STATE OF ILLINOIS ADLAI E. STEVENSON, Governor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION NOBLE J.

PUFFER, Director
DIVISION OF

THE
Chief

STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

M. M. LEIGHTON,

URBANA

REPORT OF INVESTIGATIONS NO.

146

APPLICATION OF MINERALOGY

TO SOIL MECHANICS
(1)

SOME FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PROPERTIES OF SOIL MATERIALS (2) THE COMPOSITION IN RELATION TO THE
PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN SOILS
BY

RALPH
(1)

E.

GRIM

Reprinted from Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, vol. 3, Rotterdam, 1948 Reprinted from Geotechnique, vol.
1,

(2)

no.

3,

The Geotechnical

Soc, London, June 1949

PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS

URBANA, ILLINOIS

19 50

ORGANIZATION

STATE OF ILLINOIS
HON. ADLAI
E.

STEVENSON,
PUFFER,

Governor

DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION

HON. NOBLE
J.

Director

BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION

HON. NOBLE
J.

PUFFER, Chairman

W. H. NEWHOUSE,

Ph.D., Geology Ph.D., D.Sc, Chemistry LOUIS R. HOWSON, C.E., Engineering A. E. EMERSON, Ph.D., Biology LEWIS H. TIFFANY, Ph.D., Forestry GEORGE D. STODDARD, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D., L.H.D.

ROGER ADAMS,

President of the University of Illinois

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DIVISION

M. M. LEIGHTON, Ph.D.,
Chief

(85914 2M 9-49)

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1949

CONTENTS
Page

SOME FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PROPERTIES OF SOIL MATERIALS THE COMPOSITION IN RELATION TO THE PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN SOILS
.

5
.

13

SOME FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PROPERTIES OF SOIL MATERIALS

RALPH
E.

GRIM

The important factors

materials

of composi-

Theory of the Structure of

Materials in the Plastic Condition Water added
sorbed
to dry soil materials

Soil

tion controlling the properties of soil

may

be classified as follows (Ref.

4*)

1 )

Clay-mineral composition
tive

the

rela-

is

ad-

abundance of the clay-mineral components and their particle-size

distribution.

some

by the clay minerals and perhaps other components. The important

2)

Nonclay-mineral compositionthe relative abundance of each mineral and the size-grade distribution of its
particles.

clay minerals are

made up

of flake-shaped

units that occur both as unit flakes

and

as

aggregates

of

book-like

masses

of

flakes

3)

Electrolyte content

the amount and

amount
and

(Ref. 4). Much of the water is adsorbed on the basal plane surfaces of such units.

Hendricks and Jefferson (Ref. 7) have

suggested that the water molecules have a
definite

kind of exchangeable bases and any

water-soluble
salts.

4)
5)

Organic
kind.

content

the

orientation

(Fig.

1)

in

the

first

layers

adsorbed on the plane surfaces of

the clay minerals.

The

first

water mole-

Miscellaneous textural characteristics

such as shape of quartz grains, degree
of parallel orientation of clay-mineral
particles,

cules are oriented because their configuration

and
these

silicification.

Not
given

all

of

factors

apply in

any

soil
is

material, and their relative im-

portance

not always the same.

in

Current

researches

the

writer's

laboratory and
certain

with that of the oxygen layers in the of the clay mineral units. The orientation tends to propagate itself through layers of water some molecules in thickness outward from the surfaces of the clay minStarting with this concept of the erals. structure of the adsorbed water, a satisfits

surface

ponents which

commaterials frequently exert a tremendous influence on properties, even though they are
elsewhere
that

have shown

factory theory of the structure of soil

terials in the plastic state

ma-

may

be present in

soil

can be evolved.

present in very small amounts.

tion or subtraction of such

The

addi-

weathering processes, ment, or construction

fore change

components by groundwater moveactivities

can there-

greatly the properties of soil

material.

mass or sheet of oriented water molewould be rigid like ice rather than fluid, and therefore the initial adsorbed water would not be fluid. But as larger amounts of water are added to dry clay, the layers of oriented water molecules become thicker and thicker. Because the force orienting the water molecules is the struccules

This paper considers some

of these

com-

ture of the surface of the clay minerals,

is

it

ponents and offers an explanation of their action on the basis of present concepts of
the structure of soil materials.
It will serve

not reasonable that oriented water would

to an indefinite thickness

mineral surfaces.

our purpose best to start with a theory of

the structure of soil materials in the p^stic
condition.
* References

are given

at

end of paper,

p.

11

on the clay Further the presence of adsorbed ions and molecules on the clay mineral surfaces would tend to restrict the growth of the oriented water. Therefore, at some distance from the clav mineral sur-

grow

[5

CLAY MINERALOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

Silica layer
of clay

mineral

Oriented water

-o-Qr-

o-Qr-

molecules

Silica

layer

of clay mineral

1. Schematic sketch of orientation of adsorbed on the basal surfaces of the clay small circles circles represent oxygen atoms small black or shaded circles silicon atoms and Jefferson).

Fig.

water

molecules

minerals.

Large hydrogen atoms (after Hendricks

faces,

the

water molecules would not be

is,

it

is

rather abrupt.

If

this

is

true there
the
plastic

oriented,* that

they would be

fluid.

should

be

sharp

break

in

Oriented
about
all

water

would

develop

from

properties at a given moisture content

when

basal plane surfaces of the clay

increasing amounts of water are added to

a

minerals, and the rigid adsorbed water of

dry

soil
3,

material.

one surface would meet

surface.
a
in

that

of

another
as

(Figs.

4)
is

show

this.

Experimental data Figure 3 shows

The

rigid

water would serve

that there

an abrupt reduction in power

bond

to hold the clay mineral units rigidly

required to extrude clay through a die

a certain moisture content
is

when
Ex-

amounts of water the adsorbed layers would become thicker until a thickness was reached at which orientation was nil or imperfect. Such water, having fluid properties, could Acact as a lubricant between the flakes.
place.

With

increasing

reached.

trusion
fluid

is

exceedingly difficult until some

is

water

present.

Curves that show

of

compression

strength

sand-clay-water

mixtures
strength
is

(Fig.

4) show that maximum developed within extremely nar-

cording to

this concept, the plastic condition

develops in a clay-water system

when

there

is enough water to supply all the rigid water that can develop on available surfaces and a little more water that has poor or no orientation to act as a lubricant between flakes (Fig. 2). Large amounts of additional water provide much fluid water and

limits which probably correspond to the maximum amount of rigid Additional water that can be adsorbed. amounts of adsorbed water are at least partially unoriented with attendant large

row moisture

decrease in compressive strength.

time factor

may

be involved in the

give the system the properties of a fluid.

transition from water molecules (that is, from rigid to fluid water), may be abrupt or somewhat gradual, but usually

In

soil

materials,

the

development of some plastic properties. For example, the compressive strength of some sand-clay-water mixtures increases
gradually within short periods of time in

oriented

to

nonoriented

compacted masses (Ref. 5).

tion
is

The

explanais

that a certain

amount

of time

re-

quired for the water molecules to become

*

in

residual partial orientation liquid water (Ref. 12).

of

water,

of

course,

exists

oriented completely.


EFFECT ON SOIL-WATER SYSTEMS
NON PLASTIC STATE
PLASTIC STATE

Clay
mineral

Oriented

water

molecules

/ \ -- \ -^-x ^ \/

Nc-n oriented

water molecules

Clay

mineral

Fig. 2.

Schematic

presentation of character of water in nonplastic and plastic states.

Effect of Minor Amounts of Certain Components on the Properties of Soil-Water Systems

Extremely small amounts of certain chemicals have a tremendous influence on This has the properties of soil materials. been known for some time but the explanaAn example is the tion has been obscure. large change in viscosity of sodium montmorillonite-water slurries caused by the addition of traces of sodium hexametaphosphate (Ref. 13) (Table 1).
Table 1. Effect of (NaP0 3 )6 on Viscosity of Sodium Montmorillonite-Water Suspension

data are preliminary and were obtained in

a detailed study

laboratory.
effect

The

underway in the writer's data show the tremendous

ion in montmorillonite
to that of

of the

Na+

clays as

compared

Ca++

or

H+

and the large

precise
illite

effect of

some chemicals on

the "Limits" of Na-montmorillonite.

effect

The
on
deter-

of

the

treating
to

agents

and kaolinite remains

be

mined, but the present data indicate that it is small. This is to be expected since the

"Limits" for these natural clays are low and the exchange capacity for illite and kaolinite are also low (20-40 and 3-15 respectively).
Illite

cloy
|

(NaP0
Sodium
montmorillonite .... 8 percent water.. "slurrv"
.

3) G

percent

Viscosity in centipoises
10

Kaolin ite clav

0.2 0.4

48 23
18

* c
1000

/
\

X
\

Not

all

the com]Donents whi<:h can have

\
\

4)

such an effect are known, but in addition

amounts of magnesium and boron are known to alter clay-bonding Small amounts of sodium, properties. hydrogen, and aluminum as exchangeable
to phosphates small

bases greatly alter certain plastic properties.

Moisture

in

percent dry (II0C) weight of clay

Table

presents

Atterberg

Limits

for
Fig.
3.

natural clays (Ref. 14) and for some clays

treated with various chemicals.

Relation

the

power necessary

of tempering water in clay and to extrude clays through

The

latter

an auger machine,

CLAY MINERALOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

Table
2.

Atterberg Limits
Plastic Limit
*

Liquid Limit

Plastic Indi

Materials Studied

-d
<L>

t3

t3

rt 0J

C
\D

d Ph E
54
63

o E
C/3

O
Ph
OS

<L>

rt <u

fc

rt

o Ph &

C/3

n E

O Ph
rt

4-J

<u

O Ph E
286
56

n E
C/3

Montmorillo n ite
1.

Na +

exchangeable base
base

97

50 77

48

700 340
124
118

250
142

395

603
52

200
65

347

2.

Wyoming Ca ++ exchangeable

72
82

119

3.

Arizona Ca ++ + exchangeable base

36

Mississippi
Illite

4.
5.

LaSalle County, 111 Vermilion County, 111

25

23

26

21

24

36 29

35

36

31

11
5

12

10

10

Kao Unite
6.
7.

Georgia

Union County,

111

30 37

35

32

35 58

68

68

21

33

36

Natural mixtures
8.

Illite

plus plus

10%

montmorillonite
111.

26

27

28 35
31

25

58
61

52
61

61

48

32
25

25

33
27

23

Greene County,
9. Illite

5%

montmorillonite
111.

36
33

34
31

62 74
67

27

Grundy County,
10.

Kaolinite plus

10%

montmorillonite

39

65

65

32

34

43

23

Georgia

Chemical

added

to

tempering

water

in

such

quantity

that

the acid radical equalled the base-exchange capacity.

A
of

satisfactory explanation for the action

is

understood,

the

exchangeable

Na+
to

favors

most of these components

the

that they

the development of thick layers of oriented

influence

orientation

of

the

adsorbed

water
nites

with

gradual

transition

non-

water molecules.
ness to

The

influence

may

be in

oriented water.

In sodium montmorillo-

the perfection of the orientation, the thick-

which good orientation can develop, or the abruptness of the transition from
oriented to nonoriented water.
tion of the phosphate unit (Ref.

at least

good orientation may extend through 100 molecular layers. When cal-

In the case of phosphates, the configura1 ) is such

it

Calcium-

that

would about

fit

into the configura-

tion of the
itself

water molecules.

The

phosphate
Hollo ysite

tends to leave a donor surface so that

da)

any water associated with it would not tend to fit into the oriented water associated with
the clay surfaces.

The

result

would be
it

to

disrupt the orientation of the water molecules without completely destroying

thereby to increase the fluidity

and of the water

^^ ^-^ =^r^ y/ y
I

s~ V

Ilite

clay

Kaolinite clay
1

between
viscosity.

flakes

which

in turn

would reduce
Fig. 4.

1.6

2.5

3.5

Percent tempering water (on dry basis IIO'C)

In the case of small amounts of exchangeable sodium, for

Relation of compression strength to tempering water and sand-clay mixtures containing 6 percent clay.

some reason not completely

INFLUENCE OF CLAY MINERALS

cium is the exchangeable ion the oriented water hull is very thin (a few molecular layers) and the transition to nonoriented water molecules is abrupt (Ref. 5). Calcium is the most frequent exchangeable base in soil materials, hence an abrupt transition of character of adsorbed water and resulting properties
is

erals,
is

whereas that of

Na+
as

montmorillonite

five to six times that of the

montmorillonite

and
is

Ca ++ or H + much as twenty
illite.

times that of kaolinite or

Clearly
partic-

montmorillonite
ularly

the component,
is

when

Na +

present,

with

the

usually encountered.

tremendous plastic properties. Samples 8 and 9 (Table 2) contain 5

illite.

to

The

application of the foregoing to enis

10 percent montmorillonite in addition to

gineering problems
ing with a
soil

clear.

If

one

is

deal-

Sample

10
in

contains
addition

10
to

percent
kaolinite.

material with a moisture

montmorillonite

content about equal to that which can be

held in a rigid form, any change in either

amount of water or in chemical component might cause a tremendous effect on the

properties of the
soil.

The presence of montmorillonite causes little change in the Plastic Limit, but increases the Liquid Limit about twofold so that the Plastic Index is increased four to six times
by only 5 percent montmorillonite.

In general terms,

it

appears that

soil

materials

vironments
slight

are

in

and their enequilibrium, but even

destroy
the
balance,

Montmorillonite has a peculiar

lattice

structure (Ref. 9) which permits water to

changes

may

penetrate between the individual unit layers

causing great changes of properties.

instance, equilibrium

For

about 9.5

thick, thereby separating

them.

would be destroyed by changes in amount or movement of groundwater, and by changes in the amount of adsorbed Ca++ that would follow construction using Portland cement in a soil

The

separation can be substantially com-

plete in the presence of considerable

amounts
is

of water, particularly

when sodium

the

exchangeable base.
faces of

Both basal plane surthe montmorillonite units are comof

material originally containing

possibility

Na +

The
the
to

posed of oxygens so arranged as to foster

the

of

tremendous
soil

effects

on

growth
addition

oriented

water molecules.
has

properties

of

materials

adjacent

In

montmorillonite
capacity

high
milli-

concrete structures because of base-exchange

base-exchange
morillonite

(about
are

100
to

calcium

provided

by

the

concrete

itself

equivalents per 100 grams)

surfaces

so that

montcarry

appears to have been overlooked.

apt

adsorbed ions that favor the adsorption of

Influence of Clay Minerals

water.

The
its

high plastic properties of

soil

materials composed of montmorillonite are

The

plastic

properties of soil materials

due

to

property of breaking

down

into

are largely determined by the kind of clay

exceedingly small flake-shape units with a

White

minerals that compose them (Ref, 3), and (Ref. 14) has recently carefully

consequent tremendous surface with particular ability to adsorb water.

measured the Atterberg Limits of pure clayThe Attermineral samples (Table 2). berg Limits of kaolinite and illite are roughly the same. Sample 7 is relatively finer grained than sample 6, indicating the order of magnitude of the increase in the "Limits," particularly the Liquid Limit, as
the particle size of
creases.

Where soil materials are composed of a mixture of montmorillonite and other clay minerals, the components may be present either as mixtures of discrete aggregate
particles of the individual clay minerals or
as

very intimate interlayerings of one or a

layers
of

few unit
erals.

montmorillonite with

kaolinite

or

illite

de-

several unit layers of the other clay min-

In the former case the effect on

is

The

Plastic Limit for montmorillonite

is

properties

about
effect

proportional

to

the

about three times that of kaolinite or illite. The Liquid Limit for montmorillonites
carrying

amount
latter

of montmorillonite present.

In the
as

case, in

the

is

much

greater as
is

Ca ++ and/or

H>

is

about three

shown

to four times that of the other clay

min-

Table 2. follows: Illite and

The

explanation

kaolinite

occur in

soil

10

CLAY MINERALOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

come apart
into

materials in aggregate particles which do

not

much
If,

smaller units in

of

found to be true (Refs. 6, 8) and is one the effects on soil properties of the
adsorbed organics.

the presence of water.

of

however, layers

montmorillonite are interspersed through

illite

Jordan

(Ref.

10)

has

recently

shown

the kaolinite or

aggregates, the mont-

that certain clay minerals,

notably mont-

morillonite forms planes of weakness along

which the aggregates can break up in the Obviously, under such presence of water. conditions, relatively few such planes would cause relatively great breaking up of the clay mineral particles with attendant great
increase in plastic properties.

morillonite, when carrying adsorbed organic molecules of particular kinds are organophilic

toward other organics.

Such clay

mineral-organic complexes do not swell in water, but they do swell tremendously in

the

presence
gels.

of

suitable
gels

organic

liquids

forming

Such

are very stable,

Organic Material in Soils

Organic material can be present
in
as

show almost no air-drying, and have very low bearing power. Organic-clay mineral
complexes are undoubtedly to be found in nature. Swamps, bogs, and slough fillings would be probable places, and soils containing

in soils

two forms: (a)

and (b)

as discrete particles
bits of leaves,

such

fragments of wood,
is

and

them would have

striking

and un-

spores,

as exceedingly fine material

usual properties.

that
It

in the colloidal

or molecular state.
that

has

long been

known

organic

Summary and Conclusions

material, particularly in the colloidal form,

can increase the plastic properties of clay. The exact nature of the organic material
in soils
in
is

theory of the structure of

is

soil

materials
is

in the plastic state

presented that

based

still

not known, but recent

work

several

laboratories has provided basic

data on the adsorption of organic molecules

on the oriented configuration of the water molecules initially adsorbed by the clay It mineral components of such materials.
is

by the clay minerals. The findings go a long way in explaining the manner in which organic material is present in soils and its
influence on soil properties.

shown

that the plastic properties, partic-

ularly

the

Atterberg
the

Limits,

may vary
of

greatly

because of

presence

small

Gieseking (Ref. 2) and later Hendricks

(Ref. 8) showed that some organic molecules

were adsorbed on the basal plane

is

sur-

faces of

the montmorillonite clay mineral

amounts of certain chemical components, and an explanation is offered based on the effect of such components on the orientation of the water molecules. It is shown that relatively small amounts
of montmorillonite

units, that

on the same surfaces that ad-

may

cause a relatively

sorb water.

MacEwan
those

(Ref. 11), investi-

great increase
soil

in

the plastic properties of

gating the kind of organics adsorbed, has

materials.
is

The

structure

of
it
is

montinter-

shown

with polar groups are favored and that both montmorillonite and halloysite may adsorb organics between the unit cells. Grim, Allaway, and Cuthbert (Ref. 6) have shown that the clay minerals illite and kaolinite also have some adsorpthat
tion capacity for organics.

morillonite

such that

when

layered with other clay minerals,

it

forms

planes of weakness that permit relatively

great

break-down

of

the

clay

mineral

particles
plasticity.

with attendant great increases in

Since the organic molecules are adsorbed

on the same surfaces that can adsorb water, a decrease or elimination of water adsorbing capacity would be an expected result of the This has been adsorption of organics.

Certain kinds of organic molecules and Such some clay mineral may form gels. components probably explain the unusual and extreme properties in some peculiar
soil

materials.

REFERENCES
REFERENCES
1.

11

Bragg,

W.

L.,

Atomic structure of minerals.

E.,

Cornell University Press, 1937.

2.

Gieseking,

change

Mechanism of cation exmontmorillonite-beidelliteSoil nontronite type of clay minerals. Science 47, pp. 1-14, 1939.
J.

tion of clays. 863-875, 1938.

8.

hydrates and their bearing on water sorpAm. Mineralogist, 23, pp.

in

the

3.

Grim, R.

E.,

The

clay minerals in

soils

and
9.

Hendricks, S. B., Base exchange of the clay mineral montmorillonite for organic cations and its dependence upon adsorption due to Van der Waal's forces. Jour. Phys.

significance. Proc. Purdue Contheir ference, Soil Mechanics and Its Application, pp. 216-222, 1940; Illinois Geol. Survey, Cir. 65, 1940.
4.

Chem.

45, pp. 65-81, 1941.

Hofmann,

U.,

crystal structure morillonite. Zeit. 1933.

10.

Endell, K., Wilm, D., The and swelling of montKrist 86, pp.
340-348,

Grim,

R. E., Modern concepts of clay materials. Jour. Geol. 50, pp. 225-275, 1942; Illinois Geol. Survey, Rept. Inv. 80, 1942.
E.,

Jordan, J. W., Bentonite in organic systems, Part I, Swelling in organic liquids, Mss.,

Mellon
11.

Institute, Pittsburgh, Penna., 1947.

5.

Grim, R.
erals.

and Cuthbert,

F.

L.,

Some

MacEwan,

clay-water properties of certain clay minJour.

1945.
E.,

Am.

1945.
103,
6.

Illinois

Cer. Soc. 28, pp. 90-95, Geol. Survey, Rept. Inv.

D. M. C, Complexes of clays with organic compounds, Pt. I, Complex *" formation between the clay minerals montmorillonite and halloysite and certain organic liquids. Rothamsted Experimental
Station,

Harpenden, Great Britain, 1947.

L.,

Grim, R.
bert,
F.

Allaway, W.

H.,

and Cuth12.

Reaction of different clay minerals with some organic cations. Jour. Am. Cer. Soc. 30, pp. 137-145, 1947; Illinois Geol. Survey, Rept. Inv. 123, 1947.
L.,
7.

Pauling,
p.

Nature of the chemical bond,

1940.

304, Cornell University Press,

B.,

13.

Wayne, T.
U.
S.

Treatment of

drilling fluids.

Patent 2,294,877, 1941.

Hendricks,

and Jefferson, M. E., Structures of kaolin and talc-pyrophyllite

S.

B.,

14.

White,
M.S.

W.

A.,

The

properties
Illinois,

thesis,

Univ. of

of clays, 1947.

THE COMPOSITION IN RELATION TO THE

PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN SOILS
BY

RALPH
Introduction

E.

GRIM
persing
of

agent.

The

mineral

composition
in

the coarser sized fractions obtained

Investigations
logical

are in progress

in

the

the pipette analysis

was determined by the

In addition, an
separate,

GeoUrbana, Illinois, studying the specific relations between the factors of composition (Ref. 2)* of soil materials and The probtheir soil mechanics properties. lem is being approached in two ways: first, by the determination of the properties of
laboratories of the Illinois State

petrographic microscope.
effort

Survey,

was made
all

to

by repeated

sedimentation,

of the

minus 2 micron

and minus 1 micron fractions without the use of any dispersing agents. The composition of these fine fractions was determined by X-ray diffraction and differential thermal methods. Base-exchange capacity, pH,

pure clay minerals, of controlled mixtures of pure clay minerals and nonclay minerals,

and of pure clay minerals prepared with and second, by adsorbed ions specific
;

exchangeable bases, and soluble salts were determined for each soil by the conventional methods used by soil scientists in agriculture. Ammonium acetate was the leaching agent used in the determination of the exchangeable bases and soluble salts.

making complete analyses of the composition and texture of a series of soils known by
experience and tests to have unusual propin an effort to locate the cause of unusual character. These soils are being obtained through the help of Professor Terzaghi of Harvard University and Professor Peck of the University of Illinois,
erties,

Particle size distribution curves for all

the

but one of the

to 8 in the

soils are

shown

in figures

form

of cumulative curves,

and

by frequency distribution curves constructed by the graphic differentiation method described by

whose cooperation
edged.

is

gratefully

acknowl-

Krumbein (Ref.

7).

It will be

This paper presents

position
of

briefly the
soils,

methods
the com-

used in the analysis of the

nine
soils

of

widely different

found that some of the frequency curves have been slightly smoothed. This was done in order to eliminate minor irregularities which are not significant and which
are probably outside of the limit of error
of

composition, and a discussion of the relation

between composition and properties of

soils.

the particle size data.

The

frequency

the individual

The

soils

considered

curves
curve.
terial

show

selected from a large have been analyzed because they illustrate some broad general relationships between composition and properties.

herein

have

been

various size

abundance of grades by the area under the

the
relative

number

that

Method
Only about
half

of Analysis
of

For example, the percentage of mabetween 0.005 and 0.002 mm. in any sample is obtained by dividing that portion of the area under the curve which is bounded by vertical lines constructed at the 0.005 and 0.002 mm. divisions of the horizontal
axis by the total area

the

samples were

under the entire curve.

those

received sealed in paraffin, so that natural

The
that

particle size distribution of each of

moisture content could not be determined

for all samples.

the component

minerals of
satisfactorily

samples
is

Particle size distribution

could

be

dispersed

were made by the pipette method, using sodium hexametaphosphate as the disanalyses
References are given at end of paper, p. 21.

shown

form of frequency distribution curves. The relative abundance of the component minerals in any given particle
also in the

[13]

CLAY MINERALOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

Table
3 C
"g
-J3 and

14

1.

Analytical Data

Number

bfl

solugrams

C
in
Exchangeable

4->
<L>

Location

2 S <D O

salts

100

'e's

M
3

Sample

-'g

bases

1J
1.

ble me/

rt

60-80*

U rt'S A S 8 3
to

g
(U

Brown
Cairo,

Egypt

38.7

8.0

45.1

3.5 K+ 28.5 Na+ 26.0 Ca++ 29.0 Mg++

.6

Largely montmorillonite, poorly crystallized

25-40* Swells
intensely

2.

Dark
Cairo,

K+

Largely montmorillonite, poorly crystallized

Swelling

Egypt

56.5

7.6

50.6

2.30 Na+ 38.4 Ca++ 17.85 Mg++

5.0 K+ 228.0 Na+ 14.27 Ca++ 26.73 Mg++

40-50*

30-50* inconsequential

3.

Alexandria,

Largely montmorillonite, poorly crystallized

100*

100+*

High
compressibility

Egypt

68.0

7.9

51.2

4.

Helouan,

Egypt

20.0

8.4

53.9

1.34 K+ 57.22 Na+ 54.5 Ca++ 16.7 Mg++

Largely montmorillonite, poorly crystalline

Swells greatly

5.

"Kurzawka"
soil,

Poland

7.2

8.8

K+ Na+ 21.88 Ca++ Mg++

.36

1.7

Largely halloysite and allo-

phane

6.

Cucaracha clay Gaillard cut

.78

K+

19.9

9.1

68.4

Panama Panama
7.

Canal,

3.21 Na+ 63.95 Ca++ 15.67 Mg++

.24

Montmorillonite type dominant,

also

37

16.47

some

halloysite

Nespelm

silt

K+
Illite

Coulee Dam, Washington, U.S.A.

8.

11.3

8.1

1.42 Na+ 18.35 Ca++ 28.5 Mg++

.48

44.5

Nespelm

silt

K+

Illite

with
59.15

Coulee Dam Washington, U.S.A.

9.

54.5

8.1

17.9

1.25 Na+ 17.18 Ca++ 4. 14 Mg ++

small amounts
kaolinite

4.75

and

montmorillonite
Illite

London
voir,

clay

Chin ford Reser- 46.1

6.0

24.7

London

0.5 1.3 22.4

.

9.7

K+ Na+ Ca ++ Mg++ S0 4

with

small amounts of kaolinite

60-751

22-28J

and montmorillonite

* Personal
t See

communication from Prof. K. Terzaghi

1

Ref

size

can be obtained from the relative areas

the

adequate quantity of sample was available.

under

frequency

distribution

curves

designated for the particular minerals.

Results of Analyses

Liquid
tained
for

Limit
all

determinations

were ob-

The

results
1

of

the

analyses
1.

are

given

the

samples for which an

in figures

to 8

and Table

SOILS
Discussion
Soils i

AND

15

and

2, Cairo,

Egypt

(figs.

and
1

2).

Professor Terzaghi* contributes the

soils:

following regarding these

"Soils

and 2 are from a

of the river Nile

test

boring in the central

"HEAVY"

part of Cairo, Egypt, east of the east bank

MINERALS /
,

//

and are typical for Cairo Total thickness of both clay deposits combined is about 30 feet. The surface of the clay stratum is covered with
clays.

MICAl,

^MICA /.CARBONATE
1

y -
Fig.
1.

QUARTZ
10

i==

*
5

CLAY MINERAL
1

thin

layer

of

artificial

fill.

The

clay

50 40 30 20

0.5

MICRONS

on a very thick stratum of fine sand which becomes coarser with depth. The brown clay constitutes the top and the dark one the bottom layer. The liquid limit of the brown (upper) clay varies between 60 and 80 percent and the natural water content between 25 and 40. The liquid limit of the dark (lower) clay varies between 40 and 50 and the natural water content between 30 and 50. The upper clay is stiff or very stiff and the lower one soft to medium. The upper clay swells intensely whereas the swelling of the lower one is
rests

Brown
two

clay, Cairo.

composition explain the difference in the

properties of these
soils.

Thus when

sodium

is

the exchangeable base, water can

enter readily between the unit cell layers so

that thick adsorbed water layers develop.
If

calcium or magnesium
base,

is

the exchange-

able

considerably

thinner

adsorbed

water layers develop.

Sodium montmorillonite clays tend to swell very much, whereas calcium or magnesium montmorillonite
clays

inconsequential."

tend

to

swell

very

little.

Soil

1,

The dominant
1

composition factor in

soils

and 2

is

the presence of montmorillonite

as the clay

mineral component which would

account for the Liquid Limit values, the high natural water contents, and the swelling
characteristics.
is

which swells, carries sodium as the predominant exchangeable base whereas soil 2, which does not swell appreciably, probably has no significant exchangeable sodium. The sodium clay would be expected also
;

The

montmorillonite

to

have a higher Liquid Limit than the

clay mineral

unique

in that

water enters
cell

calcium clay.

between

the

individual

unit

layers

Of

considerable importance

is

the point

(Ref. 3), thereby causing the lattice to expand and the mineral to swell; this is

that not all of the base-exchange capacity

accompanied by great water adsorbing and

holding capacity.
Further, the concept of
the orientation of the adsorbed water molecules (Ref. 2), as applied to soil properties,

need be satisfied with sodium in order to produce the clay-water relationship characteristic

of

this

cation.

Generally

when

only a relatively small percentage of the

and the consequent rigidity of the water in the first few molecular layers accounts for
the solid character of these soils at relatively

exchange capacity is composed of sodium, pronounced swelling and water-adsorbing

high water contents.

capacity and, as a consequence, soils

Montmorillonite has high base-exchange 1 and

/
/
e

CLAY MINERAL

2 have relatively high base-exchange capacity.

The
the

clay-water relationship of mont-

^CARBONATE
')

morillonite depends greatly on the character

of

/, 'O-OSILICA (ORGANIC

exchangeable

base

carried

by the

*
20
5

mineral, and variations in exchangeable base

* Personal

50 40 30

MICRONS

communication.

Fig. 2.

Dark

clay, Cairo.

16

CLAY MINERALOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

somewhat below 100C, but drying low temperatures is relatively slow. Therefore, samples of such soils as 1 and 2 which had been dried thoroughly would
tures
at such

/
CLAY M INERAL

probably not regain their properties, even

/OU ART Z

approximately, after wetting again.

There seems

to be nothing in the particle

MICA
50 40 30 20
10

size distribution or other

5 3

determined propexert an im-

MICRONS

erties of these soils that

would

Fig.

3.

Soft clay, near Alexandria.

portant influence on their properties.

Soil 3, Alexandria,

properties are characteristic of montmorillonite clay.

cording

to

Professor
a

"comes from
boundaries
of

Egypt (fig. 3). AcTerzaghi* this soil boring from the southern

The
versus

foregoing characteristics of sodium

Alexandria.

The

stratum

calcium

(and

magnesium)

montthe clay

morillonite clays apply only

is

when

exposed to an excess of water.

of

In the

presence

amounts of moisture, that is, moisture adequate to form adsorbed water layers only a few molecular layers thick (yielding adsorbed water values up to about 60 percent), calcium montmorillonite comes to equilibrium at higher moisture content than sodium montmorillonite
limited

40 feet and rests on a thick sand stratum. The water content of this clay is commonly about 100, the Liquid Limit is also close to As 100, and the clay is very compressible. a consequence catastrophic settlements have
of soft clay has a thickness of about

occurred.

The

high compressibility of this

clay appears to be due to a high organic

content."

As
soil

in soils

and

2,

the properties of this

(Ref. 8).
a dessicant,

Thus calcium montmorillonite

are to a great extent a consequence of

has been used successfully commercially as

the presence of montmorillonite and also of

the presence of sodium in large quantities,

whereas sodium montmorillonite is unsatisfactory for this purpose. Therefore the higher natural moisture content of soil 2, which swells very little and has the lower Liquid Limit, is in accord with the presence of calcium or possibly magnesium as the exchangeable ion. It follows from the high base-exchange capacity of montmorillonite and the different properties that result from difference in the exchangeable bases, that any change
in the
soil as 1

both as an exchangeable base and as a readily

soluble salt.
a

In addition, this

soil

con-

tains

high percentage of very fine clay

cent less

(68 percent less than 1 micron and 59 perthan 0.5 micron) which would
its

further add to

plastic properties. a

The
(sample

soil

has
too

high
small
of

organic
for

content

was
for

quantitative
re-

determination)
sponsible

which could well be

much

its

compressibility.

base-exchange composition of such a and 2 would cause a decided change

The

in

properties.

change

in

groundwater

movement
cause the

or a change in the character of

soil to

minerals montmorillonite and have the property of adsorbing certain organic molecules and then of forming stiff gel-like masses in the presence of
clay
halloysite

the salts dissolved in the groundwater

change

its

properties.

would For

other organic compounds

(Ref. 6).
to

Such
little

masses would
strength.
It
is

be

expected

have

example, placing concrete structures in such a soil might well provide a supply of Ca+ +
to the

likely that the presence of

such masses in montmorillonite and halloysite soils of relatively

water moving through the

characteristic

soil,

thus
for

high organic content

in

causing a base-exchange reaction.

are

an

important
particle

factor
soils.

determining
of

Another

worth noting

the properties of such

montmorillonite

is that the minerals readily adsorb water again after drying unless all

The
quartz,

size
is

distribution

the

of the adsorbed water has been

removed.

dominant nonclay mineral component, shows a concentration

the
* Personal

which

The

adsorbed water

may

be lost at tempera-

communication.

SOILS

AND

17

/^
(V

apart to varying degrees, depending on the

working
of

of the material.

The break-down
masses
is is

the

aggregates

or

book-like

particularly easy

when montmorillonite

present because
ness.

it forms planes of weakUnfortunately only a small amount

of

Helouan
specific

soil

was

available for testing

and
/

dispersion

data could not be

obtained.

In general,
V

soils

with the foregoing comFurther,

it

position yield particle size distribution data

Ml

V
|

of little significance.
difficult to

might be
soils

CAR 30NA
50 40 30 20

;lay mineral
h

evaluate test data for such

MICRONS

Fig. 4.

Clay at Helouan, Egypt.

because their properties would undoubtedly be very sensitive to any working or disturbing,

or

to

any environmental change

in moisture content, groundwater, etc., which

such
in the fine silt

as

fluctuation
of

range at about 5-6 microns. Such a concentration of a silt size could

to

ion

content

would

add

either split the coarse clay particles

the

peculiar

properties

that

have

or vary the ease with which they separate.

been noted for

Soil 4,

this soil.

Helouan, Egypt (fig. 4). According to Professor Terzaghi* this sample "was taken from a shallow sewer trench in Helouan about 50 km. south of Cairo
at the foot of the east slope of the

"Kurzawka" soil, Poland (fig. 5). small dried sample of this soil was received from Ir. A. Pogany of Krakow, Poland. It is not possible to correlate this
Soil 5,

moun-

tains

Suez.
sult

which separate the Nile Valley from The clay was very stiff. As a reof the failure of a water conduit be-

sample with the "Kurzawka" samples recently described by Pogany (Ref. 9) and it is not known how typical the sample is
of

the

general

characteristics

of

the

neath the floor of a nearby factory building,

the floor rose

more than

Kurzawka. Because the sample received was small and was dry it was impossible to
determine
ever,
its

a foot."

The
of

particular properties.
a

How-

presence of montmorillonite as the

the sample does have

clay mineral

component and the abundance

adequately account for the
soil.

Na+ would
The

composition which illustrates

ties

noteworthy some generali-

in

the

relation

between clay mineral

high swelling of the

particle size distribution of this soil,

90

with about 75 percent finer than 2 microns and about 55 percent in the 2 to 1 micron size grade, is undoubtedly very significant in determining the properties of the material.

80

'

/
70

The

analytical

data show that at

60

least a considerable part of this coarse clay

is

montmorillonite.

The

author has studied

50

soils of

somewhat

similar composition and

40

found that almost any particle size distribution can be obtained by varying the dispersing procedure, for example, the
of stirring in a mechanical mixer,

30

amount
and the
20

dispersing agent.
to
1

The

reason

is

that the 2
50 40 30

like

micron particles are aggregates or bookparticles of clay minerals which come

communication.

~
20

* Personal

Fig.

5.

"Kurzawka"

MICRONS

soil,

Poland.

18

CLAY MINERALOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

and properties, and for that
considered herein.
is

composition
reason
it

eral,

drying of any

soil

causes

some change
soils

is

in properties,
is

but in halloysite

there

composed of halloysite and allophane and consequently has low base-exchange capacity (Ref. 3) and should
material

The

apt to be a different kind of phenomenon.

soil

not swell.

microscopic examination of

the individual size grade fractions, obtained

on making the particle size analyses (Fig. 5), indicates that each grade is composed of aggregates of silt-sized nonclay minerals bonded together by the clay minerals. The
particle
size

For example, a slight loss of water from a composed of halloysite in highly hydrated form would tend to develop a plastic from an unplastic soil. Halloysite materials also have the property of developing "air-set" strength (Ref.
If the compressive strength of a test 5). specimen formed from a material contain-

analysis,

therefore,

does

not

ing

show

the size grade distribution of the in-

dividual

component minerals. Halloysite and allophane, unlike some other clay minerals such as the montmorillonites, are not

intermediate halloysite is determined immediately after forming and again some hours or days after forming (with the sample retained under conditions in which

no moisture

is

lost),

it

will be found that

broken up readily
or agitated in
this

when they are worked water. The aggregates in

soil,

the material has gained in strength without a correlative loss of water.

The

explana-

Kurzawka
distribution
it

therefore,

are

likely

tion for this "air-set" strength appears to

to be resistant to working,
size

and the particle might well represent the

be that the water present in such a soil

mass
site,

gradually

and

slowly

develops

an

material as
dition.

actually exists in natural con-

orientation net on the surfaces of the halloy-

along with which there

is

an increase

have certain unique properties which would be carried There are over to soils containing them. two forms of halloysite, a higher hydrate in its composition, and a form with 4H 2 lower hydrate form with 2H 2 0. A transition which is not ordinarily reversible from the higher to lower form takes place rapidly at temperatures of about 60 C. and slowly Halloysite mateat lower temperatures. rials, as found in their natural condition, are frequently in a transition state between the 4H 2 and 2H 2 form. Material in the transition state frequently has very high plastic properties (Ref. 4), whereas material in either the low or high hydrate form
halloysite clay minerals
is

The

in strength.

Halloysite (like montmorillonite but unlike

most of the other clay minerals) ad-

sorbs certain organic compounds, and therefore halloysite soils that have an appreciable

organic content
site gels of

may

contain organic halloy-

considerable instability.

Soil

6,

Cucaracha

clay,

Gaillard

cut,

Panama
H.
is

Canal, Panama.

Several samples

of this clay

Stratton,

were received from Col. James U. S. Army Engineers.

The

particle size analysis of this material

not significant and consequently no size

is
is

distribution curve
terial as received

presented.

The ma-

a solid rock containing

an enormous number of slickensided fracture

surfaces.
is

relatively nonplastic.

It

follows from the

The

particle

size

analysis

foregoing consideration of halloysite properties, that

obtained
in

the result of the procedure used

i.e.,

any drying of a
mineral

soil

containing
a

preparing the sample for analysis,

this

clay

would

cause

great

slaking time, dispersing agent used, crush-

change in properties. Great care would be needed to preserve the moisture content in samples selected for testing, and one could not generally expect to use the same sample Of greater signiffor repeated check tests.
icance
site
is

ing of sample, and has, therefore, no inherent meaning so far as properties of the
clay
is

concerned.
clay

The dominant
is

mineral component

the

fact

that

working a halloy-

montmorillonite with also a considerable amount of halloysite. The high base-ex-

during construction might be expected to permit some drying, with consequent great change in properties. In gensoil

change capacity reflects the montmorillonite, and the ion determinations (Table 1) show that calcium is the dominant exchange-

SOIL
able
base.
is

7,

N ESP ELM

SILT
The

19

Because calcium,
the

rather

than

erties of the clay.

slickensided fracture

sodium,

morillonite

dominant base, the montwould not be of the high

containing

surfaces

influence properties

not only be-

cause they provide planes of weakness but

also

swelling variety.

because they provide means of access

to the montmorillonite.

montmorillonite tend to break down readily in water to very small particle sizes. The Cucaracha clay is unique in being a montmorillonite material which does not so break down. It also has a much lower liquid limit and
materials

Clay

of

water
Soil 7
',

Nespelm

Silt,

Bank

of Reservoir,

upstream from Coulee Dam, Columbia River, Washington, U.S.A. (fig. 6). The
particle
size

distribution,

with

the
silt

high
range,

concentration in the very fine

is

natural moisture content than

is

usual for

undoubtedly the factor determining the

of
this

montmorillonite

clays

(Ref.

2).

There

properties

material.

Possibly

the

are three reasons for this unique character

relatively high concentration of

mica

in the

and undoubtedly they are

First, as

all

significant.

very fine

silt

is

significant also.

The

clay

noted above, the montmorillonite

as

mineral

illite

should

cause

no

unusual
that

carries

calcium

the exchangeable base

clays,

properties.

and calcium montmorillonite

those carrying
persible.

unlike

Engineers have long

silts

known

such

Na+,

are not so readily dfs-

Second, the presence of halloysite

dispersion of particles.

would retard
study
has
of a

The
soils

considerable

number
or

of

shown

that those containing halloysite

are
difficult

generally

impossible

to

disperse into their constituent minerals or

any significant reproducible particle Third, the Cucaracha clay has been subject to high earth pressures, as evidenced by the slickenside surfaces and
into
size

have properties, particularly extreme instability when water saturated, that make them difficult or even dangerous to use. The explanation probably lies in the character of the bond between the silt particles. At low moisture contents the bond is probably a thin molecular film of water which has rigidity and bonding strength because
of the orientation of the

distribution.

water molecules.

Additional water would thicken the water

the presence of faults* in the geologic section.

This pressure would tend to force

montmorillonite units close
in

with a consequent loss in rigidity and bond between particles. The cause of the orientation of the water molecules
layer,

the individual
together,

probably

in

part

resides

in

the

internal

and

many

instances probably

completely collapse the structure,

all

forcing
layers.

the water out

from between the

and therefore would be expected to decrease with increasing distance from the surface of the
structure of the
silt particles,

As noted

happens water goes back into the structure with great difficulty, and such material does not have
above,
this

when

the usual properties of montmorillonite.

The two

factors that are probably domi-

nant in controlling the characteristics of

the Cucaracha clay are
sided
:

first,

the slickenKQUA RTZ

surfaces

that

provide a tremendous

number

of planes of

weakness along which

\

water could penetrate, giving the material then little strength, and second, the collapsed

montmorillonite.

In

the

case

of

collapsed montmorillonite some water would no doubt enter very slowly between the unit layers in any masses of clay where water was available in considerable abun-

50 40 30

r ^A
>
20

//

ICA

CLAY MINERAL!

MICRONS

dance with a consequent change in prop*

Fig.

6.

Nespelm

silt,

Columbia River upstream

Personal

communication,

J.

H. Stratton.

of Coulee

Dam.

20

CLAY MINERALOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

base-exchange capacity of this
silt

as

com-

pared to sample 7 are, of course, a consequence of the increased clay content and
the presence of montmorillonite.
Soil 9, London clay, Chinford Reservoir Puddle Clay, London (fig. 8). This sample was kindly sent by Prof. A. W. Skempton of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London.

/
/' /

MICA
C

LAY MINERAL

MICRONS

Fig.

7.

Nespelm

silt,

Columbia River,

Kettle

Falls area.

component of this about 70 percent illite, 20 percent kaolinite, and 10 percent montmorillonite. In general, the illite and
clay

The

mineral

London

clay

sample

is

particles. It would probably operate through distances of only a few molecular layers of water. It seems likely that the
silt

kaolinite should not yield a material with

difficult properties.

montmorillonite in a
tinct influence

cations present in this

silt

would

also

in-

As much as 10 percent soil would have dison properties and would ac-

fluence the orientation of the

cules.

water moleBy analogy with the adsorbed water

of clays, certain ions such as

Ca++ would
of

count for the high shrinkage (Ref. 10) and generally high plastic properties. fairly high content of clay sized material (46.1

probably
rigid
If

cause

thicker

film

highly

percent minus

micron) would favor also

water than other ions such as Na+. this is true, a change in the character of

high plastic properties.

relatively small

amount

of

montmorillonite

tends

to

in-

the ion present

would

affect the stability of

fluence soil properties to a relatively large

the soil without necessarily any change in

degree because

it

provides planes of weak-

the water content.

of a

For example, the placing

ness throughout the material.

mass of concrete in such a soil thereby it with calcium ions might well change its stability without any change in its water content.
flooding
Soil 8,

of

The sample studied was acid with 6. The determinations of the

salts

pH
to

easily

soluble

indicate

too

few cations

satisfy the

Nespelm

Silt,

Kettle Falls area,

ment

of
,

exchange capacity after assignenough cations to satisfy the

thereby
indicating

west bank of Columbia River, Coulee Dam area, Washington, U.S.A. (fig. 7). This
sample, like
soil

S0 4

that

the

ex-

from the same

area,

is

by a size grade distribution showing a concentration in the fine silt

also characterized
size.

change positions on the clay are occupied chiefly by H+ as well as Ca++. As Ca++ and H+ are the exchangeable ions in this sample, it should show insignificant
swelling.

The

sample, however, contains conclay

siderably

more

(54.4 percent as com-

The

clay has a moderate base-exchange

pared to 11.3 percent of minus one micron

material for
soil

capacity.

The

presence of some montmoril-

7)

and the clay contains

some montmorillonite. An increase in abundance of illite clay accompanied by a

relative
silt

decrease

in

the

concentration

of
40

sized material

would be expected

to in-

crease the stability of the material, perhaps

by providing a clay bond which would be stronger than a water bond between the silt
particles.

30

However, the presence

illite

of

mont10

\
QUARTZ WITH SMALL AMOUNT C
50 40 30

morillonite, even in small amounts,

along

k^
10

/ MICA
^J2.
5

with the

would reduce
Liquid Limits

the stability

CLAY MINERAL
3
2

20

derived from the increased clay content.

MICRONS

The

higher

and higher

Fig.

8.

London

clay,

Chinford Reservoir.

REFERENCES
lonite

21

makes
for
is

it

higher than would be the

illite

properties.

It

must be emphasized that the

case

either

or

kaolinite

alone.

There

exchange
properties

no great likelihood of a basereaction causing a change in

of

such

clay

because

Ca + +

soils will undoubtedly add additional factors, and also that there will be some soils in which these factors do not produce particularly bad soil properties

study of additional

and particularly H+ are relatively more resistant to exchange than many other

because

other
It
is

factors

tend
as

to

neutralize

them.
of

noteworthy that these factors

are

common
increases

ions (e.g.
this

Na+).
kind frequently the

composition

such

to

make

it

In clays of

pH

difficult to predict,
tests,

on the

basis of laboratory

upper clays

from the surface downward, with being acid and lower clays
In the weathering process
seeping waters tend to remove

being alkaline.

downward
alkalies

and alkaline earths progressively from the surface downward. There should,
of course, be a correlative
erties of the clay

change

in prop-

the behavior of a soil in the ground under load and throughout a future interval of time. Also they cause a soil to have properties that are quite likely to change as a consequence of changes in soil environment, such as changes in groundwater circulation or changes due to construction.

and

in sensitivity to base-

The
a)

factors are as follows:

exchange reactions.

Clay mineral composition containing

montmorillonite minerals.

Composition Factors of Particular Significance in Controlling Soil

Properties

b)
c)

Clay mineral composition containing

halloysite minerals.

d)

High base-exchange capacity. Sodium as an important exchange-

The

analyses of these soils and of others

able base.
e)
f)

that have

somewhat unusual
are

properties per-

High

soluble salt content.

mit a listing of certain factors of composition

Concentration of component particles

that

apt

to

give

soil

unusual

in fine silt size grade.

REFERENCES
1.

Glossop, R.,

The London

clay, Pt.

1,

Field

6.

Jordan,
of

Verre et Technique. Silicates Industriels XIII, pp. 60-75, 1948.

and

Laboratory

2.

Grim,

R. E., Some fundamental factors influencing the properties of soil materials. Proceedings International Conference on
Soil
ing, vol. Ill,

J. W., Alteration of the properties bentonite by reaction with amines "Clay Minerals presented before the Group" of the Mineralogical Society at meetings of Int. Geol. Congress, London, 1948.

Mechanics and Foundation EngineerRotterdam, 1948.

7.

Krumbein, W. C,
vol. 4,

bution of sediments.
8.

3.

Grim, R.
terials.

275, Inv. 80, 1942.

4.

Modern concepts of soil maJour, of Geology, 50, pp. 2251942; Illinois Geol. Survey, Rept.
E.,

Size frequency distriJour. Sed. Petrology, pp. 65-77, 1934.

Mering,

On the hydration of montJ., morillonite, Trans. Faraday Soc. XLIIB, pp. 205-219, 1946.

Grim, R. E., and Cuthbert, F. L., The bonding action of clays Pt. I. Clays in green molding sands. Illinois Geol. Sur-

9.

Pogany, A., Soft Rock (K. Kurzawka), Proceedings International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, vol. Ill, pp. 105-109, 1948.

vey, Rept. Inv. 102, 1945.

5.

Grim, R. E., and Cuthbert, F. L., The bonding action of clays Pt. II. Clays in dry molding sands. Illinois Geol. Survey,

10.

Ward, W.

H.,

The London

clay,

Pt.

4,

Shrinkage and stability of shallow foundations, Verre et Silicates Industriels XIII,

pp.

Rept. Inv. 110, 1946.

123-124,

1948.

Illinois State Geological

Survey Report of Investigations No. 146

1949