Ch 10: FLUIDS

1. 2. Density, specific gravity Fluid Static : Pressure p Pascals Principle Buoyancy & Archimedes Principle Fluid Dynamic : Fluid in motion Continuity Equation Vi Viscosity i Bernoullis Equations
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3 3.

Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. define density, specific gravity and pressure. state Pascals Principle and apply the principle to solve related problems. define Buoyancy and state Archimedes Principle. apply Archimedes Principle to solve related problems. apply continuity equation to solve related problems. define viscosity. state Bernoullis Equation and apply the equation to solve related problems.
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Fluids
Fluids refer to both the gaseous and liquid state of matter. Out of the three states of matter, only solids have unique shapes. A liquid flows from place to place and takes the shape of the container and its volume can be changed g significantly g y only by the application of large forces. A gas has neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume.

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Density and specific gravity

Density is the ratio of the mass to the volume.

mass m 3 = = (kg/m ) volume V

Density y of the substance is the same regardless g of the total amount we have in a system. The denser a material, the more mass it has in any a given volume.

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Specific p Gravity y
(relative density)
S Specific ifi gravity it of f a substance bt i defined is d fi d as the th ratio ti of f the density of that substance to the density of water at 4.0 4 0 OC. The density of the water at 4.0oC 1000 kg/m3, which is a maximum value. value equals to

Specific gravity is a numerical value based on relative comparison and has no unit.

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Pressure in Fluids
Pressure is defined as force per unit area, where the f force and d the h area must be b at right i h angles l to one another. h

F pressure = P = A
P Pressure unit it in i SI is i N/m N/ 2= pascal l (Pa) (P )

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Atmospheric and Gauge Pressure

Atmospheric pressure, Patm, is a direct result of the weight of the air above us. us Patm varies with weather changes and with elevation. It has the following value in SI units

Patm = 1 .01 10 5 N/m 2 = 1 .01 10 5 Pa = 101 kPa

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Atmospheric and Gauge Pressure

The gauge pressure, Pg, is defined as the pressure d determined i d by b the h tire gauge. Absolute pressure, P = Pg + Patm. A flat tire does not have zero pressure in it, it is at Patm, to inflate it to 241 kPa, kPa the pressure inside it must be greater than Patm by this amount, P = 241 kP kPa + Patm

Pg = P Patm

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Fluid Pressure
In fluids, we can derive a specific equation for pressure. In order to derive our desired equation, we make use of the imaginary water column immersed into the vessel containing liquid of density .

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a A container of fluid in a. which one column of the fluid is outlined. Th fluid The fl id i is at t rest. t b. The free body di diagram, showing h i the vertical forces acting g on the column.

The column bottoms area is A at a depth h from the top.

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The force exerted equals to the weight of the liquid column, mg.

= P2 A P 1 A mg = 0

P2 A = P g 1 A + mg
P2 A = P 1 A + gAh

P2 = P h 1 + gh P = P2 P1 = gh
The pressure at equal depths within a uniform liquid is the same. The equation derived is valid for fluid whose density is constant and does not change with depth.
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In the case of gases, the equation given below can be used d to determine d i the h difference diff i pressure at in difference heights with the aid of average density.

P = g h

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CONCEPTUAL CHECKPOINT One day, while swimming below the surface of the ocean, you let out a small bubble of air from your mouth. As the bubble rises toward the surface does it diameter (a) increase, surface, increase (b) decrease, decrease or stay the same?

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Reasoning and Discussion As the bubble rises, rises the pressure in the surrounding water decreases. This allows the air in the bubble to expand and occupy py a larger g volume. Answer: (a) The diameter of the bubble increases.

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Measurement of Pressure
Many devices have been invented to measure pressure. The Th simplest i l is i the h open-tube b manometer.

P2 = Patm + gh
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 The top surface of the fluid is open to atmosphere with a pressure P0. If the cross-sectional area of the tube is A, the downward force exerted by P0 is F =PA
top 0

At the bottom of the height g h, , the downward force is Ftop p plus the weight of the liquid, recalling that m = V, and that V = hA for a cylinder with height h and area A. This weight, W = mg = Vg = (hA )g We have

Fbottom = Ftop + W = P0 A + (hA)g

The pressure as the bottom is

Pbottom b tt

Fbottom P0 A + ( hA ) g = = = P0 + gh A A

If the depth increase by amount h, the pressure increase by an amount

gh,
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Barometer
Fill one glass tube -opened in one end and closed at the other-with fluid of density . Inverted the tube and placed it open end on the bowl filled with the same fluid. The highest difference is directly related to the atmospheric pressure that pushes down on the fluid in the bowl. bowl The measurement of the depth gives the atmospheric p pressure at the bottom. p

Patm = gh
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Atmospheric pressure is often measured by using a mercury manometer, manometer with one end closed, closed often referred to as barometer.
P = gh = ( 13 .6 10 3 kg/m 3 )( 9 .8 m/s 2 )( 0 .76 m ) = 1 .013 10 5 N/m 2 = 1.00 1 00 atm

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Conceptual Question
Could you use a straw to sip a drink on the moon? Explain.

REASONING AND SOLUTION

When you drink through a straw, you draw the air out of the straw, and the external air pressure leads to the unbalanced force that pushes the liquid up into the straw. straw This action requires the presence of an atmosphere. The moon has no atmosphere, so you could not use a straw to sip a drink on the moon.

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Example
The Titanic was found in 1985 lying on the bottom of the North Atlantic at a depth p of 2.5 miles. What is the p pressure at this depth? seaw=1025 kg/m3

Solution
Applying this equation
Pbottom = P0 + gh h 1609 m = 1 .01 10 + 1025 9 .8 (2 .5 mi ) 1mi = 4 .1 10 7 Pa
5

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Pascals Principle
Pascals Principle states that: the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every yp portion of the fluid and the wall of the containing vessel.

Pout = Pin

F F = A A out in

The pressure is the same at any direction and it depends only on the depth.
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A hydraulic Lift, A force Fin exerted on small piston causes a much larger force Fout to act on the large piston.
Fin

F F = A A in out
Pin = Pout
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Fout

Fin Fout = = Ain Aout

thus Fout

Aout = Fin Ain

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 Let us assume that Aout is 100 times greater than Ain. Then by pushing p g down on p piston 1 with the force Fin, we p push upward p on piston 2 with a force of 100Fin. Our force has been magnified 100 times. As in the Fig. Piston 1 being pushed down via a distance d1, This displace a volume of fluid Aind1. S Same volume l fl flows i into cylinder li d 2, 2 and d caused d piston i 2 to rise i a distance d2. Equating the volumes:

A in d 1 = A out d 2 Thus h
For p previous example p d2 = d1/100

d2

A in = d1 A out

Our force at piston 2 has been magnified 100 times, but the distance it moves has been reduced 100 times.
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Example
To inspect a 14500-N car, it is raised with a hydraulic lift. If the radius of the small piston, as in slide 23, is 4.0 cm, and the radius di of f the th large l piston i t is i 17 cm, find fi d the th force f th t must that t be b exerted on the small piston to lift the car. What is the pressure applied to the fluid in the lift?

Solution: Using Pascal principle

Ain Fin = Fout Aout

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Buoyancy and Archimedes Archimedes Principle

Objects submerged in a fluid appear to weigh less than they do when outside the fluid. This phenomenon is known as buoyancy. The weight acts downwards, but when an object is i immersed d in i water, t an up-thrust th t or buoyant b t force f i is exerted by the water.

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Archimedes: Born: 287 BC in Syracuse, Sicily Died: 212 BC in Syracuse, Sicily

Archimedes principle states that a body wholly or partially p y immersed in a fluid is buoyed y up p by y a force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. It can be applied pp to determine a p person bodyfat y percentage, floatation, ships boat etc.

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Archimedes Principle The net upwards force, F = F F B 2 1

= P2 A P 1 A = (P 2 P 1)A

= F gA(h2 h1 ) = F gAh

= F g gV = mF g
= the weight of the displaced fluid
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CONCEPTUAL CHECKPOINT A flask of water rests on a scale. If you dip your finger into the water, without touching the flask, does the reading on the scale (a) increase, (b) decrease, or (c) stay the same?

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Reasoning and Discussion Your finger experiences an upward buoyant force when it is dipped into the water. By Newtons third law, the water experiences an equal and opposite reaction force acting downward. downward This downward force is transmitted to the scale, which in turn gives a higher reading. Another way to look at this result is to note that when you dip your finger into the water, its depth increases. This results in a greater pressure at the bottom of the flask, and hence a greater downward force on the flask. Th scale The l reads d this thi increased i d downward d d force. f Answer (a) The reading on the scale increases.

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Conceptual questions
Two objects have different densities and but same volumes. Will they experience different or same b buoyant t forces? f ?

Answer
The buoyant force depends only on volume and density of displaced fluid not on the volumes or density of immersed objects. Therefore, both will experience the same buoyant force. force

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Examples
A log floats in a river with one one-fourth fourth of its volume above the water. (a) What is the density of the log? (b) If the river carries the log into the ocean, does the portion of the log above the water increase, increase decrease, or stay the same? Explain.

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Fb

Solution
Fb = W

( ) (a)

(b) It increases because the buoyant force is proportional to the density of the displaced fluid and th density the d it of f salt lt water is greater than the density of fresh water.
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Fluids in Motion
The flow of a fluid is said to be steady or laminar or streamline. streamline Steady flows, the velocity of the fluid particles at any point is constant as the time pass. pass Unsteady flow exists whenever the velocity at a point in the fluid changes as time passes. passes The fluid flows become irregular and turbulent or nonsteady if there is a sharp obstacle or bend in the path. path

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Fluids in Motion
In describing the motion of a fluid, it is helpful to make simplifying assumptions: Consider it as an ideal fluid, which is simpler to handle mathematically and yet provide useful results. The density of the fluid is assumed to remain constant, so that the fluid is incompressible. The fluid is supposed to be non-viscous, the viscosity is a measure of how resistive the fluid is to flow. The fluid is in steady flow.

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Equation of Continuity
Have you ever used your thumb to control the water flowing from the end of the hose?

The water flow increase when you reduced the cross-sectional area of the hose opening. This kind of fluid behavior is described by the equation of continuity. The mass of fluid per second that flows through a tube is called the mass flow rate, or volume flow rate (Q).
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 The useful equation that can be derived is the equation of continuity Av = constant. continuity, constant
Upstream Downstream

m 2

m1

The mass that enters the tube at one end must equal the mass that leaves at the other, provided there are no leaks. Mass is i conserved (neither ( i h created d nor destroyed) d d) as fluid fl id flows. fl

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Equation of Continuity
m
2

m1

At t the t e sa same et time e t

m1 = m 2 , A 1 v1 = A 2 v 2

A 1 v1 t 1 = A 2 v 2 t 2
Th Thus A = constant Av t t
1 v A

V Q= = volume flow rate = Av t

Its the volume per second that passes through the tube.
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Example
A river narrows at a rapids from a width of 12 m to a width of 4.0 m. The depth of the river before the rapids is 2.7 m; the depth in the rapids is 0.85 m. Find the speed of water flowing g in the rapids, given that its speed before the rapids is 2.2 m/s. Assume the river has a rectangular cross section.

Solution

A1v1 = A2 v 2

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Bernoullis effect
Bernoullis principle states that where the velocity of a fluid is high, the pressure is low and where the velocity is low, the pressure is high. It depends on an application of work-energy theorem to fluids, using g the relation between the p pressure, P, of the fluid, , its speed, v and its height, h.

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The work done on the left side (positive work): (p ) The work done on the right side: (negative work): Work done by gravity: (negative work):
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W 1 = F1 x 1 = P1 A1 x 1
W2 = F2 x 2 = P2 A2 x 2

W3 = mg ( y 2 y1 )
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According to the work-energy theorem, the net work done is equal to the change in kinetic energy. The net work done: W = W1 + W2 + W3 = K2 K1 = K

1 2 2 m v 2 v1 = P1 A1 x1 P2 A2 x 2 mgy 2 + mgy 1 2
m1 = m2 = V = A1 x1 = A2x2

A1 x1 A2 x 2 m 1m 2 m 2 v 2 v1 = P1 P2 gy 2 + gy1 2V V V V V 1 2 v2 v 12 = P1 P 2 gy 2 + gy 1 2

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1 1 2 v 2 v 12 = P1 P2 gy 2 + gy 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 v 1 + gy 1 = P 2 + v 2 + gy P1 + 2 2

The equation just derived is Bernoullis equation and the more general form of it is as given below:

1 2 P + v + gy 2

= const

Two different relations - showing the change in pressure of the fluid with its speed and height.
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Bernoullis effect, Change in Speed b by Var Varying ing Diameter

If the water flow in the same level,( y2 - y1 = 0) and the di diameter is i changed, h d in i this hi the h equation i is i 1 2 1 2 1 2 P1 + v1 = P2 + v 2 . P + v = const . 2 2 2

As the fluid speeds up its pressure decreases.

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Fluid Pressure in a Pipe of Varying Elevation

The fluid speed is constant and the change in the kinetic energy is (K =0).

P1 + gy 1 = P 2 + gy P + gy = constant

As the height within a fluid increases, the pressure decreases.

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Example p
A horizontal pipe contains water at a pressure of 110 kPa flowing with a speed of 1.4 m/s. When the p pipe p narrows to one-half its original g diameter, , what is (a) the speed and (b) the pressure of the water?

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(a)

A1v1 = A 2 v 2 4 v1 =

(b)

D1 2

D2 2
4

1 2 1 2 P 1 + v 1 =P 2 + v2 2 2

v2

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Test y your understanding g

It is not surprising that a wind blowing directly on an open door can make the door slam shut. shut Use Bernoullis principle to explain how a wind blowing across a door-way (that is parallel to the opening) can make the door close. (Assume that the door open inwards.)

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Answer
From Bernoulli Bernoullis s equation, an increase in the flow speed v corresponds to a decrease in the air pressure P. The reduced air pressure on the outdoor side of the door makes the door swing s g to toward adt that at s side, de, c closing os g it. t

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Viscosity
Real fluids have a certain amount of internal friction, which is called viscosity. Viscosity is a tendency of the fluid to the resist the flow. y Different fluids have different amount of viscosity. Fluids like air have low viscosities, water is more viscous than air, while honey, molasses and oil have high viscosities. The difference can be expressed in the form of different coefficient of viscosity, .
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a) A Force F is applied to the top plate, which is in contact with a viscous i fl id fluid.

b) Because of the force F, the top plate and its adjacent layer of fluid move with constant velocity v.
Laminar flow
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Viscosity (cont.)
The fluid directly in contact with the fixed plate remains stationary y because of the attractive forces between the molecules of the fluid and the plate. y the fluid directly y in contact with the moving g Similarly, plate moves with the same speed as the plate.
gradual increase in velocity y, from zero There must be a g to v, in the region between the plates.

g the fluid as being g made up p of stack of very y We can regard thin layers, each moving with a different speed.

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Viscosity (cont.)
It is found that the force F required to maintain uniform relative motion of the plate is directly proportional to the area A of f either ith plate l t and d to t the th speed d v of f the th moving i plate. l t The force is inversely proportional to the separation L of the plates. plates v The value of depends on the fluid between the plates: the more viscous the fluid, the larger the value of coefficient of viscosity, . FL Its unit is poise (P), 1 poise= 0.1 Pa.s =

F = A L

vA

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Conceptual p Question
When a p persons blood p pressure is taken, it is measured on the arm, at approximately the same level as the heart. How would the results differ if the measurement were to be patients leg? g made on the p

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Answer
Assuming g the leg g is below heart level, as in a standing person, the blood pressure will be greater. This is simply a reflection of the fact that the pressure in a fluid increases with depth. depth

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Conceptual Question
Since metal is more dense than water, how is it possible for a metal boat to float?

Answer
A metal boat can float if it displaces p a volume of water whose weight is equal to the weight of the boat. This can be accomplished p by yg giving g the boat a bowl-like shape. p

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Summary
Density is the ratio of the mass to the volume. volume Pressure is defined as force per unit area. The pressure at depths of static is, which is the same for same depth. P2 = Patm + gh Pascals Principle, the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is t transmitted itt d undiminished di i i h d to t every portion ti of f the th fluid fl id and d the th wall of the containing vessel. Archimedes p principle p states that a body y wholly y or p partially y immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. The Th mass that th t enters t the th tube t b at t one end d must t equal l the th mass that th t leaves at the other, provided there are no leaks.

A1 v1 = A2 v 2

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Summary
Bernoullis lli principle i i l states that h where h the h velocity l i of f a fluid fl id is i high, the pressure is low and where the velocity is low, the pressure is high. high

1 1 2 2 v 1 + gy 1 = P 2 + v 2 + gy P1 + 2 2

The value of depends on the fluid between the plates, the tangent force, separation distance and inversely proportional to the velocity and area of the plate.

= FL

vA

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