the AMM, this should be checked by means of a tension meter specified for the weight of cable concerned, due allowance being made for temperature. To obtain a true reading the tension meter should be placed in the position on the cable indicated in the AMM, if not specified it should be placed in the middle of the longest run. NOTE. The AMM may detail the tensions required over a range of ambient temperatures. Where the tension is not specified (rare) it should be ensured that the cable run is not too slack or too taut but has a satisfactory feel over the whole range of travel of the controls.

CHAINS & SPROCKET WHEELS Before fitting a new chain to the aircraft the packaging label should be checked against the Illustrated Parts Catalogue to verify the correct part number and the EASA form 1 should be checked for completeness and correlation to the chain. - 19 -

The chain should be removed from its grease-proof wrapping and checked for link freedom rotation, distortion or warping, damage and corrosion. Return to stores, suitably labelled, if any of these conditions exist. Check all sprocket wheels for freedom of rotation, alignment, damage, wear and corrosion. Check the sprocket wheel bearings for smoothness of running and wear. Check the chain run area and chain guards for signs of rubbing and wear. Check any rubbing strips for excessive wear. Check guards for security. After installation, the chain should be examined for freedom from twist, particularly in instances where the attachment is made to threaded rods by means of screwed end connectors, or where a twist may have inadvertently been applied to the chain during the locking of the assembly. Care should be also taken to ensure that the chain is not pulled out of line by the chain sprocket; the chain should engage smoothly and evenly with the sprocket teeth and there should be no tendency for the chain to ride up over the teeth. The pre-tensioning of chains should not be excessive, as this will cause friction, but should be just sufficient to prevent any backlash in the system (refer to the AMM). Chain guards should be checked to ensure that jamming could not occur and that the chain would not come off the sprocket should it become slack.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 15 NON-REVERSIBLE CHAIN CORRECTLY FITTED TO SPROCKET

The security of end connections should be checked, care being taken to ensure that the split pins in the chain connecting bolts are correctly locked.

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The initial lubricant on new chains should not be removed and the chains should be further lubricated after assembly by brushing with lubricant complying with specification DTD 417A, unless the AMM specifies otherwise. Chain assemblies should be inspected for serviceability at the periods specified in the Maintenance Schedule. Smoothness of operation between the chain and sprocket should be checked. Existing chains should be checked for wear. If worn so that the links are loose and can be lifted away from the sprocket teeth (figure 16), they should be removed and checked for excessive elongation. The chain should be checked for damage, cleanliness, and adequacy of lubrication and freedom from corrosion. If the inspection shows the chain to be corroded or otherwise defective, it should be replaced. During adjustment of turnbuckles or screwed end connectors, care should be taken to ensure that the chain itself is not twisted during the adjustment. The connectors should be held firmly while the lock-nuts are slackened or tightened, or the tension adjusted. Chain assemblies should be removed from the aircraft for complete inspection at the periods specified in the appropriate Maintenance Schedule. If elongation through wear is suspected, the following procedure should be adopted: (a) (b) (c) Make the aircraft and system safe (check the AMM). Remove the chain by disconnection at the designed break-down point (sprockets and sprocket guards may have to be removed). Clean by immersion in clean paraffin and brushing with a stiff brush. Dry immediately using hot air to ensure that no paraffin remains, otherwise the chain will corrode. The chain should be measured when clean but before any oil is applied.

Chain Pitch

BS No

Tensile Load (lb)

8mm 0.375 in 0.50 in 0.50 in

1 2 4 6

12 16 28 28

TABLE 1

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(d)

(e)

Placed the chain on a flat surface and stretch by applying a small tensile force (table 1). The length should be measured between the centres of the bearing pins, elongation being calculated by the formula given in (e) below. Immediately re-lubricate the chain. The percentage extension over the nominal length can be calculated by the formula: Percentage extension = M (X x P) x 100 XxP

Where

M X P

= = =

Measured length under load in inches. Number of pitches measured. Pitch of chain in inches.

P may be found from the chain manufacturers literature or by measuring the pitch of one link carefully using a micrometer or vernier. If the extension is in excess of 2% on any section of the chain the whole chain should be replaced. Should localised wear be likely to occur in a chain run, additional checks should be made on these sections and the percentage extension ascertained. If the local extension is in excess of 2%, the chain should be replaced.

Fig. 16 LOOSENESS OF CHAIN INDICATING WEAR

The chain should be checked for kinks and twists by suspending it from one end and allowing it to hang freely. Sighting along the length will show if kinks or twist exists. If they do the chain should be replaced.

Checking Articulation Each link of the chain should be checked for tightness by movement through 180. This is best achieved by pulling the chain over the finger and feeling/seeing that all links articulate freely as they pass over the finger. - 22 -

By first pulling the chain over the finger one way, then reversing it and pulling the chain over the finger the other way each link will be moved a total of 180. Debris within the bearing pins or between the inner and outer plates may cause tight joints; this may be remedied by cleaning. If cleaning is not successful, the end of the bearing pin may be gently tapped with a small hammer, but if this fails to clear the joint the chain should be rejected. Tightness may also be caused through lack of clearance between the inner and outer plates due to damage; if this is so, the chain should also be rejected.

Checking for Deterioration The chain should be examined for damage, cracks and wear to plates and rollers and for evidence of corrosion and pitting. NOTE: It is not allowed to remove, assemble or tighten a riveted link in a chain.

Proof Loading This is not usually carried after removal for routine inspection. It is carried out after replacement of a portion of the assembly such as fork end fittings etc, but it is generally considered better to replace the complete assembly. The proof loading to be applied is 1/3rd the minimum breaking load.

Storage of Chains After the chain has been cleaned, inspected and found to be acceptable, it should be thoroughly soaked in an appropriate oil for a period of time to allow the lubricant to penetrate the bearing surfaces. If not required for immediate use, the chain should be laid on a flat surface, carefully coiled and wrapped in greaseproof paper. Ideally it should be boxed and labelled and records kept.

Sprocket Wheels These are fitted as per the AMM to allow for the fitment of control chains. Correct positioning of sprocket wheels is of particular importance where nonreversible chains are used. During maintenance, they should be checked for security and wear on the teeth, damage and excessive wear on the wheels and on the chain guide section. Ball races should be checked for wear, corrosion, and security. Wheels should be checked for correct alignment.

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CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS Pulleys All pulleys must be aligned to provide a satisfactory run for the cables so preventing riding on the flanges of the pulleys and chafing against the guards and covers. This will cause rapid cable and pulley wear together with increased friction within the system. The pulley bearings should be examined to ensure that they are properly lubricated, rotate freely and are free from dirt, swarf, paint spray, etc. Any play should be within limits. Non-metallic pulleys should be examined for freedom from embedded foreign matter and metal pulleys for freedom from roughness and sharp edges. All pulleys should be examined for wear patterns such as those shown in figure 17. Wear patterns for pulley mis-alignment and cable mis-alignment are similar, but, as in all the other cases of unusual wear, the cause has to be investigated and rectification carried out.

Fig. 17 PULLEY WEAR PATTERNS

Guards and Covers Pulleys (and sprockets) must be guarded to prevent jamming of cables and chains by foreign objects though CAAIPS state that they are fitted (for cables) to keep the cable on if it becomes slack. The guards and covers must be so fitted and locked that they cannot foul the controls in any position and are held positively against rotation about the pulley or sprocket axis.

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Where a guard forms an integral part of a removable panel, adequate precautions must be taken to check the controls and the correct positioning of the guard after the panel has been replaced. Guards should be secure, free from corrosion and undamaged. Glands, gaiters, seals, bellows etc intended to prevent the escape of lubricant, ingress of debris or loss of cabin pressure where controls pass through pressurised areas, must be undamaged and correctly and securely attached. They should be correctly aligned with little signs of wear. When longitudinally split rubber seals are fitted at pressure bulkheads to seal the apertures through which the control cables pass, care must be taken to ensure that the assembly is such that the seal will not be chafed. Chafing could result in the seal being broken permitting the retaining rings to come off and ride along the control cable, possibly causing jamming of a pulley or fairlead. Care must also be taken to ensure that the retaining rings are installed correctly into the groove in the seal to prevent a similar occurrence.

Levers These include bellcrank levers, torque tubes etc. They should be checked for correct alignment, damage, security and corrosion. Bearings should be lubricated, free running but without play.

Fairleads Fairleads should be aligned to give the required free run to the cable without chafing, JAR25 states a maximum deflection of 3. They should be securely attached, free from corrosion (if made of metal), undamaged, clean, dry and un-lubricated.

Turnbuckles Turnbuckles should be locked using any of the methods shown in figures 18, 19, 20, 21, 23 & 24. Prior to locking, the turnbuckle should be checked that the end-fittings are in safety. Locking may include any one or more of the following methods: * * * Wire locking (wire gauge and specification as per the AMM). Lock-nuts. Special locking clips.

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For the turnbuckle to be in safety, checks are carried out depending on the type of turnbuckle: * Barrel Type Turn Buckle (with a plus thread the crest diameter being larger than the rod on which it is cut). Some are designed so that they are in safety when all the threads are buried in the barrel (figures 18 & 23). Others have inspection holes (figures 19, 20 & 21) and a piece of wire is used for checking similar to the Tension Rod type described below. Tension Rod Type (figure 24). When in safety the threads extend past the inspection hole in the end fittings. Check this by attempting to pass a piece of wire (the same diameter as the hole) through the inspection hole. If the wire passes through the threads are not in deep enough and must be screwed further in. Some turnbuckles are designed so that they can be locked by special locking devices eg spring locking clips to MS21256 (figure 23). Refer to the AMM for locking.

Remember, locking wire must only be used once.

Fig. 18 WIRE LOCKING - BARREL TYPE TURN BUCKLE (WITH PLUS THREADS ON FORK ENDS)

With the larger type of control cables (ie UK cables from 45 to 120 cwt), it has been found that tension loads tend to straighten out the helically-wound cable resulting in a torque action sufficient to break the locking wire or loosen locknuts on turnbuckles or similar assemblies.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 19 LOCK-NUT & WIRE-LOCKING OF BARREL TYPE TURNBUCKLE (WITH CONVENTIONAL THREADS)

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To overcome this unlocking action a tube fitted over the turnbuckle assembly and drilled to accommodate three bolts is sometimes specified. This provides a positive means of preventing independent rotation of any part of the assembly.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 20 ALTERNATIVE METHOD OF LOCKING THE SAME TURNBUCKLE

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 21 LOCK-NUT & WIRE-LOCKING OF TURNBUCKLE WITH SWAGED END-FITTINGS (CONVENTIONAL THREADS)

The locking of the turnbuckle in figure 18 is achieved by the use of locking wire wound in a double figure-of-eight. Those in figures 19, 20 & 21 are locked by the use of lock-nuts and figure-of-eight lockwire (double figure-of-eight except for figure 20 which is a single figure-of-eight). The adjustable fork end-fitting shown in figure 22 can be attached to a swaged cable end fitting or to a chain or a tension rod. The threaded end must be in safety and the lock-nut correctly tightened. The screwed portion (A) must not abut the eye-end fitting (B) in the fork end as this would impose an additional strain on the fitting and reduce the flexibility. There would also be no provision for further adjustment.

- 27 -

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 22 ADJUSTABLE FORK END-FITTING

Fig. 23 TURNBUCKLE LOCKING USING SPRING CLIPS

Fig. 24 TENSION ROD TYPE TURNBUCKLE (LOCKED BY LOCKNUTS & LOCKING WIRE)

Keyed cable connectors may be adjustable, if so they should be checked for safety and correct locking. All connectors should be checked for damage, security, corrosion correct keying (male and female parts are compatible) and that the locking clips are located correctly.

- 28 -

Fig. 25 KEYED ADJUSTABLE CONNECTOR

Keyed connectors are used where multiple cable runs are located in the aircraft and cables need to be disconnected. As each pair of connectors has a unique keying system it ensures that they are Murphy-proofed and cables cannot be cross-connected.

Control Rods Sometimes called Push/Pull Rods. They should be perfectly straight (unless designed to be otherwise) when fitted and bell-cranks, etc, to which they are attached, should be checked for freedom of movement before and after assembly of the control rods. The assembly as a whole should be checked for correct alignment. If fitted with adjustable end fittings these should be locked iaw the AMM and checked for safety usually the same way as most turnbuckles are checked by trying to pass a piece of wire through an inspection hole.

Fig. 26 PUSH/PULL ROD END DETAIL

Where self-aligning ball-races are fitted, free rotational movement of the rods must be obtained in all positions. There have been cases of control rods with self-aligning bearings becoming disconnected because of failure of the peening retaining the ball-races in the rod end housings, thus allowing the rods to become detached from the ballraces. - 29 -

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 27 SELF ALIGNING BEARING

This can be prevented if the control rods are assembled so that the abutment flange of the rod end housing is interposed between the ball-race and the anchored. Alternatively, a washer having a larger diameter than the hole in the abutment flange may be required under the retaining nut on the end of the attachment pin. In any event always follow the AMM.

Torque Tubes Check that torque tubes are not bowed and rotate freely in their guides; that universal joints are correctly fitted and give full and free movement throughout the full angular range of the torque tube.

Gearboxes and Screw Jacks Where this type of equipment is installed in the system, it should be ensured that the gearboxes/screw jacks are correctly mounted, undamaged and corrosion free. That the joints are correctly fitted and give the full angular range and that only the lubricant specified in the AMM is used. Gear Boxes and Screw Jacks should be checked for full and free range of movement. They should be checked that they are free running with no backlash.

blank

- 30 -

OTHER CABLE CONTROL SYSTEMS Several types of control systems are available and three examples are described below.

BOWDEN CONTROLS A flexible system where a pull (tensile load) operation only is required, operating such services as brakes and release mechanisms. Made up of a high tensile steel inner cable attached at both ends one end to the operating lever/mechanism and the other end to the equipment to be operated. The inner cable is given protection and support by a coiled compression wire and metal braiding. The whole assembly is weather proofed by an outer plastic covering the ends of which are protected by metal end caps. To allow the attachment of the inner cable to the operating mechanism nipples are soldered onto both ends. On some systems it is just a compression fitting. Operation of the system is by the inner cable being pulled to operate the mechanism with return being operated by a spring. Maintenance of these cables is not too unlike that associated with flying control cable systems described above. The external waterproofing should be checked for wear and damage with the only effective rectification being replacement (of the whole cable or the making up of a cable assembly with a new outer sheath).

Fig. 28 BOWDEN CABLE

Operation of the cable system should be smooth, if movement is rough, jerky or the friction is high it is an indication of broken stands within the core cable, wear in the cable, or a damaged outer sheath. Replacement of the complete assembly will be required. The cable should be lubricated as laid down in the AMM. End fittings should be inspected for security of attachment, corrosion and damage. They should be lubricated as per the AMM and checked for freedom of movement over their full range. They should be checked for correct locking.

- 31 -

Fig. 29 NIPPLE TYPES

Making up a Cable Assembly Cable assemblies for certain systems may be made up at user unit level provided they are proof tested afterwards. The inner cable of the correct size is cut from a coil of cable supplied from the manufacturer of the cable system. The length can be measured from the cable being removed, allowing for any stretch. If the cable is broken then the length should be ascertained from drawings. When cutting the cable the same procedure is applied as with cutting control cable whipping to prevent unravelling and no flame etc. A length of outer conduit sheath is then cut from a coil also supplied from the cable system manufacturer. It must be of the correct length (see above) and size. Care must be exercised when doing this to prevent debris getting into the conduit and to ensure that the ends do not have any burrs that could rub on the cable. Use snips to cut the conduit and removing any sharp pieces of the helical coil with the snips. In general: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Fix the end fitting (eg nipple) to one end (end 1) of the inner cable. Slide the made-up conduit onto the cable from the other end. Fix number 2 end fitting (eg nipple) to end 2. Test the assembly. Fit assembly to aircraft, adjust and test.

Fixing a Soldered Nipple The end of the cable is thoroughly cleaned. The correct size and shape nipple is selected and tinned internally with solder. The cable is passed through the nipple until the end is level with the nipple top. The strands of the cable are splayed out as much as possible (figure 30) and the whole area filled with solder to form a smooth dome. On a correctly soldered joint the solder should run through the nipple and show at the cable end. - 32 -

Fig. 30 SOLDERING THE NIPPLE

The joint is tested for strength by pulling hard by hand. A more specific tensile test may be applied (similar to cables above but with a much lighter load). Before fitting the second nipple at the other end of the cable run IT IS MOST IMPORTANT to slide all fittings onto the cable including conduit, fittings, adjusters, ferrules etc in their correct order. Note. Some systems employ a swaged nipple this is fitted in much the same way as those fitted to control cables (described previously), but using a special (smaller) swaging machine.

Making up the Conduit Each section of conduit (and it is usual to have two sections in each cable run) is made up of the conduit and a metal cap (ferrule) at each end. The ferrule is fitted over the end of the conduit and should be a snug (but not tight) fit. Once the first nipple is soldered on, any end fitting is slid onto the cable (this is not common), then the first length of conduit is slid on, then the adjuster, then the second length of conduit, the end fitting (if any), then the second nipple is soldered on. The adjuster (more or less in the middle of the cable run but in accordance with the manual anyway) has a right and left hand thread and can be changed in length thus allowing for adjustment of the force on the conduit. It should be adjusted so that there is no slack in the conduit.

Fig. 31 MAKE-UP OF BOWDEN CABLE

(The drawing is fore-shortened and shows one end of the system, the adjuster would be close to the middle of the cable run.)

- 33 -

Fitting a Cable Assembly Usually fitted between levers and handles which may have adjustable stops. To fit the cable to an end fitting the AMM must be consulted, but in general the follow applies to systems that employ nipple type connections at both ends. With reference to figure 32: 1. 2. Adjust both end fitting stops (if fitted) on the aircraft system to give the greatest range of movement. On those conduits that are adjustable for length, adjust them to their shortest length. (The turnbuckle type adjuster is screwed to its shortest length which will adjust the length of the conduit but not the cable. The cable passes straight through the adjuster.) This means that there is more slack in the system in this condition than would otherwise be the case. It will allow easier fitting of the nipples to the attachments.

Fig. 32 TYPICAL CABLE CONNECTION TO END FITING (PARKING BRAKE LEVER)

3.

4.

At one end of the cable run align the cable so that the nipple will pass into the fitting hole and the cable will pass through the cable slot. Rotate cable and nipple through 90 to its normal position (as shown in the drawing). Move the control cable so it is now laying in its correct orientation with the metal end fitting of the conduit resting on the fixed part of the end fitting.

- 34 -

5.

6.

7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Carry out the same procedure at the other end of the system. This may require a higher level of motor skills because there is less slack in the cable system because the other end has taken up some of the free play between the cable and the conduit. Adjust the conduit length adjuster to take up the slack in the conduit, which means increasing its length. Make sure the adjuster is in safety and correctly locked. Ensure that both conduit metal end-caps are firmly in place at their respective ends input end and component end. Check for correct sense of movement, eg if it is a throttle system, pushing the throttle forward increases engine power. Adjust the stops at the input end and the component end to give the correct range of movement (check the AMM). It is usual to adjust the stops at the input end so that they control the range of movement but check the AMM. Check for full and free movement. Check the lay of the cable assembly to see that it has not been disturbed. Ensure all adjusters are in safety and correctly locked. Carry out a full functional check (a brake functional with reference to figure 32). Carry any required duplicate inspections. Record all the work done and sign.

TELEFLEX CONTROLS Used to transmit both a push and a pull in the control system (unlike Bowden Controls that only transmit a pull force). The loads, however are light. The system uses a inner high tensile steel cable around which is fitted helix compression windings. The whole assembly moves back and forth within a (usually) Al alloy rigid conduit. The outer helix winding whilst adding strength to the cable core also acts as a male screw-thread to engage with wheel units in the system.

Fig. 33 TELEFLEX CABLE INNER CORES

- 35 -

Figure 34 shows how a Teleflex system can be made up to operate many different components. The control handle is the input end to the system with the cable passing through several units each one will rotate. The junction unit will allow the system to operate another Teleflex system. The quick release unit will allow the quick disconnection of the system so, in this case, the double entry unit can be removed easily.

Fig. 34 A MODEL TELEFLEX SYSTEM

Maintenance consists of checking for damage, corrosion, full and free movement and regular lubrication. Backlash is also checked. Lengths of control system can be made up at user unit level using conduit and cable. Lengths can be ascertained by reference to drawings or by direct comparison with the original be careful, however, that when checking the old cable that it has not stretched. The length of the conduit is from one unit to another. The length of the cable is from one end unit to another end unit plus that required to fully engage with the teeth of the wheel or the end unit locking system. The cut length of conduit (to the correct diameter and specification) is bent (if required) in a bending machine and squared off at the ends. Any belling of the ends is carried out using a belling machine. When cutting the conduit it is imperative that no debris enters the bore as this will increase the in-use wear rate considerably.

- 36 -

The cable is cut to length and the ends deburred with a file. Again make sure that the cable is kept clean. For end wheel units the cable is inserted to engage with the thread on the wheel and is pushed fully into the cable recess. The wheel unit and wheel must be so arranged that a minimum number of threads must be engaged when the wheel is at its limit of travel with the cable at its outer-most limit of travel. This is specified by the system manufacturer usually as the minimum angular engagement. The cable is lubricated and the end nut and prepared conduit is offered up to the cable and threaded over the cable to engage fully with the unit end fitting. The end nut is tightened into the end fitting and wire locked.

Fig. 35 WHEEL END FITTING

For sliding end fittings the cable is passed through a slider tube before being screwed fully into the screwed end of the fitting (turn the fitting not the cable to screw it on). Remember to pass the cable through the slider tube, outer sleeve and lock-nut first.

Fig. 36 SLIDER END FITTING - 37 -

Attachments to Services Irrespective of the type of control system the final link in the system is the attachment of the system to the end component. This can include input attachments to flight control surfaces (rare), flying control tabs, engine controls, brakes etc and feed-back attachments from these and other systems to transducers etc. The method of attachment varies with each type of aircraft, but it must be ensured that the attachment is assembled so there is no strain and that adequate clearance exists between adjacent moving parts, or between the moving part and adjacent structure and equipment throughout the full range of movement. There must be no slackness in the linkage, which will cause backlash.

Locking All connections of components and parts in the control system must be positively secured and locked in accordance with the AMM.

Lubrication All moving parts should be lubricated with the specified lubricant during assembly. Proprietary bearings, such as those of the oil-retaining variety, should be lubricated only when recommended by the manufacture.

Placarding A check should be made to ensure that all placards and notices in the cockpit/flight deck relating to the function, direction of movement and operational positions of controls etc are displayed.

General During installation, care must be taken to avoid any possibility of the controls jamming or fouling against adjacent structure, or cables rubbing together or chafing against other fixed or moving parts throughout their range of movement. Where clearances are not stated on drawings and there is some doubt about their adequacy, the manufacturer should be contacted. The system should be protected against corrosion and deterioration and should be electrically bonded.

- 38 -

FLEXBALL CONTROLS Fitted to some aircraft systems to provide a flexible control system to provide a push/pull control to take light loads. An example of its use is in the tail rotor control system of the Eurocopter EC135 were it is used to transmit the control inputs from the pilots yaw pedals to the yaw actuator at the tail rotor. The system is made up, effectively, of two outer stainless steel rails and stainless steel balls located either side of a stainless steel centre rail. The balls are spaced at intervals and located within a stainless steel cage (can be PTFE). The centre rail slides back and forth between the balls to transmit both tensile and compressive loads. The assembly is housed in a semi flexible steel casing weather proofed by an outer PVC protective cover. Lengths supplied up to 65ft (19.8m) long and 5 different sizes. Moving end fittings are directly attached to the centre rail whilst the outer case is attached to the non-moving part of the component.

Fig. 37 CROSS SECTION OF FLEXBALL SYSTEM

Fig. 38 FLEXBALL SYSTEM

- 39 -

BELTS & PULLEYS

Drive belts are used on some engines usually piston to drive such things as generators, timing mechanisms etc. In-situ maintenance involves checking the belt for wear, contamination, stretching, alignment, signs of overheating and correct fitting within the pulleys. If worn beyond the limits specified in the AMM the belt should be replaced and the system checked for reasons why mis-alignment of pulleys for example.

Fig. 39 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MISALIGNMENT

If the belt is contaminated with oils or greases then is must be replaced, the pulley cleaned and the source of the contaminant found and rectified. Replace any belt showing signs of overheating and check on the reasons why and rectify. To check for stretching put a specified force on a free run of the belt and measuring the deflection, it should not be more than that specified in the AMM. In some belt systems an idler pulley may be adjusted to take up any excessive slack.

Fig. 40 MEASURING BELT STRETCH

- 40 -

The deflection may be because of belt stretch, belt wear or pulley wear. If any wear limits are exceeded the belt/pulley/s must be changed. To check for belt stretch specifically the belt is removed and tested on a rig. The rig has one fixed and one free pulley that is loaded to provide a comparative scale measurement.

Fig. 41 MEASURING BELT STRETCH

The test rig is set up using the correct pulleys and a new belt, ensuring that it fits correctly in the pulleys. The free pulley is loaded with a nominal force using a spring balance and the scale reading is noted. The new belt is removed and the old belt fitted again ensuring that it seats correctly in the pulleys. The same load is applied to the free pulley and the reading again noted. Any stretch will show as a difference in the two readings. CAUTION. On V pulleys and belt systems any belt wear will also show as an increased reading. Any stretch or wear outside the manufacturers limits will require belt replacement.

Fitting/Removal of Belts Always consult the AMM, but in general the following applies: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Ensure the equipment is made safe to work on. Note and/or mark the position of pulleys particularly if they are timing pulleys with a toothed belt. Remove guards and equipment etc to gain access. Slacken the jockey pulley (the adjuster pulley) so as to provide as much slack as possible to the belt. With the fingers, carefully prise the belt over the edge of the pulley at the same time slowly rotating the pulley and the belt. Remove the belt and inspect all the pulleys. Fitting is the reverse of removal, though it might be more difficult with a new belt. Take care not to damage either belt or pulley.

- 41 -

8. 9. 10.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Check that the belt lies correctly within each pulley and is clear of any other equipment. Adjust belt tension by movement of the adjusting pulley. Check deflection as shown in figure 40. If it is a timing system check the position of all pulleys (though any timing will have to be checked by the equipment timing mechanism prior to system run (engine valve and ignition timing for example). If possible rotate system by hand (not usually possible). Carry out pulley alignment checks, system timing checks (if a timing system) and pulley clearance checks. Carry out a functional if possible at this stage. Refit guards, covers, equipment etc removed previously. Carry out functionals iaw with the AMM. Carry out duplicate inspections if required. Record all work done and sign.

Pulleys Checked for damage, security and corrosion. Light corrosion can be repaired and some minor damage can be classed as negligible. The critical areas are those related to the actual attachment the bearing, and the contact area with the belt. Any damage or wear to the bearing will render it or the pulley as a whole unserviceable. Any damage to the belt contact area will also render the pulley unserviceable.

SPRINGS Terms used with springs have been included here as revision from module 6 as it is useful to know them whilst carrying out maintenance tasks. Free Length The length of the spring without any load applied. When checking this length is should be within the limits as laid down in the appropriate maintenance manual. Compression springs can be checked using a vernier caliper, or a surface table (with the spring upright) and a height gauge. For tension springs length is measured whilst laying flat on a surface table, using a vernier caliper. Pitch The distance between the centre of one coil of the spring and its adjacent coil without any load applied. Can be measured using a vernier caliper and subtracting one wire diameter provided access is possible. Coil Distance This is the distance between two adjacent coils without any load applied. Again can be measured if access is available.

- 42 -

Fig. 42 SPRING TERMS

Wire Diameter The diameter of the wire from which the coils are made. Outside Coil Diameter The outside diameter of the unloaded spring (OCD). Inside Coil Diameter The inside diameter of the unloaded spring (ICD). Mean Coil Diameter The average between the OCD and the ICD. Tip Thickness The thickness of the ground section of the end of the spring.

Maintenance In most cases springs are checked for serviceability and any un-serviceability is usually rectified by replacement. Checks include: (a) (b) An inspection for corrosion, damage, wear, broken coils and distortion. Checking for correct free length of coil springs. Compression springs can be checked using a vernier calliper and tension springs are normally in their fully closed state unloaded. Check for springiness. This may require a special process using masses and checking the extension/change in length with each added mass. A graph is plotted of mass against change in length from which the elasticity of the spring is ascertained. The spring should return to its free length condition when unloaded. Remember, a spring should obey Hookes law (Robert Hooke English physicist 1635 1703) in that extension (or compression) is proportional to the force applied.

(c)

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BEARING MAINTENANCE Lubrication Bearings must be lubricated to prevent metal to metal contact between the rolling elements, races and cage (if fitted) and to protect against corrosion. The choice of lubricant depends primarily on the temperature range and operating speed of the bearing - although ball bearings are normally lubricated by oil because of their design but check the AMM anyway. When selecting a lubricant, its viscosity, viscosity index (the amount its viscosity changes with a change in temperature), temperature range and rust inhibiting properties are the most important factors that the designer has to consider. As all lubricants deteriorate with age and mechanical working, and often the lubricant becomes contaminated, regular re-lubrication of the bearing is essential. This may involve the periodic addition of oil or grease, or the complete cleaning of the bearing assembly and complete re-lubrication. Oils are thickened mineral oils or synthetic fluids. There are several types of greases available: calcium, lithium and sodium based, and most containing additives for corrosion inhibition (principally lead compounds). As a general rule never mix greases or oils unless specifically allowed in the AMM.

Bearing Removal Although bearings are designed to carry heavy loads at high speeds they can be delicate. Care must be taken during removal and replacement to ensure that the bearing assembly is not damaged and that any debris does not enter the bearing rolling elements. Any work involving ball and roller bearings should be carried out in clean conditions using clean tools and equipment. Most standard bearings can be removed with the use of universal pullers and 'splitters, although some require specialised tools as supplied by the aircraft or engine manufacturer. Another method used for removing/fitting bearing assemblies is the hand operated hydraulic press to push the bearings out of (or in to) their housings.

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A bearing assembly should never be driven out with a hammer making direct contact with the bearing, as this could chip the races or rolling elements. If using a hammer a drift or slug must be used. Any contact with the bearing with a drift or a hydraulic press must be on the race that is in contact with the housing eg for bearings fitted to a shaft on the inner race, for bearings fitted within a housing on the outer race.

Fig. 43 BEARING PULLERS AND SUPPORTS

Fig. 44 BEARING REMOVAL

Cleaning Before examination, surplus grease should be removed. Dry compressed air will assist in dislodging the grease from the cage and rolling elements. The bearings, except the sealed type, are then soaked in white spirit to remove any remaining grease or dirt. To facilitate cleaning, the bearing may be turned slowly by hand.

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If difficulty is experienced, a forced jet of white spirit may be used. (Use transparent shield guards on the tank and protective clothing/eye shields.) The jet is obtained by fitting a pump to the washing tank complete with filter. . In certain circumstances, small bearings may be cleaned with benzene, but appropriate fire precautions must be observed. After cleaning, the bearing is dried with warm, dry compressed air, and lightly oiled to prevent corrosion. If the storage period is long the bearing should be dipped in rust preventative, wrapped in greaseproof paper, boxed and labelled. The bearings should be stored horizontally and periodically checked for corrosion and re-protected.

Inspection of Bearings Cleaned non-lubricated bearings should never be handled with the bare hands during inspection, as this may lead to corrosion of the bearing after installation always wear clean lint free gloves or fine rubber gloves. Ball and roller bearings are used where play or lost motion is unacceptable. Bearings would normally be initially inspected in-situ since frequent removal may cause damage to the bearing races or mating surfaces. Bearings, unless specified otherwise, would normally be inspected when that particular component (shaft, wheel etc) is changed or worked on in such a way as to give access. If any doubt exists as to the condition of a bearing it must be removed, cleaned and inspected. To facilitate inspection the cleaned bearing should be supported by its inner race, and the outer race slowly rotated to determine wear or roughness. Some types of bearings may be dismantled for inspection inner race, outer race and balls or rollers. The bearing should be inspected for: 1. 2. Surplus grease. An in-situ inspection, remove surplus grease. Externally for signs of overheating, corrosion and damage. Examine the cage for loose balls/rollers, damage and corrosion. Change the bearing if any of these conditions are found. Broken or cracked races. Change bearing. Damaged seals and shields. Indications include grease leaking from bearing. Change bearing if integral seal, or change seal if separate. Cracked or broken cages. Change bearing. Damaged or broken rolling elements. Change bearing. Flaking of the races and/or rolling elements. Change bearing. Discolouration due to overheating. Change bearing. Brinelling (intermittent damage to rolling elements). Change bearing.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

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10. 11. 12. 13.

14.

15.

16.

17. 18.

Spalling parts of the bearing that are chipped or has shed metal. Change bearing. Distortion of the race rings. Change bearing. Corrosion. Change bearing if on the rolling elements. If slight on noncontact faces remove, clean and protect. Excessive play due to wear. The radial and axial clearance will depend on the class of bearing. It should be considered as unserviceable if the amount of clearance is excessive check the maintenance manual. Damage to races due to bearing spin. This is the complete bearing assembly (inner and/or outer race) rotating within its housing/on its shaft. Change the bearing and check housing/shaft for wear, if worn or a new bearing does not fit correctly then the component may have to be changed. Remember that the inner race of wheel bearings is allowed to creep around the axle to ensure that the shock of landing is not felt on the same part of the race every time but they are not supposed to be too loose. For smoothness of running. Any roughness may be caused by dirt or damaged rolling surfaces. Remember that rotation of dry bearings should be kept to a minimum to reduce wear. The bearing is cleaned and lightly oiled. The outer race is rotated by hand whilst the inner is held as a push fit on the fingers. Any rough running indicates damaged or brinnelled balls or rollers the bearing must be changed. Another method is to mount the lightly oiled bearing on an arbour. Set it to run at 500-1000 rpm. The outer race is held and the smoothness and resistance determined by alternately applying a light radial and axial load. For rubbing between the rotating and stationary parts. Rubbing indicates excessive wear and possible contamination of the lubricant. (Applies to shielded bearings in particular). Wear. The housing end covers may be removed. Creep or spinning may be recognised by polishing locally smooth areas caused by rubbing. Contamination. The lubricant should be checked for contamination, by metal particles, by rubbing a sample of the grease between the fingers, any grit will be felt and metal particles will reflect light.

After inspection bearings should be oiled/greased and stored in oil-proof type wrapping ready for re-use. If the bearing has failed and it is decided to return it to the manufacturer for examination, it must be despatched as removed, since the condition of any lubricant may produce evidence of the cause of the failure.

Installation of Bearings Always carried out in accordance with the manufacturers manual.

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The majority of bearing failures are caused by damage during fitment, faulty lubrication, or inadequate protection against the ingress of dirt. Cleanliness must be maintained at all times. Prior to fitment, the bearing should be inspected to ensure that it is free from damage, and that there is no evidence of corrosion and that it is free to rotate. The bearing should be lubricated as specified in the AMM/manufacturers manuals. Where grease is used, care should be taken that it is worked into the space between the cage and the races. Bearings must be assembled the right way round in accordance with the manual or drawing, sometimes they are supplied in matched pairs, and it is important that they are fitted correctly. Lightly loaded bearings, such as control end fittings, may be pressed into position using only finger pressure. When bearings are carrying a radial load the inner race is an interference fit on the shaft. Depending on the degree of interference an assembly tool or press may be required. It may also be necessary to cool the shaft (if it is to go into the bearing) and heat the bearing in hot oil. If these tools are not available it may be permissible to use a soft steel or brass tube drift, which must be a close fit over the shaft and make contact with the interference race only. It is very important when doing this that the bearing is protected from the possibility of any fragments coming off the drift and getting between the races. Bearings capable of adjustment must be adjusted to give the necessary clearance or pre-load. Races should not generally be fitted so that all internal clearance has been eliminated, since this will impose a heavy initial loading between the rolling elements and the races, and may result in damage. Bearings must always be seated squarely against the shoulders of shafts or bearing housings, otherwise uneven and excessive wear will result. Care must be taken to ensure that the bearings are not damaged during fitting, any force necessary should be applied to the race being fitted, as pressure on the companion race may result in fracture of the race or indentation by the balls or rollers. When the bearing is assembled it should, where applicable, be lightly packed with grease, as a rough guide one third full, to provide a reserve of lubricant. Excessive greasing should be avoided, since the grease will be expelled from the bearing immediately it starts to turn. Oil lubricated bearings should be lightly lubricated with the approved oil.

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MAINTENANCE OF GEARS

Some terms have been included in this section to give a better understanding of gears and their intricacies. Whilst the author has reduced the number of terms significantly associated with gears, it is possible that there are still too many terms listed for the level required by the CAA.

Spur (Involute) Gear Terms Pitch circle is the circle representing the original line which transmits the motion tooth to tooth, and its diameter is the pitch circle diameter. Centre distance is the distance between a pair of meshing spur gears. One of the advantages of the involute system is that small variations in the centre distance do not affect the correct working of the gears.

Fig. 45 INVOLUTE GEAR TOOTH DETAIL

Pitch point is the point of contact between the pitch circles of two gears in mesh. Line of action. Contact between the teeth of meshing gears takes place along a line tangential to the two base circles. This line passes through the pitch point and is called the line of action. Pressure angle. The angle between the line of action and the common tangent to the pitch circles at the pitch point is the pressure angle. Addendum is the radial height of a tooth above the pitch circle. Dedendum is the radial depth below the pitch circle. Clearance is the difference between the addendum of one gear and the dedendum of the other. Whole depth of a tooth is the sum of the addendum and dedendum.

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Working depth of a tooth is the maximum depth that the tooth extends into the tooth space of a mating gear. Addendum circle is that which contains the tops of the teeth and its diameter is the outside or blank diameter. Dedendum or root circle is that which contains the bottoms of the teeth and its diameter is the root diameter.

Fig. 46 SPUR GEAR TERMS

Tooth face is the surface of a tooth above the pitch circle, parallel to the axis of the gear. Tooth flank is the tooth surface below the pitch circle, parallel to the axis of the gear. If any part of the flank extends inside the base circle it cannot have involute form. It may have any other form, which does not interfere with the mating teeth, and is usually a straight radial line. Circular tooth thickness is measured on the tooth around the pitch circle, that is, it is the length of an arc.

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Pitch of gear teeth may be expressed as follows: Diametral pitch is the number of teeth per inch of pitch circle diameter. This is a ratio. Circular pitch is the distance from a point on one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth, measured round the pitch circle. If contact between the teeth of meshing gears does not take place on the line of action interference may occur. This is often the case when a pinion with a small number of teeth is in mesh with a wheel with a large number of teeth, the faces of the wheel teeth fouling the flanks of the pinion teeth. If interference is allowed the pinion teeth will be undercut at the roots. The term pinion is applied to the smaller of two mating gears.

Involute Racks Racks are used as part of a Rack and Pinion assembly. They are usually driven by the pinion (spur gearwheel) and convert the rotary motion of the gearwheel to linear motion of the rack. Teeth are usually straight-sided. The sides of the teeth are at right angles to the line of action and are inclined to the vertical at the pressure angle.

Fig. 47 RACK TOOTH DETAILS

Bevel Gears This type of gearing is used to transmit power between shafts in the same plane whose axes would intersect if projected. The angle between the shafts is usually a right angle, but it may have any angle up to 180. The velocity ratio is the inverse ratio of the diameters of their bases or teeth ratios. This means that if the small gear has 20 teeth and the large gear has 100 teeth the ratio is 5:1 and the small gear will have to rotate 5 times whilst the large gear will rotate once. If the small gear is the driver there will be a step-down in the rpm of 5:1. - 51 -

Fig. 48 BEVEL GEARS

The basic form of this type of gear is a cone. If the curved surface of the back cone is viewed normally the teeth have the same profiles as the teeth on a spur gear. The addendum and dedendum have the same proportions as spur gear teeth but are measured above and below the pitch circle, parallel to the back cone generator. Pressure angles for bevel gears are usually 14 or 20 as for spur gears. Bevel Gear Terms In addition to those terms used for spur gears the following are also used for bevel gears: Pitch cone angle is the angle between the axis of the gear and the pitch cone teeth centre. When the pitch cone angle is 45 the gear is called a mitre gear. Face angle is the angle between a line at right angles to the axis and the top surfaces of the teeth. - 52 -

Edge angle is the angle between a line at right angles to the axis and the top of the teeth. Addendum angle is the angle between the gear wheel and the top surfaces of the teeth. Dedendum angle is the angle between the gear wheel and the teeth bottoms.

Hypoid Gears These gears are similar to bevel gears but the basic surfaces on which the teeth are cut are hyperboloids instead of cones. The teeth of hypoid gears are helical and the axes of the shafts do not intersect.

Fig. 49 HYPOID GEARS

Helical Gears These are a development of the spur gear. Instead of the teeth being parallel to the axis of the gear they lie on helicals. Thus contact between teeth in mesh takes place along a diagonal line across the faces and flanks of the teeth. So one pair of meshing teeth remain in contact until the following pair engage, and the load on the teeth is distributed over a larger area with a smoother transmission of power.

Fig. 50 HELICAL GEARS

With single helical gears the helical tooth form produces an end thrust on the shaft which must be absorbed with a thrust bearing. The end thrust is avoided if double helical gears are used. These have one half of the face width of the gear with a right hand helix and the other half with a left hand helix.

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Worms and Worm Wheels These connect shafts at right angles, which lie in different planes. The worm is essentially a screw, which may be double or triple threaded, which engages with teeth cut on the worm wheel. Older worms where cylindrical, but now usually waisted to give greater contact with the worm wheel. Such worms are known as, encircling or Hindley worms. With parallel worms the teeth are straight sided on a section through the axis, and have the same proportions as standard involute rack teeth.

Fig. 51 WORM GEARS

Gear Maintenance When access is available gears should be inspected for: * Corrosion. This is rare as most gears operate within a lubricant. However, if found on the teeth or any contact surfaces it renders the gear wheel unserviceable. It is possible to treat corrosion in the normal way if not severe and on areas of the gear wheel not in contact with anything. Cracks. Any cracks usually require the gear wheel to be replaced. Erosion. Happens to gear wheel assemblies rotating fast in fluid such as oils and fuels. Cavitation can occur between the teeth and over time this will erode the metal. The gearwheel has to be changed. Chipped/missing teeth. Requires gearwheel replacement. Wear. Normally picked up by checking on the amount of play between the gears or the amount of backlash in the system. The manual will specify the maximum amount allowed.

* *

* *

With most of the above it should be possible to get some idea of possible degradation of the gears by taking oil samples and checking for debris and/or checking filters/magnetic plugs etc.

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Backlash Sometimes called Lost Motion, it is in fact play between the teeth. It is there either because it is designed to be there, or it may occur after a period of time due to wear between the teeth. Holding one gear (driver or driven) absolutely stationary and moving the other as far as it will go from the limit of its travel in one direction to its limit of travel in the other will give some movement. If the system is serviceable this will be only a thousandth of an inch or so, if wear has occurred it may be tens of thousandths of an inch. Whether the system is serviceable or not will, of course, depend on the limits laid down in the manual. If there are several gears in the train then the total backlash from one end of the train to the other is the sum of all the individual contact teeth clearances.

Fig. 52 GEAR TRAIN

If the play between each gearwheel in the train in figure 50 is 0.01mm then with 3 interfaces the total backlash is 0.03mm. The most accurate way to measure backlash is to: l. Disconnect the output (or the input) to the last/first gearwheel in the train. Measurement may be specified as an angular or linear measurement. Lock the first gearwheel in the train. This may be by using a locking tool (clamp or spigot) or a locally made up clamp. Move the last gearwheel as far as possible in one direction. Set a DTI to rest against one of the teeth at a tangent to the gearwheel circumference (for a linear measurement). Move the gearwheel to its maximum position in the opposite direction. Note the readout on the DTI. Remove any locks fitted and reconfigure the system to its original condition.

2. 3.

4. 5.

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NOTE 1. It is important to remember that the total backlash recorded may not be distributed as an even amount of backlash for each set of meshing teeth. For example if the total backlash recorded for the system shown in figure 50 was 0.018 it is possible that all of this was between gears 3 and 4, and that all other teeth interfaces had no play at all. On the other hand it could be 0.012 for one set and 0.006 for another, with nil for the remaining set. NOTE 2. With a simple spur gear train, in general, backlash can be measured from one end of the train or the other. With worm gears it is best to hold the worm still and move the worm wheel. The manual will specify the total system backlash allowed and also each individual backlash allowed.

Gear Tooth Patterns When gearboxes are assembled, it is essential to ensure that the gears are correctly meshed. Working clearances must be provided between the mating surfaces to allow for expansion and lubrication. Failure to provide these clearances can lead to excessive wear and, in the worst cases, seizure of the gearbox and/or broken teeth. The amount by which the tooth space of a gear exceeds the tooth thickness of the mating gear at the pitch circle is called the backlash. It can be determined in the plane of rotation or, for helical gears, in the plane normal to the tooth face. If mating gears have zero backlash, gears and mountings need to be dimensionally perfect. To obtain zero backlash with varying operational conditions, all parts need exactly the same coefficient of thermal expansion. Because of the difficulty in meeting these requirements and for lubrication purposes, backlash is normally provided between gear teeth. The backlash and contact pattern of a gear is therefore determined by how the teeth of one gear mate with the other. If the teeth of one gear are set too tightly into the teeth of another, there will be no backlash and the gears will not be properly lubricated because a film of oil must be present between the teeth of the gears as they mesh. If gears are meshed too high in relation to the teeth, the load will be transmitted to the narrower part of the tooth, causing breakage. Two methods are in common use to ascertain if gears have been correctly installed: Wear Patterns and Backlash. For the wear pattern system the method is to check the wear pattern on the teeth after the gearbox has been run under operational conditions. A wear pattern becomes established as the gears rotate and is an indication of the area of tooth in contact with its opposite number.

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Fig. 53 TOOTH CLEARANCE

Thus the wear pattern can be used as an indication of the correctness or otherwise of gear tooth mesh and clearance. The correct wear pattern for an individual gear train should be given in the relevant Overhaul Manual, but generally speaking, two main types of wear pattern will be encountered, depending on whether the gear has straight cut or helical cut teeth. The general rule applicable to straight cut teeth is that the wear pattern must be evenly distributed across the face of the tooth.

Fig. 54 TYPICAL WEAR PATTERN ON A STRAIGHT CUT GEAR TOOTH

The wear pattern for a helical cut gear tooth is in the form of a tadpole shape with the maximum bearing surface towards the toe of the tooth. The toe can be defined as the part of the tooth which engages first. The heel of a tooth can be defined as that part which engages last. It can be appreciated that, as the tooth engages and takes up the drive, so it will accept progressively more load. As it starts to disengage, so the load will tend to taper off. Figure 53 shows a typical wear pattern for a helical gear tooth. The larger shaded area shows the pattern under load, while the smaller area towards the toe shows how the pattern will extend in that direction if it is checked under no-load conditions. To establish these wear patterns clean the gears thoroughly. Apply Engineers Blue (Prussian Blue) (A blue ink-like substance used for marking ferrous metals) to one gear only. - 57 -

Fig. 55 TYPICAL WEAR PATTERN ON A HELICAL GEAR TOOTH

Assembly the gears and rotate them under load and no-load conditions. The Blue will rub off the painted gear onto the other gear where contact is made. This will show the contact wear pattern. Remember to keep the rotation of the gears down to a minimum as they are un-lubricated. After the test: * * If wear patterns are excessive check the overhaul manual change the gears, check bearings etc. If wear patterns are incorrect but within permissible wear limits, clean gears of the Engineers Blue. Lubricate and assemble the gears and adjust gears as per the manual to obtain correct wear pattern. If wear patterns correct, dismantle gears, clean, lubricate and reassemble. Carry out a functional, clear the paperwork and sign.

* *

Fig. 56 GEAR PATTERN TERMINOLOGY

In most cases correct wear pattern can be established by setting correct backlash and with some gears adjustment can be made to establish this. For example with bevel gears shims can be used to move the gear wheel forward or back thus adjusting the teeth engagement

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Fig. 57 TYPICAL GEAR TOOTH WEAR PATTERNS

Fig. 58 TYPICAL SHIM METHOD OF MOVING GEAR POSITIONS TO ESTABLISH CORRECT WEAR PATTERN

It is possible for the user unit to check for correct wear patterns normally using the backlash method and in some cases, adjustments made. If overhaul facilities exist and the firm is approved, gears may be dismantled (normally with the equipment off the aircraft) and wear patterns established.

End Float This is the amount of axial movement that a gear is allowed. In some cases gears have considerable axial movement gear box systems for automobiles for example. Either way, the end float has to be measured and readings checked against the manual. The usual method of measurement is to use a DTI. End float may be adjusted for by the use of washers/shims or screwed end-fittings.

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Dimensional Measurements Normally carried out in a workshop facility using standard and specialist measuring equipment to include micrometers, verniers (electronic and nonelectronic), bevel protractors, scaled projection equipment, template gauges etc.

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