WHY USE PELLETS OVER OTHER SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS?

The grain seed coat has limited digestibility (55% for pigs, 65% for ruminants) and imposes the first barrier for digestion of grain for animals and improvements in digestion are usually recorded when grain has been ground. Most grain processing methods increase the rate of starch fermentation and starch digestibility in the rumen. rocessing of grains reduces particle si!e, which yields enormous benefits in starch digestion. "owever, fine grinding may reduce inta#e and increase losses of dry matter in handling because of the increased amount of fine dust$li#e particles. %n addition, a finely ground product is less palatable, may irritate eyes and lungs and will predispose ruminants to rumen hyper#eratinosis. %n all grains, the endosperm consists of cells which are pac#ed with starch grains. These grains are surrounded by a protein matri& which normally occupies all that space not ta#en up by starch granules. 'isruption of the protein matri& encapsulating starch granules in the endosperm seems to be a ma(or factor affecting ruminal starch degradation (Mc)eil et al., *+,5). ossibly the most important effect of heat treatment of grain is to cause the starch to gelatinise. -elatinisation is defined as the irreversible destruction of the crystalline order in a starch granule so that the surface of every molecule is made accessible to solvents or reactants. -elatinisation in feed is brought about by a combination of moisture, heat, mechanical energy and pressure differential and.or p" modification. (/eed Manufacturing Technology %0 p *1*) 2asically, the gelatinisation of starch has two results important to digestion3 -elatinisation enhances the ability of starches to absorb large 4uantities of water, and this leads to improved digestibility in almost all cases and to improved feed conversion in many cases. -elatinisation increases the speed at which en!ymes (amylases) can brea# down the lin#ages of starch to convert it into simpler and more soluble carbohydrates, including blood sugars (glucose). (/eed Manufacturing Technology %0 p *1*) There are a number of potential advantages in feeding pellets over grain3 *.2alanced proportions of proteins, minerals, vitamins and buffers can be incorporated into the pellets. The higher the level of concentrate feeding, the greater the li#elihood that nutrient balancing will be necessary. 5.6is#s of e&cessive unpalatable and to&ic substances associated with supplements, such as urea, are avoided by careful blending of ingredients. 1. ellets are usually less dusty than mechanically processed grains (/eeding 7oncentrates pg 65).'avidson and 8hrlich (*++*) compared a crac#ed grain meal with a pellet diet of the same

basic ingredients. 6esults showed an improved difference of *.1 #g mil#. day in the pellet diet. The improved production was attributed to better utilisation of starch in the pelleted rations. The evidence for this was much lower faecal starch levels in pellet$fed cattle. %mprovements in digestibility are presumably due to the e&posure of more endosperm to en!ymic attac#. 6uminants generally respond well to heat treated grain. %ncreased digestibilities are associated with reductions in feed inta#e, as the animal eats to a constant net energy inta#e.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF CATTLE

)utrients are substances that provide nourishment to body.There are seven classes of nutrients essential to every living animal for survival. They are3 9ater. 8nergy. rotein. 7arbohydrate. /ats. 0itamins. Minerals.

WATER
9ater is the most important nutrient for dairy cattle,as a lac# of water will cause death more 4uic#ly than lac# of any other nutrient./rom 56%$:*% of cows body is made up of water and maintaining body water is absolutely essential for life.%n the body ,water acts as a solvent transports nutrients and waste materials, participates in many chemical reactions and is important in body temperature control. 8very reaction or process that ta#es place in the body occurs in water.9ater is also important in the tranportation of substances throughout the body. )utrients are transported through the digestive tract, through the bloof stream,and into and out of the cells in the water based solutions(ie digesta,blood, lymph).9ater helps in the elemination of waste materials, through urine, feces,and respiration.9ater plays an important role in many chemical reactions where a water molecules are added or ta#en away. 9ater is avialable to the body through three sources.The most obvious is drin#ing water, as most animals drin# 5 1 times more water than the amount of feed they eat. 9ater inta#e increases during hot periods and the increasing mil# yield. ;nother source of water is the moisture found in feedstuffs. Most feeds that we consider <dry= (grain,hay) contain *>$*5 % of water. ?ilage is obviously much better with the a water content of @5$,5 %. the third source, accounting for 5$*>% of water found in the animals body comes directly from chemical reaction which occur in the body. 9hen two molecules of ammonia are combined in liver to from urea for instance,one molecule of water is released.

ENERGY
;fter water,energy is the primary nutritional need. 8nergy deficiency is the number one cause of reduced mil# production,although it generally goes unnoticed. ;nimals need energy to produce mil#, to grow, to maintain their *@>>A pound frame,and to support pregnancy. Measuring the energy content of feed or the energy needs of the cow is somewhat difficult and the units used can be unfamiliar. %)T;B8 8)86-C 8)86-C DE?T %) /878? '%-8?T%2D8 8)86-C 8)86-C DE?T %) F6%)8 ;)' -;? M8T;2ED%G;2D8 8)86-C 8)86-C DE?T %) "8;T )8T 8)86-C

M;%)T;%)8)78

-6E9T"

68 6E'F7T%E) D;7T;T%E)

Intake energy: This schematic outlines the partioning of energy consumed by the animal. The gross energy(sometimes called as the inta#e energy) of the feed is the amount of energy that is in the feedstuffs and is ingested by the animals. %t is measured by the bomb calorimeter, a device that literally burns the feed, and measures the heat released in calories. The heat released when a feed is burned is used as a measure of the total energy contained in the feed. Fnfortunately,not all of the total energy contained in the feed (inta#e energy) is available to the cow for her to use for growth,mil# yield, pregnancy, etc. ?ome of the inta#e energy of the feed is undigestible,and some will be wasted by the body after absorption. 9e need a way to accurately 4uantify those losses in order to account for the difference in the ability two different feed to support production. Digestible energy The first loss to be accounted for is the energy lost in the feces. 8nergy is lost in the feces when the animal does not digest all of the energy she consumes. Many forages are less digestible then grains meaning that more of their energy is lost in their feces$the energy lost in

the feces is #nown as digestible energy ('8).The '8 content of the feeds is reported in the feed consumption tables. These values were calculated from hundred of research studies in which feces production and fecal energy content were measured in cows fed with feeds. ;gain the calorie (Bcal or Mcal) is used as a measure of the '8 content of the feed. Metabolisable energy 8ven measuring '8,which accounts for the energy loss in the feces, doesHnt accurately measure the useable energy in a feed, however,some digestible energy is lost as urinary energy and some is lost in production of gases such as methan. The energy remaining after these losses is #nown as metabolisable energy (M8).-aseous energy losses can be 4uite high in a ruminant, and again, are usually higher in forages than in grains. Metabolisable energy is the energy available to tissues(muscle,fat,mammary gland,etc).To support chemical reaction is e&pressed in calories. Net energy: /inally,even after the energy from a feed arrives at the tissue,there are still energy losses to account for. ;s chemical reaction ta#e place in the body,some energy is lost as heat. The M8 content of a feed I the heat lost during metabolism is #now as the net energy ()8 also #nown as retained energy) content of the feed. )et energy is total amount of energy that an animal can use for maintenance of the body,growth,pregnancy, and lactation. Dilution of maintenance The maintainer re4uirement of a cow is the energy re4uired (ust to maintain the cows body,and it remains basically constant for mature animals. The )8 content of the feed reflects the total usable energy for but the cows maintainence re4uirement can be met before any production can occur. 2ecause maintenance re4uirements are the same regardless of feed inta#e,and because these re4uirements are met first,every additional unit of any consumed above the maintenance re4uirement increases the amount of energy available for production. 9hen energy inta#e increases above maintenance, the added energy goes towards increase in production. This is why increasing feed inta#e always improves productivity Hig energy fee!s 8nergy is available from three dietary sourcesJfats , proteins ,and carbohydrates. /at have the highest energy value for pound of feed,with protein and carbohydrate ne&t. 7ommon feed ingredients used to increase the energy density of diet includes forages, cereal grains, fat supplements and by$product feeds. 8&amples of high energy forages includes corn silage or small grain silage. "igh energy cereal grains includes corn, barley, sorghum. 2y$product feeds including beet pulp, citrus pulp, and ba#ery wastes are used as sources of energy in some situations .

"R#TEIN
roteins are made up of amino acids, which are #nown as the building bloc#s of proteins. ;mino acids contain carbon(7), "ydrogen("), o&ygen(E), and )itrogen()), and some contains sulfur(?). There are 55 #nown amino acids found in nature. 'ifferent combinations of these amino acids ma#e up the various types of proteins. roteins have many different functions in the body. They are important structural components of many tissues, and can be found in muscle, s#in, feathers, hair, bone, fingernails, muscle tissues, and blood. ?everal hormones are proteins, including insulin and bovine somatotropin. The en!ymes important in digestion, absorption, and metabolism, are all proteins. ;mino acids bonded together form proteins. 8n!ymes secreted by the abomasum, pancreas and small intestine brea# these bonds to separate the amino acids and allow them to be absorbed by the body. %t is important to note that the proteins must be bro#en down to amino acids before absorption., so it is technically incorrect to refer to absorption of proteins. roteins are not absorbedJ amino acids are. ;mino acids can be divided into two groups, essential and non$essential. 8ssential amino acids are those which are not produced by the body and therefore must be provided in the diet. )on essential amino acid are produced by cells and are not needed in the diet. The essential amino acids are listed below, and can be remembered by the acronym made up by the first letter in each, "%DD MT 0;T. henylalanine "istidine %soleucine Deucine Dysine Methionine Tryptophan 0aline ;rginine Threonine

"rotein !igestion in t e Rumen$ %n the humans and other mono gastric animals, the amino acid contain in the protein in food will arrive in small intestine relatively unchanged. This ma#es it fairly straight forward to predict which amino acid will be available for absorption in what 4uantities. Fnfortunately, this is not the case in ruminant animals, because the ruminant microorganisms alter the proteins

dramatically before they reach the small intestine for absorption. The protein in the feeds may be digested in the rumen, or may escape rumen fermentation. The portion of feed protein that is digested in rumen is #nown as ruminally degraded protein(6' ). This protein fraction is also sometimes #nown as degradable inta#e protein ('% ).The ruminal microorganism digest 6' , brea#ing it down to amino acids, and then to ammonia. The microorganism then ta#e up this amino acids and then to ammonia and form new amino acids and new proteins ,#nown as microbial protein. 6uminal microorganism have short life spans of several hours at most when the microorganism die and pass from the rumen, their bodies are digested in the abomasum and small intestine. The microbial protein content in the bodies of the microorganism is digested to amino acids in the small intestine , and these amino acids are absorbed. Microbial protein (not feed protein) actually provides the ma(ority of protein digested and absorbed by the animal. The fraction of the protein that escapes rumen fermentation is #now n as ruminally undegraded proteins (6F ). This fraction is also sometimes #nown as undegradable inta#e protein. The 6F fraction of the feed passes from the rumen unchanged, and may be digested in the abomasum and small intestine,and resulting amino acid absorbed. ?ome 6F is completely indigestible , and passes from the body in feces. ;lthough some feeds are commonly referred to as sources of 6' or sources of 6F it is important to remember that nearly all feeds contain some of each of these two protien fractions. /eeds whose proteins are largely digested in the rumen, and so are the good sources of 6' include urea ,soymeal and alfalfa hay or silage. /eeds li#e distillers grains , brewers grains , roasted soybeans , blood meal, fish meal are good sources of 6F . %irst limiting amino aci!s conce&t: The 4uantity and balance of amino acids is protein reaching the small intestine to be digested are important in determining the animal productivity. The animal fits together the amino acids absorbed from the small intestine to synthesi!e the proteins needed for the growth, maintenance, mil# production, or pregnancy. 8ach protein synthesi!e re4uire a specific combination of amino acids , and if essential amino acid is in short supply, it cannot be replaced by another. The amino acids supplied in the smallest amount relative to the amount re4uired for protein synthesis is #now as the first limiting amino acid ,because it limits the amount and type of protein that can be made. %f the animal needs to synthesi!e a small protein made up four arginines and five threonines and three lysines for instance a shortage of any of these will prevent the synthesise of that protein. %f the cow has absorbed eight arginines *5 threonines and 5 lysines for instance she can ma#e up one but not two copies of this protein. 9hile she has enough arginine to ma#e

up two copies (: available ,@ needed per protein) and more than enough threonine for two copies (*5 available, 5 needed pr protein, she has only enough lysine for one copy(5 available, 1 needed per copy) lysine is the first limiting amino acid in this e&ample. )ot only can she only ma#e up one copy of protein, the lac# of lysine means that the e&tra arginine and threonine are wasted. 8&cess amino acid which are not used because the limiting amino acid prevents protein synthesise are removed from the body in the urine. %n dairy rations, lysine and methionine are the most common limiting amino acids, because common feeds (corn , corn silage, soybean meal) are relatively low in these amino acids compared to the 4uantity needed for the mil# synthesis fish meal and blood meal are good sources of lysine while corn gluten meal are good sources of methionine. 'esigning rations using small amount of this protein supplements in addition to standard ingredients may increase mil# protein yield and reduce nitrogen e&cretion in urine. 6uminant protein nutrition is comple&, however , and positive responses to inclusion of these ingredients are not consistently observed.

'AR(#HYDRATE)
7arbohydrate are nutrients made up of carbon(7), hydrogen("),o&ygen(E) and are the main energy storage compounds in plants. lant tissues are high in carbohydrates such as starch , cellulose , and hemicellulose. The basic building bloc#s of carbohydrates are mono saccharides. ; monosaccharide with si& carbon molecules is #nown as he&ose. The most common of these is glucose, but galactose , manose , and fructose, are three other common he&oses. ;nother common monosaccharide with 5 carbon is called pentose. 6ibose is common name of pentose monosaccharide. 9hen two monosaccharides are (oined together they form a dissacharide. Dactose (mil# sugar) and sucrose (table sugar) are two common disaccharide. ?tarch ,cellulose, and hemi cellulose are most common poly saccharides . 9hen ruminants eat carbohydrates , the ruminal microorganism release en!ymes and brea# them down into monosaccharide. The monosaccharides are then converted by the microorganism into 0/;. 0olatile fatty acids are absorbed across the wall of the rumen and the small intestine , and are used by an animal as an energy source. ;gain ,the 1 most important 0/; are acetate , propionate , and butyrate. 7arbohydrates in feedstuffs are commonly divided into two categories *.)on fiber 5./iber carbohydrates. The fibrous carbohydrates are cellulose and hemi cellulose . They are found in the cell wall of plants , and are indigestible to monogastrics. The common non fiber carbohydrates include starch pectins and sugars. /ibrous carbohydrate in a feed are measured by neutral detergent fiber ()'/) ,assay and the acid detergent fiber (;'/) assay. )eutral detergent fiber contains all of the cell wall carbohydrates ,cellulose ,hemi cellulose and lignin. Dignin is indigestible even by the ruminal microorganisms. The )'/ content of the feed closely reflects its bul# ,and if often used to predict how much a cow will be able to eat of a diet without e&ceeding the capacity of a digestive tract. ;cid detergent fiber contains cellulose and lignin , and is closely associated with the digestivity of a feed. The ;'/ content of a feed is commonly used to predict the energy value of that feed, because of this association with digestibility. )on fiberous carbohydrates (starch, pectins , sugars) are not easy to measure directly as ;'/ and )'/ are. /ew commercial labs analy!e sample for these compounds because the assay are difficult. %nstead ,the )/7 content of a feed is usually estimated by adding up its protein, )'/ , mineral, and fat content, and subtracting these from hundred ,assuming that everything else is )/7 . This is fairly crude estimate , but is often the best one available.

%AT) * +I"ID) ;nother nutrient essential to an animals diet is fat, also #nown as lipid. /ats are found in
many common feed stuffs and fat supplements are often added to diets to increase its energy density. /at supplement may also improve the absorption of fat soluble vitamins, and help to reduce dustiness of feed. /at is a very important part of the young ruminants diet because calves re4uire tremendous amount of energy. /at commonly ma#es up *>$55% of their diet. There are variety of sources of fats in ruminant diet. Eil seeds li#e whole cotton seed or whole soybeans contain large amount of fat, and are often fed as energy supplements also, relatively pure fat supplements made up of animal fat(i.e tallow) or blends of animal and vegetable fats may be fed. 9hile adding fat to the diet increases its energy content, fat supplements can have negative effects on rumen fermentation and dry matter inta#e . To reduce these negative effects, some fat supplements are specially formulated to be ruminally inert, or to have minimal effects on rumen fermentation. /ats from plant and animal sources are classified as either saturated or unsaturated. %n a saturated fat, each of the carbon atoms in the fatty acids is bonded to hydrogen atoms and to its neighboring carbon atom with a single bond. The fatty acid is said to be < saturated < because it contains the ma&imum possible number of hydrogen atoms. %n unsaturated fats, one or more pairs of carbon atoms in the fatty acids are (oined by a double bond it is unsaturated because at least on pair of carbon atoms does not contain the ma&imum possible number of hydrogen atoms. 'uring rumen fermentation, most of the unsaturated fats in the diet are converted to saturated fats this is why most of the fat in the mil# and meat of ruminants is saturated fat.

,ITAMIN)

;lthough only small amounts of vitamins are re4uired by the cow, deficiencies of these nutrients can cause ma(or problems. 0itamins can be bro#en down into two categories3 water soluble vitamins and fat soluble vitamins. 9ater soluble vitamins are not stored in the body tissue and therefore must be provided in the diet of young ruminants everyday. %n healthy adult ruminants, the rumen microorganism synthesi!e enough of these vitamins to meet the animals re4uirements. 9ater soluble vitamins include thiamine(0itamin 2*). 6iboflavin(vitamin 25), pyrido&ine(0itamin 26), 7obalamine(0itamin 2*5), nicotinic acid(niacin), pantothenic acid, 2iotin, /olic acid, choline and ascorbic acid(0itamin 7). %n addition to these water soluble vitamins, there are four fat soluble vitamins, These vitamins can be stored by the animals in large 4uantities for several months. This ma#es day to day variation in their inta#e less of a problem, but ma#es to&icity more li#ely if dietary levels are too high. The fat soluble vitamins includes 0itamins ;,',8 and B. 0itamins ;,', and 8 are commonly supplemented in lactating cow diets. They are especially needed when forages have been stored for long period of time, in young animals fed mil# replacers or calf starters without hay, when raising wheel calves, when forage has been rained on, in periods of stress, and when animals are housed indoors. %f mil# has an o&idised off flavor, 0itamin 8 supplementation may help, and supplementation of 0itamin 8 in combination with the mineral selenium may boost the cowHs immune system, reducing the incidence of mastitis. Ene practical aspect of feeding vitamins that needs special consideration is their storage. 0itamins ; and 8 are particularly susceptible to degradation over time, especially when e&posed to sunlight or air. To avoid this degradation ?torage of mineral supplements for long periods of time before feeding is not recommended.

MINERA+)
Minerals re4uired by the animal in grams 4uantities are #nown as macro minerals These include calcium(7a) ,phosphorous( ) ,sodium()a) ,chlorine(7l),potassium (B), magnesium(Mg) and sulfur (?). These minerals are used by the animal as components of bone and other tissues (7a , ), to maintain acid.base balance (B,)a,7l),to maintain osmotic pressure ()a) and membrane electric potential (B,)a,7l) ,and for nerve transmission (7a). Micro minerals are those re4uired by the animal in milligram or micrograms 4uantities. These include cobalt (7o), copper(7u), iodine(%), iron(/e), manganese(Mn), selenium (?e) and !inc (Gn). These minerals serve as part of metalloen!ymes (Mn,Gn), or as en!yme cofactors (7o),to may be a part of endocrine hormones (%). Everfeeding of several minerals can cause to&icity or management problems. ?pecial attention should be paid to avoiding over feeding of copper, potassium , and phosphorous. 7opper is the mineral most li#ely to cause to&icity. Everfeeding of potassium does not lead to to&icity ,but does cause management problems. Everfeeding potassium increases potassium e&cretion ,and land application of manure from those cows will increase the potassium content of the crops growth. "igh potassium forage increase the rise in mil# fever. Everfeeding phosphorous also causes management problems for the farmer. Everfeeding phosphorous is no benefit to the animal, and is of real environmental concern. Most farmers overfeed phosphorous by @>$5> % ,and every e&tra gram of this phosphorous above the animals re4uirement comes right out the other end in feces. This increases the phosphorous content of manure increasing the ris# of phosphorous run off from the farm and contamination of surface water. Most significant to the farmer, overfeeding phosphorous ma#es it much more difficult for him or her to land apply manure under phosphorous based nutrient management regulations. 6ations that include soybean meal, distillers grains , cottonseed or other by$product feeds often re4uire no supplemental phosphorous at all to meet the cowHs needs.

DRY MATTER INTA-E

The 4uantity of feed consumed by the cow is enormously important because it establishes the amount of nutrients available to maintain health and productivity. 'ry matter inta#e 'M% is calculated as the 4uantity of feed consumed times its dry matter content. The dry matter content of feed is the proportion of feed that is not water. 9hile feeds vary in their water content ,all of the nutrients in feed are locate in the dry matter portion. /or this reason 'M% gives a more accurate measure of nutrients inta#e than total feed inta#e (which includes the water in the weight of the feed consumed ).Fnderstanding the factors that affect 'M% helps us ma&imi!e nutrient inta#e and productivity. ;ccurate estimation of 'M% is important in the formulation of rations. ; cow re4uires all of the nutrients outlined above in specific 4uantities (i.e., pounds of protein or grams of phosphorous per day). The concentration of each nutrient needed in the diet, therefore, depends on both the re4uirement and the total amount of feed consumed by the cow in a day. There are do!ens if theories on what controls 'M% in lactating cows. Most theories are based on one of the two basic concept, that gut fill limits inta#e, or that satiety limits inta#e, There is scientific evidence supporting each of these two competing concepts, and it is li#ely that which concept is <true= depends on the situation. %nfact ,the 'M% of a cow at given point in time is probably affected by some combination of these factors. The first if these two basic concepts is that gut fill limits inta#e. ;ccording to this theory ,cows will eat until they literally run out of room in their rumen or gastro intestinal tract. The end of the meal is triggered by the stretching of the gut, and the cow cannot eat more until some of the feed she consumed is removed from her gut. This removal of consumed feed is by digestion or by passage of feed down the tract and out into the feces, To test this theory, some researchers have added indigestible ,bul#y material to the diet(i.e. ?hredded plastic, or balloons ). %f the bul# fill theory is <correct= adding this material would decrease feed inta#e because the plastic or balloons occupy space in the rumen ,limiting the amount of feed the cow could consume. The evidence supporting this theory is strongest in early lactating cows, and in lower 4uality diets. The second basic concept of feed regulation is that feed inta#e is related to satiety . ?atiety is the state of being fully satisfied or having your metabolic needs completely met . ;ccording to this concept , the animal eats until its re4uirements are met. Ence these re4uirements have been met ,feedbac# from some compound in the blood stream signals to the cow that she should stop eating . There is much debate over what specific circulating compound triggers the end of a meal in cows. ?ome research indicates that 0/; in the blood above a certain level causes the end of a meal, while other research suggest that it might be

certain hormones or other compounds that the body releases in response to absorption of nutrients. These satiety theory suggest that as energy density of diet increases , the cows will eat less. %t assumes that the cows eat only as much energy as she needs, and so the daily energy inta#e is constant. This is only observed in cows fed highly digestible diets or in later lactation cows. ;gain there is evidence for the both gut fill theory of inta#e regulation and the satiety theory , and both are li#ely important at different stages of cows productive cycle. %n addition to these theories of feed inta#e regulation, there are other situations in which we can predict inta#e may be reduced on every low protein diets ,for instance ,feed inta#e often declines. This may be because the diet does not contain enough nitrogen to meet the re4uirements of the microbes. Therefore the microbes arenKt able to digest the diet well undigested feed then accumulates in the rumen ,limiting feed inta#e through gut fill limitation. ;lso both scientist and farmers have observed that inta#e of silage is often lower than inta#e of similar hays. This was long thought to be due to the acidity of silage , but more recently, scientist have concluded that other side effects of silage fermentation are responsible for this reduced inta#e. 7ertain nitrogen containing compounds in silage (uices may impair 'M% or it may occur because silage fermentation ma#es the silage lower in fermentable carbohydrates than hay. This reduced fermentable carbohydrate level in the feed might then impair the growth and efficiency of the rumen microorganisms. /inally,close$up dry cows are early lactating cows both often have lower dry matter inta#es than other cows of similar si!e. 7lose$up dry cows usually eat less as they get closer to calving. This may be due to the effect of fluctuating hormone levels , but more research needs to be done to clarify this. 8arly lactating cows usually have reduced feed inta#e compared to later lactating cows. This reduced inta#e probably occurs because the rumen shrin#s during the dry period, and the cows simply canHt fit enough feed in her gut to meat her needs (ust after she calves. The rumen e&pands over time after calving , and pea# inta#e usually occurs by *>$*@ wee#s into lactation.

PURPOSE: The purpose of calf feeding is to transform the calf, which is a monogastric animal at birth, into a complete ruminant by the age of three months. %t is well #nown facts that concentrate feeding stimulate rumen development of young calves. 9hile on mil#, a calf does not have a fully functional rumen. ellets and grass, together with some roughage, ensure optimal rumen development. 7onse4uently,long hay is not as effective as concentrates in developing a functional rumen and limits metaboli!able energy inta#e in young calves.Dong hay should not be fed to calves until after weaning. elleted form of concentrates are useful in preventing abnormal development of the calves. %ts also helps in preventing #eratini!ation of ruminal papillae. ;nd also to prevent impaction of fine particles between papillae. "ence, to meet the above re4uirements calves along with colostrum rich mil# should be fed with concentrates in pelleted form.

3 PHASES OF CALF FEEDING: 9ith respect to the nutrient re4uirements of the calf,three phases of development related to digestive function are recogni!ed. Liquid-f di!" #$%& : ;ll or essentially all the nutrient re4uirements are met by mil# or mil# replacer.The 4uality of these feeds is preserved by a functional esophageal groove, which shunts li4uid feeds directly to the abomasum and so avoids microbial brea#down in the reticulo$rumen. T'%!&i(i)! #$%& : Di4uid diet and starter both contribute to meeting the nutrient re4uirements of the calf. Ru*i!%!( #$%& :The calf derives its nutrients from solid feeds,primarily through microbial fermentation in the reticulo$rumen.

POINTS TO +E CONSIDERED WHILE FORMULATING CALF FEED PELLETS: 'o not feed roughage to calves less than 5 months old. Dimit roughage to about 5% of the diet (less than *+% )'/ as$fed basis) in calves 5 to @ months old. Minimi!e alternative ingredients such as soyhulls and wheat midds that are high in fiber (ma&imi!e corn). *:% 7 as$fed basis in starters for calves under 5 months old. *5 to *:% 7 as$fed basis in starters for calves between 5 and @ months old. ?oybean meal is the preferred source of protein. ?upplement the essential fatty acid linolenic acid (7*:31) that are deficient in starter feeds.

ENERGY AND CRUDE PROTIEN REQUIREMENTS OF CALF ,f')* -i'($ () . %!i!"/

'alf ADG. lbs*!ay >.@5 >.+ *.15 *.,6 5.5

ME. Mcals*!ay 5.@ 5.+ 5.5 @.* @.:

DMI lbs*!ay *.5 *.@ *., 5 5.@

'" g*!ay +@ *5> 5>, 551 1>,

'" /DM *: 51.@ 56.6 5,.5 5:.,

This table shows the energy and crude protein re4uirements of dairy calves from birth to weaning based on various daily gain goals. %deally, from birth through weaning, a reasonable average daily gain target is *.,6 lbs per day with a dry matter inta#e of 5 lbs per day.

ENERGY 0PROTIEN0 FI+ER AND MINERAL COMPOSITION OF STARTER AND GROWER FEED FOR YOUNG CALVES1 %EED GE% Mcal* kg of DM DE% Mcal* kg of DM 1.6+ 1.65 ME% Mcal* kg of DM 1.5: 1.5@ NEm Mcal* kg of DM NEg '" Mcal* / kg of DM EE / AD% / ND% / 'a / " /

?T;6T8 @.@+ 6 -6E9T @.16 "

5.@6d *.,:e *: 5.@1d *.6:e *6

1 1

**.6 :

*5.: *:

>., >.6

>.@5 >.@

0$Energy 1alues are calculate! as follo2s: Gross Energy 3GE4 for starter an! gro2er: -8(#cal.#g) L>.>5, 7 A >.>+5 88 A >.>@*5 carbohydrate. Digestible Energy 3DE4 for starter an! gro2er : /or starter and grower,'8 is calculated as sum of digestible protein ,fat, and carbohydrates ,each multiplied by heat of combustion. @.5 I heat of combustion of carbohydrate. 5.6 I heat of combustion of protiens. +.@ I heat of combustion of fats. >.1 I metabolic fecal '8 Metaboli5able energy 3ME4 for starter an! gro2er : M8 L (*.>* M '8 $ >.@5) A (>.>>@688 $ 1). 6$NEm 7 8$9:ME$ ;$NEg 7 38$;9< = 8$;;>4 ? ME$ (ase! on < of 8$@; yiel! in g an efficiency of 8$:@ for ME use 3AR'.0@984$ A1NEm7 ME 8$>B$ B$NEg 7 ME 8$B>$

DAILY ENERGY AND PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS OF CALVES FED MIL2 AND STARTER OR MIL2 REPLACER AND STARTER1

Energy +i1e 2t Gain 3kg4 3kg4 1> > 5>> @>> 15 > 5>> @>> @> > 5>> @>> 6>> @5 > 5>> @>> 6>> 5> > 5>> @>> 6>> :>> 55 > 5>> @>> 6>> :>> DMI 3kg4 >.15 >.@5 >.56 >.16 >.@, >.6* >.@ >.5* >.66 >.:1 >.@@ >.56 >.,* >.:: >.@, >.6 >.,6 >.+@ *.*1 >.5* >.61 >.: >.++ *.*: NEm Mcal *.* *.* *.* *.5@ *.5@ *.5@ *.1, *.1, *.1, *.1, *.@+ *.@+ *.@+ *.@+ *.65 *.65 *.65 *.65 *.65 *.,@ *.,@ *.,@ *.,@ *.,@ NEg Mcal > >.5: >.65 > >.1 >.6: > >.1* >.,5 *.*6 > >.15 >.,* *.5* > >.1@ >.,, *.56 *.,: > >.15 >.: *.1 *.:@ ME Mcal *.1@ *.,, 5.11 *.5 *.+6 5.55 *.66 5.*@ 5.,6 1.@@ *.:* 5.1* 5.+6 1.6, *.+6 5.@: 1.*5 1.:+ @.6+ 5.** 5.6@ 1.11 @.* @.+1 DE Mcal *.@1 *.:+ 5.@+ *.6* 5.>+ 5.,1 *.,: 5.5+ 5.+5 1.6: *.+@ 5.@, 1.*6 1.+1 5.* 5.65 1.1, @.*, 5.>5 5.55 5.:1 1.5, @.1+ 5.5,

"rotien AD" 3g4 51 ,5 *55 55 ,5 *55 55 ,: *5: *,: 1* :> *1> *:> 11 :1 *11 *:1 511 16 :5 *15 *:5 516 '" 3g4 56 :@ *@* 5+ :, *@5 11 +> *@: 5>5 16 +1 *5* 5>+ 1: +6 *5@ 5*5 5,> @* ++ *5, 5*5 5,1 ,it A 3IC4 11>> 11>> 11>> 1:5> 1:5> 1:5> @@>> @@>> @@>> @@>> @+5> @+5> @+5> @+5> 55>> 55>> 55>> 55>> 55>> 6>5> 6>5> 6>5> 6>5> 6>5>

6>

> 5>> @>> 6>> :>>

>.5@ >.6, >.:@ *.>@ *.5@

*.:5 *.:5 *.:5 *.:5 *.:5

> >.16 >.:1 *.1@ *.+

5.55 5.: 1.5* @.1* 5.*6

5.@* 1 1.,6 @.6* 5.55

1: :: *1: *:: 51:

@@ *>5 *5+ 5*, 5,5

66>> 66>> 66>> 66>> 66>>

These data apply to calves fed mil# replacer (M6) plus starter .M6 contains M8 at @.,5 Mcal.#g of 'M and starter M8 at 1.5:Mcal.#g. %t is assumed that M6 provided 6> percent and starter @> percent of dry matter inta#eJ thus, dry matter consumed contained M8 at @.*6 Mcal.#g. The 'M% here is the total necessary to meet M8 re4uirements and is not intended to predict voluntary inta#e. )8m (Mcal) L >.>:6 D9N>.,5, where D9 is live weight in #ilograms. )8g (Mcal) L (>.:@ D9N>.155 M D9-N*.5) M >.6+, where D9 and D9 gain (D9-) are in#ilograms. M8 (Mcal)was computed as follows3 M8 (maintenance) L )8M.>.:55. 8fficiency of use of M8 for maintenance (>.:55) was computed as average of efficiencies of >.:6 for M6 and >.,5 for starter,weighted according to proportions of M8 supplied by each feed. M8 (gain) L )8-.>.655. 8fficiency of use of M8 for gain (>.655) was computed as weighted average of efficiencies of >.6+ and >.5, for M6 and starter,respectively. '8 (Mcal) L M8.>.+1@. 8fficiency of conversion of '8 to M8 is assumed to be >.+6 for M6 and >.:: for starter. ;' (apparent digestible protein ,g.d) L 6.55 O*.20(8 A- A M M ')$ M M 'P. 20(biologic value) L >.,6@ (weighted average of M6 L >.: andstarter L >.,>)J 8 (endogenous urinary nitrogen,g) L >.5 D9N>.,5J -(nitrogencontentofgain,g) L 1> g.#g gain J M (metabolic fecal nitrogen,g.d) L 5.@6 dry matter inta#e ,' ,#g). Metabolic fecal nitrogen for M6 assumed to be *.+ g.#g of 'M% and for starter 1.1 g.#g of 'M%. 7 (crude protein ,g) L ;' .>.:6@5. 'igestibility of protein was assumed to be weighted average of +1 percent for M6 and ,5 percent for starterJM6 was assumed to contain 5* percent 7 and starter *: percent 7 . 0itamin ;(%F) L **> %F .#g of D9.

INGREDIENTS USED IN CALF FEED PELLETS 7ereal grains 3/ollowing grains can be used for manufacturing of calf pellets. *.wheat . 5.barley. 1.mai!e. @.rice. 5.sorghum. 6ice bran 9heat bran ?oybean meal ?unflower meal 7anola meal Dimestone 'icalcium phosphate ?odium bentonite 6umen buffer ?alt 0itamin 3 *.0itamin ;. 5.0itamin 8. 1.0itamin '. and other water soluble vitamins. Mineral premi& Erganic trace minerals lasolocid sodium, 'airy feed flavour. Ducrene3 calf pellet can contain lucerne and can be fed ad lib. to calves until weaning, without having to give additional roughage. 7occidiostat 3 %t helps in controlling coccidiosis and improve feed conversion.t (2ovatecQ, 'ecco&Q and 6umensinQ )

E3AMPLE OF AN IDEAL CALF STARTER FORMULATION

%)-68'%8)T? 7orn,crac#ed. Eats,rolled. ?oybean meal Molasses, li4uid Dimestone 'icalcium phosphate ?alt, trace mineral ;nimal /at 0itamin supplement Ether(coccidostat,buffer,etc)

% E/ TET;D 6;T%E) 55 5> 5> 5 * >.55 >.5 *.5 >.>5(or to provide needed vitamins) ;s needed.

Note:Ingredients mentioned in the table can be replaced with the other ingredients mentioned above as per availability, need, and cost effectiveness.

HEIFER PELLETS1

PURPOSE :

To achieve the desirable growth rate. To feed the most economical sources of energy,protiens,minerals,vitamins to fullfill the necessary re4uirements. To achieve puberty at a younger age. /or proper s#eletal growth. To help reduce the ris# of acidosis. To achieve efficient rumen development. To prevent the ris# of coccidiosis. To minimises waste and improves digestibility and palatability. To gain economic benefits.

POINTS TO +E CONSIDERED WHILE FEEDING DAIRY HEIFERS: ;dditional supplementary feeding will be necessary to maintain target gains during periods of low pasture growth. Ruality roughage such as hay or silage will improve rumen function and assist in reaching dry matter inta#e re4uirements. 'epending on pasture 4uality and availability, consider supplementing with concentrates, as well as hay or silage at *.5 to 5.5 #g.head.day to meet target growth rates. "eifers should be weighed and measured regularly to assess weight gains and frame si!e. 2ody condition should be monitored at the same time and feeding ad(usted to avoid e&cess fat deposition while maintaining growth targets. 7lean, fresh water should always be available. 6eproductive performance can be substantially reduced if feeding is restricted during mating. /riesian heifers should be fed and managed to grow at an average of >., #g.day from weaning to first calving. ;s heifers grow older, the concentration of protein in the diet can be decreased and the concentration of fiber ()'/) can be increased.

TARGET WEIGHTS AND WITHER HEIGHTS: uberty among heifers can be decided with reference to their weights at particular interval of time. uberty occurs in dairy heifers at 15I@5 per cent of mature weight, while conception can occur at @5I5> per cent of mature weight. 9ither height is a good measure of bone growth and frame si!e in heifers. /rame si!e can influence ease of calving and appetite of mil#ing cows. roducers should aim for wither heights of *55 cm at mating and *15 cm at calving.

Age 3mont s4 1 *5 *5 5@ ost$calving ;dult weight

%risian +>$*> 5,>$1>> 11>$16> 55>$55> @6>$@+> 65>$66>

%riesian :: **: *55 *15 *15 *@>

ENERGY AND PROTIEN REQUIREMENTS FOR GROWING HEIFERS: Table shows the energy re4uirements (for maintenance and growth) of heifers growing at different rates at various live weights. The growth rates for 5>> #g heifers assume a contribution of >.@ #g.d from the growing foetus. -rowing heifers re4uire a constant source of protein for optimum bone and muscle growth. Table also lists crude protein re4uirements at different live weights.

ENERGY REDCIREMENT3ME*!ay4 GR#WTH RATE 3kg*!ay4 +I,E WT *>> 5>> 1>> @>> 5>> 8$A 5: @5 5> ,5 +* 8$B 1> @5 6> ,+ +5 8$: 11 @: 6@ :@ ++ 8$> 16 5* 6: :+ *>1

'RCDE "R#TIEN REDCIREMF ENT 3/4 *, *6 *5 *1 *1

INGREDIENTS USED IN FORMULATION OF HEIFER PELLETS1 2arley. Mai!e. 9heat. 6ice bran. rice hulls. bro#en rice. ?orghum. oatmeal feed. canola meal. palm #ernel meal. sunflower meal. soyabean meal. Dupins. eas. sodium bentonite. ?odium bicarbonate. limestone. dicalcium phosphate. ?alt. rumen buffer. lasalocid sodium. mineral premi&es. vitamin premi&es.

DIFFERENT SPECIFICATION FOR HEIFER PELLETS: 41456 H if ' P 77 (& Nutrient Amount

7rude rotein Min *6.>% Metabolisable 8nergy Min **.,5 MS.#g 7rude /ibre Ma& *1.1% 7rude /at Ma& ,.>% ?alt Ma& *.*% 7alcium Min >.:% hosphorus Min >.@% )utrients in dry matter, nominal moisture *5% as fed.

81496 H if ' # 77 (&1 Nutrient 7rude protien (min) 7rude fat (min) 7rude fiber (ma&) ;'/ (ma&) 7alcium hosphorus ?elenium 0itamin ; Amount *@.>>% 1.>>% +.>>% *>.>>% >.1$>.:% >.:>% 5.,ppm *5>>> %F.lb

The above mentioned specification are ideal for formulation for heifer pellets or other concentrates. "ence by calibrating the amount of nutrients present in an ingredients and by adding the re4uired supplements one can successfully design a formulation suitable to develop heifer pellets.

TEN TIPS FOR +ETTER GROWTH OF HEIFERS:

*.9eigh and condition score heifers at weaning, mid$winter,pre$breeding and breeding. 5./eed heifers to gain *.55 to *.,5 pounds per day from weaning until breeding. 'onKt forget vitamins and minerals. 1.?ort heifers into light and heavy weight groups at weaning. @.Fse the target weight concept $ 65 to ,>% of mature weight by breeding. 5.%nclude ionophores in diets, but avoid growth implants. 6.Measure and use pelvic areas and reproductive tract scores to cull heifers prior to breeding. ,./eed M-; and.or use hormone programs to synchroni!e estrus in heifers. :.2reed heifers to bulls with low birthweight 8 '. +./eed pregnant heifers to calve in body condition score 6. *>.;ttend calvings and assist early1

LACTATING CATTLE PELLETS

PURPOSE:
2alanced proportions of proteins, minerals, vitamins and buffers can be incorporated into the pellets. The higher the level of concentrate feeding, the greater the li#elihood that nutrient balancing will be necessary. 6is#s of e&cessive unpalatable and to&ic substances associated with supplements, such as urea, are avoided by careful blending of ingredients. ellets are usually less dusty than mechanically processed grains.

FEED STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATION1

Table A : (I) stan!ar!s. !airy fee! re<uirements ' aracteristic Moisture (ma&imum %) 7rude protein (ma&imum %) 7rude fat (minimum %) 7rude fibre (ma&imum %) ;cid$insoluble ash (ma&imum % ) Ty&e I 3I): 68B6. 0@>@. reaffirme! 0@@84 ** 55 1 , 1 Ty&e II 3I): 68B6. 0@>@. reaffirme! 0@@84 ** 5> 5.5 *5 @

The 7ompound Divestoc# /eed ManufacturersH ;ssociation (7D/M;) has prepared its own specifications, which are shown in Table 2 for cattle.

Table ( '+%MA s&ecifications for com&oun! fee!s. !airy cattle an! buffaloes ' aracteristic Moisture (ma&imum %) 7rude protein (on dm basis) (minimum %) 7rude fat (minimum %) 7rude fibre (ma&imum %) Dairy s&ecial fee! *5 55 Ty&e I fee! *5 5> $ 5.5 , @ Ty&e II fee! *5 *: $ 5.5 *5 @.5 Ty&e III fee! *5 *6 $ 5 *@ 5

Fndegraded protein (minimum %) : 1 ,

;cid$insoluble ash (ma&imum %) 1

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF LACTATING COWS:

)utrient re4uirement of dairy cattle. "olestien *5>>lb cow,65 months of age mil# yield lb.d L ?tage of production 8arly lactation 55 ,, 55 +> days in mil# ,, ++ *5> 'ry,preg 5,> days in gestation 29L*656 lb 1>.* >.@: :., 5.* *>.: 11 @5 >.@5 >.51 >.55 >.* *1 55 66> lb heifer T*.+* lb gain.day *5.6 *.>1 +.@ 5.+ *5.1 1>$11 1@$1: >.@* >.51 >.@ >.>: *> 5,

'M%, lb.d )8, Mcal.d 'iet, %6' 'iet,%6F 7rude protein,% )'/,min% )/7,ma& % 7a,% ,% B,% )a,% 7u,mg.#gN@ Gn,mg.#g

5+.5 >.+@ *>.5 , *,.5 55$11 16$@@ >.,@ >.1: *.*+ >.1@ *6 65

1@.1 *.>* *>.5 + *+.5 55$11 16$@@ >.,+ >.@5 *.5@ >.1@ *6 ,1

@@., >.65 +.5 @.6 *@.* 55$11 16$@@ >.65 >.15 * >.55 ** @1

5*.+ >.6, +., 5.5 *5.5 55$11 16$@@ >.6* >.15 *.>@ >.51 ** @:

5+.5 >., +.: 6.5 *6 55$11 16$@@ >.6, >.16 *.>6 >.55 ** 55

66 >.,1 +.: 6.+ *6., 55$11 16$@@ 16> >.1: *.>, >.55 ** 65

*.;dapted from tables *@I,, *@I:, *@I+, and *@I*6, )utrition 6e4uirements of 'airy 7attle, ,th revised edition, 5>>*, )ational 6esearch 7ouncil ()67), )ational ;cademy of ?ciences, )ational ;cademy ress, 5*>* 7onstitution ;ve., 9ashington, '7 5>@*: (S.". 7lar#, chair,?ubcommittee on 'airy )utrition). 5 84uivalent to the sum of rumen degradable protein (6' ) and rumen undegradable protein (6F ) only when they are perfectly balanced. 1 "eat stress may increase the need for potassium. @ "igh dietary molybdenum, sulfur, and iron can interfere with copper absorption, increasing the re4uirement.

+Y PASS PROTIEN TECHNOLOGY

rotein deficiency ;ccording to Bleine Blausing microbial protein covers the cowKs needs up to a daily mil# production of *>$*5 #g. 9ith increasing daily mil# production as well as in situations of limited energy supply (mainly at the beginning of the lactation) rumen$protected feed protein becomes important. 9ith insufficient feed inta#e the lac# of energy supply is balanced by the cow using her body fat reserves. 2ut this energy cannot be used by the rumen microbes and less microbial protein is produced. %f in this situation too much rumen$degradable protein and less energy for microbes becomes available, surplus ammonia develops in the rumen. This is absorbed and must be separated as urea under load of the liver and pressure on the health of the cow. </ertility problems are often already programmed in this lac# of harmony in the nutrient supplies for dairy cows,= he said. The start of lactation for high yielding cows is another critical moment in feed supply. Many of these cows go through a negative energy balance for several wee#s and the energy output with the mil# is well above the energy inta#e with the feed. These cows mobilise their body reserves to balance the deficit and do this very efficiently since * #g of body fat supplies energy for 6$, #g of mil#. "owever, the protein supply does not #eep pace and declines often below 1%. ; lac# of usable raw protein in the small intestine means for the cow at the same time an additional shortage of energy and a wea#ened immune system. 2ypass protein The logical conclusion to be drawn from the above circumstances is that more protein should be allowed to UflowK through the rumen directly into the small intestine. This F' $share (share of Fndegraded 'ietary rotein in the rumen in relation to total protein) varies substantially in todayKs available raw materials. /or optimal performance the F' $share should at least be 15% of overall protein in the total ration. 8ven optimal rations only reach a F' content of 55%. ?oybean meal to supplement the protein shortage is now considered to have a F' component of only 1>% $ (ust as much as rapeseed meal. To be able to achieve the 15% threshold the protein in the feed needs to be UprotectedK for degradation by the rumen microbes. This can be done chemically by treating with formaldehyde or &ylose, or physically by e&trusion, which causes a structural change in the protein. The mechanical process is very energy demanding and the products need to be dried after treatment.

;voiding Maillard reaction The technology is characterised by the specific configuration of the screw in the e&truder and the appropriate process parameters (temperature, moisture content, pressure, shear forces, dwelling time, energy dissipation, e&pansion and product structure). These parameters form the crucial basis for the uni4ueness and high degree of improvement achieved in deu#alac F' 1+. ;lso the bypass protein displays unchanged high protein digestibility of high biological value as tested in young growing monogastrics. The bac#ground here is the large scale avoidance of Maillard reactions (irreversible bondings between lysine and reducing sugars) in the product which are encountered in conventional e&trusion technologies and particularly in processes using free sugars. 7ompared to other e&trusion technologies for producing animal feed a distinctly lower energy input is used to achieve a certain substance conversion. 8&cessive moisture is e&tracted in the flash phase, which ma#es e&tra drying of treated products redundant. This also contributes to lower operational costs compared to full e&trusion.

?oybean I rapeseed mi& The final bypass protein product consists of 5>% " soybean meal and 5>% >>$ rapeseed meal. These are ground and mi&ed in the usual way and then treated in the opticon production plant. The content of rumen$stable protein (the F' share) for supply covering the needs of high$yielding cows is increased to 6>% (basic passage rate :%.hr from the rumen). The content of sulphurous amino acids in the product is secured via the share of rapeseed meal. <9eKve loo#ed at the lysine.methionine ratio in the cowKs mil#, which is *3>.56. ?oybean and rapeseed supplement each other in their amino acid pattern to give a desired lysine.methionine ratio. 9ith F' 1+ the ratio is *3>.5: and thus very close to the ratio in the mil#,= Bleine Blausing e&plains.The treatment of the soy.rape mi& creates a uni4ue crumbly structure and also gives the product a pleasant, ba#ing li#e odour and taste, which improves inta#e by dairy cows. %t is used readily on the farm for upgrading the basic ration as a protein supplement in mi&ed rations and total mi&ed rations, and as an additional protein supply for high$yielding cows in the top dressing. 6esult 9hen loo#ing closely at process technologies to protect proteins against degradation in the rumen, and the resulting F' content in the treated products it is interesting to #now how forecasted data can be verified. Fntil the end of the +>Ks the F' content in a product could only be estimated via e&pensive e&periments with rumen fistulated cows. 2ut at the 7hristian ;lbrecht Fniversity in Biel, -ermany an in$vitro method was developed which was validated with results from the fistulated cow trials. The result is a process for estimating crude protein

degradation in the rumen and hence the F' share in the overall protein of a feed with the aid of chemical fractioning of the feed protein following the 7ornell 7)7 ?$system. This process is relatively 4uic# and can be carried out at reasonable e&pense. The data are stated as a function of a ruminal passage rate of 5.5% or :%.hr. This method was first used during the development of the opticon process technology to assess the degree of substance change achieved and hence F' content in the single feed treated. The deu#alac F' 1+ mi& was repeatedly e&amined during development and within the framewor# of 4uality assurance to assess the F' content achieved using this method too. The data show clearly that deu#alac F' 1+ has a mean F' 5 value of over 5>% and a mean F' : value of more than 6>% for all samples e&amined. %n the calculation of rations for high$performing dairy cows with the bypass protein, a F' share in total protein of 6>% is ta#en on the basis of this result. ossible damage to the protein and possible resulting reduced digestibility and conse4uent deterioration of the biological value is shown most clearly in young growing monogastric animals. 'ata on the assessment of small intestine digestibility of the treated protein can only be obtained from in vivo investigations in which young growing rats are used. The tests with rats were carried out to study the protein 4uality of the treated products, on the one hand because this methodology has been standardised and verified for decades. En the other hand it was important for a critical assessment of the protein 4uality, especially in treated products, that in the rat as a monogastric animal the protein that is demonstrably protected to a certain percentage in the time unit prior to degradation is not sub(ect to the influence of rumen microbes prior to digestion via the bodyKs own en!ymes. The criterion Ubiological valueK permits a comparative relative classification of different feed proteins to each other. ; statistical analysis of results from 1: scientific studies with 5>6 e&perimental groups showed that *% increase of the portion of F' in the dry matter of the rations entailed an increase of mil# production of *.:5 #g. F' already plays an important role in first$lactating cows before calving. ;n increase of the content of crude protein in the ration from *5.,% (1>% F' portion) to *@.,% (1>% F' portion) by feeding of bypass protein in the last three wee#s before calving led to an increase of mil# production by 1.* #g in the first *5> days of lactation.

Treated lupines ?ince soybeans need to be imported and cannot be used for organic farms due to -ME$ issues 'T7 tried lupines as a replacement, creating lupicon 6, where the soybean fraction in the mi& was replaced by lupines. 9ith the opticon treatment this mi& has a 55% F' (at :%.hr passage rate) and 1*% raw protein. The technical "T?T e&trusion process indeed transforms the lupine protein to bypass protein. The process also reduces the anti$nutritional factors in lupins and also in rape seed. 7ompared to a soy.rape mi& lupicon fed dairy cows showed the same mil#ing performance. %ntroduction of lupicon on a large scale is difficult since the area planted is limited and -ME$free needs to be guaranteed.

SPECIFICATIONS USED TO FORMULATE LACTATING CATTLE FEED PELLETS

Nutrient3DM4 7rude protein % 7rude fiber % M8 MS.#g ?alt % 7alcium % hosphorous % Magnesium % Amount *: 6 * * * >.5 >.5

Nutrient 7rude rotein Metabolisable 8nergy 7rude /ibre 7rude /at ?alt 7alcium hosphorus

Amount Min *6% Min **.,5 MS.Bg Ma& *1.1% Ma& ,.5% Ma& >.5% Min >.55% Min >.@%

CALF PELLETS